area handbook series Angola a country study t Angola a country study Federal Research Division Library of Congress Edited by Thomas Collelo Research Completed February 1989 On the cover: Portion of a fresco depicting revolutionary scenes at the Karl Marx Institute of Education in Luanda Third Edition, First Printing, 1991. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Angola : a country study / Federal Research Division, Library of Congress ; edited by Thomas Collelo. — 3d ed. p. cm. — (Area handbook series) (DA pam ; 550-59) "Supersedes the 1979 edition of Angola : a country study, edited by Irving Kaplan" — T.p. verso. "Research completed December 1988." Includes bibiliographical references (pp. 277-295) and index. Supt. of Docs. no. : D 101.22:550-59/990 1. Angola. I. Collelo, Thomas, 1948- . II. Kaplan, Irving. III. Library of Congress. Federal Research Division. IV. Series. V. Series: DA pam ; 550-559. DT1269.A54 967.3— dc20 1990 90-3244 CIP Headquarters, Department of the Army DA Pam 550-59 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 Foreword This volume is one in a continuing series of books now being prepared by the Federal Research Division of the Library of Con- gress under the Country Studies — Area Handbook Program. The last page of this book lists the other published studies. Most books in the series deal with a particular foreign country, describing and analyzing its political, economic, social, and national security systems and institutions, and examining the interrelation- ships of those systems and the ways they are shaped by cultural factors. Each study is written by a multidisciplinary team of social scientists. The authors seek to provide a basic understanding of the observed society, striving for a dynamic rather than a static portrayal. Particular attention is devoted to the people who make up the society, their origins, dominant beliefs and values, their com- mon interests and the issues on which they are divided, the nature and extent of their involvement with national institutions, and their attitudes toward each other and toward their social system and political order. The books represent the analysis of the authors and should not be construed as an expression of an official United States govern- ment position, policy, or decision. The authors have sought to adhere to accepted standards of scholarly objectivity. Corrections, additions, and suggestions for changes from readers will be wel- comed for use in future editions. Louis R. Mortimer Acting Chief Federal Research Division Library of Congress Washington, D.C. 20540 111 Acknowledgments The authors wish to acknowledge the contributions of the fol- lowing individuals, who wrote the 1979 edition of Angola: A Coun- try Study, edited by Irving Kaplan: H. Mark Roth, "Historical Setting"; Irving Kaplan, "The Society and Its Physical Setting"; Margarita Dobert, "Government and Politics"; Eugene K. Keefe, "National Security"; and Donald P. Whitaker, "The Economy." Their work provided the organization and structure of the present volume, as well as substantial portions of the text. The authors are grateful to individuals in various government agencies and private institutions who gave their time, research materials, and expertise to the production of this book. The authors also wish to thank members of the Federal Research Division staff who contributed directly to the production of the manuscript. These people include Richard F. Nyrop, who reviewed all drafts and served as liaison with the sponsoring agency, and Marilyn L. Majes- ka and Andrea T. Merrill, who managed book production. Vin- cent Ercolano and Sharon Schultz edited the chapters, and Beverly Wolpert performed the final prepublication review. Also involved in preparing the text were editorial assistants Barbara Edgerton and Izella Watson. Shirley Kessel compiled the index. Linda Peter- son of the Library of Congress Composing Unit set the type, under the direction of Peggy Pixley. Invaluable graphics support was provided by David P. Cabitto, who reviewed all the graphics and designed the artwork on the cover and title page of each chapter; Kimberly A. Lord, who prepared all the maps except the topography and drainage map, which was prepared by Harriett R. Blood; and Sandra K. Ferrell, who pre- pared the charts. In addition, Carolina E. Forrester reviewed the map drafts, and Arvies J. Staton supplied information on ranks and insignia. Finally, the authors acknowledge the generosity of the individuals and public and private agencies who allowed their photographs to be used in this study. The authors are indebted especially to those persons who contributed original work not previously published. v Contents Page Foreword iii Acknowledgments v Preface xiii Country Profile XV Introduction xxi Chapter 1. Historical Setting 1 Rachel Warner PRECOLONIAL ANGOLA AND THE ARRIVAL OF THE PORTUGUESE 5 Kongo Kingdom 6 Ndongo Kingdom 10 The Defeat of Kongo and Ndongo 11 Matamba and Kasanje Kingdoms 12 Lunda and Chokwe Kingdoms 13 Ovimbundu and Kwanhama Kingdoms 13 The Dutch Interregnum, 1641-48 14 ANGOLA IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 14 Slave Trading in the 1700s 14 Portuguese Settlers in Angola 16 THE 1800s: TURMOIL IN PORTUGAL, REFORM AND EXPANSION IN ANGOLA 16 The Early Nineteenth Century 16 Abolition of the Slave Trade 17 Expansion and the Berlin Conference 17 SETTLEMENT, CONQUEST, AND DEVELOPMENT 19 The Demographic Situation 19 Military Campaigns 20 Administration and Development 20 ANGOLA UNDER THE SALAZAR REGIME . 21 Angola under the New State 21 Salazar's Racial Politics 22 RISE OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM 23 Roots of Discontent 24 African Associations 26 Organizational Weaknesses 27 vii Beginning of Revolution 28 ANGOLAN INSURGENCY 29 Ascendancy of the MPLA 31 Emergence of UNITA 32 Liberation Movements in Cabinda 33 Portuguese Economic Interests and Resistance to Angolan Independence 34 The Portuguese Coup d'Etat and the End of the Colonial Era 35 COALITION, THE TRANSITIONAL GOVERNMENT, AND CIVIL WAR 36 Foreign Intervention 38 Collapse of the Transitional Government 38 South African Intervention 39 INDEPENDENCE AND THE RISE OF THE MPLA GOVERNMENT 40 Transformation into a Marxist-Leninist Party and Internal Dissent . 41 Shaba Invasion and the Nitista Plot 41 Strenthening Ties with the Soviet Union and Its Allies 42 Economic Problems and Implementation of Socialist Policies 44 The UNITA Insurgency and the South African Threat 45 The Final Days of the Neto Regime 46 THE DOS SANTOS REGIME 47 Steps Toward a Stronger Party and Political Discord 48 The Namibia Issue and Security Threats in the 1980s 48 Second Party Congress 50 Chapter 2. The Society and Its Environment 53 Rachel Warner PHYSICAL SETTING 57 Terrain 57 Drainage 60 Climate 61 POPULATION STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS 61 ETHNIC GROUPS AND LANGUAGES 64 The Definition of Ethnicity 65 Ethnolinguistic Categories 67 viii Mestizos 79 STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY 80 Social Structure in Rural Communities 81 Social Structure in Urban Areas 86 Effects of Socialist Policies 87 Role of Women and Children 90 Effects of the Insurgency 91 RELIGIOUS LIFE 92 Christianity 94 Indigenous Religious Systems 97 EDUCATION 100 Conditions Before Independence 100 Conditions after Independence 100 Education in UNITA-Claimed Territory 103 HEALTH AND WELFARE 104 Chapter 3. The Economy ill Nancy Clark BACKGROUND TO ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 113 STRUCTURE OF THE ECONOMY 116 ROLE OF THE GOVERNMENT 117 FOREIGN TRADE AND ASSISTANCE 119 Foreign Trade 120 Foreign Assistance 121 LABOR FORCE 122 EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES 125 Oil 125 Diamonds 131 Iron Ore 133 Other Minerals 135 AGRICULTURE 135 Coffee 137 Food Crops and Livestock 138 Timber 140 Fishing 140 INDUSTRY 141 Electric Power 142 Food Processing 142 Light Industry 144 Heavy Industry 146 Construction Materials 147 TRANSPORTATION AND TELECOMMUNI- CATIONS 147 ix Roads 147 Railroads 147 Ports 150 Air Transport 151 Telecommunications 151 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS, FINANCES, AND FOREIGN DEBT 152 Balance of Trade and Payments 152 Finances 154 Foreign Debt 154 Chapter 4. Government and Politics 157 Rita M. Byrnes BACKGROUND 160 STRUCTURE OF GOVERNMENT 164 The Constitution 164 Executive Branch 165 Legislative Branch 168 Judicial System 169 Local Administration 169 POPULAR MOVMENT FOR THE LIBERATION OF ANGOLA-WORKERS' PARTY 170 Background 170 Structure 171 Operations 174 POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT 176 MASS ORGANIZATIONS AND INTEREST GROUPS 180 Mass Organizations 180 Interest Groups 183 POLITICAL OPPOSITION 187 MASS MEDIA 189 FOREIGN RELATIONS . 191 Policy Making 191 Regional Politics 192 Communist Nations 197 United States and Western Europe 199 Chapter 5. National Security 203 Joseph P. Smaldone NATIONAL SECURITY ENVIRONMENT 206 EVOLUTION OF THE ARMED FORCES 208 Background 208 Independence Struggle, Civil War, and Intervention 209 x The Development of FAPLA 210 ARMED FORCES 211 Constitutional and Political Context 211 Armed Forces Organization and Mission 214 Troop Strength, Recruitment, and Conscription 222 Conditions of Service, Ranks, and Military Justice 223 Foreign Influences 224 Training 229 FAPLA 's Combat Performance 231 WAR AND THE ROLE OF THE ARMED FORCES IN SOCIETY 232 The Costs of Endemic Conflict 232 War and the Military in National Perspective 233 Civic Action and Veterans' Groups 235 INTERNAL SECURITY 235 Antigovernment Opposition 236 Erstwhile Opposition: FLEC and the FNLA 237 The Enduring Rival: UNITA 238 Angola as a Refuge 244 Internal Security Forces and Organization 246 CRIME AND PUNISHMENT 250 Criminal Justice System 250 Prison System 252 Incidence and Trends in Crime 252 Human Rights 254 Appendix A. Tables 257 Appendix B. 1988 Regional Accords 271 Bibliography 277 Glossary 297 Index 301 List of Figures 1 Administrative Divisions of Angola, 1988 xx 2 Major Angolan Kingdoms, 1200-1900 8 3 Topography and Drainage 58 4 Population Distribution by Age and Sex, Mid- 1986 62 5 Ethnolinguistic Groups, 1988 68 6 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) by Sector, 1985 116 7 Crude Oil Production, 1980-87 126 8 Oil Exploration and Production Areas, 1986 128 9 Economic Activity, 1988 134 xi 10 Transportation System, 1988 148 11 Structure of the Government, 1988 166 12 Structure of the MPLA-PT, 1988 172 13 Military Regions and Principal Bases, 1987 216 14 Organization of the Ministry of Defense, 1988 218 15 Military Ranks and Insignia, 1988 228 16 Territory Claimed by UNITA, 1988 240 xii Preface Like its predecessor, this study is an attempt to treat in a con- cise and objective manner the dominant social, political, econom- ic, and military aspects of Angolan society. Sources of information included scholarly journals and monographs, official reports of governments and international organizations, foreign and domes- tic newspapers, and numerous periodicals. Up-to-date data from Angolan sources for the most part were unavailable. Chapter bib- liographies appear at the end of the book; brief comments on some of the more valuable sources suggested as possible further reading appear at the end of each chapter. Measurements are given in the metric system; a conversion table is provided to assist those read- ers who are unfamiliar with metric measurements (see table 1 , Ap- pendix A). A glossary is also included. Place-names follow a modified version of the system adopted by the United States Board on Geographic Names and the Perma- nent Committee on Geographic Names for British Official Use, known as the BGN/PCGN system. The modification is a signifi- cant one, however, in that some diacritical markings and hyphens have been omitted. Terminology and spelling sometimes presented problems. For example, after independence Angola's ruling party was known as the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (Movimento Popular de Libertacao de Angola — MPLA). In 1977, however, in asserting its commitment to the principles of Marxism-Leninism, the MPLA added to its nomenclature "Partido de Trabalho. " The term is translated in this book as "Workers' Party" but is else- where often seen as "Labor Party." Furthermore, because the spell- ing of the names of ethnic groups occasionally varies, in some cases alternate spellings are given in parentheses. Finally, many Ango- lan officials who fought in the liberation struggle against the Por- tuguese acquired noms de guerre; these officials are often referred to in press accounts by their nicknames. When such officials are cited in the text, their noms de guerre are given in parentheses after their surnames. xiii Country Profile Country Formal Name: People's Republic of Angola. Short Form: Angola. Term for Citizens: Angolans. Date of Independence: 1975, from Portugal. xv Geography Size: Approximately 1,246,700 square kilometers, including enclave of Cabinda. Topography: Coastal lowland along Atlantic; Namib Desert south of Benguela; hills and mountains paralleling coast rise to high plateau in east, divided by many rivers and streams. Much of Cabinda Province coastal plain and hills. Climate: Hotter and drier along coast than in mountains and plateau. Rainy season in northern part of country from September to April; in southern part from November to about February. Coolest months July and August. Warm and wet in Cabinda Province. Society Population: In 1988 estimated at 8.2 million, most of which con- centrated in western half of country. About 46 percent of popula- tion under age fifteen in 1986. Ethnic Groups: Ovimbundu, Mbundu, and Bakongo constitut- ed nearly three-fourths of population in 1988. Other groups Lunda- Chokwe, Nganguela, Nyaneka-Humbe, Ovambo, mestigo (see Glossary), and European. Languages: Portuguese official language, but Bantu languages spoken by more than 95 percent of population. Religion: Christians (Roman Catholics and various Protestant denominations) estimated at between 65 and 88 percent of popu- lation in 1988; remainder practiced traditional African religions. Education and Literacy: Eight-year course compulsory until age fifteen, but enrollment severely disrupted by insurgency. Separate school system in rebel-controlled areas. Overall literacy rate about 20 percent in 1987. Health and Welfare: Very poor health care because of years of insurgency. High prevalence of infectious diseases; 20,000 to 50,000 amputees. Large number of foreign, especially Cuban, medical per- sonnel in country. Life expectancy in 1987 forty-one for males and forty-four for females. Economy Gross Domestic Product (GDP): Approximately US$4.7 billion in 1987; US$600 per capita. xvi Extractive Industries: Oil most important sector of economy. Con- tributed 30 percent of GDP in 1985. Concentrated in areas off- shore of Cabinda Province. Diamond mining in northeast disrupted by fighting. Agriculture: In steep decline as result of insurgency. Contributed only 9 percent of GDP in 1985. Coffee principal export crop. Manufacturing: Stagnant in late 1980s because of insurgency and lack of spare parts. Contributed 16 percent of GDP in 1985. Main industries food processing, construction, and textiles. Exports: Oil revenue nearly 90 percent of total export earnings in 1988. Imports: Foodstuffs, military equipment, and inputs to petrole- um industry most important imports. Currency: In December 1988, official rate of kwanza was Kz29.3 to US$1, but United States dollar traded on parallel market at up to Kz2,100. Fiscal Year: Calendar year. Transportation and Telecommunications Railroads: Three lines with total of 3,075 kilometers of track ran from coast to hinterland. Benguela Railway, longest line, severely damaged by insurgency. Roads: Total of about 70,000 kilometers of roads, of which 8,000 kilometers paved. Ports: Three major ports (Luanda, Lobito, and Namibe) and sever- al smaller terminals. Inland Waterways: Nearly 1,300 kilometers of navigable rivers. Airports: International airport at Luanda; thirteen other major airports. Telecommunications: Fairly reliable system included microwave, troposcatter, and satellite links. Government and Politics Government: Marxist-Leninist government based on 1975 Con- stitution (later revised) but dominated by Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola- Workers' Party (Movimento Popular de xvii Libertagao de Angola-Partido de Trabalho — MPLA-PT). Govern- ment composed of executive branch led by president, who appointed Council of Ministers and Defense and Security Council. Legisla- tive branch consisted of People's Assembly. As of late 1988, be- cause of inability to hold elections, People's Assembly had been appointed. Justice system composed of Supreme Court, Court of Appeals, people's revolutionary courts, and series of people's courts. Politics: Real power resided with MPLA-PT, whose chairman was president of republic. Political Bureau most important body in party. Central Committee, although subordinate to MPLA- PT party congress, wielded greater influence over party policies. No legal opposition parties, but beginning in 1976 National Un- ion for the Total Independence of Angola (Uniao Nacional para a Independencia Total de Angola — UNITA) waged devastating insurgency from bases in southeast and elsewhere. Foreign Relations: Government relied on Soviet Union and its allies, especially Cuba, for military support. United States and other Western nations played important economic roles. South Africa, which has supported UNITA, most important regional threat. December 1988 regional accords with South Africa and Cuba — which provided for cessation of South African support for UNI- TA, withdrawal of Cuban troops from Angola, and independence for Namibia — may change complexion of regional politics and for- eign relations. International Organizations: Member of African Development Bank, Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (observer status), Customs Cooperation Council, Group of 77, International Tele- communications Satellite Organization, Nonaligned Movement, Organization of African Unity, Southern African Development Coordination Conference, United Nations and its agencies, and World Federation of Trade Unions. National Security Armed Forces: Active-duty strength consisted of army of 91,500, air and air defense force of 7,000, and navy of 1,500; reserve per- sonnel of 50,000. At end of 1988, armed forces supported by nearly 50,000 Cuban troops and a few thousand Soviet and East German advisers. Army supported by 50,000-member Directorate of Peo- ple's Defense and Territorial Troops, a kind of reserve militia. Two years of universal and compulsory conscription. xvin Combat Units and Major Equipment: Army organized into more than seventy brigades in ten military regions. Operated about 1 , 100 Soviet-manufactured tanks and armored fighting vehicles. Air force organized into three regiments (fighter-bomber, transport, and helicopter). Combat aircraft included MiG-23 and MiG-21 fight- ers. Navy used three ports and had guided missile fast patrol boats and torpedo boats. Military Budget: Amounted to US$1.3 billion in 1986 (in con- stant 1980 dollars) — more than 40 percent of government expen- ditures and about 30 percent of GNP. Paramilitary and Internal Security Forces: Largest group was People's Vigilance Brigades, a lightly armed citizens' militia with strength of from 800,000 to 1.5 million. In 1988 about 7,000 border guards and 8,000 police officers (supported by force of 10,000). xix -6 ^abinda Mbanz^Congo ZAIRE , J , V | r UIGE _J} . Uige . / ~K ^~ J ■' ""V J L" a "£ a J^ (norte/ BENGO \ ' ' \ ■ ^^^ ; ^^ 5 ^ ::l ' MALANZE S CUANZA \ Atlantic \ Sumb e UL l ' > . BIE — • • — International boundary — • — Province boundary ® National capital ZAIRE Province • Province capital 100 100 200JA1 ^ 1 "f Y iana ^ JZmalanje BENG0\' \ „ , . \ CUANZA Atlantic ) sul ( Ocean f^" ^ A fHUAMBO BIE • FOURTH, ^Huambo ( / Boundary representation not necessarily authoritative ZAIRE LUND A NORTE ^ TENTH r SEVENTH /BENGUELA HUILA I /A / *Lubango INamibe > / / FIFTH ~\ \jAMIBE^ CUNENE I MOXICO THIRD MA CUANDO CUBANGO SIXTH V NAMIBIA \ BOTSWANA International boundary ® Helicopter regiment Province boundary headquarters Military region boundary ■ Transport aircraft regiment National capital headquarters • Populated place C Major vehicle maintenance base ZAIRE Province Major navy base FIFTH Military region A Fighter-bomber regiment 100 200 Kilometers headquarters 100 200 Miles Figure 13. Military Regions and Principal Bases, 1987 216 National Security recurring conflict: the oil-producing Cabinda Province, the area around the capital, and the southern provinces where UNITA and South African forces operated. Special commands, military formations, and security arrange- ments were also created in extraordinary circumstances. Thus, for example, in June 1985 the provincial military authorities in the Tenth Military Region established a unified command to include both FAPLA and the People's Vigilance Brigades (Brigadas Populares de Vigilancia — BPV) to confront UNITA 's expanding operations in the region (see Internal Security Forces and Organi- zation, this ch.). Similarly, special railroad defense committees were formed in the Ninth Military Region to protect the Luanda Rail- way between Malanje and Luanda (see fig. 10). These municipal committees were composed of party, government, FAPLA, JMPLA, and BPV units. In 1987 FAPLA was reported to be re- cruiting regional defense forces to assist the regular army against the UNITA insurgency, but in late 1988 no additional details were available. FAPLA was equipped almost exclusively by the Soviet Union. In early 1988, it was reported to have at least 550 tanks and 520 armored vehicles, more than 500 artillery pieces and multiple rocket launchers, 500 mortars, at least 900 antitank weapons, and more than 300 air defense guns and surface-to-air missile (SAM) bat- teries (see table 12, Appendix A). However, in view of continuous losses and the influx of new and replacement materiel, these figures were only approximate. For example, the South African minister of defense reported in late 1988 that Angola's inventory of T-54 and T-55 tanks had increased from 531 to 1 ,590 between Septem- ber 1987 and September 1988. Moreover, FAPLA and UNITA exaggerated successes and underestimated losses in military actions. In the major battle of Mavinga in 1986, UNITA claimed to have killed 5,000 FAPLA troops and to have destroyed 41 combat air- craft, 202 tanks and armored vehicles, 351 military transport vehicles, 200 trucks, and 40 SAMs, figures that represented 15 per- cent to 25 percent of FAPLA' s inventory. In addition to combat troops and equipment, logistical support units, and extensive headquarters organizations, the armed forces established a growing infrastructure to service, repair, and manufac- ture defense equipment. In 1983 the government created a new company under the Ministry of Defense to rehabilitate and repair armored military vehicles, infantry weapons, and artillery. A main- tenance and repair center for Soviet-made light and heavy vehi- cles, located at Viana near Luanda, was turned over to Angolan authorities by the Soviet Union in 1984 to strengthen Angolan 217 Angola: A Country Study LL LU LU CO z n LU H° LL z z LU LU — Q Q CC LL s| O 'I STER o z o Q LU O LU LU -j h- Q < gS§ o ^ cc LU O DC rr LU LU 5^ LU CC 1- LU < Q CC Z O < 51 = 8 Q O §S DC co < z co£ LU LU — ' Q LU < Q_ <- | CC LU Q |I lis - LU < Z LL < 5 LU Q Sll2 DC ULA PA) ER E AND ANDER < < < < iZ CO 3 Z _l DC _l MINIS" EFEN COMI .E'S NGO NHA UER NGO PEOPl OF A (MARII DE G DE A VICE 1 OF C MGPA CO LL go DC Z oo LL |_ CO * "CC Q ^ Q Ml LU < LU CC 5 n Q 1 ^ LU 0 < <_l cclu' O < o '-E o o w C "O O C it CD CO "O o c >- CO CD x CD CD cfl CD CD CO 0) "5 „n *. E o « CD if CD 5 £ CO — CO 218 National Security self-sufficiency. This center, reportedly capable of servicing 600 military and commercial vehicles a day, was one of the largest of its kind in Africa. Viana was also the site of an assembly plant for commercial vehicles as well as military trucks and jeeps. In June 1986, the government signed a contract with the Brazilian compa- ny Engesa for the purchase of military trucks and construction of a facility with the capacity to repair about 30 percent of the coun- try's heavy trucks, military vehicles foremost. The regular army was also supported by a 50,000-member citizens' militia, the Directorate of People's Defense and Territorial Troops, an organization under the minister of defense that had both counterinsurgency and police functions. The directorate was established in September 1985 as a successor to the People's Defense Organization (Organizacao de Defesa Popular — ODP). The ODP had been formed in September 1975 as an adjunct to FAPLA to defend against Portuguese settler resistance and attacks by anti- MPLA insurgents. After the civil war, it retained its territorial defense and counterguerrilla supporting roles but served more as a reserve than as an active paramilitary force. Indeed, some 20,000 ODP militia were inducted into the regular army in the early 1980s, apparently to satisfy an urgent requirement to expand FAPLA. In 1988 the Directorate of People's Defense and Territorial Troops was organized into eleven ' ' Guerrilla Force" brigades, two of which (about 10,000 members) were to be on active duty with FAPLA at any given time. They were deployed in battalion and smaller formations, and they often operated in proximity to or jointly with FAPLA units, defending factories, farms, and villages and main- taining vigilance against insurgents. Although some estimates put the troop strength of the Guerrilla Force as high as 500,000, such figures were probably based on data from the late 1970s or reflect- ed the inclusion of reserve components. Lieutenant Colonel Domin- gos Paiva da Silva was commander of the Guerrilla Force from 1978 until his death from natural causes in July 1987 (see Internal Security Forces and Organization, this ch.). Air and Air Defense Force The People's Air and Air Defense Force of Angola (Forca Aerea Popular de Angola/Defesa Aerea y Antiaerea — FAPA/DAA), offi- cially established on January 21, 1976, was the largest air force in sub-Saharan Africa. Colonel Alberto Correia Neto became vice minister of defense and FAPA/DAA commander in September 1986. He succeeded Colonel Carreira, who had held that post since 1983. The 7,000-member FAPA/DAA included about 180 fixed- wing combat attack and interceptor aircraft; an equal number of 219 Angola: A Country Study helicopters; several maritime patrol, reconnaissance, trainer, and transport aircraft; five air defense battalions; and ten SAM battal- ions (see table 13, Appendix A). Seeking voluntary enlistment was initially the sole form of recruitment, but in the 1980s conscrip- tion was increasingly employed until volunteerism was restored in 1988. Angola's army had about fifteen years to develop an organiza- tion and gain combat experience prior to independence. In con- trast, FAPA/DAA had to acquire personnel, experience, and equipment immediately, and in the context of a civil war. These unusual circumstances affected both recruitment and force develop- ment. FAPA/DAA 's pilots, mostly in their mid-twenties, got combat experience immediately. Moreover, given FAPA/DAA 's virtually instantaneous creation, its long-term dependence on external assistance was inevitable. Soviet, Cuban, and other com- munist forces provided pilots and technicians to fly and maintain FAPA/DAA 's growing, diversified, and increasingly complex air fleet. The principal tasks of this new branch of the Angolan mili- tary were to protect the capital, guard major cities and military installations in the south against South African air raids, and extend the air defense network and combat operations southward to con- front UNITA forces and South African invaders. According to a 1987 press report, FAPA/DAA was reorganized into three regiments: a fighter-bomber regiment headquartered in Lubango, a transport regiment in Luanda, and a helicopter regi- ment in Huambo. In addition, FAPA/DAA aircraft and air defense units were deployed in strategic locations throughout the country. Of Angola's 229 usable airfields, 25 had permanent-surface run- ways, 13 of which exceeded 2,440 meters. The capabilities and effectiveness of FAPA/DAA have increased markedly following its creation. FAPA/DAA' s expanded capacity to provide air cover and supplies to forward ground forces, strike at UNITA bases and interdict South African aircraft, evacuate wounded personnel, and perform reconnaissance and liaison mis- sions became particularly apparent during combined offensives after 1985. Like the army, FAPA/DAA developed modern facilities to repair and service both military and civilian aircraft for Angola and other African states. Navy The People's Navy of Angola (Marinha de Guerra Popular de Angola — MGPA) remained a relatively unimportant branch of the armed forces because of the exigencies of the ground and air wars in the interior. The navy's fortified headquarters and home port, 220 National Security as well as major ship repair facilities, were at Luanda. Although there were several good harbors along Angola's coastline, the only other ports used regularly were Lobito and Namibe, and these were used only to support temporary southern deployments. The latter two ports were located near railheads and airfields. Lobito had minor repair facilities as well. The navy's mission was to defend the 1 , 600-kilometer coastline and territorial waters against South African sabotage, attacks, and resupply operations to UNIT A; to protect against unlicensed fish- ing in Angolan waters; and to interdict smugglers. In early 1985, President dos Santos transferred responsibility for protecting the rich offshore fisheries from the coast guard to the MGPA to pro- vide more effective enforcement of fishing regulations. After Lieu- tenant Colonel Manuel Augusto Alfredo, vice minister of defense and MGPA commander, was killed in a road accident in June 1985, he was succeeded by Rear Admiral Antonio Jose Condessa de Car- valho (nom de guerre Toka), who had spent the previous four years in the Soviet Union studying military science. The MGPA officially dates from July 10, 1976, when late- President Agostinho Neto visited the naval facilities at Luanda. Its senior officers had actually begun training in 1970, during the war of liberation, when the MPLA sent the first cadre of twenty- four naval trainees abroad for a three-year training program. However, there was no navy awaiting their return. The MPLA inherited a small number of Portuguese ships at independence, which were subsequently augmented by various Soviet warships and support craft. In 1988 the MGPA was reported to have 1,500 personnel (thought to be volunteers) and a fleet of about fifty ves- sels that included guided-missile fast patrol boats, torpedo boats, inland- water and coastal patrol vessels, mine warfare craft, and amphibious landing craft. The independent merchant marine fleet had about 100 vessels that could be impressed into service (see table 14, Appendix A). Most of the navy's maintenance, repair, and training were provided by Soviet and Cuban technicians and advisers; Portugal and Nigeria also provided training assistance. Despite extensive foreign support, in late 1988 the serviceability of many of the ves- sels and equipment was in question. Moreover, naval recruitment and the proficiency of MGPA personnel remained problematic; indeed, the MPLA and Ministry of Defense leadership repeatedly appealed to youth (the JMPLA in particular) to join the navy. Foreign Auxiliary Forces FAPLA was augmented in the late 1980s by exiled Namibian 221 Angola: A Country Study and South African black nationalist forces, which enjoyed refuge in Angola. SWAPO had some 9,000 guerrillas encamped primar- ily in the south. Their location near UNITA's area of operations permitted them to collect intelligence and conduct operations, and about 2,500 SWAPO troops regularly engaged in fighting UNITA. Moreover, about 1,000 ANC guerrillas, exiles from South Africa, also cooperated with FAPLA in action against UNITA and South African forces. Upon implementation of the 1988 regional accords signed by Angola, South Africa, and Cuba, it seemed likely that SWAPO guerrillas would return to Namibia and that the ANC members would be relocated to other African states outside the region. Troop Strength, Recruitment, and Conscription FAPLA relied heavily on conscription to meet its staffing require- ments. Voluntary enlistments were important, too, especially ,in FAPA/DAA and MGPA, where greater technical competence was required. Recruitment and conscription were carried out by the General Staffs Directorate for Organization and Mobilization through provincial and local authorities. Although two-year conscription had been initiated in 1978 pur- suant to the Mobilization and Recruitment Law, the First Extraor- dinary Party Congress held in 1980 decided that increased troop requirements warranted introduction of universal and compulso- ry military training. Angola thus became the first black- ruled state in sub-Saharan Africa to make its citizens subject to compulsory military service. Of Angola's more than 8.2 million people, males in the fifteen to forty-five age- group numbered almost 2 million, half of whom were considered fit for military service. About 87,000 reached the military recruitment age of eighteen each year, but a sizable proportion, perhaps a majority, were unavailable because of rural dislocation and UNITA's control of at least one- third of the country. The Ministry of Defense issued periodic conscription orders for all men born during a given calendar year. Thus, for example, in February 1988 the Ministry of Defense ordered all male Angolan citizens born during calendar year 1970 to report to local registration centers to be recruited and inducted into active mili- tary service as of March 1 . Separate days were reserved for teachers and students to report, and officials in charge of workplaces and schools were instructed to deny admission to anyone not properly registered for military service. After military service, all person- nel were obliged to enroll in the Directorate of People's Defense and Territorial Troops. 222 National Security Particularly in the late 1980s, FAPLA apparently resorted to other means besides conscription to satisfy military requirements; political needs were sometimes also met in the process. For instance, in the 1980s several hundred former FNLA rebels were integrated into FAPLA after accepting amnesty. According to UNITA sources, FAPLA also had begun to organize new recruits into bat- talions formed along ethnic lines, with Mbundu and Bakongo elite forces kept in the rear while Ovimbundu, Kwanhama (also spelled Kwanyama), Chokwe (also spelled Cokwe), and Nganguela (also spelled Ganguela) were sent to the front lines (see Ethnic Groups and Languages, ch. 2). Children of government and party leaders were reported to be exempt from conscription or spared service on the front lines. FAPLA was also reported by UNITA to have forcibly conscripted hospital workers, convicts, youth, and old men after suffering heavy losses in the offensive of late 1987. Women played a definite but poorly documented role in national defense. They too were subject to conscription, but their numbers and terms of service were not reported. FAPLA included wom- en's units and female officers, whose duties included staffing cer- tain schools, particularly in contested areas. Other details on the size, type, and activities of these units were not available. Conditions of Service, Ranks, and Military Justice It was difficult to gauge the conditions of service and morale among FAPLA troops. Little public information was available in the late 1980s, and much of what existed was propagandists . Nonetheless, service did seem difficult. Conscription was inten- sive in government-controlled areas, and the spread of the insur- gency undermined security everywhere. The constant infusion of raw recruits, the rapid growth of FAPLA, the increasing scope and intensity of military operations, and escalating casualties imposed substantial personal and institutional hardships. The continued dependence on foreign technicians and advisers, many of whom were not deployed in combat zones, had adverse consequences for operations and morale. Pay and living conditions in garrison were probably adequate but not particularly attractive; in the field, amenities were either sparse or lacking altogether. The expansion of quarters and facili- ties for troops did not keep pace with the rapid growth of FAPLA, especially in the late 1980s. There were periodic reports of ill- equipped and poorly trained soldiers, as well as breakdowns in ad- ministration and services. But given the lack of alternative employ- ment in the war- torn economy, military service at least provided many Angolans with short-term opportunities. UNITA frequently 223 Angola: A Country Study reported incidents of flight to avoid government conscription; demoralization among FAPLA troops from high casualties and deteriorating conditions of service; and battlefield desertions, mutinies, and revolts among FAPLA units. These reports became more frequent during annual FAPLA offensives against UNITA strongholds after 1985. In early December 1986, the People's Assembly approved new military ranks for the three military services, differentiating those of the army and air force from the navy. FAPLA and FAPA/DAA were authorized to establish the ranks (in descending order) of general, colonel general, major general, and lieutenant general. The MGPA was to have the ranks of admiral, vice admiral, and rear admiral; the ranks of colonel, lieutenant colonel, and major were replaced by captain, commander, and lieutenant commander, respectively. Future navy second lieutenants would be given rank equivalent to that of their counterparts in the army and air force. Later that month, President dos Santos received the rank of general as commander in chief of the armed forces, the minister of defense was appointed colonel general, and ten other senior military officers were promoted to newly established higher ranks (see fig. 15). Little information was available on the military justice system. Military tribunals were created in each military region, and a higher court, the Armed Forces Military Tribunal, served as a military court of appeal. Some observers inferred from the criminal justice system and the prevalent wartime conditions, however, that Angolan military justice was harsh, if not arbitrary (see Crime and Punishment, this ch.). Foreign Influences Communist Nations The Angolan armed forces were equipped, trained, and support- ed almost exclusively by communist countries. The Soviet Union provided the bulk of FAPLA 's armaments and some advisers, whereas Cuba furnished most of the technical assistance, combat support, and training advisory services. Cubans also participated to a limited extent in ground and air combat. Other communist countries, particularly Czechoslovakia, the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), Hungary, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea), Poland, and Yugoslavia, also furnished arms and related aid. In the 1980s, Angola also obtained limited amounts of materiel, military assistance, and training from countries such as Belgium, Brazil, Britain, the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany), France, Spain, and Switzerland. 224 A female member of the People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola Courtesy United Nations (Y. Nagata) Broadly speaking, there was an international division of labor in which the Soviet Union supplied large quantities of heavy weapons and equipment, other communist states furnished small arms, and the noncommunist suppliers provided mostly nonlethal items. The MPLA owed its ascendancy in the civil war in large part to the massive Soviet airlift of arms and Cuban troops during 1975 and 1976. Subsequently, Moscow and Havana remained the main- stays of the regime as far as its military needs were concerned. From 1982 to 1986, the Soviet Union delivered military equipment valued at US$4.9 billion, which represented more than 90 percent of Angola's arms imports and one-fourth of all Soviet arms deliver- ies to Africa. Poland and Czechoslovakia transferred arms valued at US$10 million and US$5 million, respectively, over the same five-year period. During 1987 and 1988, Moscow more than com- pensated for FAPLA losses with accelerated shipments of heavy armaments. In addition to the tanks noted earlier, dozens of air- craft, heavy weapons, and air defense systems were delivered. Beyond materiel deliveries, Moscow and its allies continued to provide extensive technical aid. Soviet military, security, and in- telligence personnel and advisers helped establish the defense and security forces and served as advisers at all levels, from ministries in Luanda to major field commands. The Soviet Union's civilian 225 Angola: A Country Study and military intelligence services, in coordination with their coun- terpart organizations from other communist countries, particularly East Germany, Czechoslovakia, and Cuba, assisted in the crea- tion and development of the Angolan state security and intelligence services. The Soviet Union provided most of the air force pilot and tech- nician training as well as technical assistance in the operation and maintenance of the most advanced equipment: aircraft and war- ships, major weapons such as missiles, artillery, and rockets, and sophisticated radar and communications equipment. The number of Soviet service members and advisers varied. In 1988 it was esti- mated by most sources to range between 1 ,000 and 1 ,500 person- nel, including some fighter pilots. UNITA claimed that the Soviet military presence increased during 1988 to 2,500 or 3,000 and that seven officers were assigned to each FAPLA brigade. Cuba was the main provider of combat troops, pilots, advisers, engineers, and technicians. As the insurgency war expanded, so did Cuba's military presence. By 1982 there were 35,000 Cubans in Angola, of which about 27,000 were combat troops and the remainder advisers, instructors, and technicians. In 1985 their strength increased to 40,000, in 1986 to 45,000, and in 1988 to nearly 50,000. All told, more than 300,000 Cuban soldiers had served in Angola since 1975. Angola paid for the services of the Cubans at an estimated rate of US$300 million to US$600 million annually. The Cuban forces, despite their numbers, generally did not engage directly in combat after 1976. Most of the Cubans were organized and deployed in motorized infantry, air defense, and artillery units. Their main missions were to deter and defend against attacks beyond the southern combat zone, protect strategic and eco- nomically critical sites and facilities, and provide combat support, such as rear-area security, logistic coordination, air defense, and security for major military installations and Luanda itself. At least 2,000 Cuban troops were stationed in oil-producing Cabinda Province. Cubans also trained Angolan pilots, and flew some com- bat missions against UNITA and the SADF. In addition, Cuban military personnel provided technical and operational support to SWAPO and the ANC within Angola (see Angola as a Refuge, this ch.). In mid- 1988 Cuba substantially reinforced its military presence in Angola and deployed about one-fifth of its total forces toward the front lines in the south for the first time. This cohort was report- ed to include commando and SAM units, which raised concerns about direct clashes with South African forces. The move was 226 National Security apparently made to keep UNITA and the SADF at bay and to strengthen the negotiating position of Luanda and Havana in the United States-brokered peace talks. East Germany and North Korea followed the Soviet Union and Cuba as Angola's most active and influential communist support- ers. The East Germans played key roles in the intelligence and secu- rity agencies, as well as in the ideology and propaganda organs. They provided communications security services, technicians, mechanics, and instructors to maintain and operate equipment and vehicles and to train artillery crews, radar operators, and combat pilots. The East Germans also reportedly operated a training camp south of Luanda for ANC and SWAPO guerrillas. Estimates of the number of East Germans in Angola ranged from 500 to 5,000, the higher estimates probably including family members and other nonmilitary technicians and advisers. During the 1980s, North Korea expanded and intensified its diplomatic and military assistance activities in Africa, particularly in the southern part of the continent. After training Zimbabwe's Fifth Brigade in 1981 and 1982 and furnishing arms to that coun- try, North Korea made a major military commitment in Angola. Although denied by Angolan officials, several sources reported that Luanda concluded a military aid agreement with Pyongyang in September 1983 that led to the dispatch of some 3,000 North Korean combat troops and military advisers by May 1984. The reported activities of the North Koreans included the training of special units, such as hit-and-run forces and sniper squads. North Korean troops also reportedly engaged in combat operations, including FAPLA's early 1986 offensive. North Koreans were also reported to be providing military and ideological instruction to SWAPO and ANC militants in five training camps north and north- east of Luanda. Other communist states provided more modest military support. Arms deliveries by Poland and Czechoslovakia were noted earlier. A military cooperation agreement was signed in 1982 with Hun- gary, which was reported to have provided small arms. Yugosla- via furnished grenade launchers, trip-wire grenades, antipersonnel mines, hollow-charge rockets, and air defense artillery; a Yugo- slav firm also built a runway and other facilities at Lubango air- port. Romania was reported to have given unspecified military aid. Noncommunist Nations In the 1980s, Angola diversified its foreign arms acquisitions for political and practical reasons. Politically, Luanda was anxious to gain international legitimacy, counter UNITA' s international 227 Angola: A Country Study 228 National Security diplomatic offensive, reduce its dependence on its communist allies, and gain leverage in dealing with its traditional arms suppliers. The practical reason was dissatisfaction with the level of support given by the Soviet Union and its allies, the poor quality of some equipment, and the inability to obtain certain military materiel. Perhaps in deference to the Soviet Union and other communist benefactors, most procurements from other sources consisted of relatively inexpensive support equipment. This policy left Moscow with a virtual monopoly on the provision of major weapons systems. Diversification was evident in FAPLA's purchase of jeeps, Land Rovers, and radios from Britain, trucks and communications equip- ment from West Germany, small-caliber ammunition and artillery shells from Belgium, uniforms from Japan, and jeeps, trucks, and truck engines from Brazil. The MGPA also discussed the acquisi- tion of corvettes with French, Spanish, and Portuguese shipbuilders. Among the larger purchases made from Western Europe were Swiss Pilatus training aircraft; Spanish CASA C-212 Aviocar transport aircraft; French Dauphin, Gazelle, and Alouette helicopters; French Thomson-CSF tactical military transceivers; and British Racal radio communications equipment. Ironically, Portugal continued to play a role in the Angolan con- flict. Although the Portuguese government did not officially pro- vide arms, military assistance, or troops, private Portuguese "mercenaries" and advisers apparently served with both FAPLA and UNITA. In 1983 retired Portuguese admiral Rosa Coutinho set up a company to hire former military and reserve officers, many of whom had served in Angola during the war of liberation, as con- tract military advisers and to train FAPLA counterinsurgency units. Twelve were reported to be training FAPLA instructors in early 1984, and a total of thirty- two were reportedly hired in 1986. However, several of these advisers were killed in action against UNITA, and most left by late 1987. UNITA also claimed that some 3,000 Portuguese "communists" were in the country assisting Luanda in late 1986, but this claim may have been either an exag- geration or a reference to civilian technicians. MPLA-PT sources charged that there were more than 2,000 South African- trained Portuguese commandos fighting with UNITA. Training Regular and informal training was provided throughout the coun- try at troop recruitment centers, officer candidate schools, special- ized technical training centers, and field units. The military regional headquarters were responsible for providing individual training in basic military subjects to troops and noncommissioned officers. 229 Angola: A Country Study In 1985 the government cited as major accomplishments the establishment of formal training programs for military cadres, the creation of military education centers throughout the country (par- ticularly at the intermediate level for officers and specialists), and the creation of various specialized branches of the armed forces. The Soviet Union and other communist countries provided most of the formal military training. The United States Department of State estimated that 3,260 Angolan military personnel had been trained in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe through the end of 1986 and that 1,700 Warsaw Pact military technicians were present in Angola that year. Most of the technicians were engaged in maintaining and otherwise servicing military equipment fur- nished by the Soviet Union and other communist states. Individual officer candidate training was conducted at the Com- andante Zhika Political-Military Academy in Luanda, which opened in 1984. Most of the instruction was originally given by Soviet and Cuban officers and specialists, but since then qualified Angolan instructors reportedly had joined the staff. As the acade- my's name suggested, the curriculum included training in such mili- tary subjects as strategy, tactics, and weapons, as well as political and ideological indoctrination. Another training program at the academy — a condensed version of the officer candidate political- military curriculum — was attended by senior party officials on weekends over a ten-month period. Senior military officers participated in an eight-month advanced course at the Escola de Oficiais Superiores Gomes Spencer at Huambo, but details on the curriculum were not available. The school's eighth class, which graduated in 1984, included about fifty senior FAPLA officers. Advanced officer training and high-level training for officers and enlisted personnel in armor, artillery, and other specialties was also conducted in Huambo. The Gomes Spencer academy was attacked and extensively damaged by a UNITA commando raid in July 1986. Although information on unit-level training was not available, battalion-level exercises had been reported in the northern and western provinces, far removed from the war zone. It is likely that such large unit-training exercises immediately preceded deployment to the combat zone. Reserve units also trained, as indicated by the report of a reserve battalion having completed a three-month course that included physical conditioning, hand-to-hand combat, and infantry tactics. In addition to basic individual and unit-level training, technical training was provided in such specialized functional areas as communications, intelligence, artillery, armor, air defense, motor 230 National Security transport, and logistics. This training was provided at facilities such as the Comandante Economica Communications School. FAPA/ DAA inaugurated a two-year course for cadets in 1979 at the Na- tional Air Force School in Negage. In early 1983, 176 cadets com- pleted the nine-subject course, which was administered by Angolan instructors and "internationalists" (presumably Soviet and Cuban advisers). A course for radio technicians and radar specialists was also offered at the Negage training center. Some military training was conducted abroad, particularly in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and Cuba. In mid- 1985 the commander of the Fifth Military Region's FAPA/DAA reported the arrival in the region of many new pilots and technicians who had recently completed their training program in the Soviet Union. From 1977 to 1981, Soviet specialists trained more than 3,000 motor mechanics and drivers and 100 aircraft technicians in both Angola and the Soviet Union. FAPLA's Combat Performance FAPLA's military performance was difficult to gauge, particu- larly in view of the propagandistic reports issued by the various forces contending in the region. On the one hand, UNITA had extended its range of operations from the remote southeastern extremities throughout the entire country within a few years of Por- tugal' s withdrawal. The SADF had occupied parts of southern Angola for extended periods, virtually without contest, for the pur- poses of resupplying UNITA, intervening on its behalf, conduct- ing reconnaissance flights and patrols, and attacking SWAPO encampments. UNITA reported low morale among captured FAPLA conscripts, lack of discipline among troops, heavy losses of personnel and equipment in battle, countless ambushes and attacks on FAPLA forces, successful sabotage operations, and deser- tions by battalion-size FAPLA units. In the late 1980s, Angola's minister of defense publicly called for greater discipline in FAPLA, citing reports of theft, assaults, and drunken military drivers. As late as 1988, in the wake of reports of increased FAPA/DAA effec- tiveness, the South African Air Force (SAAF) commander dis- missed the Angolans as "extremely unprofessional," noting that "50 percent of the threat against us is Cuban." On the other hand, it could be argued that FAPLA had sub- stantially improved its capabilities and performance. In the first place, FAPLA had begun to develop and acquire the organization, doctrine, and equipment of a conventional army only during the civil war of 1975-76. It was then forced to fight a counterinsur- gency war in the most remote and inaccessible parts of the country 231 Angola: A Country Study over extended lines of communications, without the requisite air or ground transport or logistical infrastructure. UNITA also en- joyed the advantages of operating in thinly populated areas along porous borders with Zambia and Zaire, with extensive SADF com- bat and logistic support, making it impossible for FAPLA to iso- late or outflank UNITA. Moreover, military experts believe that counterinsurgency troops must outnumber guerrillas by ten to one in order to win such wars, a ratio FAPLA could never approxi- mate. The air force and navy were even further behind and had required years to acquire the assets and the expertise needed for effective operations. Although the navy was of marginal use in the war, air power was critical. It was only after sufficient aircraft and air defense systems had been deployed in the mid-1980s that Luanda was able to launch and sustain large offensives in the south. Although they suffered heavy losses and perhaps relied too heavily on Soviet military doctrine, FAPLA and FAPA/DAA in the late 1980s showed increased strength, put greater pressure on UNITA, and raised the costs of South Africa's support for UNITA. Luan- da's resolve and the improved capabilities and performance of its armed forces were among the essential conditions under which South Africa agreed to negotiate its withdrawal from Angola. War and the Role of the Armed Forces in Society The Costs of Endemic Conflict Persistent internal and external conflict have wrought havoc on Angola. The human cost has been awesome and tragic. It was estimated that as a consequence of war, between 60,000 and 90,000 people had died, and 20,000 to 50,000 persons had become ampu- tees as of 1988 (see Effects of the Insurgency, ch. 2). From 1975 to 1988, almost 700,000 people were forced to flee their rural homes for relative safety in displacement camps or in burgeoning cities and towns, where they suffered gross deprivations in the absence of basic services. About 400,000 Angolans became refugees in neigh- boring states. Moreover, in 1986 some 600,000 people needed nutri- tional assistance. The Angolan economy was also ravaged by wartime destruc- tion and the heavy defense burden. Iron production virtually stopped, diamond mining and timber harvesting were severely cur- tailed, and smuggling siphoned off needed export earnings. Eco- nomic sabotage and attacks on infrastructure by UNITA and South Africa damaged or destroyed hundreds of facilities and made development impossible. The destruction attributed to South African military actions alone was estimated at US$20 billion. 232 A government soldier is fitted for a prosthesis at a hospital in Huambo. Courtesy International Committee of the Red Cross (Yannick Muller) Devastation of the once-prosperous agricultural sector was forc- ing the government to import about 80 percent of its food require- ments in the mid-1980s, at a cost of US$250 million to US$300 million annually. It was only because of oil production in rela- tively secure Cabinda Province that the country could pay the high cost of defense and keep itself from total economic ruin (see Back- ground to Economic Development; Structure of the Economy, ch. 3). Military recruitment placed a growing burden on the Angolan population. According to statistics published by the United States Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (AC DA), the number of soldiers per 1 ,000 people increased from five in 1975 to more than seven in the 1980s, which ranked Angola fifty- seventh among 144 countries in 1985. Any reckoning of the military burden borne by the Angolan people, however, must also take into account UNITA's armed forces. And because both FAPLA and UNITA expanded considerably in the late 1980s as the internal war intensified, the number of combatants per 1 ,000 people was actually twenty (based on 1988 population and combined armed forces estimates), a figure that moved Angola's global ranking into the top fifteen. War and the Military in National Perspective Perpetual war magnified and multiplied the social and eco- nomic impact of defense spending. Military expenditures and arms 233 Angola: A Country Study imports were the most obvious indicators of the intensified war effort. Luanda's defense spending nearly quadrupled from US$343 million in 1978 to US$1.3 billion in 1986 (in constant 1980 dol- lars), the bulk of that increase coming after 1983. In 1986 defense accounted for 40.4 percent of government expenditures. Military expenditure as a percentage of the gross national product (GNP — see Glossary), estimated at 12 percent to 14 percent from 1980 to 1982, rose steadily to 28.5 percent by 1985. Arms imports also increased dramatically. Measured in con- stant 1984 dollars, the value of arms imports nearly doubled after 1980. During the late 1970s, arms deliveries remained relatively constant at a bit more than US$500 million per year, but after 1980 they surged to an annual average of more than US$1 billion. Since the 1970s, Angola's arms imports had ranged between 45 percent and 88 percent of total imports. In mid- 1988 Angolan government officials estimated the country's external debt at US$4 billion, most of which was owed to the Soviet Union for military purchases, and they were considering the possibility of imposing a compulsory pub- lic loan to cover revenue requirements. Angola's heavy defense burden was evident by comparative stan- dards as well. According to 1985 statistics published by AC DA, Angola ranked sixty-third of 144 countries in both military expen- diture and size of its armed forces. These absolute measures of mili- tary effort were consistent with Angola's ranking of between sixty-eight and seventy-three in GNP, central government expen- ditures, and population. However, the militarizing effects were seen more clearly and dramatically in relative measures of defense effort: Angola ranked seventeenth in level of arms imports and sixth in arms imports as a percentage of total imports, twenty-sixth in mili- tary expenditure as a percentage of GNP, thirty- second in military expenditure as a percentage of the government's budget, fiftieth in military expenditure per capita, and fifty-seventh in military expen- diture relative to the size of the armed forces. The continued growth of the armed forces, military expenditures, and arms imports into the late 1980s further increased the burden of defense and en- sured that few resources would be left for social and economic development. Not only did the armed forces command and consume an enor- mous share of national wealth and revenue, their increased political power was institutionalized at every level of government. The de- fense and security forces were heavily represented in the highest organs of the party and government; indeed, the exigencies of war virtually transformed the integrated party- government system into a military machine dedicated to prosecuting war at an increasingly 234 National Security higher price. The reorganization of the territorial administration into military regions and provincial defense councils carried the process even further. It remained to be seen whether the Decem- ber 1988 regional accords — which excluded UNITA — would result in a reversal of the process. Civic Action and Veterans' Groups Like those of many other developing countries, Angola's armed forces were intended to play an important role in nation building through civic-action programs. The Constitution, in fact, spe- cially assigns "production" and "reconstruction" duties to FAPLA. In the late 1970s, FAPLA units were encouraged to grow their own food and to undertake civic action, emergency relief, and public construction projects. However, such tasks were given only nomi- nal attention as the war intensified. Veterans of the liberation struggle and families of those who died in that protracted conflict enjoyed "special protection" under the Angolan Constitution, but this status was not further defined. The rapidly expanding pool of war veterans in the 1980s could make a substantial contribution to national reconstruction and develop- ment if their political, ideological, organizational, social, and tech- nical skills could be mobilized or channeled in such directions. However, the continuation of the war and the absence of informa- tion about their postservice occupations and activities precluded observation of veterans' actual roles in society. The MPLA-PT did attend to veterans' interests through party and government organs. As noted earlier, veterans were eligible for party member- ship, and a high government post, the secretary of state for war veterans, was also dedicated to veterans' affairs. The Angolan War Veterans Committee, with government endorsement, sought aid from the Soviet Union and presumably other potentially sympa- thetic international donors. Internal Security Since independence, the MPLA-PT government had faced several internal opponents and rivals for power. Broadly speak- ing, one can distinguish between antigovernment and antiregime opposition groups. These groups differed in their goals, methods, and bases of support. On the one hand, antigovernment groups protested or sought to change the incumbent leadership, used conventional means of political opposition ranging from passive resistance to attempted coups, and drew support from constitu- encies almost entirely within the country. The main source of such 235 Angola: A Country Study political opposition was factionalism within the MPLA-PT. Clan- destine opposition groups and religious sects also contributed to antigovernment tensions (see Political Opposition, ch. 4). On the other hand, antiregime groups sought to transform the political system or overthrow the ruling MPLA-PT, resorted to efforts at secession and armed rebellion, and received substantial external support. The most prominent of these political opponents were FLEC, the FNLA, and UNITA. Whereas the first two had become spent forces by the 1980s, UNITA continued to pose a serious national security challenge. The MPLA-PT government survived this host of threats by developing an extensive internal security apparatus to supplement the armed forces. This system consisted of a paramilitary territorial militia; a state security ministry with penal functions, political police, and border guards; a national police force; and a nation- wide popular vigilance brigade organization. Antigovernment Opposition The history of the MPLA party and government is ridden with factional strife based on ideological, political, ethnic, and personal rivalries. In the early 1970s, Daniel Chipenda, a member of the MPLA Central Committee, was thought to have instigated two assassination attempts against President Neto and was expelled from the party in December 1974. As leader of the so-called Eastern Revolt faction, he joined the rival FNLA, based in Kinshasa, Zaire, as assistant secretary general. Former MPLA president Mario de Andrade also opposed Neto's leadership and attempted to rally sup- port for his so-called Active Revolt faction in 1974. In May 1977, Nito Alves, former commander of the first military division and minister of interior, spearheaded an abortive coup with the sup- port of an extremist faction. Many MPLA officials were killed, including seven Central Committee members (see Independence and the Rise of the MPLA Government, ch. 1). And in early 1988, seven military intelligence officers were reported to have been sen- tenced to imprisonment for fifteen to twenty years and expelled from FAPLA for plotting a coup against President dos Santos. Other sources of dissent included several small clandestine groups, which, to avoid infiltration, remained anonymous and re- stricted recruitment mainly to Angolan expatriates and exiles. They reportedly represented a variety of ideological inclinations, were disaffected by the continuing civil war, economic chaos, and political intolerance, and advocated development and a pluralistic political system. In 1987 about two dozen members of one such group, the Independent Democrats, were imprisoned and their leader 236 National Security sentenced to death. These events cast doubt on the group's con- tinued ability to survive. Religious sects were another source of antigovernment agitation. The Roman Catholic Church was often at odds with the MPLA- PT government but did not openly challenge it. More problem- atic was the government's clashes with such independent sects as the Jehovah's Witnesses and the Our Lord Jesus Christ Church in the World (Kimbanguist), whose members were popularly called Mtokoists, after the sect's founder, Simon Mtoko (also spelled Simao Toco). After Mtoko's death in 1984, elements of the Mto- koist sect engaged in alleged "antipatriotic activities" that were supposedly responsible for riots that occurred in at least three cit- ies. Angolan security forces were believed to have sponsored re- bellious factions within the leadership. During 1986 and 1987, more than 100 Mtokoists were killed in riots and demonstrations, and the sect was banned for one year. Jehovah's Witnesses were banned from practicing their religion for their refusal to perform military service (see Interest Groups, ch. 4). Erstwhile Opposition: FLEC and the FN LA FLEC waged an intermittent independence struggle between its establishment in 1963 and its virtual demise by the mid-1980s. Zaire's withdrawal of support and internal dissension in the late 1970s caused FLEC to fragment into five factions, three of which remained marginally active militarily in the late 1980s. A combi- nation of the factions' internal divisions and lack of external sup- port, on the one hand, and the heavy concentration in Cabinda of Cuban troops and FAPLA forces, on the other hand, reduced FLEC to litde more than a nuisance. In 1983 Luanda granted an unofficial amnesty to the guerrilla separatists, and more than 8,000 refugees returned home. In February 1985, a cease-fire agreement was signed and talks began, but no formal resolution was reached. In late 1988, FLEC existed in little more than name only. Holden Roberto's FNLA was also defunct by 1988. After los- ing to the MPLA in the civil war, the FNLA retreated to its tradi- tional refuge in Zaire and continued to wage a low-level insurgency. However, in 1978 Zaire withdrew its support of the FNLA as part of the Angolan- Zairian accord signed in the wake of the second invasion of Shaba Region. Ousted by his own commanders, Roberto was exiled to Paris in 1979. He emerged again in 1983 in an unsuccessful effort to generate international support and material aid for his 7,000 to 10,000 poorly armed troops, who oper- ated (but did not control territory) in six northern Angolan prov- inces. 237 Angola: A Country Study FNLA remnants formed the Military Council of Angolan Resistance (Conselho Militar de Resistencia Angolana — Comira) in August 1980 to replace the moribund movement. Comira claimed to have 2,000 troops training in Zaire for an invasion of northern Angola, but it never offered more than sporadic challenges. Its lack of strength was the result of the loss of its major external patron, the broadening of the leadership of the MPLA-PT to include more Bakongo people (the primary source of FNLA support), and more aggressive FAPLA operations. Several Comira leaders defected to the Angolan side, and in 1984 more than 1,500 armed rebels and 20,000 civilian supporters accepted the amnesty originally offered in 1978 and surrendered to Angolan authorities. Hundreds were integrated into FAPLA and the security forces. Luanda reported in October 1988 that 11,000 former FNLA/Comira members had been "reintegrated into national reconstruction tasks," and in November the exiled Roberto was reported to have accepted amnesty. The Enduring Rival: UNITA UNITA in the 1980s was a state within a state. Under the leader- ship of Jonas Savimbi, it survived defeat during the civil war, retreated to the remote southeastern corner of the country, regrouped and made its headquarters at Jamba, and launched a determined campaign to overturn the MPLA-PT regime or at least force it to accept UNITA in a coalition government (see fig. 16). With increasing international support and military aid, particu- larly from South Africa and, after 1985, the United States, UNITA extended its campaign of destruction throughout the entire coun- try. It enlarged its military forces and scope of operations and with- stood several major FAPLA offensives. Starting with a small army of a few thousand defeated and poorly armed followers at the end of 1976, Savimbi built a credible polit- ical organization and fighting force. Unlike what became of the MPLA under its faction-ridden leadership, UNITA remained the creation and vehicle of its founder. Internal opposition occasion- ally surfaced, but the lack of independent reporting made it difficult to assess its significance. South Africa kept FAPLA and Cuban forces at bay and intervened whenever FAPLA offensives threat- ened, leaving UNITA comparatively free to consolidate its con- trol throughout the south and to extend its range of operations northward. In February 1988, Savimbi announced the formation of a UNITA government in "Free Angola," the area he controlled. Although his intent was to regularize administration, rather than to secede or seek international recognition, this event marked a 238 National Security new stage in UNITA's organizational development and consoli- dation, and many Africans states maintained at least informal ties to the movement. Savimbi's strategy and tactics were designed to raise the costs of foreign "occupation" through maximum disruption and dislo- cation, while minimizing his own casualties. UNITA's forces infiltrated new areas and contested as much territory as possible, wresting it away from FAPLA control whenever feasible. They rare- ly seized and held towns, except near their bases in the south. Rather, they sabotaged strategic targets of economic or military value and ambushed FAPLA units when the latter attempted to return to or retake their positions. FAPLA access was also ob- structed by extensive mine laying along lines of communication, approaches to setdements, and infrastructure sites. To undermine support for the MPLA-PT, UNITA indiscriminately attacked or took hostage hundreds of expatriate technicians and advisers, and Savimbi repeatedly threatened multinational companies with retali- ation for their support of the government. Apparently abandon- ing hope of military victory, Savimbi sought instead to strengthen UNITA's bargaining position in demanding direct negotiations with Luanda for the establishment of a government of national unity. UNITA's military progress was remarkable. By 1982 it had declared all but six of the eighteen Angolan provinces to be war zones. In late 1983, with direct air support from South Africa, UNITA took the town of Cangamba, the last FAPLA stronghold in southeastern Angola. This operation marked a shift from guer- rilla tactics to conventional warfare, at least in the countryside. In 1984 UNITA announced the beginning of an urban guerrilla cam- paign and claimed responsibility for acts of sabotage in Luanda itself and even in Cabinda. The movement gained control of the regions bordering Zambia and Zaire, enabling it to develop secure supply lines plus infiltration and escape routes. From 1984 to 1987, UNITA not only continued to advance north and northwest but also repulsed major FAPLA offensives backed by heavy Cuban and Soviet logistic and combat support, in the latter instances rely- ing on SADF air and ground support. In spite of the 1988 region- al accords, according to which FAPLA and UNITA were to lose much of their external support, no military solution to the war was expected. Military Organization and Capability UNITA's military wing, the Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola (Forcas Armadas de Libertacao de Angola — FALA), was under the supreme authority of Savimbi as commander in chief. 239 Angola: A Country Study CONGO Brazzaville /*s j • ^ Kinshasa / * ^ )CABINDA V ZAIRE Boundary representation not necessarily authoritative — ZAIRE • ^ V 1//GE ).Uige. S'-\ Luanda jh GUANZAj LUANDA^ WORTB Malanje , CUANZA . J> Mtantic J SUL : Ocean L . ^ '/dCX^Vs i I Bengueta ' BENGUELA^ ■ — • ' -u £ Kuvango | -f^ango HUILA * ^VMM/SE^V " Xangongo y . • OndjivQ | LUND A NORTE f *Sauhmo LUND A SUL Bundu lers ZAMBIA BOTSWANA — ■ ■ — International boundary — • — Province boundary ® National capital Z4/RE Province • Populated place UNITA-Uniao Nacional para a Independencia i i i i i Railroad Total de Angola (National Union for the Total UNITA-claimed territory UNITA-associated airport Independence of Angola) Source: Based on information from Jonas Bernstein, "A Freedom Fight Deep in Africa," Insight, December 19, 1988, 11. Figure 16. Territory Claimed by UNIT A, 1988 The chief of staff was second in command and controlled the head- quarters elements of intelligence, personnel, logistics, and op- erations. In January 1985, the FALA chief of staff, Brigadier 240 National Security Demosthenes Amos Chilingutila, who had held that post since 1979, was removed and made chief of operations, possibly because of Savimbi's dissatisfaction with his performance, and replaced by Brigadier Alberto Joaquim Vinama. However, following Vinama's death in an automobile accident in October 1986, Chilingutila was reappointed chief of staff. By the mid-1980s, FALA had evolved into a well-defined con- ventional military organization with command and specialized staff organs, a formal hierarchy of ranks, an impressive array of weapons and equipment, and considerable international support. Geographi- cally, UNITA's nationwide area of operations consisted of five fronts commanded by a colonel or brigadier, which were subdivided into twenty-two military regions under a colonel or lieutenant colonel. The regions in turn were divided into sectors (usually three) commanded by a major and further subdivided into zones under captains or lieutenants. FALA had a four- tiered hierarchical structure. The lowest level, the local defense forces, had six battalions of poorly armed men recruited as guards and local militia in contested areas. The next stratum consisted of dispersed guerrillas who trained in their local areas for about sixty days and then conducted operations there, either in small groups of about twenty or in larger units of up to 150. They were armed with automatic weapons and trained to attack and harass FAPLA convoys, bases, and aircraft. The third level included forty-four semi-regular battalions that received a three-month training course and were sent back to the field in units of up to 600. These forces were capable of attacking and defend- ing small towns and strategic terrain and infrastructure. Finally, FALA regular battalions of about 1,000 troops each completed a six-month to nine-month training period, and about a quarter of them also received specialized training in South Africa or Namibia in artillery, communications, and other technical disciplines. Armed with heavy weapons plus supporting arms such as artillery, rock- ets, mortars, and antitank and air defense weapons, these FALA regulars had the tasks of taking territory and holding it. By 1987 UNITA claimed to have 65,000 troops (37,000 guer- rilla fighters — those in the first three categories cited above — and 28,000 regulars), but other estimates put FALA's total strength closer to 40,000. Among its specialized forces were sixteen platoons of commandos and other support units, including engineering, medicine, communications, and intelligence. In late 1987, women were integrated into FALA for the first time when a unit of fifty completed training as semi-regulars. Seven members of this group received commissions as officers. 241 Angola: A Country Study In addition to combat forces, UNITA had an extensive logisti- cal support infrastructure of at least 10,000 people, about 1,000 vehicles (mostly South African trucks), an expanding network of roads and landing strips, schools, hospitals, supply depots, and specialized factories, workshops and other facilities used to manufac- ture, repair, and refurbish equipment and weapons. The main logistical support center and munitions factory was Licua. Many smaller centers were scattered throughout UNITA-controlled ter- ritory. Like Jamba, UNITA's capital, these centers were mobile. It was difficult to determine the conditions of service with UNITA guerrillas. Military service was voluntary and uncompensated, but soldiers and their families normally received their livelihood, even if it sometimes meant appropriating local food supplies. Moreover, political indoctrination was an essential part of military life and training. Although visitors to UNITA-controlled territory reported that the armed forces were highly motivated, FALA defectors and captives allegedly reported coercive recruiting and low morale. FALA had a substantial arsenal of weapons and equipment of diverse origin, most of which was captured from FAPLA during attacks on convoys, raids, or pitched battles, or donated by the SADF as war booty. The remainder came from various countries and the international black market. Included in FALA's inven- tory were captured T-34 and T-55 tanks, armored vehicles, vehicle- mounted rocket launchers, 76mm and 122m field guns, mortars (up to 120mm), RPG-7 and 106mm antitank weapons, heavy and light machine guns, various antiaircraft guns, SA-7 and United States-manufactured Redeye and Stinger SAMs, and G-3 and AK-47 assault rifles. External Support FALA, like FAPLA, would not have been able to expand its size, capabilities, and range of operations without extensive external as- sistance. By supplying UNITA with US$80 million worth of as- sistance annually during the 1980s, Pretoria remained the group's principal source of arms, training, logistical, and intelligence sup- port. The SAAF made regular air drops of weapons, ammunition, medicine, food, and equipment, sometimes at night to avoid in- terception, and was reported occasionally to have ferried FALA troops. South African instructors provided training in both Namibia and UNITA-controlled areas of southern Angola. The largest train- ing center in Namibia was at Rundu, where intensive three-month training courses were conducted. In late 1988, amidst regional peace negotiations, there were reports that UNITA was planning to relo- cate its main external logistical supply lines from South Africa to 242 Jonas Savimbi, the leader of the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola Courtesy Free Angola Information Service UNITA troops atop a Soviet-built BTR-60 captured in Mavinga in 1987 Courtesy Free Angola Information Service Angola: A Country Study Zaire and was moving its headquarters and forces into Namibia's Caprivi Strip before the anticipated arrival of a UN peacekeeping force. In addition to aid from South Africa, UNITA received support in varying degrees from numerous black African and North Afri- can states. Zaire provided sanctuary and allowed its territory to be used by others to train and resupply UNITA forces, and Zam- bia and Malawi were suspected of granting clandestine overflight and landing privileges. During the 1970s, UNITA troops were trained in Senegal, Tanzania, Zambia, and other African coun- tries. Subsequentiy, Egypt, Morocco, Senegal, Somalia, and Tuni- sia also furnished financial and military aid. Morocco, which had supplied arms to the MPLA during the liberation struggle, switched sides and became a major source of military training for FALA, especially for officers, paratroops, and artillery personnel. Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and other Arab states furnished financial support valued at US$60 million to US$70 million annually. Israel was also reported to have provided military aid and training to UNITA sol- diers at Kamina in Zaire. Although Savimbi denied that UNITA had ever employed foreign mercenaries or advisers, there had been reports of South African, French, Israeli, and Portuguese combat- ants among his forces. Beginning in 1986, the United States had supplied UNITA with US$15 million to US$20 million annually in ' 'covert" military aid funded out of the budget of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The first acknowledged shipments of United States aid consisted of nonlethal items such as trucks, medical equipment, and uniforms, but antitank and air defense weapons soon followed. The bulk of this materiel was reportedly airlifted through Kamina airbase in Zaire's Shaba Region, where a UNITA liaison detachment was stationed and CIA operatives were believed by Luanda to have trained 3,000 UNITA guerrillas. The remainder was thought to have been delivered through South Africa, Gabon, and Central African Republic. Angola as a Refuge The MPLA-PT government, conscious of its own revolution- ary and anticolonial origins and committed to the liberation of South African-occupied Namibia and of South Africa itself, provided both sanctuary and material support to SWAPO and the ANC. Although FAPLA never made a preemptive attack south of the Namibian border, Pretoria's forces repeatedly invaded or otherwise inter- vened militarily in Angola. South Africa's regional strategy was to ensure UNITA' s success, contain and disrupt SWAPO, prevent 244 National Security the establishment of ANC bases in southern Angola, and halt Cuban and Soviet expansion southward. In addition to SWAPO and the ANC , a large contingent of Katangan gendarmes (remnants of the force that had invaded Zaire's Shaba Region in 1977 and 1978) enjoyed the protection of the Angolan government. SWAPO was headquartered in Luanda and directed camps primarily in southern Angola from which its militants could infil- trate Namibia in small units. SWAPO 's military wing, the Peo- ple's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN), had main command centers in Luanda and Lubango and training camps in Hufla, Ben- guela, and Cuanza Sul provinces. To avoid identification, infiltra- tion, and attack by the SADF, most of its camps were mobile. SWAPO recruits were trained at Angolan and Cuban military facilities, whence they were dispatched to SWAPO camps and for- mally organized into battalions of 400 to 800 troops each. PLAN's strength in 1988 was estimated at 9,000 troops, most of whom were engaged in operations in Angola against UNITA, rather than against the SADF in Namibia. It was uncertain whether PLAN's anti-UNITA operations represented a quid pro quo for Angolan sanctuary and material support or reflected limited chances to oper- ate in Namibia because of South African defenses. In the Angolan government's 1986 offensive against UNITA, for example, it was estimated that 6,000 to 8,000 SWAPO guerrillas operated with FAPLA. In May 1978, South African forces made their first major cross- border raid into Angola, attacking SWAPO' s main camp at Cas- singa. Other major South African incursions against SWAPO bases and forces occurred in 1981 and 1983. These attacks and the many that followed, coupled with UNITA 's territorial expansion, dis- rupted SWAPO and forced it to disperse and move northward. The Lusaka Accord of February 1984 provided for a cease- fire, South African withdrawal, and relocation of SWAPO under FAPLA control to monitored camps north of a neutral zone along the Namibian border. But Pretoria, alleging that SWAPO' s redeployment was incomplete, delayed its own pullout until April 1985. In September 1985, however, South Africa launched another major air and ground attack on SWAPO and later claimed to have killed about 600 guerrillas in 1985 and 1986. The southern African peace negotiations in 1988 rekindled rumors of debate within the MPLA-PT about continued support for SWAPO. The regional accords required Angola to restrict PLAN to an area north of 16° south latitude, about 150 kilome- ters from the Namibian border. South Africa accused SWAPO of violating the agreement by remaining in the proscribed area and 245 Angola: A Country Study intensifying its operations from a military command headquarters at Xangongo. Accusations aside, SWAPO intended PLAN to form the nucleus of a future Namibian national army, into which it would integrate the existing territorial forces after a period of reorienta- tion and rehabilitation. The ANC, banned in South Africa, operated mainly in Angola under the protection and control of Luanda. At least seven major training camps for an estimated 1,000 to 1,400 members of the ANC's military wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe (Zulu for "Spear of the Nation"), were in Angola. Most of the ANC's personnel, which were organized into three battalions, had their encampment at Viana, outside Luanda. This location in northern Angola provid- ed security from South African attacks but restricted the ANC's ability to infiltrate or mount attacks on South Africa. Other major camps were also in the north at Caculama, Pango, and Quibaxe. ANC militants, like those of PLAN, were engaged along with FAP- LA forces in fighting UNITA. Some ANC forces may have been integrated into FAPLA units. Such joint training and operations facilitated the ANC's access to weapons and supplies, which came mostly from the Soviet Union and its allies. Sanctuary in Angola became all the more important after the March 1984 Mozambique- South Africa nonaggression and mutual security pact, the Nkomati Accord, which obliged Maputo to control ANC activities. By 1988 a combination of internal and external pressures had considerably weakened the ANC, including assassinations of its leadership, South African infiltration and crackdowns at home, attacks on ANC cadres in Botswana, and the United States-brokered peace accords under which Luanda agreed to terminate its assistance to the ANC. As 1988 ended, the ANC decided to relocate its bases out of Angola; reportedly, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Nigeria, and Uganda had been mentioned as possible destinations. Finally, Angola was a refuge for some 1,400 Zairian dissidents. Although quiescent since 1978, these former Katangan gendarmes, who formed the National Front for the Liberation of the Congo (Front National pour la Liberation du Congo — FNLC), remained Luan- da's potential trump card if relations with Zaire became intolerable. Internal Security Forces and Organization Internal security responsibilities in Angola were distributed among the ministries of defense, state security, and interior, plus the People's Vigilance Brigades (Brigadas Populares de Vigilan- cia — BPV). This elaborate internal security establishment was another manifestation of endemic crises and the mass mobiliza- tion undertaken to cope with them. The Ministry of Defense's 246 National Security Directorate of People's Defense and Territorial Troops, established as the ODP in late 1975, had 600,000 members, with some of these personnel in virtually every village by 1979. By that time, 50,000 ODP troops were also reported to be fighting alongside the regu- lar army against UNITA and the SADF. Estimates of the size of the ODP militia in the late 1980s varied widely, from an effective strength of 50,000, one-fifth of whom served with FAPLA, to a nominal (possibly reserve) strength of 500,000. This militia had both armed and unarmed units dispersed in villages throughout the country to guard likely UNITA targets such as bridges, power plants, wells, schools, and clinics. The ODP also cooperated with FAPLA, sometimes in joint operations, to thwart infiltration and attacks by small units in areas where UNITA or other insurgent forces were operating. State security functions were assigned to the Angolan Directorate of Intelligence and Security (Direcao de Informacao e Seguranca de Angola — DISA) in the Ministry of Interior. As the principal internal security organ with intelligence collection and political police functions, the DISA was powerful and feared. Its national security police force had wide-ranging powers and discretion to con- duct investigations, make arrests, detain individuals, and deter- mine how they would be treated. Indeed, during Colonel Ludy Kissassunda's tenure as director (1975-79), the agency came into disrepute for excesses that included torture and summary execu- tions. In mid- 1979 President Neto announced the dissolution of the DISA, the arrest of Kissassunda and several other top security officials, and the reorganization of the state security apparatus. Although officially abolished, the DISA remained the colloquial term for the state security police. Its agents were trained at a school in Luanda by East German and Soviet instructors. The DISA reportedly also operated out of the Angolan chancery in Portugal to maintain surveillance over expatriate activities and received assistance from counterparts in various communist embassies in Lisbon. The Ministry of State Security was created in July 1980 as part of a government reorganization by dividing the Ministry of Interior into two separate ministries. The new ministry consolidated the DISA's internal security functions with those relating to counterin- telligence, control of foreigners, anti-UNITA operations, and frontier security. Colonel Kundi Paihama, the former minister of interior, became the minister of state security upon creation of the minis- try, but in late 1981 Colonel Paulo succeeded Paihama. In early 1986, after having revitalized the party organs and formed a new Political Bureau, President dos Santos undertook 247 Angola: A Country Study to purge and reorganize the Ministry of State Security. He removed Paulo and Deputy Minister Mendes Antonio de Castro, took over the portfolio himself, and appointed Major Fernando Dias da Piedade dos Santos, deputy minister of interior since mid- 1984, as new deputy minister of state security. In March 1986, the presi- dent formed the Commission for Reorganization of the Ministry of State Security, composed of all the directors at the ministries of interior and state security, under Piedade dos Santos's leader- ship. After the arrest and jailing of several senior state security offi- cials for abuse of their positions, corruption, and other irregularities, the commission was disbanded in March 1988. In May 1988, Presi- dent dos Santos relinquished the state security portfolio to Paiha- ma, who also retained the position of minister of state for inspection and control. The Angolan Border Guard (Tropa Guarda Fronteira Angolana — TGFA), under the Ministry of State Security, was responsible for maintaining security along more than 5,000 kilometers of land bor- ders with Congo, Zaire, Zambia, and Namibia; maritime border surveillance may also have been included in the TGFA's mission. The TGFA's strength was estimated at 7,000 in 1988. Local training took place under Cuban instructors at several centers, including Omupanda, Saurimo, Negage, and Caota, although some border guards were sent to Cuba, presumably for advanced or special- ized training. After its reorganization in 1980, the Ministry of Interior super- vised the national police, provincial administration, and investi- gation of economic activities. Although the Ministry of State Security was responsible for administering the national prison sys- tem, certain prison camps were run by the Ministry of Interior. It was unclear how territorial administration was carried out in relation to the regional military and provincial defense councils. Colonel Manuel Alexandre Rodrigues (nom de guerre Kito), who had been vice minister of interior in charge of internal order and the national police, was promoted to minister in the 1980 reorgani- zation and was still serving in that post in late 1988. At that time, however, in response to reports that "special forces of a com- mando nature" had been established within the ministry without authorization, President dos Santos ordered an investigation as a prelude to a restructuring and personnel purge. The national Angolan People's Police evolved from the Por- tuguese colonial police and the People's Police Corps of Angola, which was set up in 1976 under the Ministry of Defense. Head- quartered in Luanda but organized under provincial and local com- mands, the police numbered about 8,000 men and women and 248 National Security reportedly was supported by a paramilitary force of 10,000 that resembled a national guard. Cuban advisers provided most recruit training at the Kapolo Martyrs Practical Police School in Luan- da, but some police training was also given in Cuba and Nigeria. In 1984 Minister of Interior Rodrigues dismissed Fernando da Con- ceicao as police director and named Piedrade dos Santos as his provisional replacement. Rodrigues relieved Major Bartolomeu Feliciano Ferreira Neto as chief of the general staff of the police general command in November 1987, appointing Inspector Jose Adao de Silva as interim chief of the general staff pending a per- manent posting. In December 1988, Armindo Fernandes do Espfrito Santo Vieira was appointed commander general of the Angolan People's Police (apparently the top police post, formerly titled director). At the same time, police functions were being reorganized and consolidated within the Ministry of Interior to eliminate unauthorized activities, give the police more autonomy, and make them more responsive to party and government direction. Finally, President dos Santos created the BPV in August 1983 as a mass public order, law enforcement, and public service force in urban areas. Organizationally, the BPV had ministerial status, and its commander reported directly to the president. In some ways, the BPV was the urban counterpart of the Directorate of People's Defense and Territorial Troops. Unlike this directorate, however, whose members served alongside the army, the BPV was strictiy defensive. Some BPV units were armed, but most performed public security and welfare duties and local political and ideological work — including intelligence gathering, surveillance and security patrols, civil defense, crime prevention and detection, and the organization of health, sanitation, recreation, beautification, and other social services — with and through local government and the field offices of central government agencies. The brigades were organized at the provincial level and below, operated in small units of up to 100 members, and expanded rapidly, particularly in areas affected by UNIT A insurgency. In late 1984, a large number of FAPLA soldiers were integrated into the BPV to strengthen its num- bers and technical military skills. The BPV was also reported to serve as a recruitment pool for FAPLA. By 1987 the BPV's strength was estimated by various sources to be from 800,000 to 1.5 mil- lion. A third of its members were said to be women, organized into 30,000 brigades under Colonel Alexandre Lemos de Lucas (nom de guerre Bota Militar). The rapid growth and diverse social composition of the BPV were illustrated by reports from Namibe and Huambo provinces. In early 1985, there were about 500 vigilantes organized into twenty-six 249 Angola: A Country Study squads in Namibe, capital of Namibe Province. These vigilante units had just been credited with neutralizing a network of "saboteurs" who were stealing and selling large quantities of food and housewares at high prices. Two years later, the Namibe provin- cial BPV was reported to have 1 1 ,885 men and women organized into 6 municipal and 228 intermediary brigades. Among the ranks were 305 MPLA-PT members, 266 members of the Organization of Angolan Women (Organizacao da Mulher Angolana — OMA), 401 members of the JMPLA, and 448 members of the National Union of Angolan Workers (Uniao Nacional dos Trabalhadores Angolanos — UNTA). In Huambo Province, there were report- edly about 100,000 brigade members in early 1986, one-third of them women, and the authorities planned continued expansion to 300,000 by the end of that year. As in the case of the armed forces, the Angolan internal security organs were subject to ideological and institutional controls. They were also heavily influenced by Soviet, East German, and Cuban state security doctrines, organizational methods, techniques, and practices. Advisers from these countries were posted throughout the security ministries, where their presence, access, and influence ironically became a security problem for the Angolan government. They reportedly penetrated the internal security apparatus so thoroughly and recruited so many Angolan security officials that President dos Santos removed foreigners from some sensitive areas and dismissed several Angolan security officers for "collaboration" with foreign elements. A security school, staffed entirely by Ango- lan personnel, also opened in late 1987, thereby reducing the need and attendant risks of sending officers abroad for training. Crime and Punishment Criminal Justice System The Ministry of Justice administered the civil legal and penal systems, although its jurisdictional boundaries with the Ministry of State Security, the Ministry of Interior, the Ministry of Defense, and the regional military councils were unclear. The civilian court system, known as the People's Revolutionary Tribunal (Tribunal Popular Revolucionario), was established in 1976 to deal with cap- ital offenses against national security. These courts had jurisdic- tion over crimes against the security of the state, mercenary activities, war crimes, and so-called crimes against humanity, and they could unilaterally assume jurisdiction over any criminal case that had a significant impact on national security (see Judicial Sys- tem, ch. 4). Such tribunals, composed of three to five judges, were 250 National Security established in each provincial capital but administered by a national directorate in Luanda. In late 1988, Fernando Jose de Franca Dias Van Dunem had been minster of justice since February 1986, when he had succeeded Diogenes Boavida. In 1983 military tribunals were set up in each military region and empowered to try crimes against the security of the state, including alleged offenses committed on behalf of UNITA such as terrorism, espionage, treason, sabotage, destabilization, and armed rebellion; " economic crimes" such as speculation, hoard- ing, and currency violations; disobedience of directives from the regional military council; and other acts that might "damage or endanger the interests of collective defense and security." The independence of the judicial structure and process was severely cir- cumscribed by political control of the court system and the fact that the judges of the military tribunals were military officers whose appointment, reassignment, and removal were controlled by the minister of defense. Military courts frequendy handed down death sentences, which were usually carried out by firing squad. Although persons sentenced to death by military courts were legally entitled to automatic appeal to the Armed Forces Military Tribunal, the highest military court, such appeals were not known to have been lodged. Article 23 of the Constitution provides that citizens shall not be arrested and tried except in accordance with the terms of law and states the right of accused persons to legal defense. However, the extent to which these provisions were observed was uncertain. Amnesty International, a human rights organization, reported the detention without charge or trial of dozens of political pri- soners and trials by military tribunals of hundreds who were not given adequate opportunity to prepare their defense or appeal sentences. Angolan law provided that persons suspected of having commit- ted serious crimes against the security of the state could be detained without charge by the Ministry of State Security for up to three months and that this period could be extended an additional three months. Unlike common criminals, such detainees did not have to be brought before a judge within forty-eight hours of arrest and could not challenge the basis of detention. Political prisoners had to be informed of the accusations against them after six months in detention and then had to be referred to a public prosecutor or released. If charges were pressed, there was no stated time period within which a trial had to be held, and delays of several years were common. 251 Angola: A Country Study Prison System Little information was available on the Angolan prison system. Prisons were primitive, and authorities apparently had wide dis- cretion in dealing with prisoners. As in most Third World coun- tries, prisons were designed for custodial and punitive purposes, not for rehabilitation. Detention facilities were overcrowded, diets were substandard, and sanitation and medical facilities were mini- mal. Intimidation, prolonged interrogations, torture, and maltreat- ment, especially of political prisoners, were common. Visits by families, friends, and others appeared to be restricted arbitrarily. Prisoners were sometimes held incommunicado or moved from one prison to another without notification of family. The ministries of state security and interior reportedly ad- ministered penal institutions, but their respective jurisdictions were unknown. The principal prisons were located in Luanda, where a maximum security institution was opened in early 1981, and in several provincial and local jurisdictions. The main detention centers for political prisoners were the Estrada de Catete prison in the capital and the Bentiaba detention camp in Namibe Province. The government-run detention center at Tari in Cuanza Sul Prov- ince was identified as one of the main rural detention centers. Tari was a former sisal plantation turned into a labor farm, where prisoners lived in barracks or in their own huts while doing forced labor. In 1983 it was reported that Tari's prisoners included those already sentenced, awaiting trial, or detained without trial as secu- rity risks. Political reeducation, once an integral element of rehabili- tation, was not widely or consistently practiced. Foreign advisers, principally East German and Cuban security specialists, assisted in operating detention centers and in training Angolan state secu- rity service personnel. Elsewhere, East Germans were reported to be in charge of a political reeducation camp. Incidence and Trends in Crime It is difficult to generalize about the incidence of crime in Angola. Indeed, the government's characterization of UNITA and other insurgent groups as bandits, gangsters, criminals, puppet gangs, rebels, and counterrevolutionaries suggested a complex mixture of civil, criminal, and political criteria. However, it is likely that Angolan society exhibited criminal patterns similar to those of societies in other developing countries experiencing uncontrolled rural- to-urban migration, rapid social change, unemployment and 252 Migration from rural areas to cities and the consequent creation of slums, such as those pictured above, contributed to a rise in urban crime. Courtesy United Nations (J. P. Laffont) underemployment, the spread of urban slums, and the lack or breakdown of urban and social services. It is also likely that such patterns were even more pronounced because of three decades of endemic conflict and massive dislocation. Historical and compara- tive patterns suggest that crimes against property increased with urban growth and that juveniles accounted for most of the increase. Available evidence, although fragmentary, indicated that the crime rate was rising. Smuggling, particularly of diamonds and timber, was frequently reported as a major criminal offense, occa- sionally involving senior government and party officials. Dealing in illegal currency was another common crime. Persons acting as police or state security agents sometimes abused their writs by ille- gally entering homes and stealing property. Intermittent police crackdowns on black market activities had only short-term effects. Endemic production and distribution problems and shortages gave rise to embezzlement, pilfering, and other forms of criminal mis- appropriation. The enormous extent of this problem was indicat- ed by an official estimate in 1988 that 40 percent of imported goods did not reach their intended consumers because of the highly organized parallel market system. The government later approved new measures to combat economic crime on a national scale. 253 Angola: A Country Study Human Rights Angola was a signatory to several international human rights conventions, including the Convention on the Political Rights of Women of 1953, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, the Geneva Conventions of 1949 Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War and the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, and the Convention and Pro- tocol Relating to the Status of Refugees of 1967. However, as of 1988 Angola was not a signatory to the Slavery Conventions of 1926 and 1956; the Genocide Convention of 1948; or the Interna- tional Conventions on Civil and Political Rights and on Econom- ic, Social, and Cultural Rights of 1966. Although Angola had acceded to such conventions, and its Con- stitution guarantees most human rights, actual observance was sub- ject to severe abridgments, qualifications, and contrary practices. A human rights organization, Freedom House, consistently gave Angola the lowest ratings on its scale of political rights and civil liberties, and The Economist World Human Rights Guide assigned Angola an overall rating of "poor." Amnesty International and the United States Department of State also issued reports highly critical of human rights practices in Angola. The lack or disregard of international human rights standards in Angola was evident in several respects. Arbitrary arrest and im- prisonment without due process were among the most common abuses. Although Angolan law limited the amount of time one could be detained without charge, there did not appear to be a specific period within which a suspect had to be tried, and as many as several hundred political prisoners may have been detained for years without trial. The regional military councils had broad authority to impose restrictions on the movement of people and material, to requisition supplies and labor without compensation, and to try crimes against state security. The BPV also had functions relating to maintenance of public order, the exercise of which was not sub- ject to normal judicial safeguards and due process. Constitutional protections of the inviolability of the home and privacy of correspondence were routinely ignored by government authorities, who made arbitrary home searches, censored correspon- dence, and monitored private communications. Arbitrary execu- tions of political prisoners, especially those accused of supporting UNITA or perpetrating "economic crimes," occurred despite international protests and periodic reorganizations of the security services. The government maintained strict censorship, did not tolerate criticism or opposition, and denied freedom of assembly 254 National Security to any group that was not sanctioned or sponsored by the MPLA-PT. UNIT A alleged that compulsory military service was meted out as punishment by the Ministry of State Security and the BPV. Furthermore, the government did not permit the Inter- national Committee of the Red Cross access to persons arrested for reasons related to internal security or military conflict. Amnesty International also reported numerous instances of tor- ture during the late 1970s and early 1980s. Ministry of State Secu- rity officials were reported to have permitted or sanctioned torture of criminals and political prisoners by such methods as beating, whipping, and electric shock. Political detainees arrested for offenses such as criticizing government policies were deprived of food and water for several days and subjected to frequent and severe beat- ings during interrogation and confinement. Although allegations of torture and mistreatment remained common in the mid-1980s, such practices did not appear to have been systematic. * * * There is voluminous material available on Angola's military his- tory and contemporary national security affairs. The Angolan independence struggle is thoroughly examined in John A. Mar- cum's two-volume The Angolan Revolution. The civil war of 1975-76 is covered by some of the excellent essays in Southern Africa since the Portuguese Coup, edited by John Seiler. The external dimension of the civil war is treated in Charles K. Ebinger's Foreign Interven- tion in Civil War, Arthur Jay Klinghoffer's The Angolan War, and Ernest Harsch and Tony Thomas's Angola: The Hidden History of Washington's War. The UNITA movement has been extensively studied as well. One sympathetic treatment is Fred Bridgland's Jonas Savimbi. Two excellent politico-military analyses of the UNITA insurgency are Donald J. Alberts's " Armed Struggle in Angola" in Insurgency in the Modern World and James W. Martin Ill's unpublished doctoral dissertation, "UNITA Insurgency in Angola." The human cost of the war — at least in terms of refugees — is well covered by the U.S. Committee for Refugees' Uprooted Ango- lans. The devastating economic impact of the protracted war is most fully and systematically examined in Tony Hodges 's Angola to the 1990s. A standard reference work on military forces and order of bat- tle data is The Military Balance, issued annually by the International Institute for Strategic Studies. Supplementary information is avail- able in the annual Defense and Foreign Affairs Handbook, specialized 255 Angola: A Country Study annuals such as Jane's Fighting Ships, Jane's Weapon Systems, and Jane's All the World's Aircraft, and Combat Fleets of the World, edited by Jean Labayle Couhat and Bernard Prezelin. Other useful reference works are John M. Andrade's World Police and Paramilitary Forces and Michael J. H. Taylor's Encyclopedia of the World's Air Forces. Statis- tics and other information on arms transfers, military spending, and armed forces are contained in the United States Arms Con- trol and Disarmament Agency's annual World Military Expenditures and Arms Transfers and the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute's annual SIPRI Yearbook. Internal security and human rights conditions are evaluated annually in the Amnesty International Report and the United States Department of State's Country Reports on Human Rights Practices. Additional worldwide human rights reviews are Charles Humana' s The Economist World Human Rights Guide and Raymond D. Gastil's Freedom in the World. Finally, specialized current news sources and surveys are indispensable to research on contemporary national security affairs. The most relevant and accessible include the annual Africa Contem- porary Record and periodicals such as Africa Research Bulletin, Africa Confidential, Africa Diary, Defense and Foreign Affairs Weekly, Jane's Defence Weekly, and International Defense Review. The most useful sources are African Defence Journal and its sister publication, Afrique Defense. (For further information and complete citations, see Bib- liography.) 256 Appendix A Table 1 Metric Conversion Coefficients and Factors 2 Urban-Rural Breakdown of Population by Province, 1988 3 Major Civilian Hospitals by Province, 1988 4 Revenues, Expenditures, and Deficits, 1980-86 5 Agricultural Production Marketed by State Enterprises, 1982-85 6 Value of Exports, 1980-86 7 Multilateral Development Assistance, 1979-84 8 Crude Oil Production by Area, 1981-85 9 Production and Exports of Diamonds, 1977-87 10 Coffee Production, Exports, and Closing Stocks, 1971-86 11 Balance of Payments, 1982-85 12 Major Army Equipment, 1988 13 Major Air Force and Air Defense Force Equipment, 1988 14 Major Navy Equipment, 1988 257 Appendix A Table 1. Metric Conversion Coefficients and Factors When you know Multiply by To find Millimeters 0.04 inches Centimeters 0.39 inches Meters 3.3 feet Kilometers 0.62 miles Hectares (10,000 m 2 ) 2.47 acres Square kilometers 0.39 square miles Cubic meters 35.3 cubic feet Liters 0.26 gallons Kilograms 2.2 pounds Metric tons 0.98 long tons 1.1 short tons 2,204 pounds Degrees Celsius 9 degrees Fahrenheit (Centigrade) divide by 5 and add 32 259 Angola: A Country Study Table 2. Urban-Rural Breakdown of Population by Province, 1988 Province Urban 1 Rural 2 Total Bengo 18,700 137,400 156,100 Benguela 297,700 308,800 606,500 Bie 201,600 842,400 1,044,000 Cabinda 73,600 73,600 147,200 Cuando Cubango 3,600 122,000 125,600 Cuanza Norte 18,000 347,100 365,100 CuanzaSul 52,700 576,600 629,300 Cunene 4,600 215,200 219,800 Huambo 214,400 1,201,900 1,416,300 Hufla 250,800 578,200 829,000 Luanda 1,363,900 15,900 1,379,800 Lunda Norte 36,300 243,000 279,300 Lunda Sul 80,000 71,400 151,400 Malanje 174,900 643,400 818,300 Moxico 39,600 255,700 295,300 Namibe 75,200 27,500 102,700 Ui'ge 211,000 550,100 761,100 Zaire 92,800 63,700 156,500 TOTAL 3,209,400 6,273,900 9,483,300 1 Includes cities and towns. 2 Includes villages and open countryside. Source: Based on information from United States Private Voluntary Agency, United States Government Assessment Team to Angola, "Final Report," October 25, 1988, Annex B, B-2. 260 Appendix A Table 3. Major Civilian Hospitals by Province, 1988 1 Province Number of City Name Beds Services Bengo Caxito Benguela Benguela Lobito Bie Catabola Chissamba Kuito Cabinda Cabinda Civilian Hospital Central Hospital Civilian Hospital Catabola Municipal Hospital Civilian Hospital Regional Hospital Lombe-Lombe Hospital 120 250 190 80 140 Cuando Cubango Menongue Regional Hospital Huambo Huambo Huambo Hospital 130 600 Longonjo Huila Caluquembe Lubango Bongo Mission Hospital Missionary Hospital Central Hospital 100 129 240 General medical, surgical, X-ray, and laboratory. General medical, X-ray, and laboratory; staffed by Cuban personnel. General medical, surgical, X-ray, and laboratory. General medical. General medical, surgical, X-ray, and laboratory. General medical, surgical, X-ray, and laboratory. General medical, surgical, and teaching facility for rural workers. General medical, surgical, X-ray, laboratory. and General medical, orthopedic; depends on UNICEF and International Committee of the Red Cross for equipment and food. 2 General medical Seventh-Day Adventists hospital. General medical, surgical, and teach- ing facility for rural workers. General medical, surgical, X-ray, and laboratory. 261 Angola: A Country Study Table 3. — Continued. Province City Name Number of Beds Services Luanda Luanda -do- -do- Lunda Sul Saurimo Namibe Namibe Ufge Ufge Americo Boavoia Hospital University Hospital Central Hospital Regional Hospital N'Gola Kimbanda Hospital Ufge Regional Hospital 600 500 120 100 General medical, surgical, X-ray, and laboratory. General medical, surgical, X-ray, laboratory, and teaching facility. General medical. General medical, surgical, X-ray, laboratory. General medical, X-ray, and laboratory; staffed by 13 specialized physicians. General medical, X-ray, and laboratory. and n.a. — not available. 1 Does not include hospitals in areas claimed by the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (Uniao Nacional para a Independencia Total de Angola — UNITA). 2 UNICEF— United Nations Children's Fund. 262 Appendix A Table 4. Revenues, Expenditures, and Deficits, 1980-86 (in billions of kwanzas) 1 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 Revenues State enterprises 10.4 11.1 11.1 10.1 10.4 12.1 18.1 Taxes 41.9 53.3 32.3 38.7 54.4 56.4 35.1 Other JL9 JL2 _6 1 8 _9A HLO 17.3 Total revenues 2 60.1 73.7 50.7 55.6 74.6 78.5 70.5 Expenditures Economic development f 28.4 43.4 26.3 17.9 22.0 23.4 14.8 Social services 13.7 13.8 15.1 14.8 17.3 18.7 21.4 Defense and security 15.0 15.0 15.0 23.3 29.4 34.4 34.6 Administration 17.0 11.8 13.7 9.2 9.5 9.9 9.8 Other 13A JU _2A _2A _jkl_ 4.8 Total expenditures 2 87.2 91.6 72.1 67.6 82.3 90.4 85.5 Deficits 27.1 17.9 21.4 12.0 7.7 11.9 15.0 1 For value of the kwanza — see Glossary. 2 Figures may not add to total because of rounding. Source: Based on information from Tony Hodges, Angola to the 1990s, London, 1987, 42; and Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Report: Angola, Sao Tome and Principe [Lon- don], No. 2, 1987, 12. Table 5. Agricultural Production Marketed by State Enterprises, 1982-85 (in tons) Commodity 1982 1983 1984 1985 3,130 2,130 290 254 Bananas 11,000 15,290 10,775 21,094 12,790 8,370 3,336 5,309 Coffee 23,470 15,630 10,589 13,686 3,320 2,290 2,435 2,291 14,370 16,920 9,866 16,982 17,610 6,730 4,164 5,522 Maize 32,570 22,700 16,343 11,935 2,500 2,440 1,532 1,190 4,600 3,140 1,725 285 Source: Based on information from Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Report: Angola, Sao Tome and Principe [London], No. 1, 1987, 16. 263 Angola: A Country Study Table 6. Value of Exports, 1980-86 (in millions of United States dollars) Commodity 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 Crude oil 1,391 1,345 1,234 1,526 1,748 1,905 1,240 Refined oil and lique- fied petroleum gas . 98 101 60 120 122 128 80 Coffee 164 97 95 71 80 55 60 Diamonds 226 179 104 90 64 33 15 Other 9 6 4 3 3 4 5 TOTAL* 1,888 1,727 1,497 1,810 2,018 2,125 1,400 * Figures may not add to total because of rounding. Source: Based on information from Tony Hodges, Angola to the 1990s, London, 1987, 123; Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Report: Angola, Sao Tome and Principe [London], No. 1, 1987, 13; and Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Report: Angola, Sao Tome and Principe [London], No. 4, 1987, 2. Table 7. Multilateral Development Assistance, 1979-84 (in millions of United States dollars) Donor 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 United Nations World Food Programme 5.0 3.1 4.8 6.1 8.5 9.5 Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees 4.3 4.5 3.8 3.7 5.0 6.0 United Nations Development Programme 2.7 4.1 6.0 4.8 5.3 3.4 United Nations Children's Fund 4.7 3.2 2.5 1.7 3.0 3.3 European Community 0.6 1.0 3.2 1.6 2.5 9.7 Arab Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 1.8 1.1 TOTAL 17.3 15.9 20.3 17.9 26.1 33.0 n.a. — not available. Source: Based on information from Tony Hodges, Angola to the 1990s, London, 1987, 129. 264 Appendix A Table 8. Crude Oil Production by Area, 1981-85 (in thousands of barrels per day) Area 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 Cabinda 85.6 80.5 130.3 58.4 165.2 Block 2 5.1 12.7 12.1 9.3 7.2 Block 3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 23.8 Congo River Basin 34.9 32.4 30.7 31.9 31.7 Cuanza River Basin 3.7 4.0 4.9 4.5 4.0 TOTAL* 129.4 129.6 178.0 204.0 231.9 * Figures may not add to total because of rounding. Source: Based on information from Tony Hodges, Angola to the 1990s, London, 1987, 58. Table 9. Production and Exports of Diamonds, 1977-87 Production Exports Year Volume 1 Value 2 Volume 1 Value 2 1977 333 885 337 847 1978 707 3,512 689 3,325 1979 839 4,365 791 4,225 1980 1,479 6,929 1,460 6,767 1981 1,397 4,959 1,409 5,350 1982 1,221 3,063 1,260 3,099 1983 1,030 2,784 1,002 2,704 1984 920 1,764 954 1,921 1985 714 945 741 977 1986 400 n.a. n.a. n.a. 1987 750 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. — not available. 1 In thousands of carats. 2 In millions of kwanzas (for value of the kwanza — see Glossary). Source: Based on information, from Tony Hodges, Angola to the 1990s, London, 1987, 75; and Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Report: Angola, Sao Tome and Principe [Lon- don], No. 4, 1987, 17. 265 Angola: A Country Study Table 10. Coffee Production, Exports, and Closing Stocks, 1971-86 (in thousands of bags) Year Production Exports Closing Stocks 1 1971 3,888 3,019 4,785 1972 4,031 3,097 5,619 1973 3,500 4,135 4,942 1974 3,206 2,961 5,147 1975 1,062 2,600 3,574 1976 958 1,123 3,379 1977 951 963 3,342 1978 572 1,245 2,644 1979 289 1,012 1,896 1980 721 661 1,931 1981 344 850 1,399 1982 290 620 1,024 1983 214 440 778 1984 254 370 616 1985 214 333 477 1986 2 .-. 270 313 414 1 Coffee held in storage at end of year. 2 Government forecast. Source: Based on information from Tony Hodges, Angola to the 1990s, London, 1987, 92. Table 11. Balance of Payments, 1982-85 (in billions of kwanzas) 1 1982 1983 1984 1985 44.7 47.5 58.8 59.3 33.7 29.7 38.0 41.2 11.0 17.8 20.9 18.0 19.0 19.8 23.6 26.5 -7.2 -1.0 -1.7 -7.0 3.0 1.6 6.1 6.7 3.2 3.3 5.2 6.1 1 For value of the kwanza — see Glossary. 2 Free on board. 3 Figures may not result in balance because of rounding. Source: Based on information from Tony Hodges, Angola to the 1990s, London, 1987, 42-43. 266 Appendix A Table 12. Major Army Equipment, 1988 Type In Inventory Main battle tanks T-34 100 T-54/-55 300 T-62 100 + T-72 n.a. Light tanks PT-76 50 Armored vehicles BRDM-1/-2 200 + AML-60/-90 n.a. BTR-40/-50/-60/-152 255 BMP-2 65 Panhard M3 n.a. Artillery Assortment of 76mm, 85mm, 100mm, 122mm, 130mm, and 152mm guns 500 SU-100 (self-propelled) n.a. BM-21/-24 multiple rocket launchers 75 1 20mm mortars 40 + 82mm mortars 460 Antitank weapons AT-3 n.a. 75mm, 82mm, and 107mm recoilless rifles 900 Air defense guns ZSU-23-4 (self-propelled) 20 ZSU-57-2 (self-propelled) 40 S-60 70 ZPU-1/-2/-4 n.a. ZU-23-2 n.a. M-1939 n.a. M-55 n.a. Surface-to-air missiles SA-7/-4 n.a. n.a. — not available. 267 Angola: A Country Study Table 13. Major Air Force and Air Defense Force Equipment, 1988 Type In Inventory Attack aircraft MiG-23 Flogger 55 MiG-21MF Fishbed 60 Su-22 Fitter 7 Interceptors MiG-17F Fresco 20 MiG-19 Farmer 8 MiG-21bis Fishbed 30 Counterinsurgency and reconnaissance PC -7 Turbo-Trainer 8 Maritime patrol Fokker F-27MPA Friendship 1 EMB-111 Bandeirante 2 Fixed-wing transports Douglas C-47 Dakota 3 CASA C-212 Aviocar 11 L- 100-30 1 or 2 Do-27 5 Nord 262 4 BN-2A Islander 13 TU-134A Crusty 1 Yak-40 Codling 1 Commander 690A 1 PC-6B Turbo-Porter 4 An-2 Colt 10 An-12 Cub 2 An-26 Curl 33 An-32 Cline 3 Trainers MiG-15UTI Midget 3 Yak-il Moose 6 Cessna 172 3 PC-7 11 PC-9 4 Helicopters Mi-8 Hip 50 Mi- 17 13 Mi-24 Hind C 27 Mi-25 21 SA-316B Alouette III 24 IAR-316B Alouette III 16 SA-342 Gazelle 5 SA-365N Dauphin 8 SA-315B Lama 1 268 Appendix A Table 13. — Continued. Type In Inventory Surface-to-air missiles SA-2 Guideline 12 SA-3 Goa 40 SA-6 Gainful 72 SA-8 Gecko 48 SA-9 Gaskin n.a. SA-13 Gopher n.a. n.a. — not available. Table 14. Major Navy Equipment, 1988 Type In Inventory Fast missile craft OSA-II with four SS-N-2 Styx missiles 6 Fast torpedo craft Shershen with four 533mm heavyweight torpedo tubes 4 or 5 Inland-water and coastal patrol boats Argos 4 Poluchat-I 2 Zhuk 1 or 2 Jupiter 1 or 2 Bellatrix 4 or 5 Mine warfare craft Yevgenya MH1 2 Amphibious vessels Polnocny-B 3 Alfrange 1 LCT 1 T-4 4 or 5 LDM-400 9 or 10 Coastal defense equipment SS-C1 Sepal radar system at Luanda 1 269 Appendix B 1988 REGIONAL ACCORDS Tripartite Agreement, December 22, 1988 AGREEMENT AMONG THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF ANGOLA, THE REPUBLIC OF CUBA, AND THE REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA The Governments of the People's Republic of Angola, the Republic of Cuba, and the Republic of South Africa, hereinafter designated as "the Parties," Taking into account the "Principles for a Peaceful Settlement in Southwestern Africa," approved by the Parties on 20 July 1988, and the subsequent negotiations with respect to the implementa- tion of these Principles, each of which is indispensable to a com- prehensive settlement, Considering the acceptance by the Parties of the implementa- tion of United Nations Security Council Resolution 435 (1978), adopted on 29 September 1978, hereinafter designated as "UNSCR 435/78," Considering the conclusion of the bilateral agreement between the People's Republic of Angola and the Republic of Cuba provid- ing for the redeployment toward the north and the staged and total withdrawal of Cuban troops from the territory of the People's Republic of Angola, Recognizing the role of the United Nations Security Council in implementing UNSCR 435/78 and in supporting the implemen- tation of the present agreement, Affirming the sovereignty, sovereign equality, and independence of all states of southwestern Africa, Affirming the principle of noninterference in the internal affairs of states, Affirming the principle of abstention from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of states, Reaffirming the right of the peoples of the southwestern region of Africa to self-detennination, independence, and equality of rights, and of the states of southwestern Africa to peace, development, and social progress, Urging African and international cooperation for the settlement 271 Angola: A Country Study of the problems of the development of the southwestern region of Africa, Expressing their appreciation for the mediating role of the Government of the United States of America, Desiring to contribute to the establishment of peace and security in southwestern Africa, Agree to the provisions set forth below: (1) The Parties shall immediately request the Secretary General of the United Nations to seek authority from the Security Council to commence implementation of UNSCR 435/78 on 1 April 1989. (2) All military forces of the Republic of South Africa shall depart Namibia in accordance with UNSCR 435/78. (3) Consistent with the provisions of UNSCR 435/78, the Repub- lic of South Africa and People's Republic of Angola shall cooper- ate with the Secretary General to ensure the independence of Namibia through free and fair elections and shall abstain from any action that could prevent the execution of UNSCR 435/78. The Parties shall respect the territorial integrity and inviolability of bor- ders of Namibia and shall ensure that their territories are not used by any state, organization, or person in connection with acts of war, aggression, or violence against the territorial integrity or inviolability of borders of Namibia or any other action which could prevent the execution of UNSCR 435/78. (4) The People's Republic of Angola and the Republic of Cuba shall implement the bilateral agreement, signed on the date of sig- nature of this agreement, providing for the redeployment toward the north and the staged and total withdrawal of Cuban troops from the territory of the People's Republic of Angola, and the arrange- ments made with the Security Council of the United Nations for the on-site verification of that withdrawal. (5) Consistent with their obligations under the Charter of the United Nations, the Parties shall refrain from the threat or use of force, and shall ensure that their respective territories are not used by any state, organization, or person in connection with any acts of war, aggression, or violence, against the territorial integrity, inviolability of borders, or independence of any state of southwestern Africa. (6) The Parties shall respect the principle of noninterference in the internal affairs of the states of southwestern Africa. (7) The Parties shall comply in good faith with all obligations undertaken in this agreement and shall resolve through negotia- tion and in a spirit of cooperation any disputes with respect to the interpretation or implementation thereof. (8) This agreement shall enter into force upon signature. 272 Appendix B Signed at New York in triplicate in the Portuguese, Spanish, and English languages, each language being equally authentic, this 22nd day of December 1988. FOR THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF ANGOLA Afonso Van Dunem FOR THE REPUBLIC OF CUBA Isidoro Octavio Malmierca FOR THE REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA Roelof F. Botha Bilateral Agreement, December 22, 1988 Following is the unofficial United States translation of the original Portuguese and Spanish texts of the agreement, with annex. AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE GOVERNMENTS OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF ANGOLA AND THE REPUBLIC OF CUBA FOR THE TERMINATION OF THE INTERNATIONALIST MISSION OF THE CUBAN MILITARY CONTINGENT The Governments of the People's Republic of Angola and the Republic of Cuba hereinafter designated as the Parties, Considering, That the implementation of Resolution 435 of the Security Coun- cil of the United Nations for the independence of Namibia shall commence on the 1st of April, That the question of the independence of Namibia and the safeguarding of the sovereignty, independence, and territorial in- tegrity of the People's Republic of Angola are closely interrelated with each other and with peace and security in the region of south- western Africa. That on the date of signature of this agreement a tripartite agree- ment among the Governments of the People's Republic of Ango- la, the Republic of Cuba, and Republic of South Africa shall be signed, containing the essential elements for the achievement of peace in the region of southwestern Africa, That acceptance of and strict compliance with the foregoing will bring to an end the reasons which compelled the Government of the People's Republic of Angola to request, in the legitimate exer- cise of its rights under Article 51 of the United Nations Charter, the deployment of Angolan territory of a Cuban internationalist 273 Angola: A Country Study military contingent to guarantee, in cooperation with the FAPLA [the Angolan Government army], its territorial integrity and sovereignty in view of the invasion and occupation of part of its territory, Noting, The agreements signed by the Governments of the People's Republic of Angola and the Republic of Cuba on 4 February 1982 and 19 March 1984, the platform of the Government of the Peo- ple's Republic of Angola approved in November 1984, and the Protocol of Brazzaville signed by the Governments of the People's Republic of Angola, the Republic of Cuba, and the Republic of South Africa on December 13, 1988, Taking into account, That conditions now exist which make possible the repatriation of the Cuban military contingent currently in Angolan territory and the successful accomplishment of their internationalist mission, The Parties agree as follows: Article 1 To commence the redeployment by stages to the 15th and 13th parallels and the total withdrawal to Cuba of the 50,000 men who constitute the Cuban troops contingent stationed in the People's Republic of Angola, in accordance with the pace and time frame established in the attached calendar, which is an integral part of this agreement. The total withdrawal shall be completed by the 1st of July, 1991. Article 2 The Governments of the People's Republic of Angola and the Republic of Cuba reserve the right to modify or alter their obliga- tions deriving from Article 1 of this agreement in the event that flagrant violations of the tripartite agreement are verified. Article 3 The Parties, through the Secretary General of the United Nations, hereby request that the Security Council verify the redeployment and phased and total withdrawal of Cuban troops from the territory of the People's Republic of Angola, and to this end shall agree on a matching protocol. Article 4 This agreement shall enter into force upon signature of the tripar- tite agreement among the People's Republic of Angola, the Repub- lic of Cuba, and the Republic of South Africa. Signed on 22 December 1988, at the Headquarters of the United 274 Appendix B Nations, in two copies, in the Portuguese and Spanish languages, each being equally authentic. FOR THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF ANGOLA Afonso Van Dunem FOR THE REPUBLIC OF CUBA Isidoro Octavio Malmierca Annex on Troop Withdrawal Schedule CALENDAR In compliance with Article 1 of the agreement between the Government of the Republic of Cuba and the Government of the People's Republic of Angola for the termination of the mission of the Cuban internationalist military contingent stationed in Ango- lan territory, the Parties establish the following calendar for the withdrawal: Time Frames Prior to the first of April, 1989 (date of the beginning of imple- mentation of Resolution 435) Total duration of the calendar Starting from the first of April, 1989 Redeployment to the north: to the 15th parallel by to the 13th parallel by Total men to be withdrawn: by 1 November 1989 by 1 April 1990 by 1 October 1990 by July 1991 3,000 men 27 months 1 August 1989 31 October 1989 25,000 men 33,000 men 38,000 men 50,000 men Taking as its base a Cuban force of 50,000 men. 275 Bibliography Chapter 1 Abshire, David M., and Michael A. 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Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola- Workers' Party (Movimento Popular de Libertacao de Angola-Partido de Trabal- ho). Angola: Trabalho e luta. Paris: Realisation (Edicoes DIP), 1985. Scott, Catherine V. "Political Development in Afro-Marxist Regimes: An Analysis of Angola and Mozambique." (Ph.D. dissertation.) Atlanta: Department of Political Science, Emory University, 1986. "Socialism and the 'Soft State' in Africa: An Analysis of Angola and Mozambique, "Journal of Modern African Studies [Lon- don], 26, No. 1, March 1988, 23-36. Sidler, Peter. "South Africa and the Namibia Question," Swiss Review of World Affairs [Zurich], 38, No. 4. July 1988, 21-22. Smith, Wayne S. "A Trap in Angola," Foreign Policy, No. 62, Spring 1986, 61-74. Somerville, Keith. Angola: Politics, Economics, and Society. (Marxist Regimes Series.) Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner, 1986. . "Angola: Soviet Client State or State of Socialist Orien- tation?" Millennium: Journal of International Studies [London], 13, No. 3, 1984, 292-310. Soremekun, Fola. "Angola." Pages 25-59 in Timothy M. Shaw and Olajide Aluko (eds.), The Political Economy of African Foreign Policy. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1984. The Statesman's Year-Book, 1984-1985. London: Macmillan Press, 1984. Stiihrenberg, Michael. "Pulling Cuban Soldiers Out of Angola," World Press Review, 35, No. 12, December 1988, 30-32. U.S. Committee for Refugees. Uprooted Angolans: From Crisis to Catas- trophe. Washington: American Council for Nationalities Ser- vice, August 1987. United States. Department of State. Bureau of Public Affairs. Agree- ments for Peace in Southwestern Africa. (Selected Documents, No. 32.) Washington: December 1988. Wildschut, Adele. "The Soviet Union's Economic Relations with Southern Africa," Africa Insight [Pretoria], 18, No. 2, 1988, 80-91. Wolfers, Michael, and J. Bergerol. Angola in the Frontline. London: Zed Press, 1983. Young, Thomas. "The Politics of Development in Angola and Mozambique," African Affairs [London], 87, No. 347, April 1988, 165-84. 291 Angola: A Country Study (Various issues of the following publications were also used in the preparation of this chapter: Africa Confidential [London]; Africa Contemporary Record; Africa Report; Africa Research Bulletin (Political Series) [Oxford]; Angop News Bulletin [London], 1987-88; Boston Globe, 1987-88; Financial Mail [Johannesburg], 1988; Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Daily Report: Middle East and Africa (until April 1987) and Daily Report: Africa sub-Saharan (since April 1987); Guardian [London] \ Jeune Afrique [Paris], 1988; Joint Publi- cations Research Service, Report on sub-Saharan Africa; Marches tropicaux et mediterraneens [Paris], 1988; New York Times, 1988; and Wall Street Journal, 1988). Chapter 5 Air Forces of the World, 1986. Geneva: Interavia, 1986. Alberts, Donald J. "Armed Struggle in Angola." Pages 235-67 in Bard E. O'Neill et al., Insurgency in the Modern World. Boul- der, Colorado: Westview Press, 1980. Amnesty International Report, 1987. London: Amnesty Internation- al, 1987. Andrade, John M. ' 'Angola: Republica Popular de Angola. ' ' Page 5 in John M. Andrade (ed.), World Police and Paramilitary Forces. New York: Stockton Press, 1985. "Angola." Pages 105-6 in Torture in the Eighties. London: Amnesty International, 1984. Bender, Gerald J. Angola under the Portuguese: The Myth and the Real- ity. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978. "The Continuing Crisis in Angola," Current History, 82, No. 482, March 1983, 124-25, 128, 138. Bernstein, Jonas. "A Freedom Fight Deep in Africa," Insight, De- cember 19, 1988, 11. Birmingham, David. "The Twenty- seventh of May: An Histori- cal Note on the Abortive 1977 Coup in Angola," African Affairs [London], 77, No. 309, October 1978, 554-64. Bridgland, Fred. Jonas Savimbi: A Key to Africa. New York: Para- gon House, 1987. Chilcote, Ronald H. (ed.). Protest and Resistance in Angola and Brazil: Comparative Studies. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972. Couhat, Jean Labayle, and Bernard Prezelin. Combat Fleets of the World, 1988-1989. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1988. Day, Alan J., and Henry W. Degenhardt (eds.). Political Parties of the World. (2d ed.) Detroit: Gale Research, 1984. Degenhardt, Henry W. Political Dissent. Detroit: Gale Research, 1983. 292 Bibliography Ebinger, Charles K. Foreign Intervention in Civil War: The Politics and Diplomacy of the Angolan Conflict. (Ph.D dissertation.) Medford, Massachusetts: Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, Tufts University, 1981. El-Khawas, Mohamed A. "U.S. Intervention in Angola," Africa and the World, 1, No. 2, January 1988, 1-12. Falk, Pamela S. "Cuba in Africa," Foreign Affairs, 65, No. 5, Sum- mer 1987, 1077-96. Gastil, Raymond D. Freedom in the World: Political Rights and Civil Liberties, 1986-1987. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1987. Grundy, Kenneth W. "The Angolan Puzzle: Varied Actors and Complex Issues," Issue: A Journal of Opinion, 15, 1987, 35-41. Hamalengwa, M., et al. (comp.). The International Law of Human Rights in Africa. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Nijhoff, 1988. Harsch, Ernest, and Tony Thomas. Angola: The Hidden History of Washington's War. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1976. Henderson, Lawrence W. Angola: Five Centuries of Conflict. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1979. Hobday, Charles. Communist and Marxist Parties of the World. Santa Barbara: ABC -Clio, 1986. Hodges, Tony. Angola to the 1990s: The Potential for Recovery. (Spe- cial Report No. 1079.) London: Economist, 1987. Holness, Marga. "Angola: The Struggle Continues." Pages 73-109 in Phyllis Martin and David Martin (eds.), Destructive Engage- ment: Southern Africa at War. Harare: Zimbabwe Publishing House, 1986. Hough, M. 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The Angolan Revolution, 2: Exile Politics and Guerrilla Warfare (1962-1976). Cambridge: MIT Press, 1978. The Military Balance, 1988-1989. London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1988. "Minister of Defense Explains Creation of Military Fronts," Angop News Bulletin [London], No. 101, June 30, 1988, 8-9. Radu, Michael. "The African National Congress: Cadres and Cre- do," Problems of Communism, 36, No. 4, July- August 1987, 58-74. Seiler, John (ed.). Southern Africa since the Portuguese Coup. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1980. Shelly, Louise I. Crime and Modernization. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1981. SIPRI Yearbook, 1988: World Armaments and Disarmament. (Stockholm International Peace Research Institute.) New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. Somerville, Keith. Angola: Politics, Economics, and Society. (Marxist Regimes Series.) Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner, 1986. Taylor, Michael J. H. Encyclopedia of the World's Air Forces. New York: Facts on File, 1988. ' U.S. Committee for Refugees. Uprooted Angolans: From Crisis to Catas- trophe. Washington: American Council for Nationalities Ser- vice, August 1987. United States. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency. World Mili- tary Expenditures and Arms Transfers, 1987. Washington: 1988. . Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook, 1988. Washington, 1988. Congress. 94th, 2d Session. Senate. Committee on For- eign Relations. Subcommittee on African Affairs. Angola. Washington: GPO, 1976. Congress. 95th, 1st Session. House of Representatives. Committee on Foreign Affairs. Angola: Intervention or Negotiation. Washington: GPO, 1986. Congress. 95th, 2d Session. House of Representatives. Committee on International Relations. Subcommittee on Afri- ca. United States-Angolan Relations. Washington: GPO, 1978. Congress. 96th, 2d Session. House of Representatives. Committee on Foreign Affairs. Subcommittee on Africa. Unit- ed States Policy Toward Angola — Update. Washington: GPO, 1980. - Congress. 99th, 2d Session. Senate. Committee on For- eign Relations. Angola: Options for American Foreign Policy. Washing- ton: GPO, 1986. Department of State. Country Reports on Human Rights Prac- tices for 1987. (Report submitted to United States Congress, 100th, 2d Session, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, and House 294 Bibliography of Representatives, Committee on Foreign Affairs.) Washing- ton: GPO, February 1988. Wheeler, Douglas L., and Rene Pelissier. Angola. New York: Prae- ger, 1971. Wolfers, Michael. ''People's Republic of Angola." Pages 62-86 in Bogdan Szajkowski (ed.), Marxist Governments: A World Sur- vey, 1. London: Macmillian, 1981. Wolfers, Michael, and J. Bergerol. Angola in the Frontline. London: Zed Press, 1983. (Various issues of the following publications were also used in the preparation of this chapter: Africa Confidential [London]; Africa Contemporary Record; Africa Diary [New Delhi]; Africa Economic Digest [London]; African Defence Journal [Paris]; Africa Now [London]; Africa Report; Africa Research Bulletin (Political Series) [Oxford]; AfricAsia [Paris]; Afrique Defense [Paris]; Air International [London] ; Atlanta Con- stitution; British Broadcasting Corporation, Summary of World Broad- casts [London]; Christian Science Monitor; Defense and Foreign Affairs Handbook; Defense and Foreign Affairs Weekly; Facts and Reports [Am- sterdam]; Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Daily Report: Mid- dle East and Africa (until April 1987) and Daily Report: Africa sub-Saharan (since April 1987); Flight International [London]; Inter- national Defense Review [Geneva] \ Jane's All the World's Aircraft [Lon- don]; Jane's Armour and Artillery [London]; Jane's Defence Weekly [London]; Jane's Fighting Ships [London]; Jane's Weapons Systems [London]; Jeune Afrique [Paris]; Joint Publications Research Ser- vice, Report on sub-Saharan Africa; Marches tropicaux et mediterraneens [Paris] ; Soldier of Fortune; Washington Post; Washington Times; and West Africa [London].) 295 Glossary assimilado(s) — Those Africans and mestigos (q.v.) considered by the colonial authorities to have met certain formal standards indicating that they had successfully absorbed (assimilated) the Portuguese language and culture. Individuals legally assigned to the status of assimilado assumed (in principle) the privileges and obligations of Portuguese citizens and escaped the burdens, e.g., that of forced labor, imposed on most Africans (indigenas — q.v.). The status of assimilado and its legal implications were formally abolished in 1961. barrels per day (bpd) — Production of crude oil and petroleum products is frequently measured in barrels per day. A barrel is a volume measure of forty-two United States gallons. Con- version of barrels to metric tons depends on the density of the special product. About 7.3 barrels of average crude oil weigh one metric ton. Heavy products would be about seven barrels per metric ton. Light products, such as gasoline and kerosene, would average eight barrels per metric ton. degredado(s) — Exiled convicts; refers to convicted criminals sent from Portugal to Angola. Degredados constituted a very substan- tial part of the Portuguese who came to Angola from the six- teenth century to the early twentieth century. fiscal year (FY) — January 1 to December 31. gross domestic product (GDP) — A value measure of the flow of domestic goods and services produced by an economy over a period of time, such as a year. Only output values of goods for final consumption and intermediate production are assumed to be included in final prices. GDP is sometimes aggregated and shown at market prices, meaning that indirect taxes and subsidies are included; when these have been eliminated, the result is GDP at factor cost. The word gross indicates that deduc- tions for depreciation of physical assets have not been made. See also gross national product. gross national product (GNP) — Gross domestic product (GDP — q. v.) plus the net income or loss stemming from transactions with foreign countries. GNP is the broadest measurement of the output of goods and services by an economy. It can be cal- culated at market prices, which include indirect taxes and sub- sidies. Because indirect taxes and subsidies are only transfer payments, GNP is often calculated at factor cost, removing in- direct taxes and subsidies. 297 Angola: A Country Study indigences) — An African or mestigo (q. v.) without assimilado (q. v.) sta- tus. In Portuguese terms, it means unassimilated or uncivi- lized. Before the abolition of the status (and the distinction between it and that of assimilado) in 1961, roughly 99 percent of all Africans were indigenas. International Monetary Fund (IMF) — Established along with the World Bank (q.v.) in 1945, the IMF is a specialized agency affiliated with the United Nations and is responsible for stabiliz- ing international exchange rates and payments. The main bus- iness of the IMF is the provision of loans to its members (including industrialized and developing countries) when they experience balance of payments difficulties. These loans fre- quently carry conditions that require substantial internal eco- nomic adjustments by the recipients, most of which are developing countries. kwanza — Angolan currency unit that replaced the Angolan escudo after January 8, 1977. The kwanza, named for the Cuanza (Kwanza) River, consists of 100 lwei (lw), named for one of the river's tributaries. The kwanza was a nonconvertible cur- rency, but exchange rates for authorized transactions were established regularly. In late 1988, US$1 officially equaled Kz29.3; reportedly, the kwanza traded on the parallel market for up to Kz2,100 per US$1. Lome Convention — An agreement between the European Com- munity (EC) and the African, Caribbean, and Pacific (ACP) states whose provisions call for the EC to extend economic assistance to ACP countries. Much of the aid is for project development or rehabilitation, but a large portion is set aside for the Stabilization of Export Earnings (STABEX) system, designed to help developing countries withstand fluctuations in the prices of their agricultural exports. mestigo(s) — An individual of mixed white and African ancestry. Several varieties, depending on the nature and degree of mix- ture, were recognized by the Portuguese and mestigos in the colonial era. Before 1961 most mestigos had the status of assimilado (qv). Paris Club — A noninstitutional framework whereby developed nations that make loans or guarantee official or private export credits to lesser developed states meet to discuss borrowers' abil- ity to repay debts. The organization, which met for the first time in 1956, has no formal or institutional existence and no fixed membership. Its secretariat is run by the French treasury, and it has a close relationship with the World Bank (q. v.), the International Monetary Fund (IMF — q.v.), and the United 298 Glossary Nations Conference on Trade and Development. World Bank — Informal name used to designate a group of three affiliated international institutions: the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), the International Development Association (IDA), and the International Finance Corporation (IFC). The IBRD, established in 1945, has the primary purpose of providing loans to developing countries for productive projects. The IDA, a legally separate loan fund administered by the staff of the IBRD, was set up in 1960 to furnish credits to the poorest developing countries on much eas- ier terms than those of conventional IBRD loans. The IFC, founded in 1956, supplements the activities of the IBRD through loans and assistance specifically designed to encourage the growth of productive private enterprises in the less devel- oped countries. The president and certain senior officers of the IBRD hold the same positions in the IFC. The three institu- tions are owned by the governments of the nations that sub- scribe their capital. To participate in the World Bank group, member states must first belong to the International Mone- tary Fund (IMF— q. v.). 299 Index Abako. Alliance of Bakongo (Abako) accords, regional (1988) (see also agree- ments; Joint Military Monitoring Commission): Angola's probable gains from, 5, 195; for Cuban troop removal, 194-95; effect of, xxv-xxvi, xxvii, 222 AC DA. See Arms Control and Disarma- ment Agency (AC DA) Action Committee for the National Un- ion of Cabindans (Comite d'Action d'Union Nationale des Cabindais: CAUNC), 33 Active Revolt (1974), 41, 46, 170, 236 administration, government: executive branch in, 165, 167-68; judicial system of, 169; legislative branch of, 168-69; at local level, 169-70 Afonso (Kongo king), 7 African League, 26 African National Congress (ANC), 61, 106; base and activity in Angola of, 191-92, 246; fighting against UNITA by, 222; MPLA-PT support for, 244 African Petroleum Producers' Associa- tion, 130 Africans as traders, 19 Africans in Angolan society, 22-24 Africa Textil, 144 Agip Oil Company, 131 Agostinho Neto Organization of Pioneers (Organizacao dos Pioneiros Agostinho Neto: OPA), 181 Agostinho Neto University, 102, 198 agreements, 38, 162; of Angola, Cuba, and South Africa (1988), 205-6; with Comecon, 198; Lome III Agreement, 121-22; of military cooperation with Hungary, 227; nonaggression pact: Zaire, Zambia, Angola, 207-8; be- tween Portugal and Belgium, 19; relat- ed to fishing rights, 140; with Soviet Union, 197 agricultural sector (see also associations, farm; cooperatives, farm; farmers as in- terest group; imports): components of, 88-90; economic crisis of, 121, 138; effect of resettlement on, 35; effect of UNITA insurgency on, 50, 56, 63, 92, 184; free trade policy for, 118; migra- tion from, xxiii; plantations in, 88, 115; population in, 90-91; Portuguese farms of, 114; production of, 135-37; ratio of labor force in, 123; socialism for, 45 AIDS Policy Research Center, United States, 106 air force. See People's Air and Air Defense Force of Angola (Forca Aerea Popular de Angola/Defesa Aerea y Antiaerea: FAPA/DAA) air transport industry, 113, 151 Alfredo, Manuel Augusto, 221 Algeria, 29-30, 130 Alliama. See Alliance of Mayombe (Alliama) Alliance of Bakongo (Alliance des Bakon- go: Abako), 27, 73 Alliance of Mayombe (Alliance de May- ombe: Alliama), 33, 73 Almeida, Roberto de, 47 Alvaro I (Kongo king), 9 Alvaro II (Kongo king), 9 Alves, Nito (seealso Nitistas), 42, 164, 170, 180, 212, 236 Alvor Agreement (1975), 38, 162 Ambundu (Akwaluanda) people, 71-72 Amnesty International, 251-55 ANC. See African National Congress (ANC) Andrade, Mario, 27, 41 Angola Airlines (Linhas Aereas de Ango- la: TAAG), 151 Angolan Border Guard (Tropa Guarda Fronteira Angolana: TGFA), 248 Angolan Cement Company (Empresa de Cimento de Angola: Cimangola), 147 Angolan Directorate of Intelligence and Security (Direcao de Informacao e Seguranca de Angola: DISA), 247 Angolanization law (Decree 20/82) (1982), 124 Angolan Journalists' Union, 190 Angolan People's Police, 248-49 Angolan Red Cross, 105 Angolan War Veterans' Committee, 235 angolar, 22 Angol (SACOR subsidiary), 126 301 Angola: A Country Study Angop (official news agency), 184, 190 armed forces (see also People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola (FAPLA)): conscription in, 80; politi- cal power of, 234-35; responsibility of, 214-15; security supplement of, 236 Armed Forces for the Liberation of An- gola (Forcas Armadas de Libertacao de Angola: FALA) (see also National Un- ion for the Total Independence of Angola (Uniao Nacional para a Inde- pendencia Total de Angola (UNITA)), 239-42 Armed Forces Military Tribunal, 224, 251 Arms Control and Disarmament Agen- cy (AC DA), United States, 233, 234 army (see also People's Army of Angola (Exercito Popular de Angola: EPA)): organization and deployment of, 215, 217 army (colonial): discrimination in, 209; expansion of, 209-10 Ashiluanda people, 73 Assembly of God, 97, 185 assimilados, xxii, 4, 22, 23, 25-26, 28, 72, 80, 160-61 associations, African (see also assimilados), 26-28 associations, farm, 136 Austria, 133 Austromineral, 133 automobile assembly industry. See vehi- cle assembly industry Bailundu Kingdom, 6, 13 Bakongo (Kongo) people (see also National Front for the Liberation of Angola (Frente Nacional de Libertacao de An- gola: FNLA)), 6-7, 9, 11-12, 24, 27, 28, 55, 66, 72-74, 81-82, 96-97; reli- gious affiliation of, 97; as slave traders, 160 balance of payments, 120, 152, 154-55 banking system, 154 Bantu speakers, 5-6, 14, 64-65 Baptist Convention of Angola, 97, 185 Baptist Evangelical Church of Angola, 97, 184 barter system, xxiv, 88, 89, 117 Battle of Mbwila (Ambuila), 11 Belgian Congo, 13, 21, 27 Belgium: in Congo River Basin, 18-19; military assistance from, 224; role in Zaire conflict of, 207 Benguela: population growth in, 63; as slave port, 15 Benguela Current, 57 Benguela Plateau, 13, 60, 69 Benguela Railway, xxiv, 21, 22, 45, 75, 114, 147, 150, 192, 197 Benin, 130 Berlin Conference (1884), xxii, 18, 19, 20 Bie Kingdom, 6, 13 Bie Plateau, 60 black market. See parallel market BNA. See National Bank of Angola (Ban- co Nacional de Angola: BNA) Boavida, Diogenes, 251 Bomba Alta Orthopedic Center, 106, 108 Botswana, 60, 77, 78, 208 Boxer, C.R., 15 BPV. See People's Vigilance Brigades (Brigadas Populares de Vigilancia: BPV) Brazil, 15, 16; agreements with, 142; An- gola as de facto colony of, 14; loans from, 154; military purchases from, 219; technical and military assistance from, 197, 224; trade relations with, 120-21; workers from, 124 Brazzaville, 30 brewing industry, 144 Britain: influence in Angola of, 18; mili- tary assistance from, 224; role in Namibia issue of, 49; trade relations with, 120-21, 133 Bulgaria, 31 Bush, George P., xxv-xxvi Bushmen, 5 Cabgoc. See Cabinda Gulf Oil Company (Cabgoc) Cabinda Gulf Oil Company (Cabgoc), 34, 126, 129, 130-31 Cabinda Province, 96, 206; Cuban troops in, 226, 237; as enclave, 17, 18, 33-34, 57; oil fields of, 192, 199; separate sta- tus for, 33-34; separatist movement of, 73, 237 Caetano, Marcello, xxii Calandula, 17 Cambambe, 10-11 Cameroon, 130 302 Index Canada, 49, 121 Cao, Diogo, 7, 10, 160 Cape Verde, 196 capital movements, 113 Caprivi Strip, Namibia, 244 Carreira, Henrique (Iko), 178, 214, 219 Carvalho, Antonio Jose Condessa de (Toka), 221 Cassai River, 74 Cassinga, 46 Castro, Fidel, 44, 198 Catumbela River, 142 CAUNC. See Action Committee for the National Union of Cabindans (CAUNC) CCCE. See Central Board for Economic Cooperation (CCCE) cement industry, 147 Central Board for Economic Cooperation (Caisse Centrale de Cooperation Eco- nomique: CCCE), 137 Central Committee (MPLA-PT), 168, 171-73 Chevron Oil Company, 34, 130-31 Chilingutila, Demosthenes Amos, 240-41 China: political support of, 27; relations with, 198; support for UNITA by, 32; weapons from, 31 Chipenda, Daniel, 36, 38, 47, 170, 236 Chokwe (Cokwe) people {see also Lunda- Chokwe peoples), 6, 13, 20, 74, 76, 77, 82 Christianity, 56, 94-97; missionaries for, 70-71 Church of Christ in the Bush, 186 Cimangola. See Angolan Cement Compa- ny (Cimangola) civil unrest (1961), 28-29 civil war, xxi, xxii-xxiii, 4, 162, 187, 205, 210, 225 Ciyaka Kingdom, 6, 13 Clark Amendment. See United States Click languages {see also Khoisan lan- guages), 64, 79 climate, 61 CMEA. See Council for Mutual Economic Assistance coffee industry, 22, 63, 116, 120, 137-38; aid to, 29; nationalization of, 137; Ovimbundu people in, 70 collectivization, 45 colonatos system, 25, 114 Colonial Act (1930), Angola, 21, 95 Comandante Economica Communica- tions School, 231 Comandante Zhika Political-Military Academy, 230 Comira. See Military Council of Angolan Resistance (Conselho Militar de Resis- tencia Angolana: Comira) Conceicao, Fernando da, 249 Congo, 57, 130, 197, 206, 248 Congo River, 7, 17, 60 Congo River Basin, 18, 125, 128-29, 131 Congregational Evangelical Church of Angola, 97, 185 Conoco, 131 conscription {see also military recruitment), 80, 165, 209-10, 222 constitution (1911), 26 Constitution (1975), 159; country's secu- rity policies in, 211-12; guarantees and rights under, 164-65; revision (1980), 170-71 construction materials industry, 147 Contact Group, 49 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, 254 Convention on the Political Rights of Women, 254 cooperants, 123, 124-25 cooperatives, farm, 89, 136, 184 cotton industry: abolition of compulsory cultivation in, 29; in light industry, 144, 146; performance of, 141 Couceira, Paiva, 20-21 Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon or CMEA), 122, 198 Council of Evangelical Churches, 187-88 Council of Ministers, 167 Council of the Revolution (pre- 1980), 212 counterinsurgent activity, 34, 35, 210, 219, 231-32 coup d'etat: attempt in Angola, 31, 164; Nitista attempt (1977), 42, 44, 180; Portugal (1974), xxii, 4, 210; Portugal, May 1926, 21 Court of Appeals, 169 court system, 169; civilian, 250; military, 213-14, 224, 251; people's revolution- ary and people's, 169 Coutinho, Rosa, 35, 38, 229 credit system, 136, 154 crime, 252-53 Crocker, Chester A., 205 303 Angola: A Country Study Cuando Cubango Province, 31, 46, 79, 103 Cuango River, 17, 74 Cuanza Norte Province, 28 Cuanza River, 10, 60, 142 Cuanza River Valley, or Basin, 57, 125, 128-29 Cuba: Isle of Youth in, 198; military as- sistance to MPLA from, 38, 226; mili- tary personnel in Angola, xxiii, xxvi, xxvii, 5, 40, 42, 44, 49-51, 80, 106, 160, 162, 191-92, 194, 197-98, 199, 225; nationals of, 102, 108, 124, 144, 198-99; role in Namibian issue of, 49-50; support for MPLA of, 4-5, 162; support to SWAPO and ANC by, 226-27; technical assistance from, 220-21, 224, 226; trade relations with, 144; training instructors of, 31, 198, 226 Cubango River. See Okavango River/ Swamp Cuito Cuanavale, 205 Cunene River, 39-40, 49, 60, 79, 142 currency (see also kwanza): depreciation of, xxiv, 117, 154; plan to devalue, 119 Cussu people, 78 Czechoslovakia, 31, 198, 224-25, 227 21, 113-14, 131-33 diamond industry, 21, 22, 75, 115, 120, 125, 13 1-33; nationalization of, 131-32 Dias, Paulo de Novais, 9, 10 Directorate of People's Defense and Ter- ritorial Groups, 91, 92, 219, 222, 246-47 DISA. See Angola Directorate of Intelli- gence and Security (Direcao de Infor- macao e Seguranca de Angola: DISA) disease, 29, 57, 105-6, 108 displacement camps, 63-64 displacement of population, 67 diviner (kimbanda), 99 Doctors Without Borders, 108 Dombe people, 70 do Nascimento, Lopo, 178 dos Santos, Jose Eduardo, 47, 155, 164; administration of, xxiv-xxv, 5, 48, 49, 50, 56, 118-19, 159-60, 167, 177-78; centralization of power in, 176-77, 191; decentralization plan of, 178; as MPLA-PT leader, 176-77, 178 dos Santos Franca, Antonio (Ndalu), 215 Duque de Braganca (fort), 17 Dutch settiers in Angola, 12, 14, 16 Dack Doy shipyards, 140 Dalby, David, 78 Dande River, 142 de Almeida, Roberto, 178, 185-86 de Andrade, Mario, 27, 236 DeBeers, 133 Democratic People's Republic of Korea, 224, 227 debt, external, 152, 154-55, 234 de Castro, Mendes Antonio, 248 Defense and Security Council, 165, 167-68, 178, 191; role of, 213 defense policy, 165 degredados (exiled criminals), xxi, 3, 16, 19, 209 Dembos people, 20, 72 Democratic Party of Angola (Partido Democratico de Angola: PDA), 30 Denmark, 147 descent groups, 81-86 Diamang. See Diamond Company of An- gola (Companhia de Diamantes de An- gola: Diamang) Diamond Company of Angola (Compan- hia de Diamantes de Angola: Diamang), Eastern Revolt (1973), 170, 236 East Germany. See German Democratic Republic Economic and Financial Rectification (Saneamento Economico e Financeiro: SEF), 118-19 economic assistance: for fishing industry, 140-41; foreign, 120-22; in form of food aid, 138; from multilateral insti- tutions, 121; from Soviet Union, 38, 197; from United States, 38 economic performance, xxiii-xxiv, 113, 118, 119-20, 141-42, 144, 146, 232- 33; under Portuguese rule, 4 economic policy: effect of changes in, 90; move toward free enterprise of, 88; plan to liberalize, xxiv, 115-16; reform for, 118-19 education system (see also literacy), 57; Angolans in Cuba, 102; foreign teachers in, 102; levels of, 100; for mili- tary personnel, 230; of religious groups, 100; response to teacher shortage by, 102-3; teacher shortage in, 101; of UNITA, 103-4 304 Index Egypt, 197, 207, 244 electric power industry (see also hydroelec- tric power), 113 Elf Aquitaine, 129 elites as interest group, 184 ELNA. See National Liberation Army of Angola (Exercito de Libertacao Na- tional de Angola: ELNA) emigration, 113; of Africans (1961), 29; after independence (1975), 44, 123 Enatel See National Telecommunications Company (Empresa National de Tele- comunicacoes: Enatel) Encafe. See National Coffee Company (Empresa National de Cafe: Encafe) Encodipa. See National Company for the Marketing and Distribution of Agicul- tural Products (Empresa National de Comercializacao e Distribuicao de Pro- dutos Agricolas: Encodipa) Endiama. See National Diamond Compa- ny (Empresa nacional de Diamantes: Endiama) Enes, Antonio, 20 enterprises, state-owned, 90, 117, 119, 132, 135, 140, 141, 146-47 Entex. See National Textile company (Empresa Nacional de Texteis: Entex) EPA. See People's Army of Angola (Ex- ercito Popular de Angola: EPA) EPLA. See People's Army for the Liber- ation of Angola (Exercito Popular de Libertacao de Angola: EPLA) Escola de Oficiais Superiores Gomes Spen- cer, 230 Estado Novo. See New State ethnic groups, 55, 64-80 European Economic Community (EEC), 121-22 European Investment Bank, 122 Evangelical Church of Angola, 97, 185 Evangelical Church of South- West Ango- la, 97, 185 exports: of coffee, 120, 137-38; of dia- monds, 120, 132; of iron ore, 133, 135; of oil, 113, 116, 120, 129-30; to Por- tugal, 114 FALA. See Armed Forces for the Libera- tion of Angola (Forcas Armadas de Libertacao de Angola: FALA) famine, 29 FAO. See United Nations (UN) FAPA/DAA. See People's Air and Air Defense Force of Angola (Forca Aerea Popular de Angola/Defesa Aerea y An- tiaerea: FAPA/DAA) FAPLA. See People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola (Forcas Ar- madas Populares de Libertacao de An- gola: FAPLA) farmers as interest group, 183-84 farms, commercial (see also farms, state- owned), 88 farms, state-owned, 88-89, 136 farms, subsistence (see also cooperatives, farm), 88-89, 184 fazendas, 114 Federal Republic of Germany: aid from, 122, 224; role in Namibia issue of, 49; trade relations with, 133 Ferrangol. See National Iron Ore Com- pany of Angola (Empresa Nacional de Ferro de Angola: Ferrangol) Ferreira Neto, Bartolomeu Feliciano, 249 fishing industry, 45, 140-41, 221 FLEC . See Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (Frente para a Libertacao do Enclave de Cabinda: FLEC) FNLA. See National Front for the Liber- ation of Angola (Frente Nacional de Libertacao de Angola: FNLA) FNLC . See National Front for the Liber- ation of the Congo (Front National pour la Liberation du Congo: FNLC) food crisis, 120-22, 138 food-processing industry, 141, 142, 144 food rationing, 119 forced labor, 3, 4, 22-23, 24 foreign policy, xxv-xxvi, 191-92 forestry industry (see also timber produc- tion; wood processing), 140 France: aid from, 122, 137, 224; in Con- go River Basin, 18-19; role in Namibia issue of, 49; role in Zaire conflict, 207; trade relations with, 120-21, 131; workers from, 124 Fran que, Luis Ranque, 33 Free Angola, 238 Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (Frente para a Libertacao do Enclave de Cabinda: FLEC), 34, 36, 73, 187, 206, 236, 237-38 305 Angola: A Country Study Gabon, 130 Galvao, Henrique, 23 Gbadolite Declaration (1989), xxi, xxvi, xxvii geopolitical position, 206 German Democratic Republic, 124; mili- tary aid and personnel from, 44, 224, 227; trade relations with, 138; training supplied by, 198 German South West Africa (see also Na- mibia), 77 Gorbachev, Mikhail S., xxv government intervention: in Ovimbundu affairs, 83-84; in private sector, 45 GRAE. See Revolutionary Government of Angola in Exile (Governo Revolucion- ario de Angola no Exfle: GRAE) guerrilla activity, 5, 29-31, 159; cease-fire in, 36; of MPLA and FNLA, 210; of SWAPO, 207; of UNIT A, 46, 49, 63-64, 210 Guinea-Bissau, 35, 36, 196 Gulf Oil Company, 34, 126 Hanya people, 70 health care, 57, 61, 63, 104-8 herders of cattle, 88 Herero people, 70, 77-78 hills, 57, 60 Holland, 14 hospitals, 105, 108 Huambo, 63, 69, 106 Hufla Plateau, 60 Hufla Province, 46 human rights, 254-55 Humpata Highland, 60 Hungary, 122, 224, 227 hydroelectric power, 142; Capanda proj- ect for, 197; potential for, 60 ICO. See International Coffee Organiza- tion (ICO) ICRC. See International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) illiteracy. See literacy Imbangala people, 12-13, 20 IMF. See International Monetary fund (IMF) immigration: in nineteenth century, 19; of white people, 25 import licensing, 120, 121 imports: of food, 45, 116-17, 120-21, 144; government control of, 119-20, 142, 144; of military equipment, 120, 121, 217, 224-25; of oil industry equip- ment, 120-21; of services, 153; of steel, 146; of sugar, 144 independence: in 1975, 3, 4, 22, 40, 159; movements for, 4, 161 Independent Democrats, 236-37 indigenes, 23, 28, 161 industrial sector (see also manufacturing sector): heavy industry in, 146-47; light industry in, 144, 146 inflation, 117 infrastructure (see also Benguela Railway; electric power; ports; railroad system; roads): destruction of, 115; develop- ment of, 21, 29, 114 Institute of Geology and Cartography, 102 insurgency (see also guerrilla activity): effect on economy of, 113; effect on education of, 102, 103; of UNITA, xxiii, 29-31, 49-51, 55, 77, 80, 105-6, 115, 159 intelligence services, 225-26 Intelsat. See International Telecommuni- cations Satellite Organization (Intelsat) interest groups, 183-87 International Coffee Organization (ICO), 138 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), 105, 106 International Monetary Fund (IMF), xxvi, 119, 155, 195 International Police for the Defense of the State (Policia Internacional de Defesa de Estado: PIDE), 28 International Telecommunications Satel- lite Organization (Intelsat), 152 Intersputnik, 152 Interstate Journalism School, 190 investment: in manufacturing sector, 141; promotion of, 119 iron ore industry, 125, 133, 135, 150 irrigation, 60, 136 Isle of Youth (Cuba), 198 Israel, 244 Italy, 124, 140 ITM International, 132 Jaga people, 7, 9 Jamba, 103, 104, 108, 188, 242 Japan, 133, 140 306 Index Jehovah's Witnesses, 186, 237 JMPLA. See Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola- Youth Movement (Juventude do Movimento Popular de Libertacao de Angola: JMPLA) Joint Military Monitoring Commission, 195, 206 Jorge, Paulo, 47, 178 judicial system, 169 Kanini, 12-13 Kapolo Martyrs Practical Police School, 249 Kasai River, Zaire, 13 Kasanje Kingdom, 6, 12-13 Katangan gendarmes (see also National Front for the Liberation of the Congo (Front National pour la Liberation du Congo: FNLC)), 245, 246 Katanga Province (Belgian Congo) (see also Shaba Region), 13, 21, 74 Kenya, 36 Khoisan speakers, 5-6, 79, 160 Kikongo speakers, 66, 72, 73 kimbanda. See diviner (kimbanda) Kimbundu speakers, 10, 20, 67, 71-72 Kinshasa, Zaire, 27, 30 kinship (see also descent groups), 81, 86 Kissassunda, Ludy, 247 Kongo Kingdom, 3, 6-7, 9-12, 18, 27, 66, 160, 208 Kuwait, 197, 244 Kwanhama (Kwanyama) Kingdom, 6 Kwanhama people, 14, 20, 77 kwanza, xxiv, 117 labor force (see also Angolanization law; cooperants; forced labor; Statute on the Cooperant Worker): composition at in- dependence of, 122-23; exploitation of, 113-14; foreign workers in, 123-25; migrant workers and Europeans in, 63, 70; potential, 117; unions in, 163-64 land reform, 88-89 Language Map of Africa, 78 languages: Bantu, 64-65, 77-79; Chok- we, 75, 76; Click, 64, 79; Kikongo, 66, 72, 73; Kimbundu, 67, 71-72, 75; Kwangali-Ge ;i :uru, 78; Liyuwa, 78; Lunda, 66, 75, 76; Mashi, 78; Minun- gu, 75; of Nganguela people, 76; North Mbukushu, 78; Portuguese, 64-65, 67, 104; Ruund, 75, 76; South Mbukushu, 78; Suku, 66; Umbundu, 69-70 Lara, Lucio, 50, 178 law on State Intervention (1976), 45, 141 League of Nations, 26 Leopoldville, Belgian Congo, 27 Libya, 130 Lisbon, 26 Lisbon Geographical Society, 18 literacy, 100-101, 123 livestock, 135, 138 living standards, 90 Lobito (port), 21, 147, 150, 221 Lome Convention, 121, 122 Lonrho, 133 lowland, coastal, 57 Luanda: founding of (1576), 10; as modern port, 150, 220-21; musseques of, 86; as slave port, 15, 113 Luanda Naval School, 102 Luanda Railway, 150, 217 Lubango, 46, 78 Luchazi people, 76 Lunda-Chokwe peoples (see also Northern Lunda people; Southern Lunda peo- ple), 74-75 Lunda Divide, 60 Lunda Kingdom, or Empire, 6, 13, 74 Lunda Norte Province, 142 Lunda speakers, 66 Lunda Sul Province, 76 Lusaka, Zambia, 31 Lusaka Accord (1984), 194, 245 Lwena (Lovale) people, 76 maize-processing industry, 144 Malanje Plateau, 60 Malawi, 18, 197, 244 Maligo language. See Click languages; languages malnutrition, 138, 232 manikongo (Kongo king), 7, 10 manufacturing sector: for defense equip- ment, 217; labor force in, 123; nation- alization of, 141; performance of, 117; under Portuguese rule, 141 Maoism, 32, 41 marriage, 91 Marxism-Leninism, 5, 27, 31, 41, 43, 44; as basis for education, 100; in court 307 Angola: A Country Study system, 169; effect on religion of, 92- 94; influence on social structure of, 80, 87-88; institutions of, 56; of Jose dos Santos, 176-77; of MPLA/MPLA-PT, 159- 64; orientation of mass organiza- tions in, 180 Massabi, 18 mass media, 189-91 mass organizations, xxv, 91, 92, 160, 180-83 Matamba Kingdom, 6, 12-13 matrilineage. See descent groups Mavinga, xxvii, 217 Mayombe (Maiombe) people, 34, 73 Mbanza Kongo (Mbanza Congo), 7 Mbui people, 69-70 Mbundu people, 10, 12-13, 15, 24, 55, 66-67, 71-72, 75-76, 82; as assimilados, 72; religious affiliation of, 97; as slave traders, 160; social structure of, 84-86 medical assistance, foreign, 104 medical schools, 104 mercenaries, 39, 229 mestizos {see also assimilados), xxii, 3, 16, 19, 22, 25-26, 28, 55-56, 79-80, 160, 160- 61; language of, 65, 66-67; in so- cial structure, 87-88 Methodist Episcopal Church of the Unit- ed States, 97 MGPA. See People's Navy of Angola (Marinha de Guerra Popular de Ango- la: MGPA) migration: effect of UNITA insurgency on, xxiii, 63; patterns of, 63-64, 67; to urban areas, 24, 63, 117, 123 military assistance, 29-30, 224-27; from Cuba, 38, 40, 42, 43, 210; from South Africa to FNLA-UNITA, 4-5, 39-40, 45, 208; from Soviet Union, 41-42, 43, 197; from Zaire, 210 military auxiliary forces, 221-22 military cooperation with Soviet Union, 43 Military Council of Angolan Resistance (Conselho Militar de Resistencia An- golana: Comira), 238 military councils, regional, 170, 213-14 military equipment: of air force, 219-20; of army, 217, 219; imports and pur- chases of, 120-21, 227, 229, 234; ser- vice, repair, and manufacture of, 217, 219; of UNITA/FALA, 242 military expenditure. See spending, defense military ranks, 223-24 military recruitment, 233 military regions and fronts, 214, 215, 217, 229, 235 military tribunals, regional, 213-14, 224, 251 militia forces, 219, 247 mineral resources, 135 mining industry: for diamonds, 21; direct foreign investment for, 45; for iron ore, 133, 135; Law 5/79 of, 131-32, 133; Portuguese development of, 114 Ministry of Defense, 170, 217, 222, 246-48 Ministry of Domestic and Foreign Trade, 120 Ministry of Health, 105, 106 Ministry of Interior, 247, 248 Ministry of Justice, 169, 250 Ministry of Planning, 120 Ministry of State Security, 247-48, 251 Minungu people, 75 missionaries: Protestant, 95-96; Roman Catholic, 95-96 MLEC . See Movement for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (Mouvement pour la Liberation de 1' Enclave de Cabinda: MLEC) Mobilization and Recruitment Law (1978), 222 Mobil Oil Company, 130 Mobutu Sese Seko, xxi, 30, 35, 42, 196, 206 Mocamedes (Namibe), 17, 78, 135 Moises, David Antonio, 212 monetary policy, 119 Morocco, 29, 197, 207, 244 mortality rates, 57, 62, 106 mountains, 57, 60 Movement for the Liberation of the En- clave of Cabinda (Mouvement pour la Liberation de 1' Enclave de Cabinda: MLEC), 33 Moxico Province, 31, 75-76 Mozambique, 18, 20, 35, 113, 194, 196, 208 MPLA. See Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (Movimento Popu- lar de Libertacao de Angola: MPLA) MPLA-PT. See Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola-Workers' Party (Movimento Popular de Liber- tacao de Angola-Partido de Trabalho: MPLA-PT) 308 Index Mtoko, Simon (Simao Toco), 94, 186-87, 237 Mtokoists, 94, 186-87, 237 musseques, 64, 86-87 Namib Desert, 57 Namibe (port), 17, 78, 135, 140, 150-51, 221 Namibe Railway, 147, 150 Namibia, 14, 77, 78; border with, 57, 207, 248; occupation by South Africa of, 49-50, 160, 191-92, 194; role of Canada in, 49; South West Africa Peo- ple's Organization (SWAPO) of, 39, 191, 221-22; status of, 48-50; training ground for UNITA, 46, 242, 244 National Bank of Angola (Banco Nacional de Angola: BNA), 120, 152, 154 National Coffee Company (Empresa Na- cional de Cafe: Encafe), 137 National Company for the Marketing and Distribution of Agricultural Products (Empresa Nacional de Comercializacao e Distribuicao de Produtos Agncolas: Encodipa), 118, 136 National Court Administration, 169 National Diamond Company (Empresa Nacional de Diamantes: Endiama), 132-33 National Front for the Liberation of An- gola (Frente Nacional de Libertacao de Angola: FNLA), xxii, 4-5, 24, 27, 30-31, 36, 73-74, 161; in Angola, 35; establishes government with UNITA (1975), 40; grant from United States to, 38; loses support, 187; opposition to MPLA-PT by, 236; in provisional government (1975), 38; relationship with Bakongo, xxii, 27, 73-74, 161 National Front for the Liberation of the Congo (Front National pour la Liber- ation du Congo: FNLC), 42, 76, 246 National Fuel Company of Angola (So- ciedade Nacional de Combustiveis de Angola: Sonangol), 124-31 National Health Service, 104-5 National Iron Ore Company of Angola (Empresa Nacional de Ferro de Ango- la: Ferrangol), 133 nationalism, 23-24, 25, 34, 36-37, 161; Bakongo role in, 73-74; mestigo role in, 80, 161 nationalization, 45, 115, 117, 126-27, 137, 141 National Liberation Army of Angola (Ex- ercito de Libertacao Nacional de An- gola: ELNA), 29-30 National Literacy Commission, 101 National Party School, 41 National Petroleum Institute, 124 National Telecommunications Company (Empresa Nacional de Telecomunica- coes: Enatel), 152 National Textile Company (Empresa Na- cional de Texteis: Entex), 146 National Union for the Total Indepen- dence of Angola (Uniao Nacional para a Independencia Total de Angola: UN- ITA), xxii, 4-5, 24, 35, 36; attacks on diamond industry of, 132; education system of, 103-4, 188; establishes government with FNLA (1975), 40; ethnic representation in, 75, 77, 78, 94, 188-89; external military training for, 244; fighting with FAPLA of, xxvii, 231-32, 238-39; fighting with SWAPO of, 222; formation and role of, 32, 187; health care system of, 104, 108, 188; infrastructure destruction by, xxvii, 142, 147, 150-51; insurgency of, 45, 49-51, 56, 57, 63, 75, 77, 80-81, 84, 90, 135, 137-38, 159-60, 186, 205, 238-39; military bases of, 84; military organization of (FALA), 239-42; as op- position force, 236; in provisional government (1975), 38; radio broad- casts of, 190; support from South Afri- ca for, 160, 162, 192; support from United States for, 38, 194, 244 National Union of Angolan Workers (Uniao Nacional dos Trabalhadores Angolanos: UNTA), 105, 123, 163-64, 180-82 National Youth Day, 180 natural gas industry, 130 natural resources, 3 navy. See People's Navy of Angola (Marinha de Guerra Popular de Angola: MGPA) Ndembu (Ndembo) people, 74 Ndongo Kingdom, 6, 10-12, 208 Netherlands, 120-21 Neto, Agostinho, 5, 30, 31, 36, 39, 72, 161-62, 170; administration of, 41-42, 43, 44, 46-47, 94, 163; as MPLA lead- er, 176; opposition to, 236 309 Angola: A Country Study Neto, Alberto Correia, 219 Neto, Ruth, 182-83 New State, Portugal, 3, 21, 23 Nganda people, 70 Nganguela (Ganguela) people, 76-77 ngola a kiluanje, 10, 12 Ngouabi, Merien, 31 Nigeria, 130, 162, 196, 221 Nitistas, 42-43, 164, 180 Nkomati Accord (1984), 246 Nonaligned Movement, 27 Northern Lunda people, 74 Northern Regional Enterprise for the Ex- ploitation of Scrap Metal, 146 North Korea. See Democratic People's Republic of Korea Nyaneka-Humbe people, 77 Nyasaland, 18 Nzinga, 12 Nzita, Henriques Tiago, 33-34 OAU. See Organization of African Uni- ty (OAU) OCA. See Organization of Angolan Com- munists (Organizacao das Comunistas de Angola: OCA) ODP. See People's Defense Organization (Organizacao de Defesa Popular: ODP) oil industry, 34, 45, 114, 115, 116, 117- 18; development and production of, 125-28; imports of equipment for, 120-21, 131; nationalization of, 126- 27; performance of, 113, 233; refining, 130; revenues from, 120, 125 Okavango River/Swamp, 60 OMA. See Organization of Angolan Women (Organizacao da Mulher An- golana: OMA) OPA. See Agostinho Neto Organization of Pioneers (Organizacao dos Pioneiros Agostinho Neto: OPA) OPEC. See Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) Organization of African Unity (OAU), 30-31, 36, 38-39, 162, 195-96 Organization of Angolan Communists (Organizacao das Comunistas de An- gola: OCA), 41 Organization of Angolan Women (Or- ganizacao da Mulher Angolana: OMA), 91, 103, 105, 180-82, 250 Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 130 orthopedic centers, 106, 108 Our Lord Jesus Christ Church in the World (Mtokoists), 94, 97, 185, 186-87, 237 Ovambo people {see also South West Afri- ca People's Organization: SWAPO), 70, 77-78, 82, 207 Ovimbundu people, 13-14, 15, 19-20, 24, 55, 76, 77, 82; migration of, 63; so- cial structure of, 83-84; in UNITA, 71 Paihama, Kundi, 47, 247-48 Paiva da Silva, Domingos, 219 Pan-African Congress, Third, 26 Pan- African News Agency, 191 Pan- African Women's Organization (PAWO), 182-83 parallel market (black market) xxiv, 117, 119 Paris Club, 155 Party of the United Struggle of Africans of Angola (Partido da Luta Unida dos Africanos de Angola: PLUA), 26 patrilineage. See descent groups Paulo, Juliao Mateus (Dino Matross), 212, 213, 247 PAWO. See Pan- African Women's Or- ganization (PAWO) PCP. See Portuguese Communist Party (Partido Comunista Portugues: PCP) PDA. See Democratic Party of Angola (Partido Democratico de Angola: PDA) People's Air and Air Defense Force of An- gola (Forca Aerea Popular de Ango- la/Defesa Aerea y Antiaerea: FAPA/ DAA), 219-20 People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola (Forcas Armadas Populares de Libertacao de Angola: FAPLA), xxvi, 39, 49; civil war against UNITA of, 187; constitutional fiat for, 165, 235; equipment from Soviet Union for, 217; foreign military forces in, 221-22; for- mation and development of, 210-11; military performance of, 231-32; po- litical control by MPLA of, 212-13; role of ODP in, 219 People's Army for the Liberation of An- gola (Exercito Popular de Libertacao de Angola: EPLA), 210 People's Army of Angola (Exercito Popu- 310 Index lar de Angola: EPA), 214 People's Assembly, xxv, 168, 170-71; as organ of MPLA-PT, 48; replaces Council of the Revolution (1980), 212 People's Defense Organization (Or- ganizacao de Defesa Popular: ODP) {see also Directorate of People's Defense and Territorial Troops), 91, 219, 247 People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN), 245-46 People's Navy of Angola (Marinha de Guerra Popular de Angola: MGPA), 220-21 "people's power," 163, 165 People's Republic of Angola, 40 People's Revolutionary Tribunal, 250-51 People's Vigilance Brigades (Brigadas Populares de Vigilancia: BPV), 92, 217, 246, 249-50 Permanent Commission, 168 Petrangol. See Petroleum Company of An- gola (Companhia de Petroleos de An- gola: Petrangol) Petroleum Company of Angola (Com- panhia de Petroleos de Angola: Petran- gol), 125-26, 130 Petroleum Law (13/78) (1978), 126-27 phosphate deposits, 135 physicians, 108 PIDE. See International Police for the Defense of the State (Policia Interna- cional de Defesa de Estado: PIDE) Piedade dos Santos, Fernando Dias da, 248-49 plains, high, 57 PLAN. See People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN) planalto. See plateau, high plantations, 88, 115, 135-36, 144 plateau, high, 57, 60 PLUA. See Party of the United Struggle of Africans of Angola (Partido da Luta Unida dos Africanos de Angola: PLUA) Poland, 224-25, 227 police: force, 248; functions, 219; school, 249 Political Bureau (MPLA-PT), 167, 168, 171-73 political system: anticolonial groups in, 26-27; elements of change in, xxviii; opposition to, 4; opposition to MPLA- PT in, 236 Polytechnical Institute, 104 pombeiros, 15 Pombo people, 72-73 Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (Movimento Popular de Liber- tacao de Angola: MPLA), xxii, 4-5, 24, 26-27, 30-31, 36, 75; bases in Afri- ca of, 170; competition with UNITA by, 32-33, 159; in Congo (Zaire), 161; control of UNTA by, 163-64; defeats FNLA, 40-41; effect of counterinsur- gency on, 35; establishes government (1975), 40, 159, 205; First Party Con- gress of, 41, 87, 164; incursions into Cabinda of, 34; Marxist orientation of, 160-63; as official government (1975), 41; political control of FAPLA by, 39, 212; in provisional government (1975), 38; support from Soviet Union to, 38, 205; ties to communist countries of, 31 Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola- Workers' Party (Movimento Popular de Libertacao de Angola- Partido de Trabalho: MPLA-PT), 41, 44, 46-47, 159, 213; Central Commit- tee and Political Bureau of, xxv, 167, 168, 171-73, 191; ethnic group repre- sentation in, 77; First Party Congress of, 41, 87, 164; foreign policy of, 191-200; government control by, 117; government of, xxv, 48; internal secu- rity mechanism of, 236; Marxist- Leninist philosophy of, 56, 92-94, 159-60, 176; mestigos in, 80, 176; op- position to government of, 235-38; party congress of, 173-74; president as head of, 167; regional military councils and tribunals of, 213-14; relations with interest groups of, 183-87; role of OMA in, 182-83; Second Party Con- gress of, 50-51, 178; structure and operation of, 171-74, 176, 191; subor- dination of People's Assembly to, 168-69; UNITA opposition to, 187-89 Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola- Youth Movement Quventude do Movimento Popular de Libertacao de Angola: JMPLA), 91, 102-3, 180-81, 213 population: ages of, 62; distribution of, 57, 60, 62-63; estimates of, 55, 61; growth of, 61-63; ratio of Bakongo peo- ple in, 72; ratio of Lunda-Chokwe 311 Angola: A Country Study peoples in, 74; ratio of Mbundu peo- ple in, 71; ratio of Ovimbundu in, 69; ratio of Portuguese in, 22; structural changes in, 63-64 ports, 135, 150-51, 220-21 Portugal: advisers and training assistance from, 221, 229; Angola as colony of, xxi-xxii, 3-4, 10, 17-19, 113-15, 160, 208-9; anticolonial expression toward, 26-28, 209; cedes independence, 40; colonial policy of, 20-22, 24, 209; cooperation of South Africa with, 39; counterinsurgency of, 34-35, 210; coup d'etat in, 21, 162; domestic problems of, 16-17; effect of wars in Africa on, 35; expansion in Angola of, 17-18; ex- ploration of, 7; loans from, 154; mili- tary presence of, 20, 28-29, 35-36, 229; New State regime in, 3, 21, 23; policy for economic development of, 114; set- tlement policy of, 25, 83-84; trade re- lations with, 121 ; UNITA students in, 104; workers from, 124 Portuguese Communist Party (Partido Comunista Portugues: PCP), 27, 161 Portuguese Enterprises Corporation (So- ciedade Portuguesa de Empreendimen- tos: SPE), 132-33 Portuguese in Angola, xxii, 3, 63, 78, 79, 87, 88, 114, 117, 124, 135, 141 precipitation, 57, 61 president, 165, 167; dual role of, 214 press representatives, international, 190 price system, 119 prison system, 252 privatization, 90, 119 Protestant religions, 56, 97, 185-86; in Angola proper, 97; relations with gov- ernment of, 94 Public Telecommunications Company (Empresa Publica de Telecomunica- coes: Eptel), 152 purge by MPLA-PT, 42, 164 racial conflict (see also assimilados; indige- nas; mestigos), 22 racial discrimination, 4, 160-61 Radio Nacional de Angola, 190 railroad defense committees, 217 railroad system, Angola, 135, 147, 150 railroad system, Central Africa, 147 Reagan, Ronald, 130-31 rebellions, 28-29, 170, 236 rectification campaign, 180, 183, 186 Redinha, Jose, 78 Reformed Evangelical Church of Ango- la, 97, 185 refugees, 29, 61, 73-74, 80-81; camps for, 105-6, 113, 232; from Katanga, 75-76; Ovimbundu people as, 84; refuge status of Angola as, 224-46 religion: effect of Marxism-Leninism on, 92-94; indigenous, 97-99 religious communities as interest group, 185-87, 237 religious institutions, 56 repair facilities, military, 217, 219, 220-21 resettlement program: for Ovimbundu people, 83-84; of Portugal, 34-35, 91, 210 Revolutionary Cabindan Committee (Co- mite Revolutionnaire Cabindais), 34 Revolutionary Government of Angola in Exile (Governo Revolucionario de An- gola no Exflo: GRAE), 30 Rhodesia, 18 river navigation, 60 river systems, 60, 142 roads, 29, 114, 147 Roan Selection Trust (RST) Internation- al, 132 Roberto, Holden, 30, 32, 36, 39, 187, 237 Rodrigues, Manuel Alexandre (Kito), 47, 248-49 Roman Catholic Church: relations with government of, 93-94, 237; ties to Por- tugal of, 186 Roman Catholicism, 56, 96-97 Romania, 227 Roque Santeiro (market), 90 Ruacana hydroelectric complex, 39-40 rubber industry: boom in, 21; Ovimbun- du people in, 70 Rundu, Namibia, 242 Ruund people (see also Northern Lunda people; Southern Lunda people), 74-75 Sa da Bandeira, Marques de, 17 Sa da Bandeira (town), 78 SACOR, 126 SADCC. See Southern Africa Develop- ment and Coordination Council (SADCC) 312 Index SADF. See South African Defense Force (SADF) Salazar, Antonio, xxii, 21, 209; adminis- tration of, 3-4, 23, 25, 29; colonial eco- nomic policy of, 34 Sao Tome and Principe, 196, 215 Saudi Arabia, 197, 244 Savimbi, Jonas, 32, 36, 39, 71, 103; es- tablishes UNIT A, 187; as leader of UNITA, 238-39; religious issue of, 186; role in Gbadolite Declaration, xxi; support from other African countries for, 38 Scandinavia, 124 scrap metal industry, 146 Sebastiao (king of Portugal), 9 security, internal, 236; forces and organi- zation of, 246-50 SEF. See Economic and Financial Rectifi- cation (Saneamento Economico e Finan- ceiro: SEF) Senegal, 197, 244 Serra da Chela mountain range, 60 sertanejos (people of the frontier), 20 service sector, 123 Seventh-Day Adventist Church, 97, 185, 186 Shaba Region, Zaire, 13, 21, 42, 75-76, 147, 196 Shell Oil Company, 130 Shinji people, 75 shipyards, 140 Silva, Jose Adao, 249 slavery, 3, 16, 17 slave trade, xxi, 3, 7-8, 10, 11, 14-16, 113, 208; Ovimbundu people in, 70; Portuguese in, 14-16, 17 social structure (see also descent groups; kinship): Africans in, 22-24, 27-28; ef- fect of UNITA insurgency on, 91-92; influence of Marxism-Leninism on, 80; of Mbundu people, 84-86; of Ovim- bundu people, 83-84; of Portuguese colonialism, 24; in rural areas, 88-90; units of, 81 Solongo people, 73 Somalia, 197, 244 Sonangol. See National Fuel Company of Angola (Sociedade Nacional de Com- bustfveis de Angola: Sonangol) sorcerer, 98-99 Sosso people, 72 South Africa: incursions and border war with, 46, 162, 194, 205, 206, 244-45; involvement in Angola of, 39, 43; mili- tary action against SWAPO of, 207-8, 245; refugees from, 61; role in Namibia of, 49-50, 160, 191-92, 194, 205, 206-7; support and sponsorship of UNITA by, xxvii, 4-5, 45, 160, 162, 192, 205, 207-8, 210, 238, 242; troops in Angola, xxiii, xxvii, 5, 40, 44, 49, 133, 135, 138, 207-8 South African Air Force (SAAF), 49, 242 South African Defense Force (SADF), 46, 207; Operation Protea of, 49; support for UNITA by, 49, 210 Southern Africa Development and Coor- dination Council (SADCC), 124, 125, 150, 196 Southern Lunda people, 74-75 South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO), 39, 46, 49, 78; base and ac- tivity in Angola of, 191-92, 207, 244-46; MPLA-PT support for, 244; PLAN: military wing of, 245 Soviet Union: agreements with, 140, 142; Angolans studying in, 102; in educa- tion system, 102, 198, 230; loans from, 154; military advisers and supplies from, 5, 38, 40, 152, 162, 226, 229; military supplies to FAPLA from, xxvi, 217, 224-25; political support of, 27, 194; presence in Angola of, 49; rela- tions with, 197-98; support for MPLA by, xxiii, 4-5, 31, 162; technical as- sistance from, 122, 197, 220-21, 225-27; trade relations with, 120-21, 198; treaty with, 43 Sozinho, Antonio Eduardo, 33 Spain: agreements with, 140; assistance from, 224; trade relations with, 120-21; workers from, 124 SPE. See Portuguese Enterprises Corpo- ration (Sociedade Portuguesa de Em- preendimentos: SPE) spending, defense, xxiv, 116, 118, 233-35 spending, government, 116, 118, 141 Spmola, Antonio de, 35-36, 38 spirits, religious, 98-99 states or kingdoms, indigenous, 3, 6, 10, 69 Statute on the Cooperant Worker, 124-25 steel industry, 146 subsidies: for coffee industry, 137; plan to eliminate, 119 313 Angola: A Country Study sugar industry, 144 Suku speakers, 66 Supreme Court, 169 SWAPO. See South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) Sweden, 122 Switzerland, 224 TAAG. See Angola Airlines (Linhas Aer- eas de Angola: TAAG) Tanzania, 31, 208, 244 technical assistance, 122; to agricultural sector, 136; from Soviet Union, 122, 197, 220-21, 225-27 telecommunications, 151-52 telecommunications industry, 113 Texaco Oil Company, 126, 131 Textang-I, 146 Textang-II, 144 textile industry, 144, 146 TGFA. See Angolan Border Guard (Tropa Guarda Fronteira Angolana: TGFA) timber production, 140 Togo, 197 Tombua, 140-41 Tonha, Pedro Maria (Pedale), 214 training: medical, 108; military, 229-31; police, 248-49; technical, 124, 230-31 transportation system, 90, 113, 147-51 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation, Angola-Soviet Union (1975), 43, 197 Tunisia, 29, 197, 244 U.S. Committee for Refugees, 81 Ui'ge Province, 28, 63 Umbundu speakers, 69-70 Umkhonto we Sizwe, 246 UNDP. See United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) UNICEF. See United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) UNIDO. See United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) Union of Angolan Peoples (Uniao das Populacoes de Angola: UP A), 27, 29-30, 73-74, 161-62 Union of Evangelical Churches of Ango- la, 97, 185 Union of Peoples of Northern Angola (Uniao das Populacoes do Norte de An- gola: UPNA), 27, 161 Union of Young Communists' School, Cuba, 198 UNITA. See National Union for the To- tal Independence of Angola (Uniao Na- cional para a Independencia Total de Angola: UNITA) United Church of Christ, 187 United Methodist Church, 97, 185 United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), 106 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 146 United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), 146 United Nations Transition Assistance Group (UNTAG), 194 United Nations (UN): Food and Agricul- ture Organization (FAO), 137; mem- bership in, 162; protest by African Agnolans to, 26; role in 1961 uprising, 29; Security Council Resolution 435 (1978), 194; World Food Programme (WFP), 122, 137 United States: Central Intelligence Agen- cy (CIA) of, 39, 62; Clark Amendment, 200; Export-Import Bank of, 131; fund- ing and support for FNLA and UNI- TA, xxiii, xxv-xxvii, 4-5, 38, 44, 199, 238, 244; relations with, 197, 199; role in civil war of, 162, 199; role in Namibia issue of, 49-50, 51; trade re- lations with, 120-21, 131 universities, 102, 124, 198 University of Angola, 124 UNTA. See National Union of Angolan Workers (Uniao Nacional dos Trabal- hadores Angolanos: UNTA) UNTAG. See United Nations Transition Assistance Group (UNTAG) UPA. See Union of Angolan Peoples (Uniao das Populacoes de Angola: UPA) UPNA. See Union of Peoples of North- ern Angola (Uniao das Populacoes do Norte de Angola: UPNA) urban areas, 105, 108 Van Dunem, Afonso (Mbinda), 199 Van Dunem, Fernando Jose de Franca Dias, 251 Van Dunem, Jose, 42 vehicle assembly industry, 146-47, 219 314 Index Vieira, Armindo Fernandes do Espirito Santo, 249 Vinama, Alberto Joaquim, 241 Voice of Resistance of the Black Cocker- el, 190 von Bismarck, Otto, 18 wages, 123 war for independence (1961-74), xxii, 29-36, 209-10 water supply system, 141 West Germany. See Federal Republic of Germany WFP. See United Nations (UN) wheat-milling industry, 144 witches, 98-99 women: in military role, 92, 223; role in society of, 90-91; in UNITA/FALA, 241 wood-processing industry, 144 World Bank: membership in, 119, 155, 195 World Health Organization, 106 Xindonga people, 78 Xu-Angola language. See Click languages; language Yugoslavia, 122, 224, 22 Zaire, 13, 21, 27, 45, 147; Bakongo peo- ple in, 72, 196; border with, 42, 57, 60, 207, 248; haven for FNLA and FLEC, 206; Katangan gendarmes in Angola, 246; Katanga Province in, 75; Ndem- bu people in, 74; refugees in, 80, 197, 209; relations with Angola of, 196, 206-7; Shaba Region of, 75-76, 196, 207; support for UNITA by, xxvii, 196, 207, 244; support from China for, 199; withdraws support for FLEC, 237 Zambezi River, 60 Zambia, 18, 45, 78, 147; assistance from and relations with, 31, 206, 208; border with, 57, 248; citizen support for UNITA, 196-97, 244; Ndembu peo- ple in, 74; refugees in, 77, 80, 197; sup- port for MPLA-PT of, 196 Zimbabwe, 18, 121, 208 315 Published Country Studies (Area Handbook Series) 550-65 Afghanistan 550-87 Greece 550-98 Albania 550-78 Guatemala 550-44 Algeria 550-174 Guinea 550-59 Angola 550-82 Guyana and Belize 550-73 Argentina 550-151 Honduras 550-169 Australia 550-165 Hungary 550-176 Austria 550-21 India 550-175 Bangladesh 550-154 Indian Ocean 550-170 Belgium 550-39 Indonesia 550-66 Bolivia 550-68 Iran 550-20 Brazil 550-31 Iraq 550-168 Bulgaria 550-25 Israel 550-61 Burma 550-182 Italy 550-50 Cambodia 550-30 Japan 550-166 Cameroon 550-34 Jordan 550-159 Chad 550-56 Kenya 550-77 Chile 550-81 Korea, North 550-60 China 550-41 Korea, South 550-26 Colombia 550-58 Laos 550-33 Commonwealth Caribbean, 550-24 Lebanon Islands of the 550-91 Congo 550-38 Liberia 550-90 Costa Rica 550-85 Libya 550-69 Cote d'lvoire (Ivory Coast) 550-172 Malawi 550-152 Cuba 550-45 Malaysia 550-22 Cyprus 550-161 Mauritania 550-158 Czechoslovakia 550-79 Mexico 550-36 Dominican Republic and 550-76 Mongolia Haiti 550-52 Ecuador 550-49 Morocco 550-43 Egypt 550-64 Mozambique 550-150 El Salvador 550-35 Nepal and Bhutan 550-28 Ethiopia 550-88 Nicaragua 550-167 Finland 550-157 Nigeria 550-155 Germany, East 550-94 Oceania 550-173 Germany, Fed. Rep. of 550-48 Pakistan 550-153 Ghana 550-46 Panama 317 550-156 Paraguay 550-53 Thailand 550-185 Persian Gulf States 550-89 Tunisia 550-42 Peru 550-80 Turkey 550-72 Philippines 550-74 Uganda 550-162 Poland 550-97 Uruguay 550-181 Portugal 550-71 Venezuela 550-160 Romania 550-32 Vietnam 550-37 Rwanda and Burundi 550-183 Yemens, The 550-51 Saudi Arabia 550-99 Yugoslavia 550-70 Senegal 550-67 Zaire 550-180 Sierra Leone 550-75 Zambia 550-184 Singapore 550-171 Zimbabwe 550-86 Somalia 550-93 South Africa 550-95 Soviet Union 550-179 Spain 550-96 Sri Lanka 550-27 Sudan 550-47 Syria 550-62 Tanzania 318 PIN: 004225-000