area handbook series Lebanon a country study Lebanon a country study Federal Research Division Library of Congress Edited by Thomas Collelo Research Completed December 1987 On the cover: Representing Lebanon's tragic civil strife, a cedar, the national symbol, is shown split in two. Third Edition, First Printing, 1989. Copyright ®1989 United States Government as represented by the Secretary of the Army. All rights reserved. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Lebanon: A Country Study (DA Pam; 550-24) Research completed December 1987. Bibliography: pp. 245-261. Includes index. Supt. of Docs, no.: D 101.22:550-24/987 1. Lebanon. I. Collelo, Thomas, 1948- II. Library of Congress. Federal Research Division. III. Series. DS80.L39 1989 956.92 88-600488 Headquarters, Department of the Army DA Pam 550-24 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 Foreword This volume is one in a continuing series of books now being prepared by the Federal Research Division of the Library of Con- gress under the Country Studies — Area Handbook Program. The last page of this book lists the other published studies. Most books in the series deal with a particular foreign country, describing and analyzing its political, economic, social, and national security systems and institutions, and examining the interrelation- ships of those systems and the ways they are shaped by cultural factors. Each study is written by a multidisciplinary team of social scientists. The authors seek to provide a basic understanding of the observed society, striving for a dynamic rather than a static portrayal. Particular attention is devoted to the people who make up the society, their origins, dominant beliefs and values, their com- mon interests and the issues on which they are divided, the nature and extent of their involvement with national institutions, and their attitudes toward each other and toward their social system and political order. The books represent the analysis of the authors and should not be construed as an expression of an official United States govern- ment position, policy, or decision. The authors have sought to adhere to accepted standards of scholarly objectivity. Corrections, additions, and suggestions for changes from readers will be wel- comed for use in future editions. Louis R. Mortimer Acting Chief Federal Research Division Library of Congress Washington, D.C. 20540 iii Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to individuals in various agencies of the United States government and private organizations in Washington, D.C., who gave of their time, research materials, and special knowledge of Lebanese affairs to provide data and perspec- tive. The authors also wish to express their gratitude to members of the Federal Research Division who contributed directly to the preparation of the manuscript. These include Helen C. Metz and Richard F. Nyrop, who reviewed the text; Ruth Nieland and Richard Kollodge, who edited chapters; Marilyn Majeska, who managed production; and Barbara Edgerton and Izella Watson, who performed word processing. Others involved in preparation of the book included Andrea T. Merrill, who performed the prepub- lication review; and Shirley Kessel, who prepared the index. Malinda B. Neale, of the Library of Congress Composing Unit, prepared the camera-ready copy under the supervision of Peggy Pixley. Special thanks are owed to those responsible for the excellent graphic work in the book. These include David P. Cabitto, who oversaw the entire process; Kimberly A. Lord, who designed the cover and chapter illustrations and who performed the page lay- out; Greenhorne and O'Mara, which produced the maps; and Harriett R. Blood, who prepared the topography and drainage map. The inclusion of photographs in this study was made possible by the generosity of individuals and private and public agencies. The authors acknowledge their indebtedness to those who provided origi- nal work not previously published. v Contents Page Foreword iii Acknowledgments v Preface xiii Country Profile xv Introduction xxi Chapter 1. Historical Setting l Afaf Sabeh McGowan ANCIENT TIMES 3 The Phoenicians 3 Assyrian Rule 4 Babylonian Rule and the Persian Empire 5 Rule of Alexander the Great 5 The Seleucid Dynasty 5 THE ARAB PERIOD 7 The Arab Conquest, 634-36 7 The Umayyads, 660-750 8 The Abbasids, 750-1258 8 Impact of Arab Rule 8 The Crusades, 1095-1291 10 The Mamluks, 1282-1516 11 OTTOMAN RULE, 1516-1916 12 The Maans, 1120-1697 12 The Shihabs, 1697-1842 13 Religious Conflicts 14 WORLD WAR I AND THE FRENCH MANDATE, 1914-41 17 World War I 17 The Mandate Period 18 World War II and Independence, 1939-41 19 INDEPENDENT LEBANON, 1943-76 21 The Khuri Era, 1943-52 21 The Shamun Era, 1952-58 22 The Rise of Shihabism, 1958-64 24 The Hilu Era, 1964-70 25 The Franjiyah Era, 1970-76 26 The Civil War, 1975-76 29 vii The Sarkis Administration, 1976-82 32 Chapter 2. The Society and Its Environment .... 39 As 9 ad AbuKhalil GEOGRAPHY 42 Land 43 Climate 45 Rivers and Lakes 47 POPULATION 48 Migration 50 The War and Displacement in Beirut 52 The Palestinian Element 52 SECTARIANISM 53 Lebanese Confessional "Societies" 55 Sectarian and Clan Consciousness 56 RELIGION 57 Tenets of Islam 59 Muslim Sects 61 Druzes 65 Christian Sects 66 Jews 70 Others ... 71 LANGUAGES 71 Arabic 71 Other Languages 72 STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY 73 The Family 73 Sex Roles 74 Marriage 75 Child-Rearing Practices 77 Impact of War on the Family 78 LIVING CONDITIONS 79 Prewar Conditions 79 Wartime Conditions 80 EDUCATION 81 Primary Education 81 Intermediate Education 82 Secondary Education 82 Technical and Vocational Education 82 Higher Education 83 HEALTH 84 Chapter 3. The Economy 87 John Roberts RECENT ECONOMIC HISTORY 93 Civil War and Partial Recovery, 1974-82 93 Vlll Invasion and Trauma, 1982-87 95 THE OFFICIAL ECONOMY IN THE MID-1980S 97 Balance of Payments 97 Government Revenues 97 External Debt and Foreign Exchange 98 Inflation 99 The Budget 100 BANKING AND FINANCE 101 Domestic Banking 101 The Central Bank 103 International Banking 105 TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATIONS 106 Roads 106 Railroads 109 Shipping 110 Aviation 112 Telecommunications 115 AGRICULTURE 115 Land and Irrigation 115 Crop Production 118 INDUSTRY 122 The State of Industry 122 Cement 124 Electric Power and Petroleum Refining 125 AID AND RECONSTRUCTION 127 Reconstruction and Hope, 1976-82 127 Arab Reconstruction Aid 128 Post-Israeli Invasion Reconstruction, 1982-84 131 Reconstruction and Chaos, 1984-87 133 Chapter 4. Government and Politics 137 As 'ad AbuKhalil THE BASIS OF GOVERNMENT 141 The Constitution 141 The National Pact 143 THE PRACTICE OF GOVERNMENT 144 Zuama Clientelism 144 The Presidency 146 The Prime Minister and the Cabinet 147 The Legislature 149 The Judiciary 152 The Bureaucracy 153 POLITICAL PARTIES AND GROUPINGS 154 Sectarian Groups 155 ix Minority Parties 166 Multisectarian Parties 167 FOREIGN RELATIONS 170 Syria 171 Israel 173 Palestinians 175 Iran 176 United States 176 Soviet Union 177 Chapter 5. National Security 179 Robert Scott Mason THE CREATION OF THE ARMY 183 THE LEBANESE POLITICAL-MILITARY SITUATION: INDEPENDENCE TO 1975 185 The 1948 Arab-Israeli War 185 The Rosewater Revolution 185 The 1958 Civil War 185 The Cairo Agreement and the Prelude to the 1975 Civil War 186 THE 1975 CIVIL WAR 188 The Military Cabinet 189 The Early Stages of Combat 190 Syrian Intervention 192 The Riyadh Conference and the Arab Deterrent Force 193 The Red Line Arrangement 194 THE INTERWAR YEARS 194 Operation Litani 195 Operations of the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon 196 The Ascendancy of Bashir Jumayyil 197 The Missile Crisis 200 The Two-Week War 200 THE 1982 ISRAELI INVASION AND ITS AFTERMATH 201 Operation Peace for Galilee 201 The Siege of Beirut 204 The Multinational Force 206 The Rise of the Shias 208 The May 17 Agreement 209 The Israel Defense Forces Withdrawal and the Mountain War 210 The Multinational Force Withdrawal 211 x The Bikfayya Accord 212 Events in Southern Lebanon 213 Chaos in Beirut and Syrian Peacemaking Efforts .... 214 THE LEBANESE ARMED FORCES IN THE 1980s 218 Organization and Command Structure 219 The Army 222 The Air Force and Navy 225 INTERNAL SECURITY AND TERRORISM 226 Suicide Bombings 227 The Hostage Crisis 228 Appendix A. Tables 233 Appendix B. The Contending Sides in the 1975 Civil War 239 Robert Scott Mason THE LEBANESE FRONT 239 The Phalange Party 239 The Tigers 240 The Marada Brigade 240 The Guardians of the Cedars 240 The Order of Maronite Monks 240 At Tanzim 240 THE LEBANESE NATIONAL MOVEMENT 240 The Progressive Socialist Party 240 The Syrian Socialist Nationalist Party 241 Amal 241 Communist Organizations 242 The Najjadah 242 The Lebanese Arab Army 242 The Baath (Arab Socialist Resurrection) Party 242 Nasserite Organizations 242 Palestinians 243 Bibliography 245 Glossary 263 Index 267 List of Figures 1. Administrative Divisions, 1987 xx 2. Phoenician Colonization and Trade Routes 6 3. Topography and Drainage 46 4. Palestinian Refugee Camps in Lebanon, 1986 54 5. Distribution of Religious Sects, 1983 58 xi 6. Transportation System, 1987 108 7. Economic Activity, 1987 116 8. The Cantons of Lebanon, 1986 156 9. Beirut During the 1975 Civil War 190 10. Lebanon on the Eve of the 1982 Israeli Invasion 198 xii Preface Lebanon: A Country Study replaces the Area Handbook for Lebanon published in 1973. Like its predecessor, the present book is an attempt to treat in a concise and objective manner the dominant historical, social, economic, political, and national security aspects of contemporary Lebanon. But, like the country, which has under- gone radical changes since the mid-1970s, the present study bears little resemblance to the old book; it has been completely revised to reflect the current situation. Sources of information included scholarly books, journals, and monographs; official reports and documents of governments and international organizations; for- eign and domestic newspapers and periodicals; and interviews with Lebanese officials and individuals with special competence in Lebanese affairs. Because so much of the literature is polemical, the authors took special pains to separate fact from bias. In addi- tion, because the turmoil that has occurred since 1975 has precluded comprehensive and accurate accounting of economic and demo- graphic statistics, most data should be viewed as rough estimates. Much of the recent history and much of the political situation in Lebanon are associated with armed conflict. Accordingly, detailed information on these topics is likely to be found in the national security chapter rather than in the chapters on history or govern- ment and politics. Chapter bibliographies appear at the end of the book; brief com- ments on some of the more valuable sources for further reading appear at the conclusion of each chapter. Most measurements are given in the metric system (see table 1, Appendix A). Because of the complex nature of the fighting during the 1975 Civil War, the rival factions are treated at length in Appendix B. The Glossary provides brief definitions of terms that may be unfamiliar to the general reader. The transliteration of Arabic words and phrases posed a partic- ular problem. For many words — such as Muhammad, Muslim, and Quran — the authors followed a modified version of the sys- tem adopted by the United States Board on Geographic Names and the Permanent Committee on Geographic Names for British Official Use, known as the BGN/PCGN system. The modifica- tion entails the omission of diacritical markings and hyphens. In numerous instances, however, the names of persons or places are so wel 1 known by another spelling that to have used the BGN/PCGN system may have created confusion. For example, the reader will xiii find Beirut, Sidon, and Tyre rather than Bayrut, Sayda, and Sur. Furthermore, because press accounts generally use French in the spelling of personal names, the alternate French version is often given when such a name is introduced in each chapter. xiv Country Profile Country Formal Name: Republic of Lebanon. Short Form: Lebanon. Term for Citizens: Lebanese. Capital: Beirut. Geography Size: Approximately 10,452 square kilometers. Topography: Four major features running roughly from north to south: coastal strip, Lebanon Mountains, Biqa Valley, and Anti- Lebanon Mountains. Several perennial rivers, but none navigable. xv Climate: Mediterranean climate with hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters. Weather drier and hotter east of Lebanon Mountains. Society Population: Estimated at 2.6 million in 1983, not including about 400,000 Palestinian refugees. Education: Five-year primary education mandatory. Education system disrupted during and after 1975 Civil War; many children did not attend school. Literacy: Estimated at nearly 80 percent in mid-1980s. Health: Drastically reduced health standards because of 1975 Civil War. In 1980s overall shortages of medical staff and facilities. Best health care available in private institutions. Languages: Arabic official language. French and English also wide- ly spoken. Armenian spoken by Armenian community. Ethnic Groups: More than 90 percent of population Arab; some Armenians, Kurds, and Jews. Religion: A variety of Muslim and Christian sects. Muslims included Shias, Sunnis, Druzes, Ismailis, and Alawis. Christians included Maronites, Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholics, Roman Catholics, Jacobites, Armenian Orthodox, Assyrians, and Protes- tants. Fewer than 100 Jews in 1987. Economy Gross Domestic Product (GDP): Estimates in 1985 ranged from L£30 billion to L£43.8 billion (for value of the Lebanese pound — see Glossary); in either case, in real terms GDP no more than half 1974 level. Inflation in 1987 estimated at more than 700 percent, and unemployment estimated at 35 percent. Agriculture: Diversity of crops grown throughout country. Biqa Valley most productive region, primarily grains but increasingly in late 1980s hashish and opium. Citrus crops grown on coast, es- pecially in south. Tobacco also cultivated in south. Only 11 per- cent of labor force employed in agriculture in 1980. Industry: Severely disrupted by civil strife. Employed about 27 percent of labor force in 1980. Cement most important industrial export in 1980s; energy production and petroleum refining also significant. xvi Currency: Lebanese pound. Fiscal Year: Same as calendar year. Transportation and Communications Railroads: Two standard-gauge lines from Syria: one down coast through Tripoli and Beirut to Az Zahrani; the other through Biqa Valley to Riyaq. Narrow-gauge mountain line from Damascus to Beirut. In 1987 no trains operating on 407-kilometer system. Roads: Approximately 8,000 kilometers of roads in varying states of disrepair in 1987. Beirut hub of network extending north to Tripoli, south to Tyre, and east through mountains to Damascus. Roads also extending through Biqa Valley and crossing Lebanon Mountains. Ports: Major ports at Beirut, Tripoli, Sidon, and Tyre. In 1980s numerous smaller, illegal (unofficial) ports operated by militias. Pipelines: Trans- Arabia Pipeline (Tapline) from Saudi Arabia to Az Zahrani refinery but closed in mid-1980s. Iraq Petroleum Com- pany pipeline through Syria to Tripoli refinery but closed in 1981 . Airports: Main international airport at Beirut; closed intermit- tently in 1980s. Airport being built at Halat, but not cleared for civilian traffic as of 1987. Telecommunications: Much infrastructure destroyed during and after 1975 Civil War. International links continued to function in 1980s. Government and Politics Government: Central government marginally functional in 1987 and exercised only nominal control. Constitution vests executive power in president of republic, who appoints the cabinet ministers, from whom he selects prime minister. Legislative functions per- formed by unicameral Chamber of Deputies, elected for four-year terms by universal suffrage. In 1987 no elections had been held since 1972, and only seventy- seven deputies remained out of ninety- nine elected in 1972. Electoral system provided for proportional representation (based on 1932 census) in Chamber of Deputies by religion as well as by region. Chamber of Deputies elects presi- dent for six-year term and approves his cabinet appointments. By custom, president a Maronite, prime minister a Sunni Muslim, and speaker of the Chamber of Deputies a Shia Muslim. Judicial system, except for religious courts, based on French model. xvii Politics: 1975 Civil War, foreign intervention, and internal fight- ing generally have disrupted politics. Before 1975 many nonideo- logical political parties centered on powerful leaders whose followers were usually of same sect. Since 1975 militias have overtaken par- ties in importance. New president scheduled to be elected by Cham- ber of Deputies in September 1988 (see Introduction). Foreign Relations: In 1987 central government only one of many actors conducting foreign policy. Syria and Israel wielded greatest influence, followed by Iran (especially among some Shias) and Western nations (especially among some Christians). National Security Armed Forces: In 1987 consisted of 15,000- to 18,000-man, multi- sectarian army and small Christian air force (800 men) and navy (450 men). Army had nine brigades organized along sectarian lines, but not all loyal to central government. Equipment: Lightly equipped with mostly United States, British, and French materiel. Police: Most internal security personnel assimilated into armed forces by 1987. Militias: Principal militias, sectarian affiliations, and estimated combat strengths in 1987: Amal (Shia), 6,000 regulars (10,000 reserves); Progressive Socialist Party (Druze), 5,000 regulars (12,000 reserves); Lebanese Forces (Christian), 4,500 regulars (30,000 reserves); Hizballah (Shia), 1,000; and South Lebanon Army (Christian), 1,000. xvm DAMASCUS 33°3