area handbook series Turkey a country study Turkey a country study Federal Research Division Library of Congress Edited by Helen Chapin Metz Research Completed January 1995 On the cover: Yeni Mosque, Istanbul, one of Turkey's famous mosques Fifth Edition, First Printing, 1996. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Turkey : a country study / Federal Research Division, Library of Congress ; edited by Helen Chapin Metz. — 5th ed. p. cm. — (Area handbook series, ISSN 1057-5294) (DA Pam ; 550-80) "Supersedes the 1988 edition of Turkey : a country study, edited by Paul M. Pitman, III." — T.p. verso. "Research completed January 1995." Includes bibliographical references (pp. 399-423) and index. ISBN 0-8444-0864-6 (alk. paper) Z663.275 .T87 1996 1. Turkey. I. Metz, Helen Chapin, 1928- . II. Library of Congress. Federal Research Division. III. Series. IV. Series: DA Pam ; 550-80 DR417.T874 1996 95-49612 956.1— dc20 CIP Headquarters, Department of the Army DA Pam 550-80 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 Foreword This volume is one in a continuing series of books prepared by the Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress under the Country Studies/Area Handbook Program spon- sored by the Department of the Army The last two pages of this book list the other published studies. Most books in the series deal with a particular foreign coun- try, describing and analyzing its political, economic, social, and national security systems and institutions, and examining the interrelationships of those systems and the ways they are shaped by cultural factors. Each study is written by a multidisci- plinary team of social scientists. The authors seek to provide a basic understanding of the observed society, striving for a dynamic rather than a static portrayal. Particular attention is devoted to the people who make up the society, their origins, dominant beliefs and values, their common interests and the issues on which they are divided, the nature and extent of their involvement with national institutions, and their attitudes toward each other and toward their social system and political order. The books represent the analysis of the authors and should not be construed as an expression of an official United States government position, policy, or decision. The authors have sought to adhere to accepted standards of scholarly objectivity. Corrections, additions, and suggestions for changes from read- ers will be welcomed for use in future editions. Louis R. Mortimer Chief Federal Research Division Library of Congress Washington, DC 20540-4840 in Acknowledgments The authors wish to acknowledge the contributions of the writers of the 1988 edition of Turkey: A Country Study, edited by Paul M. Pitman III. Their work provided general background for the present volume. The authors are grateful to individuals in various govern- ment agencies and private institutions who gave of their time, research materials, and expertise in the production of this book. These individuals include Ralph K. Benesch, who over- sees the Country Studies/Area Handbook program for the Department of the Army. The authors also wish to thank mem- bers of the Federal Research Division staff who contributed directly to the preparation of the manuscript. These people include Sandra W. Meditz, who reviewed all drafts, served as liaison with the sponsoring agency, and managed book produc- tion; Marilyn L. Majeska, who managed editing; Andrea T. Mer- rill, who edited tables and figures; Lauren Morris, who assisted with bibliographic research; Barbara Edgerton and Izella Wat- son, who did word processing; David P. Cabitto, Stephen C. Cranton, Janie L. Gilchrist, and Izella Watson, who prepared the camera-ready copy; and Rita M. Byrnes, who assisted with proofreading. Also involved in preparing the text were Vincent Ercolano, who edited chapters; Catherine Schwartzstein, who performed the prepublication editorial review; and Joan C. Cook, who compiled the index. Graphics were prepared by David P. Cabitto. David P. Cabitto and the firm of Greenhorne and O'Mara prepared the final maps. Special thanks are owed to Hermine Dreyfuss, whose photographs form the basis for the illustrations prepared by Wayne Home that appear on the title page of each chapter and the cover art. Finally, the authors acknowledge the generosity of the Turk- ish Information Office in Washington and the other govern- ment and private bodies and individuals who allowed their photographs to be used in this study. v Contents Page Foreword iii Acknowledgments v Preface xiii Country Profile xv Introduction xxv Chapter 1. Historical Setting 1 Steven A. Glazer ANCIENT ANATOLIA 6 Hittites 6 Phrygians and Lydians 7 Armenians and Kurds 9 Greeks 9 ROME AND THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE 10 TURKISH ORIGINS 11 Great Seljuks 13 Sultanate of Rum 14 The Crusades 15 THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 17 Ottoman Institutions 19 Selim I and Siileyman the Magnificent 20 Kopriilu Era 22 External Threats and Internal Transformations .... 23 The Young Turks 27 World War I 28 ATATURK AND THE TURKISH NATION 31 Plans for Partitioning Turkey 32 Nationalist Movement 33 War of Independence 34 Ataturk's Reforms 36 Foreign Policy 39 TURKEY AFTER ATATURK 39 vii World War II 40 Multiparty Politics, 1946-60 40 The Armed Forces Coup and Interim Rule, 1960-61 42 Politics and Foreign Relations in the 1960s 44 CRISIS IN TURKISH DEMOCRACY 48 Politics and Elections in the 1970s 49 Conflict and Diplomacy: Cyprus and Beyond 53 The Economy: An Unresolved Issue 56 Challenges to Public Order 59 MILITARY INTERVENTION AND THE RETURN TO CIVILIAN RULE 60 Military Interlude 60 Politics and the Return to Civilian Rule 62 Economic Stabilization and Prospects for the 1990s 68 Chapter 2. The Society and Its Environment 71 Eric Hooglund GEOGRAPHY 75 External Boundaries 76 Geology 77 Landform Regions 78 Climate 84 POPULATION 86 Population Density, Distribution, and Settlement 87 Migration 88 Government Population Policies 90 LANGUAGE REFORM: FROM OTTOMAN TO TURKISH 92 LINGUISTIC AND ETHNIC GROUPS 95 Turks 96 Kurds 98 Arabs 101 Peoples from the Caucasus 102 Donme 102 Greeks 103 Armenians 103 Jews 104 RELIGIOUS LIFE 105 viii Islam 106 Secularist Policies 116 Retreat from Secularism 117 Non-Muslim Minorities 120 STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY 123 The Changing National Elite 124 Urban Life 125 Towns 128 Village Life 128 THE INDIVIDUAL, THE FAMILY, AND GENDER RELATIONS 132 Marriage 133 The Extended Family 135 Gender Relations 137 The Status of Women 138 EDUCATION 139 HEALTH AND WELFARE 143 Chapter 3. The Economy 147 Fareed Mohamedi GROWTH AND STRUCTURE OF THE ECONOMY 152 Economic Development 152 Reforms under Ozal 154 Economic Performance in the Early 1990s 156 Structure of the Economy 159 HUMAN RESOURCES AND TRADE UNIONS 159 ROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN THE ECONOMY 167 Liberal Interlude 167 Etatism 168 State Economic Enterprises and Privatization 169 Development Planning 172 Budget 173 AGRICULTURE 175 Agricultural Policy 178 Irrigation 180 Land Use 182 Land Tenure 184 Cropping Patterns and Production 187 Livestock 191 Forestry and Fisheries 193 INDUSTRY 194 ix Industrial Policy 196 Energy 197 Mineral Resources 204 Manufacturing 205 Construction 209 SERVICES ..... 210 Banking and Finance 210 Transportation and Telecommunications 214 Tourism 219 FOREIGN ECONOMIC RELATIONS 220 Foreign Trade 220 Balance of Payments 223 Regional Economic Integration 226 OUTLOOK 229 Chapter 4. Government and Politics 231 Eric Hooglund THE CONSTITUTIONAL SYSTEM 236 Provisions of the 1982 Constitution 237 Electoral System 240 GOVERNMENT . .. 241 National Assembly 241 President, Council of Ministers, and Prime Minister 244 Judiciary 248 Provincial and Local Government . 250 Civil Service 252 POLITICAL DYNAMICS 254 Political Developments since the 1980 Coup 254 Political Parties 262 Political Interest Groups 270 MASS MEDIA 283 Newspapers and Periodicals 284 Radio and Television 284 FOREIGN RELATIONS 285 Dissolution of the Soviet Union 286 The Middle East , 290 European Union 295 The United States 298 x Chapter 5. National Security 303 Jean K Tartter HISTORICAL ROLE OF THE ARMED FORCES 307 THE ARMED FORCES AND SOCIETY 309 POLITICS AND THE MILITARY 310 EXTERNAL SECURITY CONCERNS 312 Middle Eastern Conflicts 314 Syria 316 Iran 316 The Balkans 317 Greece and Cyprus 318 TURKEYS PARTICIPATION IN NATO 319 ARMED FORCES 321 Defense Spending 325 Sources and Quality of Personnel 327 Education and Training 330 Conditions of Service 333 Army 335 Air Force 339 Navy 341 Uniforms, Ranks, and Insignia 345 MILITARY COOPERATION WITH THE UNITED STATES 348 DOMESTIC ARMS INDUSTRY 351 INTERNAL SECURITY CONCERNS 354 Kurdish Separatists 355 Terrorism of the Left 357 Armenian Terrorism 358 Islamists 359 POLICE SYSTEM 360 National Police 361 Gendarmerie 362 Intelligence Services 365 CRIME AND PUNISHMENT 366 Procedures in Criminal Law 367 Incidence of Crime 369 Narcotics Trafficking 370 Individual Rights 371 Penal System 373 Appendix A. Tables 377 xi Appendix B. Selected Political Parties and Labor Organizations 395 Bibliography 399 Glossary 425 Index 431 Contributors 455 List of Figures 1 Administrative Divisions of Turkey, 1995 xxii 2 Anatolia in Antiquity, First Century B.C 8 3 Distribution of the Turkish Peoples: Migrations and Conquests, Seventh Through Eleventh Centuries 12 4 Anatolia in the Thirteenth Century 16 5 Expansion of the Ottoman Empire, 1324-1683 18 6 Decline of the Ottoman Empire from the Treaty of Karlowitz, 1699, to the Treaty of Lausanne, 1923 24 7 Topography and Drainage 80 8 Structure of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 1985 and 1993 160 9 Major Crop Areas and Land Use, 1995 188 10 Selected Industries and Minerals, 1995 200 1 1 Transportation System and Crude Oil Pipeline, 1995 216 12 Government Structure, 1995 246 13 Provincial Elections, 1989 and 1994 260 14 Organization of the National Security Establishment, 1995 324 15 Disposition of Major Units of the Turkish Armed Forces and Major Military Instal- lations Used by the United States, 1995 338 16 Officer Ranks and Insignia, 1995 346 17 Enlisted Ranks and Insignia, 1995 347 xii Preface This edition of Turkey: A Country Study replaces the previous edition published in 1988. Like its predecessor, the present book attempts to treat in a compact and objective manner the dominant historical, social, economic, political, and national security aspects of contemporary Turkey. Sources of informa- tion included scholarly books, journals, and monographs; offi- cial reports and documents of governments and international organizations; and foreign and domestic newspapers and peri- odicals. Relatively up-to-date economic data were available from several sources, but the sources were not always in agree- ment. Chapter bibliographies appear at the end of the book; brief comments on some of the more valuable sources for further reading appear at the conclusion of each chapter. Measure- ments are given in the metric system; a conversion table is pro- vided to assist those who are unfamiliar with the metric system (see table 1, Appendix A) . Appendix B is a list of selected polit- ical parties and labor organizations, with their acronyms. The Glossary provides brief definitions of terms that may be unfa- miliar to the general reader. The authors have attempted to follow standard Turkish spelling of Turkish words, phrases, and place-names. The prin- cipal guide used was The Concise Oxford Turkish Dictionary (1971 edition). The place-names used are those established by the United States Board on Geographic Names as of September 1984. A few exceptions were made for well-known geographical features. For example, the study uses Bosporus and Dar- danelles instead of Istanbul Bogazi and Qanakkale Bogazi. In addition, although Mustafa Kemal did not become Kemal Atatiirk until the Law of Surnames was enacted in 1934, he is referred to throughout as Atatiirk. However, the Turkish names appearing in the text of this volume are missing most of the diacritics used by the language. In this case, it is a matter of lagging technology: the typesetting software being used simply cannot produce all of the necessary diacritics in the text (although they appear on the maps). For this the authors apol- ogize and hope that by the time this country study is updated, missing diacritics will no longer be the norm. xiii The body of the text reflects information available as of Jan- uary 1995. Certain other portions of the text, however, have been updated. The Introduction discusses significant events that have occurred since the completion of research, and the Country Profile and Appendix B include updated information as available. xiv Country Profile Country Formal Name: Republic of Turkey. Short Form: Turkey. Term for Citizens: Turk(s). Capital: Ankara. Geography Size: About 779,452 square kilometers, somewhat smaller than Texas and Louisiana combined. xv Topography: Seven natural regions — Black Sea, Aegean, Mediterranean, Pontus and Taurus mountain ranges, Anatolian Plateau, eastern highlands, and Arabian Platform. Country includes one of the most earthquake-prone areas of the world. Climate: Periphery of Turkey has Mediterranean climate with cool, rainy winters and hot, moderately dry summers. Interior, shielded from Mediterranean influences by mountains, has continental climate with cold winters and dry, hot summers. Eastern mountainous area has inhospitable climate, with hot, extremely dry summers and bitter winters. Rainfall varies, ranging from annual average of more than 2,500 millimeters on eastern Black Sea coast to less than 250 millimeters in central plateau area. Society Population: (1994) Turkish government figure 61.2 million, growing at 2.1 percent a year. Languages and Ethnic Groups: Turkish, official language, spoken by most citizens; mother tongue of about 82 percent. Kurdish spoken by roughly 17 percent of population. Arabic and Caucasian languages spoken by small minority groups. Turks constitute at least 80 percent of population; Kurds form at least 10 percent. Other minorities include Arabs, people from Caucasus countries, Donme, Greeks, and Jews. Religion: About 99 percent nominally Muslim, of whom about 66 percent Sunni Muslims, and about 33 percent Alevi (Shia) Muslims. Constitution proclaims Turkey secular nation. Education: Steadily increasing enrollments in tuition-free schools, universities, and numerous technical institutes. Attendance compulsory at five-year primary schools and three- year middle schools. Middle and high schools offer academic, technical, and vocational education. Twenty-seven public universities form core of higher education system. In 1990 literacy above 81 percent for people over fifteen years of age. Health: Inadequate sewer systems in some urban areas and poor water supplies in many villages pose continuing health threats, but major infectious diseases under control. Life expectancy (1992): males, sixty-eight years; females, seventy- XVI two years; infant mortality fifty-five per 1,000 births. Economy Gross Domestic Product (GDP): US$312.4 billion in 1993 (US$5,000 per capita). Economy gradually being liberalized and industrialized; real growth averaged 7.3 percent in 1993. Agriculture: Less than 15 percent of GDP in 1993 but remains crucial sector of the economy, providing more than 50 percent of employment, most raw materials for industry, and 15 percent of exports. Wheat and barley main crops; cotton, sugar beets, hazelnuts, and tobacco major cash crops. Livestock production extensive and growing. Valuable forest areas poorly managed; fisheries underdeveloped. Industry: Major growth sector contributing more than 30 percent of GDP in 1993, employing 33 percent of labor force. Food processing and textiles major industries; basic metals, chemicals, and petrochemicals well established. Imports: US$29.4 billion in 1993. Main imports included machinery and equipment, 60 percent; petroleum, 8.5 percent; and foodstuffs, 4 percent. Exports: US$15.3 billion in 1993, consisting of manufactured goods (mainly textiles and processed leather products), 70 percent; foodstuffs, 20 percent; mineral products, 4 percent. Major Trading Partners: Industrialized countries, especially members of European Union, United States, Russia, and Saudi Arabia. Balance of Payments: In 1993-94 Turkey experienced its fourth major balance of payments crisis in last forty years. Domestic fiscal policy and International Monetary Fund (IMF) helped reduce imports in 1994. Trade deficit was US$4.8 billion in 1994. Soaring imports during first seven months of 1995 pushed trade deficit up to US$6 billion. General Economic Conditions: In 1995 economy grew during first nine months; inflation became more severe. December 1995 elections important for fiscal stability. Currency and Exchange Rate: 1 Turkish lira (TL) = 100 kurus; (August 31, 1995) US$1.00 = TL47,963.00. xvii Transportation and Telecommunications Railroads: 8,430 kilometers (standard gauge — 1.435 meters), of which 796 kilometers electrified in 1995. Roads: (1995) Nearly 59,770 kilometers of all-weather highways of which 27,000 kilometers paved. Highways main means of transport. Government planned large highway expansion by year 2000. Ports: Five major ports: Istanbul, Mersin, Ismir, Iskenderun, and Kocaeli; ten secondary ports, eighteen minor ports. Airports: 105 usable airports, sixty-nine with paved runways in 1994. Telecommunications: Telephone system overloaded in 1995; modernization program promised to make telephones available and eliminate waiting circuits. Government and Politics Government: Democratic, secular, and parliamentary, according to provisions of 1982 constitution. Divided into legislative, executive, and judicial establishments, with legislative power vested in unicameral National Assembly consisting of 450 deputies elected every five years. Executive authority greater than under 1961 constitution. Judicial System: Independent of other state organs; autonomy protected by High Council of Judges and Public Prosecutors. Higher courts include Constitutional Court, Council of State, Court of Jurisdictional Dispute, Court of Cassation, and Military Court of Cassation. For purpose of civil and criminal justice, Court of Cassation serves as supreme court. Administrative System: In 1995 centralized administrative system of seventy-six provinces, divided into districts, and subdistricts. Provinces headed by governors appointed by executive branch and responsible to central administration. Politics: True Path (Dogru Yol Partisi — DYP) ruling coalition with Social Democratic Populist Party (Sosyal Demokrat Halkci Parti — SHP) collapsed in September 1995 after SHP deputies voted to join new Republican People's Party (Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi — CHP). New government of DYP-CHP formed in October 1995 to serve in a caretaker capacity prior to xviii parliamentary elections on December 24. Other parties are Motherland Party (Anavatan Partisi — ANAP), Welfare Party (Refah Partisi — RP), and Democratic Left (Demokratik Sol Partisi— DSP). International Affairs: Allied with West through North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Tensions with NATO allies followed 1980 military takeover but reduced after 1983. Continued conflict with Greece over Cyprus and control of Aegean waters. National Security Armed Forces (1994-95): Total personnel on active duty 503,800, including 410,200 draftees serving for fifteen months. Reserves total 952,300. Component services: army of 393,000 (345,000 conscripts), air force of 56,800 (28,700 conscripts), and navy of 54,000 (36,500 conscripts plus 3,000 marines). Major Tactical Military Units (1994-95): Army: one mechanized division, one mechanized division headquarters, one infantry division, fourteen armored brigades, seventeen mechanized brigades, nine infantry brigades, four commando brigades, one infantry regiment, one Presidential Guard regiment, five border defense regiments, and twenty-six border defense battalions. Air Force: fourteen fighter-ground attack squadrons, six fighter squadrons, three training squadrons, and eight surface-to-air missile squadrons. Navy: seventeen submarines, eleven destroyers, sixteen frigates, sixteen fast- attack craft, miscellaneous patrol, coastal, and mine-warfare combatants, and twenty-eight helicopters. Military Equipment (1995): Heavy dependence on United States and other Western allies for armored fighting vehicles, artillery, aircraft, missiles, and fighting ships. Modernization programs underway stressing improved antitank and air defense capability. New effort to meet needs through domestic manufacture, including F-16 fighter airplanes on coproduction basis, artillery, tank upgrades, communication and navigation equipment, frigates, and submarines. Military Budget: About TL93,453 billion (US$4.6 billion) plus US$3 billion for the gendarmerie in 1994. Defense expenditures estimated to be 9.4 percent of GNP in 1994. Turkey's defense expenditures per capita lowest among NATO xix countries. Foreign Military Treaties: Member of NATO since 1952. Internal Security Forces: Principal security agencies: National Police, believed to number about 50,000, oriented to urban areas, and gendarmerie, a force of about 70,000 active-duty personnel with 50,000 reserves, oriented primarily to rural and border areas. Gendarmerie under army command in wartime and in areas where martial law prevails; deploys three mobile brigades equipped as light mechanized infantry. Special police units fight drug traffic and terrorism and support gendarmerie and army operations against Kurdish insurgents. National Intelligence Organization primary body concerned with intelligence on subversive activity. xx xxii CO 03 CO CD CD 8* I « 5. 8 co cc £0 ^ 4 CO CO co C 3- 2 r i co S N c: Nl .3 5M jo CO CO 50 ^ C\J c\? ^ ^ ^ — CO io p CD 5 £ CD .i= CD CO. CO CQ 50 ^ a ■§ O P 51 co c ^ -S? C S >C33 o> £ £ ^ ^ ^ 3 P 50 CO g =3 CO 1 cts CO 03 — ■ C: ^ P N 03 CO Co 2? If) CO ^ JO CD £ COo -5 CD CO ■C co> : =3 CQOOOQQUjUjUjUjUjeJCDCD is 5 CD P O 'CD 03 * i C JO cts o p "6 So co CO J C33 ^ CO I SO § CO r~ CD co 10 K IT3 P P I 1 xxiii Introduction THE REPUBLIC OF TURKEY (Turkiye Cumhuriyeti) was established on October 29, 1923, under the firm control and leadership of Mustafa Kemal, better known as Kemal Ataturk. The new state was at once the successor to and victor over the Ottoman Empire, long a major power in the European states system. The creation of the modern Turkish polity reflected not only a successful struggle against external enemies but also a triumph over deeply rooted domestic traditions. The repub- lic deliberately rejected important elements of Turkey's Otto- man past, especially the Ottoman dynasty's claim to spiritual leadership of Muslims worldwide. However, the official dis- establishment of Islam as the state religion in 1924 did not result in the creation of a fully secular society as Ataturk and his colleagues had hoped. Although a commitment to secularism has continued to be almost a prerequisite for membership in the country's political elite, Turkey has experienced several popular movements of Islamic political activism. The most recent movement, which began in the mid-1980s and is continuing, has threatened secu- larism in ways the republic's founders could not have imagined in the 1920s and 1930s. Although the republic emerged through the work and effort of many people, it bore the indelible imprint of Ataturk. Dur- ing World War I, the Ottoman Empire had been an ally of Ger- many, and in the chaos that accompanied the empire's defeat by the Allied powers, Ataturk, as the victor over Australian and British forces at Gallipoli, emerged as one of the few national heroes. His military reputation was enhanced further during the four-year War of Independence, when he led the forces that expelled the Greek invading army from the country. Of even greater long-term importance, Ataturk was a pragmatic political leader with a penchant for social reform. In keeping with long-standing Ottoman concepts of government, however, he was also an elitist; his reforms did not change significantly the relationship of the privileged governing stratum with the masses, although they did alter to some extent the nature of the elite. By the mid-1990s, the continuing impact of Ataturk and his precepts in shaping the form and nature of Turkish xxv society were being challenged by Turkey's diverse ethnic, reli- gious, and social groups. Ataturk's avowed goal was to create from the Anatolian rem- nant of the Ottoman Empire a new society patterned directly on the societies of Western Europe. In pursuit of this goal, he tolerated only token opposition. Turkey's president from 1923 until his death in 1938, he apparently was persuaded that the masses needed a period of tutelage. Although the presidency technically possessed relatively few constitutional powers, Ataturk ruled for fifteen years as charismatic governor and teacher — training, cajoling, and forcing the government, his political party, the bureaucracy, the military, and the masses to behave in the manner he thought appropriate. Ataturk's "Six Arrows" — secularism, republicanism, etatism (see Glossary), populism, nationalism, and reformism — were incorporated into the constitutions of 1924, 1961, and 1982. In a general sense, Atatiirkism (also known as Kemalism) has been accepted by the Turkish political elite but has been contested by various organized groups. There is general agreement among scholars that secularism was and remains the most significant, and by far the most con- troversial, aspect of Atattirkism. The Turks, whose origins go back to Central Asia, had converted to Islam by the time they began establishing their political sovereignty in parts of Anato- lia during the tenth century. Throughout the next nine centu- ries, Islam was the primary guiding as well as delimiting force in societal development. From administrative institutions to social customs, from ideals of governance to the concepts of being a subject or a citizen, from birth to death, most aspects of life were influenced and regulated by Islamic tenets, precepts, and laws. Various forms of popular or folk Islam gained an important hold on the Turkish imagination, and Sufi brother- hoods became vital socioreligious institutions. Ataturk and his associates rejected the historical legacy of Islam and were determined to create a secular republic. Follow- ing the disestablishment of Islam and continuing into the mid- 19405, the government suppressed public manifestations and observances of religion that the secularist minority deemed inimical to the development of a modern, European-style state. The regime closed the religious schools, shut down the Sufi brotherhoods, and banned their rituals and meetings. The reformers replaced Islamic law, the seriat, with codes borrowed from European countries; dropped the Islamic calendar in xxvi favor of the Gregorian; and abolished the pervasive legal and religious functions of the religious scholars and lawyers. Atatvirk imposed outward signs of secularization by discourag- ing or outlawing articles of clothing closely identified with Islamic traditions such as the veil for women and the fez for men. Finally, the use of Arabic script for writing in Turkish was declared illegal, despite its sacerdotal association as the lan- guage of the Kuran (Quran) and hence the language of God. Although Ataturk believed that the secularist campaign made a period of authoritarian government necessary, his suc- cessors wanted to establish a democratic government. Thus, Ismet Inonu, who had become president after Atatiirk's death in 1938, permitted the creation of a multiparty political system following World War II. In the first contested election in 1946, the ruling Republican People's Party (Cumhuriyet Halk Par- tisi — CHP) retained its majority in the Turkish Grand National Assembly, although opposition candidates accused the CHP of electoral irregularities. When the Democrat Party (Demokrat Parti — DP) subsequently won a majority in the 1950 election, Inonu voluntarily relinquished power, despite offers from ele- ments of the armed forces to stage a coup. Thus began Tur- key's experiment in democracy: the military-bureaucratic elite that had established the republican order gradually turned over its power to an elected parliament, which reflected the interests and desires of broader sectors of society. Although the Kemalists have made compromises with tradi- tional forces in Turkish society, they never have abandoned the main tenets of the secularist program. By the end of the 1950s, the armed forces had assumed a role as guardians, not only of national security, but also of Atatiirk's legacy. On three occa- sions, in 1960, 1971, and 1980, the senior military intervened to safeguard Turkey's political development from forces that the military believed threatened the integrity of the state. In each case, civilian leaders had proved unable or unwilling to deliver policies acceptable to the military. In both 1960 and 1980, a military junta took over the government, and rule by martial law included widespread suppression of civil rights and purges of the political class. On both occasions, after a period of direct military rule the military restored civilian govern- ment, but only after implementing constitutional changes, social reforms, and economic policies designed to put Turkey back on the path of achieving Atatiirk's goal: a modern, secular republic. xxvii Before the 1980 military coup, Turkish society had experi- enced what was perhaps its most serious crisis since the War of Independence. The framework instituted by the relatively lib- eral constitution of 1961, along with the fragmented party sys- tem, had contributed to political disorder: unstable coalitions rapidly succeeded one another while failing to address the country's pressing social, economic, and political problems. Underlying the political crisis were rapid and profound social changes. Massive population shifts from villages to towns and cities, expanded access to primary and secondary education, the availability of mass media, and the experiences of many Turkish workers in Western Europe exposed a nation of prima- rily peasants to new and generally disruptive influences. The extension of the Westernization process from the educated elite to the Anatolian masses both challenged and reinforced the latter's adherence to Islamic and Turkish traditions. During the second half of the 1970s, the economy, which had under- gone rapid growth in the postwar decades, entered a severe depression. Turkey's economic difficulties resulted from the inherent limitations of import-substitution industrialization and were exacerbated by the deterioration of world economic conditions that followed the 1973 oil crisis. By the late 1970s, at least one-quarter of the work force was unemployed, the annual inflation rate exceeded 100 percent, and shortages of foreign exchange reduced imports of essential commodities, causing widespread reductions in industrial production. One result of these interrelated crises was the mobilization of opposing social and cultural forces, which found political expression in radical parties and organizations. These included leftists active in the Turkish Communist Party (TCP) and the Confederation of Revolutionary Trade Unions of Turkey (Turkiye Devrimci Isci Sendikalari Konfederasyonu — DISK), Islamicly motivated political elements behind Necmettin Erba- kan's National Salvation Party (Milli Selamet Partisi — MSP), and extreme nationalist groups linked to Alparslan Tiirkes's Nationalist Action Party (Milliyetci Hareket Partisi — MHP) . As political life became increasingly tense, offshoots of these polit- ical groups fought each other and carried out terrorist attacks against representatives of the established order; an estimated 5,000 persons were killed in politically related civil strife between 1971 and 1980. The coalition governments of the 1970s lacked sufficient political support to effect the kinds of social reforms that would alleviate the main causes of popular xxviii discontent, and the country consequently descended into con- ditions resembling civil war. Following the September 1980 coup, the military made the restoration of political stability its main priority. The command- ers of the armed forces formed the National Security Council (NSC — see Glossary) , which ruled the country until November 1983. The NSC ordered the arrest and imprisonment of thou- sands of militants, political leaders, and trade unionists; it also imposed widespread censorship and purged the armed forces, the bureaucracy, and the universities. These and other mea- sures effectively suppressed both violence and normal political life. The NSC's objective was to eliminate leftist, nationalist, Islamic, and ethnic organizations that contested Ataturk's polit- ical legacy. The NSC retained Turgut Ozal, an economist who had served in Suleyman Demirel's civilian cabinet ousted by the coup and who enjoyed the confidence of the international financial community, and gave him responsibility for economic policy. Although Ozal's austerity package brought immediate hardship for many Turks, it ended the balance of payments cri- sis and contributed to an economic recovery. After restoring public order and overcoming the most press- ing economic problems, the NSC supervised the drafting of a new constitution and electoral laws designed to rectify the per- ceived defects of the 1961 constitution by limiting the role of smaller parties and strengthening the powers of the president, the prime minister, and the party that won a majority in parlia- mentary elections. However, the new constitution also cur- tailed political rights, thus arousing sharp criticism both in Turkey and abroad. Particularly controversial was a ten-year ban on the political activities of about 200 leading politicians, including former prime ministers Biilent Ecevit and Demirel. The NSC sought to maintain its role by means of a clause under which the NSC chairman, General Kenan Evren, was named president for a six-year term. Having established a new political framework, the NSC grad- ually relaxed restrictions on political life and arranged a return to civilian government after a parliamentary election held in November 1983. The NSC strictly supervised this election; it allowed only three parties to present candidates, and President Evren blatantly intervened on behalf of the NSC's favorite, the Nationalist Democracy Party (Milliyetci Demokrasi Partisi — MDP). Nevertheless, Ozal's Motherland Party (Anavatan Par- tisi — ANAP), the only independently established party that had xxix been tolerated by the NSC, achieved a strong majority, an out- come that was widely interpreted as a sign of the electorate's disapproval of military rule. Ozal, whose primary goal was economic liberalization, claimed that his triumph represented a mandate for sweeping changes in the economy. In power from November 1983 to November 1989, he sought to limit state intervention in the economy. Rejecting protectionism and import substitution, he opened the economy to international markets, arguing that economic growth and technical modernization would do more than traditional social policies to ease the country's problems. His package of economic reforms aimed to make Turkey eco- nomically similar to the countries of the European Union (EU — see Glossary), a body that Ozal hoped Turkey could join. The package of reforms included reduction of government price-setting, positive real interest rates, devaluation and float- ing of the Turkish lira (TL; for value of the lira — see Glossary), liberalization of import regulations, and export subsidies. Turkey's economic performance after 1983 was impressive. Real gross domestic product (GDP — see Glossary) averaged an annual 5.5 percent growth rate. GDP actually reached 8 per- cent in 1986, higher than that of any other member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD — see Glossary). Inflation, estimated at more than 30 percent during the 1983-85 period, fell in the 1986-89 period. Unemployment, however, remained a serious problem, rising every year during the 1980s except for 1986, a year when growth was sufficient to allow employment to increase faster than the increase in the working population. The restoration of civilian rule and the general improve- ment in the overall economy failed to resolve outstanding social issues, which have continued to bedevil Turkey's leader- ship. Although the government tends to play down the diver- sity of the population, the country's inhabitants in fact form a mosaic of diverse religious and ethnic groups. Most of the country's citizens continue to accept as true Turks only Sunni (see Glossary) Muslims whose native language is Turkish — effectively excluding other religious and ethnic groups such as the Alevi Muslims and Kurds, who together comprise at least 20 percent of the population. Conflicts between the country's Turkish-speaking, Sunni majority and its various ethnic and religious minorities have intensified since the mid-1980s, threatening to disrupt public order and projecting an illiberal xxx spirit at odds with the dominant political culture of the EU that Turkey aspires to join. In effect, the question of Turkey's national identity remains a focal point for political controversy and social conflict. The government's troubled relations with its Kurdish minor- ity reveal the limits of social integration. Beginning in 1984, the Kurdistan Workers' Party (Partiya Karkere Kurdistan — PKK) launched guerrilla attacks on government personnel and installations in the predominantly Kurdish-populated prov- inces of southeastern Turkey. The PKK's announced objective was the establishment of a separate state of Kurdistan. PKK guerrillas have evoked some sympathy among Kurds in the southeast, a region characterized by endemic poverty, lack of jobs, inadequate schools and health care facilities, and severe underdevelopment of basic infrastructure such as electricity, piped water, and sewerage systems. The Ozal government sought to counter the appeal of the PKK by making govern- ment aid to the long-neglected southeast a priority, and it invested large sums to extend electricity, telephones, and roads to the region. Ozal envisioned the major southeastern Anatolia irrigation and power project as a program to provide the basis for real economic development that eventually would assuage local resentments of the central government. In the short run, however, the government has continued to depend on police actions to suppress the activities of Kurdish insurgents. Never- theless, the armed forces have been unable to maintain order in the region, despite the deployment of large military and paramilitary forces, and the southeastern provinces remain under de facto martial law. Turkey also has experienced a revival of religiously moti- vated political activity since the early 1980s. Veteran Islamist activist Necmettin Erbakan organized the new Welfare Party (Refah Partisi — RP; also seen as Prosperity Party) in 1983, but the military prohibited it from participating in the parliamen- tary elections held in the fall of that year. Subsequently, the new civilian government under Ozal relaxed restrictions on avowedly religious parties, thus enabling the Welfare Party to organize freely and compete in local and national elections. With the notable exception of Erbakan, the Welfare Party's leaders represent a new generation that has grown up and been educated in a secular Turkey but professes a commitment to Islamic values. The Welfare Party rejects the use of political violence and seeks to propagate its political message through xxxi example. Working at the grassroots level in Turkey's cities and towns, the party's strongest appeal has been in lower-middle- class neighborhoods. However, the Welfare Party also has attracted support among some upper-middle-class profession- als and ethnic Kurds. Although the Welfare Party calls for the application of Islamic principles in relations between govern- ment agencies and the people, its primary appeal seems to derive from its advocacy of economic reform policies designed to control inflation and limit the amount of interest banks may charge on loans. The Welfare Party's popularity has grown gradually but steadily. In the 1991 parliamentary elections, it obtained more than 10 percent of the vote, thus surpassing the minimum threshold for winning seats in the National Assembly. Its elec- toral performance in the 1994 municipal elections was even better: the party won 19 percent of the total vote and control of the government of several large cities, including both Ankara and Istanbul. In the December 1995 National Assembly elec- tions, the Welfare Party won 21 percent of the vote and the largest number of seats of any party — 158. The return to civilian rule in 1983 also affected Turkey's for- eign policy. The three years of military government had harmed the country's reputation among its allies in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the OECD, all of which had democratic governments. Turkey's leaders had been committed to becoming an equal partner of the countries of Western Europe since the late 1940s. For example, Turkey became a member of the Council of Europe in 1949, dis- patched its troops to participate in the United States-led United Nations military force in Korea in 1950, and became a full member of the NATO military alliance in 1952. Thus, West European criticisms of Turkey's undemocratic government and human rights abuses were very painful. In addition, Turkey's image suffered from the continuing tension with neighboring Greece — also a member of NATO — over Cyprus and the con- trol of the Aegean Sea. Ozal therefore wanted to repair Tur- key's international reputation as quickly as possible. He envisioned EU membership as an important means to demon- strate that Turkey is an essential part of Western Europe. In addition, he believed that EU membership would provide Tur- key with vital economic benefits. Although a substantial portion of the political and economic elite supported Ozal's objective of EU membership, it was not a xxxii goal shared by all Turks. For example, the Welfare Party opposed any further integration with Europe, arguing instead that Turkey should search for new export markets in its natural and historical hinterland, the Middle East. The Ozal govern- ment did not dismiss the idea of expanding political and eco- nomic ties with other Islamic countries, and actually did cultivate relations with Iran and Iraq. These two neighbors were at war with each other from 1980 to 1988, and Turkey was able to reap economic dividends by remaining strictly neutral with respect to that conflict. Nevertheless, the government con- tinued to believe that Turkey's national interests would be served best by strengthening ties to Western Europe. Thus, Ozal undertook a series of economic and political reform mea- sures that he believed would provide credibility for Turkey's formal application to join the EU. The application finally was submitted in April 1987. To demonstrate that Turkey was com- mitted to democracy, and thus worthy of membership in the EU, all martial law decrees were repealed in March, although a state of emergency remained in force in the southeastern prov- inces. New parliamentary elections also were announced for the fall, a full year before they were required. The November 1987 parliamentary elections were a turning point in the democratization process in Turkey inasmuch as these were the first genuinely free elections since the 1980 coup. All political parties were permitted to take part. In addi- tion, the ban on political activities of 200 senior political lead- ers had been lifted as a result of a popular referendum held earlier in September 1987. Consequently, former prime minis- ters Suleyman Demirel and Bulent Ecevit campaigned actively, the former as head of the True Path Party (Dogru Yol Partisi — DYP) and the latter as head of the Democratic Left Party (Demokratik Sol Partisi — DSP). Although Ozal's Motherland Party retained its parliamentary majority (292 of 450 seats), the True Path Party obtained fifty-nine seats, thus gaining for Demirel an important national political platform. During the next four years, Demirel used his organizing and persuasive skills to rebuild the True Path Party with the objective of atuacting enough Motherland voters to propel his party to the leading position. Within eighteen months, Demirel's persistent criticisms of Ozal administration policies brought initial politi- cal dividends for the True Path Party. As a result of the March 1989 municipal council elections, the Motherland Party suf- fered a major setback; it received only 26 percent of the total xxxiii vote nationwide and ranked third behind the Social Demo- cratic Populist Party (Sosyal Demokrat Halkci Parti — SHP) and the True Path Party. Neither Demirel nor other True Path leaders considered the opportunity to share responsibility for local government to be equivalent to the control of the national government, which remained in the hands of Ozal's Motherland Party. However, they appreciated the significance of their increased share of the popular vote and the fact that they had party cadres in posi- tions to dispense some city and town patronage. Capitalizing on the momentum of the victories, the True Path Party intensi- fied its organizing efforts in anticipation of the next parliamen- tary elections. These elections, which were held in October 1991, proved to be both sweet and sour for Demirel. The True Path Party defeated its rival, the Motherland Party, by edging it out in the popular vote, 27 to 24 percent. Although Demirel could draw satisfaction from the True Path's emergence from the elections as the largest party in parliament with 178 seats, he simultaneously was disappointed that it had not won the absolute majority — 226 seats — required to form a government. After weeks of negotiations, Demirel and SHP leader Erdal Inonii — the son of Ismet Inonii — reached agreement on the formation of a True Path-SHP coalition government. Thus, Demirel, whom the military had overthrown in 1980, once again became prime minister of Turkey. Demirel's victory was not at the expense of Ozal. Two years earlier, Ozal had been elected president to replace General Evren, whose constitutionally mandated seven-year term had concluded at the end of 1989. The 1982 constitution provides for the president to be elected by the parliament. Because the Motherland Party still held a majority of parliamentary seats in 1989, Ozal's election seemed assured once he announced his candidacy. Nevertheless, Demirel and other politicians refused to support Ozal's bid for the presidency, and their tactics pre- vented his confirmation until the third ballot. Demirel's own opposition to Ozal seemed to be more personal than ideologi- cal. Prior to the 1980 coup, Ozal had been a member of Demirel's Justice Party (Adalet Partisi — AP) and had held a junior ministerial post in the Demirel cabinet. Demirel appar- ently never forgave Ozal for joining the military government following the coup. Thus, when Demirel became prime minis- ter, Turkish politicians had reservations as to whether he and President Ozal would be able to cooperate. Indeed, as leader of xxxiv an opposition party in parliament during 1990 and 1991, Demirel had expressed frequent criticism of Ozal's role in for- eign policy, especially the latter's decisions to align Turkey on the side of the United States-led coalition against Iraq during the Kuwait crisis and Persian Gulf War of 1990-91. Neverthe- less, once Demirel became prime minister, he and Ozal did cooperate. Demirel had served as prime minister for less than eighteen months when the unexpected death of Ozal in April 1993 pro- vided the opportunity for him to succeed to the presidency. During his tenure as head of government, Demirel had been preoccupied with both domestic and international challenges. Within Turkey, the PKK had intensified its attacks on Turkish security and civilian personnel in southeastern Anatolia. The PKK's insurgency had received an unexpected boost from the 1991 collapse of central government authority in northern Iraq's Kurdish region, which borders southeastern Turkey. Since the mid-1980s, the PKK had established in this territory clandestine bases from which it carried out some of its opera- tions. By the end of 1991, the absence of any security on the Iraqi side of the border had enabled the PKK both to expand its network of bases and to use them as sanctuaries. One of Demirel's most important policy decisions was to approve in October 1992 a plan by the Turkish military to attack PKK bases in northern Iraq. This plan was particularly controversial because three of Turkey's NATO allies — Britain, France, and the United States — were enforcing a ban on any Iraqi military presence in northern Iraq in order to protect Iraqi Kurds from being attacked by their own government. Demirel's government also had to deal with the unantici- pated collapse of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia. The Soviet Union had been a powerful and generally feared neighbor ever since the establishment of the Turkish Republic. Its sud- den disappearance necessitated the formulation of new diplo- matic, economic, and political strategies to deal with the multifaceted consequences. Demirel and his colleagues had a special interest in Central Asia, and they hoped that Turkey could serve as a role model for the new Turkic-speaking states of Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. However, from a geographic perspective, these new countries were closer to Iran than to Turkey, and officials frequently expressed concern about suspected Iranian inten- tions in Central Asia. Throughout 1992 the Demirel adminis- XXXV tration perceived Turkey to be engaged in a competitive race with Iran for regional influence. However, by the time Demirel became president in May 1993, most officials had come to real- ize that neither their country nor Iran had sufficient resources for such a competition. Demirel had to give up his leadership of the True Path Party when the National Assembly elected him president. The DYP deputies in the assembly subsequently chose Tansu (filler as their leader — the first woman to head a political party — and in June 1993 she became Turkey's first woman prime minister. Under (filler's administration, the status of Turkey's Kurdish minority continued to be the country's most serious domestic problem, one that had multiple international repercussions. Although the PKK had renounced its goal of a separate Kurd- ish state in 1993, reaching a political compromise proved diffi- cult because the Turkish military insisted on a military solution. Because both (filler and Demirel were sensitive about past military interventions in domestic politics, neither was prepared to risk a civilian-military confrontation by challeng- ing the military's assumption of almost a free hand in dealing with the security situation in southeastern Turkey. By 1995 more than 220,000 soldiers, in addition to 50,000 gendarmerie and other security forces, were stationed in the southeast. Nev- ertheless, the progressive intensification of the military offen- sive against the PKK failed to repress the PKK's ability to mount deadly assaults. The military campaign provoked criticism from Kurdish and Turkish politicians, and in response the military resurrected the Prevention of Terrorism Law, which criminalized any activ- ity — including speech — that threatened the integrity of the state. This law was used in 1994 and 1995 to arrest journalists and elected members of the National Assembly, who were tried in special state security courts that are under the jurisdiction of the military. The Kurdish problem has had significant reverberations on Turkey's foreign policy. The arrest of seven members of the National Assembly, all of whom were Kurdish deputies charged with endangering state security through their discussions of the Kurdish issue with fellow parliamentarians in Europe and North America, was especially troublesome for EU countries. Member governments of the EU condemned the arrests, the stripping of the Kurdish deputies' parliamentary immunity, and the subsequent December 1994 sentencing of the deputies xxx vi to long prison terms. Much to the embarrassment of the Turk- ish government, imprisoned Deputy Leyla Zane, who was one of the first women elected to the National Assembly, was among the several human rights activists whom the Norwegian parlia- ment nominated for the 1995 Nobel Peace Prize. Several EU countries cited the trial of the elected Kurdish deputies and similar prosecutions of journalists as well as of Turkey's most famous novelist, Yashar Kamal, as evidence that authoritarian- ism was stronger than democratic practices in Turkey and that, therefore, the country's outstanding application for EU mem- bership should not be considered. Because joining the EU was as important an economic goal for the (filler administration as it had been for her predeces- sors, (filler sought to dampen European criticisms in January 1995 by proposing to repeal those clauses of the Prevention of Terrorism Law that criminalized speech and publications. Her objective was to obtain enough support to win EU approval of an agreement that accepted Turkey into a customs union with the EU. The EU voted in March 1995 to accept Turkey into a customs union on condition that the Council of Europe (the European parliament) certify that the country had made progress in the institutionalization of democratic practices. Immediately following the EU vote, a new crisis in Turkish- EU relations erupted when more than 35,000 Turkish troops invaded northern Iraq in yet another attempt to destroy sus- pected PKK bases. The military offensive in northern Iraq lasted for more than three months and reignited European criticisms of Turkish policies. Attention inevitably focused on the government of Turkey's relations with its Kurdish minority. Criticism of Turkey's human rights practices at an April 1995 meeting of the Council of Europe was so intense that the Turk- ish delegates walked out, partly in protest and partly to avoid the humiliation of being present for a vote against Turkey. To dilute European criticisms, (filler proposed that the National Assembly adopt amendments to the 1982 constitution that would strengthen democratic procedures. For example, the amendments would end the ban on political activities by associ- ations such as labor unions and professional groups, permit civil servants and university students to organize, and make it difficult for courts to strip parliamentary deputies of their immunity from prosecution. The National Assembly's adoption of the amendments in July 1995, coupled with the withdrawal of the last Turkish military units from Iraq, helped to ease xxxvii some of the tension between Turkey and its erstwhile Euro- pean friends. The democratization process is not without controversy within Turkey. An influential minority of the political elite believe that the country's laws and institutions provide ade- quate protection of civil liberties and that EU pressures consti- tute unacceptable interference in Turkey's internal affairs. This view is particularly strong among some military officers, and their opposition to (filler's proposal to repeal Article 8 of the Prevention of Terrorism Law was sufficient to persuade a majority of deputies in the National Assembly to vote against the bill. The failure to win approval for repealing the controversial Article 8 of the Prevention of Terrorism Law had serious impli- cations for the (filler government. During the summer of 1995, the DYP coalition partner, the SHP, effectively dissolved itself by incorporating with the more liberal Republican People's Party (GHP), which, since its revival in 1992, had adopted a strong position in favor of abolishing Article 8. The merger necessitated party elections for a new leader, elections that resulted in Deniz Baykal's selection as head of the expanded CHP in September 1995. Baykal not only was opposed to Arti- cle 8, but also advocated civil rights legislation that would include punishment for security officials who abuse the rights of political detainees. Given his views, Baykal was not expected to keep the CHP in the coalition government, and, only ten days after his victory, he withdrew, causing the government's collapse, (filler tried to form a minority government in Octo- ber, but within ten days was forced to resign for the second time in less than one month when her DYP government failed to win a vote of confidence from the National Assembly. Baykal then agreed to join a new coalition government on two condi- tions: that the Article 8 amendments be resubmitted to the National Assembly and that new parliamentary elections be scheduled, (filler imposed strict party discipline for the second vote, thus ensuring a majority favoring passage of the amend- ments to Article 8 of the Prevention of Terrorism Law, and she reluctantly called for new elections, to be held in December 1995. The December 1995 elections represented a major setback for filler and her party, which came in third with 19 percent of the vote. The Welfare Party emerged in first place with 21 per- cent of the vote, followed by the Motherland Party with 19.6 xxxviii percent. The failure of any party to win a majority of seats in the National Assembly mandated the formation of a coalition government. However, this task proved to be politically difficult because none of the secular parties was willing to participate in a Welfare-dominated government, and neither the DYP nor the Motherland Party was keen on cooperation. Finally, after more than ten weeks of sometimes tense political wrangling, Caller and Motherland Party leader Mesut Yilmaz agreed to put aside their bitter rivalry and form a minority government with Yilmaz as prime minister for the first year and (filler replacing him in 1997. This Mother lan d-DYP coalition won a vote of confidence in March 1996 because Ecevit's DSP, which had seventy-five National Assembly seats, agreed to abstain on confidence votes. The performance of Turkey's economy was mixed during 1995. The monetary policies of the (filler government included strict controls over public-sector expenditures, which contrib- uted to an easing of the financial crisis that had developed in early 1994. Although exports rose steadily during the first two quarters of the year, imports increased at a faster rate, and this surge in imports added to the country's severe balance of pay- ments deficit. In addition, inflation continued to be a major economic problem, totalling 78.9 percent for all of 1995. Sev- eral years of high inflation rates and low wage increases had aggravated employer-employee relations. The strain was reflected in the large number of strikes during 1995, including a crippling two-month-long strike by more than 350,000 public- sector workers in the autumn. Moreover, the privatization of state-owned enterprises — the principal feature of the (filler administration's structural adjustment program — made little progress in 1995. Within the National Assembly, a majority of deputies opposed the sale of major public factories for ideolog- ical (the relevant industries were strategic) or political (fear that sales would lead to increased unemployment) reasons. March 18, 1996 Paul M. Pitman, III, and Eric Hooglund xxxix Chapter 1. Historical Setting Isak Pasa Palace, in Dogubayazit, east central Turkey, built in 1685 TURKEY IS A NEW COUNTRY in an old land. The modern Turkish state — beginning with the creation of the Republic of Turkey in the years immediately after World War I — drew on a national consciousness that had developed only in the late nineteenth century. But the history of nomadic Turkish tribes can be traced with certainty to the sixth century A.D., when they wandered the steppes of central Asia. Asia Minor, which the Turks invaded in the eleventh century, has a recorded his- tory that dates back to the Hittites, who flourished there in the second millennium B.C. Archaeological evidence of far older cultures has been found in the region, however. The term Turkey, although sometimes used to signify the Ottoman Empire, was not assigned to a specific political entity or geographic area until the republic was founded in 1923. The conquering Turks called Asia Minor, the large peninsular terri- tory they had wrested from the Byzantine Empire, by its Greek name, Ajiatole (sunrise; figuratively, the East), or Anatolia. The term Anatolia is also used when events described affected both that region and Turkish Thrace ("Turkey-in-Europe") because of the two areas' closely linked political, social, and cultural development. Anatolia is a bridge connecting the Middle East and Europe, and it shares in the history of both those parts of the world. Despite the diversity of its peoples and their cultures, and the constantly shifting borders of its ethnic map, Anatolia has a his- tory characterized by remarkable continuity. Wave after wave of conquerors and settlers have imposed their language and other unique features of their culture on it, but they also have invari- ably assimilated the customs of the peoples who preceded them. The history of Turkey encompasses, first, the history of Ana- tolia before the coming of the Turks and of the civilizations — Hittite, Thracian, Hellenistic, and Byzantine — of which the Turkish nation is the heir by assimilation or example. Second, it includes the history of the Turkish peoples, including the Seljuks, who brought Islam and the Turkish language to Anato- lia. Third, it is the history of the Ottoman Empire, a vast, cos- mopolitan, pan-Islamic state that developed from a small Turkish amirate in Anatolia and that for centuries was a world power. 3 Turkey: A Country Study Finally, Turkey's history is that of the republic established in 1923 under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal (1881-1938), called Ataturk — the "Father Turk." The creation of the new republic in the heartland of the old Islamic empire was achieved in the face of internal traditionalist opposition and foreign intervention. Atatiirk's goal was to build on the ruins of Ottoman Turkey a new country and society patterned directly on Western Europe. He equated Westernization with the intro- duction of technology, the modernization of administration, and the evolution of democratic institutions. The Turkish horsemen who stormed into Anatolia in the eleventh century were called gazis (warriors of the faith), but they followed their tribal leaders to win booty and to take land as well as to spread Islam. The Ottoman Empire, built on the conquests of the gazis, was Islamic but not specifically Turkish. Engendered in reaction to this Ottoman universalism, early Turkish nationalism was often pan-Turanian, envisioning a common destiny for all Turkic-speaking peoples. By contrast, Ataturk narrowed the focus of his nationalism to the Turks of Turkey. Under his influence, twentieth-century Turkish histori- ography bypassed the Islamic Ottoman period to link the Turk- ish nation with ancient Anatolia in such a way that the Hittites, for instance, were recognized as proto-Turks from whom mod- ern Turks can trace descent. Although contemporary Turkey is relatively homogeneous linguistically, it is estimated that per- haps 75 percent of the country's genetic pool is non-Turkish in origin. Atatiirk's ideological legacy — known as Kemalism — consists of the "Six Arrows": republicanism, nationalism, populism, reformism, etatism (see Glossary), and secularism. These prin- ciples have been embodied in successive constitutions, and appeals for both reforms and retrenchment have been made in their name. In the late 1940s, Atatiirk's long-time lieutenant and succes- sor, Ismet Inonu (earlier known as Ismet Pasha), introduced democratic elections and opened the political system to multi- party activity. In 1950 the Republican People's Party (Cumhu- riyet Halk Partisi — CHP) — Atatiirk's party — was badly defeated at the polls by the new Democrat Party, headed by Adnan Men- deres. The Menderes government attempted to redirect the economy, allowing for greater private initiative, and was more tolerant of traditional religious and social attitudes in the coun- tryside. In their role as guardians of Kemalism, military leaders 4 Historical Setting became convinced in 1960 that the Menderes government had departed dangerously from the principles of the republic's founder, and overthrew it in a military coup. After a brief inter- val of military rule, a new, liberal constitution was adopted for the so-called Second Republic, and the government returned to civilian hands. The 1960s witnessed coalition governments led, until 1965, by the CHP under Inonu. A new grouping — the right-wing Jus- tice Party organized under Suleyman Demirel and recognized as the successor to the outlawed Democrat Party — came to power in that year. In opposition, the new leader of the CHP, Biilent Ecevit, introduced a platform that shifted Atatiirk's party leftward. Political factionalism became so extreme as to prejudice public order and the smooth functioning of the gov- ernment and economy. In 1971 the leaders of the armed forces demanded appoint- ment of a government "above parties" charged with restoring law and order. A succession of nonparty governments came to power, but, unable to gain adequate parliamentary support, each quickly fell during a period of political instability that lasted until 1974. Demirel and Ecevit alternated in office as head of government during the remainder of the 1970s, a period marked by the rise of political extremism and religious revivalism, terrorist activities, and rapid economic changes accompanied by high inflation and severe unemployment. The apparent inability of parliamentary government to deal with the situation prompted another military coup in 1980, led by Chief of Staff General Kenan Evren. The new regime's National Security Council acted to restore order and stabilize the economy. It also moved deliberately toward reinstating civilian rule. A constitution for the Third Republic, promul- gated in 1982, increased the executive authority of the presi- dent and provided for Evren's appointment to a seven-year term in that office. General elections to the new National Assembly held the following year enabled Turgut Ozal to form a one-party majority government that promised to bring stabil- ity to the political process. In two subsequent parliamentary elections, in 1987 and 1991, Turkey demonstrated a commitment to pluralist politics and a peaceful transfer of power. The 1991 election ended the eight-year rule of Ozal's Motherland Party and brought to power the True Path Party, headed by Suleyman Demirel. Upon the death of Ozal in 1993, Demirel ascended to the pres- 5 Turkey: A Country Study idency, and Tansu (filler became Turkey's first woman prime minister. Ancient Anatolia There is abundant archaeological evidence of a thriving neolithic culture in Anatolia at least as early as the seventh mil- lennium B.C. What may have been the world's first urban set- tlement (dated ca. 6500 B.C.) has been uncovered at Qatalhuyuk in the Konya Ovasi (Konya Basin). Introduced early in the third millennium B.C., metallurgy made possible a flourishing "copper age" (ca. 2500-2000 B.C.) during which cultural patterns throughout the region were remarkably uni- form. The use of bronze weapons and implements was wide- spread by 2000 B.C. Colonies of Assyrian merchants, who settled in Anatolia during the copper age, provided metal for the military empires of Mesopotamia, and their accounts and business correspondence are the earliest written records found in Anatolia. From about 1500 B.C., southern Anatolia, which had plentiful sources of ore and numerous furnace sites, devel- oped as a center of iron production. Two of the area's most cel- ebrated archaeological excavations are the sites at Troy and Hattusas (Bogazkoy) (see fig. 2). The cape projecting into the Aegean between the Dar- danelles and the Gulf of Edremit was known in antiquity as Troas. There, a thirty-meter-high mound called Hisarlik was identified as the site of ancient Troy in diggings begun by Ger- man archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann in the 1870s. The first five levels of the nine discovered at Hisarlik contained remains of cities from the third millennium B.C. that controlled access to the shortest crossing of the Dardanelles and that probably derived their prosperity from tolls. Artifacts give evidence of 1,000 years of cultural continuity in the cities built on these lev- els. A sharp break with the past occurred on the sixth level, set- tled about 1900 B.C. by newcomers believed to have been related to the early Greeks. Built after an earthquake devas- tated the previous city about 1300 B.C., the seventh level was clearly the victim of sacking and burning about 1150 B.C., and it is recognized as having been the Troy of Homer's Iliad. Hisar- lik subsequently was the site of a Greek city, Ilion, and a Roman one, Ilium. Hittites Late in the third millennium B.C., waves of invaders speak- 6 Historical Setting ing Indo-European languages crossed the Caucasus Mountains into Anatolia. Among them were the bronze-working, chariot- borne warriors who conquered and settled the central plain. Building on older cultures, these invaders borrowed even their name, the Hittites, from the indigenous Hatti whom they had subjugated. They adopted the native Hattic deities and adapted to their written language the cuneiform alphabet and literary conventions of the Semitic cultures of Mesopotamia. The Hit- tites imposed their political and social organization on their dominions in the Anatolian interior and northern Syria, where the indigenous peasantry supported the Hittite warrior caste with rents, services, and taxes. In time the Hittites won reputa- tions as merchants and statesmen who schooled the ancient Middle East in both commerce and diplomacy. The Hittite Empire achieved the zenith of its political power and cultural accomplishment in the fourteenth and thirteenth centuries B.C., but the state collapsed after 1200 B.C. when the Phry- gians, clients of the Hittites, rebelled and burned Hattusas. Phrygians and Lydians The twelfth to ninth centuries B.C. were a time of turmoil throughout Anatolia and the Aegean world. The destruction of Troy, Hattusas, and numerous other cities in the region was a collective disaster that coincided with the rise of the aggressive Assyrian Empire in Mesopotamia, the Dorian invasion of Greece, and the appearance of the "sea peoples" who ravaged the Aegean and eastern Mediterranean. The first light to penetrate the dark age in Anatolia was lit by the very Phrygians who had destroyed Hattusas. Architects, builders, and skilled workers of iron, they had assimilated the Hittites' syncretic culture and adopted many of their political institutions. Phrygian kings apparently ruled most of western and central Anatolia in the ninth century B.C. from their capi- tal at Gordium (a site sixty kilometers southwest of modern Ankara). Phrygian strength soon waned, however, and the kingdom was overthrown in the seventh century B.C. by the Cimmerians, a nomadic people who had been pursued over the Caucasus into Anatolia by the Scythians. Order was restored in Anatolia by the Lydians, a Thracian warrior caste who dominated the indigenous peasantry and derived their great wealth from alluvial gold found in the tribu- taries of the Hermus River (Gediz Nehri). From their court at 7 Turkey: A Country Study Historical Setting Sardis, such Lydian kings as Croesus controlled western Anato- lia until their kingdom fell to the Persians in 546 B.C. Armenians and Kurds The Armenians took refuge in the Lake Van region in the seventh century B.C., apparently in reaction to Cimmerian raids. Their country was described by Xenophon around 400 B.C. as a tributary of Persia. By the first century B.C., a united Armenian kingdom that stretched from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea had been established as a client of the Roman Empire to buffer the frontier with Persia. Xenophon also recorded the presence of the Kurds. Con- temporary linguistic evidence has challenged the previously held view that the Kurds are descendants of the Medes, although many Kurds still accept this explanation of their ori- gin. Kurdish people migrated from the Eurasian steppes in the second millennium B.C. and joined indigenous inhabitants liv- ing in the region. Greeks The Aegean coast of Anatolia was an integral part of a Minoan-Mycenean civilization (ca. 2600-1200 B.C.) that drew its cultural impulses from Crete. During the Aegean region's so-called Dark Age (ca. 1050-800 B.C.), Ionian Greek refugees fled across the sea to Anatolia, then under Lydian rule, to escape the onslaught of the Dorians. Many more cities were founded along the Anatolian coast during the great period of Greek expansion after the eighth century B.C. One among them was Byzantium, a distant colony established on the Bosporus by the city-state of Megara. Despite endemic political unrest, the cities founded by the Ionians and subsequent Greek settlers prospered from commerce with Phrygia and Lydia, grew in size and number, and generated a renaissance that put Ionia in the cultural vanguard of the Hellenic world. At first the Greeks welcomed the Persians, grateful to be freed from Lydian control. But when the Persians began to impose unpopular tyrants on the city-states, the Greeks rebelled and called on their kinsmen in Greece for aid. In 334 B.C., Alexander the Great crossed the Hellespont, defeated the Persians at the Granicus River (Biga Qayi), and during four years of campaigning liberated the Ionian city-states, incorpo- rating them into an empire that at his death in 323 B.C. stretched from the Nile to the Indus. 9 Turkey: A Country Study After Alexander died, control of Anatolia was contested by several of the Macedonian generals among whom his empire was divided. By 280 B.C. one of them, Seleucus Nicator, had made good his claim to an extensive kingdom that included southern and western Anatolia and Thrace as well as Syria, Mesopotamia, and, for a time, Persia. Under the Seleucid Dynasty, which survived until 64 B.C., colonists were brought from Greece, and the process of hellenization was extended among the non-Greek elites. The Seleucids were plagued by rebellions, and their domains in Anatolia were steadily eaten away by secession and attacks by rival Hellenistic regimes. Pergamum became independent in 262 B.C., during the Attalid Dynasty, and won fame as the para- gon of Hellenistic states. Noted for the cleanliness of its streets and the splendor of its art, Pergamum, in west-central Anatolia, derived its extraordinary wealth from trade in pitch, parch- ment, and perfume, while slave labor produced a food surplus on scientifically managed state farms. It was also a center of learning that boasted a medical school and a library second in renown only to that of Alexandria. But Pergamum was both despised and envied by the other Greek states because of its alliance with Rome. Rome and the Byzantine Empire The last of the Attalid kings bequeathed Pergamum to his Roman allies upon his death in 138 B.C. Rome organized this extensive territory under a proconsul as the province of Asia. All of Anatolia except Armenia, which was a Roman client- state, was integrated into the imperial system by A.D. 43. After the accession of the Roman emperor Augustus (r. 27 B.C.-A.D. 14), and for generations thereafter, the Anatolian provinces enjoyed prosperity and security. The cities were administered by local councils and sent delegates to provincial assemblies that advised the Roman governors. Their inhabitants were citi- zens of a cosmopolitan world state, subject to a common legal system and sharing a common Roman identity. Roman in alle- giance and Greek in culture, the region nonetheless retained its ethnic complexity. In A.D. 285, the emperor Diocletian undertook the reorga- nization of the Roman Empire, dividing jurisdiction between its Latin-speaking and Greek-speaking halves. In 330 Dio- cletian's successor, Constantine, established his capital at the Greek city of Byzantium, a "New Rome" strategically situated 10 Historical Setting on the European side of the Bosporus at its entrance to the Sea of Marmara. For nearly twelve centuries the city, embellished and renamed Constantinople, remained the capital of the Roman Empire — better known in its continuous development in the East as the Byzantine Empire. Christianity was introduced to Anatolia through the mission- ary activity of Saint Paul, a Greek-speaking Jew from Tarsus in Cilicia, and his companions. Christians possibly even consti- tuted a majority of the population in most of Anatolia by the time Christianity was granted official toleration under the Edict of Milan in A.D. 313. Before the end of the fourth century, a patriarchate was established in Constantinople with ecclesiasti- cal jurisdiction over much of the Greek East. The basilica of Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom), whose construction in Constan- tinople was ordered by Emperor Justinian in 532, became the spiritual focus of Greek Christendom. Although Greek in language and culture, the Byzantine Empire was thoroughly Roman in its laws and administration. The emperor's Greek-speaking subjects, conscious of their imperial vocation, called themselves romaioi — Romans. Almost until the end of its long history, the Byzantine Empire was seen as ecumenical — intended to encompass all Christian peoples — rather than as a specifically Greek state. In the early seventh century, the emperor in Constantinople presided over a realm that included not only Greece and Ana- tolia but Syria, Egypt, Sicily, most of Italy, and the Balkans, with outposts across North Africa as far as Morocco. Anatolia was the most productive part of this extensive empire and was also the principal reservoir of manpower for its defense. With the loss of Syria to Muslim conquest in the seventh century, Anato- lia became the frontier as well as the heartland of the empire. The military demands imposed on the Byzantine state to police its provinces and defend its frontiers were enormous, but despite the gradual contraction of the empire and frequent political unrest, Byzantine forces generally remained strong until the eleventh century. Turkish Origins The first historical references to the Turks appear in Chi- nese records dating around 200 B.C. These records refer to tribes called the Hsiung-nu (an early form of the Western term Hun) , who lived in an area bounded by the Altai Mountains, Lake Baykal, and the northern edge of the Gobi Desert, and 1! Turkey: A Country Study Historical Setting who are believed to have been the ancestors of the Turks (see fig. 3). Specific references in Chinese sources in the sixth cen- tury A.D. identify the tribal kingdom called Tu-Kue located on the Orkhon River south of Lake Baykal. The khans (chiefs) of this tribe accepted the nominal suzerainty of the Tang Dynasty. The earliest known example of writing in a Turkic language was found in that area and has been dated around A.D. 730. Other Turkish nomads from the Altai region founded the Gortiirk Empire, a confederation of tribes under a dynasty of khans whose influence extended during the sixth through eighth centuries from the Aral Sea to the Hindu Kush in the land bridge known as Transoxania (i.e., across the Oxus River). The Gorturks are known to have been enlisted by a Byzantine emperor in the seventh century as allies against the Sassanians. In the eighth century, separate Turkish tribes, among them the Oguz, moved south of the Oxus River, while others migrated west to the northern shore of the Black Sea. Great Seljuks The Turkish migrations after the sixth century were part of a general movement of peoples out of central Asia during the first millennium A.D. that was influenced by a number of inter- related factors — climatic changes, the strain of growing popula- tions on a fragile pastoral economy, and pressure from stronger neighbors also on the move. Among those who migrated were the Oguz Turks, who had embraced Islam in the tenth century. They established themselves around Bukhara in Transoxania under their khan, Seljuk. Split by dissension among the tribes, one branch of the Oguz, led by descendants of Seljuk, moved west and entered service with the Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad. The Turkish horsemen, known as gazis, were organized into tribal bands to defend the frontiers of the caliphate, often against their own kinsmen. However, in 1055 a Seljuk khan, Tugrul Bey, occupied Baghdad at the head of an army com- posed of gazis and mamluks (slave-soldiers, a number of whom became military leaders and rulers). Tugrul forced the caliph (the spiritual leader of Islam) to recognize him as sultan, or temporal leader, in Persia and Mesopotamia. While they engaged in state building, the Seljuks also emerged as the champions of Sunni (see Glossary) Islam against the religion's Shia (see Glossary) sect. Tugrul's successor, Mehmet ibn Daud (r. 1063-72) — better known as Alp Arslan, the "Lion Hero" — 13 Turkey: A Country Study prepared for a campaign against the Shia Fatimid caliphate in Egypt but was forced to divert his attention to Anatolia by the gazis, on whose endurance and mobility the Seljuks depended. The Seljuk elite could not persuade these gazis to live within the framework of a bureaucratic Persian state, content with col- lecting taxes and patrolling ttade routes. Each year the gazis cut deeper into Byzantine territory, raiding and taking booty according to their tradition. Some served as mercenaries in the private wars of Byzantine nobles and occasionally settled on land they had taken. The Seljuks followed the gazis into Anato- lia in order to retain control over them. In 1071 Alp Arslan routed the Byzantine army at Manzikert near Lake Van, open- ing all of Anatolia to conquest by the Turks. Armenia had been annexed by the Byzantine Empire in 1045, but religious animosity between the Armenians and the Greeks prevented these two Christian peoples from cooperat- ing against the Turks on the frontier. Although Christianity had been adopted as the official religion of the state by King Titidates III around A.D. 300, nearly 100 years before similar action was taken in the Roman Empire, Armenians were con- verted to a form of Christianity at variance with the Orthodox tradition of the Greek church, and they had their own patri- archate independent of Constantinople. After their conquest by the Sassanians around 400, their religion bound them together as a nation and provided the inspiration for a flower- ing of Armenian culture in the fifth century. When their home- land fell to the Seljuks in the late eleventh century, large numbers of Armenians were dispersed throughout the Byzan- tine Empire, many of them settling in Constantinople, where in its centuries of decline they became generals and statesmen as well as craftsmen, builders, and traders. Sultanate of Rum Within ten years of the Battle of Manzikert, the Seljuks had won control of most of Anatolia. Although successful in the west, the Seljuk sultanate in Baghdad reeled under attacks from the Mongols in the east and was unable — indeed unwill- ing — to exert its authority directly in Anatolia. The gazis carved out a number of states there, under the nominal suzerainty of Baghdad, states that were continually reinforced by further Turkish immigration. The strongest of these states to emerge was the Seljuk sultanate of Rum ("Rome," i.e., Byzantine Empire), which had its capital at Konya (Iconium). During the 14 Historical Setting twelfth and thirteenth centuries, Rum became dominant over the other Turkish states (see fig. 4). The society and economy of the Anatolian countryside were unchanged by the Seljuks, who had simply replaced Byzantine officials with a new elite that was Turkish and Muslim. Conver- sion to Islam and the imposition of the language, mores, and customs of the Turks progressed steadily in the countryside, facilitated by intermarriage. The cleavage widened, however, between the unruly gazi warriors and the state-building bureau- cracy in Konya. The Crusades The success of the Seljuk Turks stimulated a response from Latin Europe in the form of the First Crusade. A counteroffen- sive launched in 1097 by the Byzantine emperor with the aid of the crusaders dealt the Seljuks a decisive defeat. Konya fell to the crusaders, and after a few years of campaigning Byzantine rule was restored in the western third of Anatolia. Although a Turkish revival in the 1140s nullified many of the Christian gains, greater damage was done to Byzantine security by dynastic strife in Constantinople in which the largely French contingents of the Fourth Crusade and their Venetian allies intervened. In 1204 these crusaders installed Count Baldwin of Flanders in the Byzantine capital as emperor of the so-called Latin Empire of Constantinople, dismembering the old realm into tributary states where West European feudal institutions were transplanted intact. Independent Greek kingdoms were established at Nicaea and Trebizond (present-day Trabzon) and in Epirus from remnant Byzantine provinces. Turks allied with Greeks in Anatolia against the Latins, and Greeks with Turks against the Mongols. In 1261 Michael Palaeologus of Nicaea drove the Latins from Constantinople and restored the Byzantine Empire, but as an essentially Balkan state reduced in size to Thrace and northwestern Anatolia. Seljuk Rum survived in the late thirteenth century as a vassal state of the Mongols, who had already subjugated the Great Sel- juk sultanate at Baghdad. Mongol influence in the region had disappeared by the 1330s, leaving behind gazi amirates compet- ing for supremacy. From the chaotic conditions that prevailed throughout the Middle East, however, a new power emerged in Anatolia — the Ottoman Turks. 15 Turkey: A Country Study Historical Setting The Ottoman Empire Documentation of the early history of the Ottomans is scarce. According to semilegendary accounts, Ertugrul, khan of the Kayi tribe of the Oguz Turks, took service with the sultan of Rum at the head of a gazi force numbering "400 tents." He was granted territory — if he could seize and hold it — in Bithynia, facing the Byzantine strongholds at Bursa, Nicomedia (Izmit), and Nicaea. Leadership subsequently passed to Ertugrul's son, Osman I (r. ca. 1284-1324), founder of the Osmanli Dynasty — better known in the West as the Ottomans. This dynasty was to endure for six centuries through the reigns of thirty-six sultans (see table 2, Appendix A). Osman Fs small amir ate attracted gazis from other amirates, who required plunder from new conquests to maintain their way of life. Such growth gave the Ottoman state a military stat- ure that was out of proportion to its size. Acquiring the title of sultan, Osman I organized a politically centralized administra- tion that subordinated the activities of the gazis to its needs and facilitated rapid territorial expansion. Bursa fell in the final year of his reign. His successor, Orhan (r. 1324-60), crossed the Dardanelles in force and established a permanent European base at Gallipoli in 1354. Murad I (r. 1360-89) annexed most of Thrace (called Rumelia, or "Roman land," by the Turks), encir- cling Constantinople, and moved the seat of Ottoman govern- ment to Adrianople (Edirne) in Europe. In 1389 the Ottoman gazis defeated the Serbs at the Battle of Kosovo, although at the cost of Murad's life. The steady stream of Ottoman victories in the Balkans continued under Bayezid I (r. 1389-1402). Bul- garia was subdued in 1393, and in 1396 a French-led force of crusaders that had crossed the Danube from Hungary was annihilated at Nicopolis (see fig. 5). In Anatolia, where Ottoman policy had been directed toward consolidating the sultan's hold over the gazi amirates by means of conquest, usurpation, and purchase, the Ottomans were confronted by the forces of the Mongol leader Timur (Tamerlane), to whom many of the Turkish gazis had defected. Timur crushed Ottoman forces near Ankara in 1402 and cap- tured Bayezid I. The unfortunate sultan died in captivity the next year, leaving four heirs, who for a decade competed for control of what remained of Ottoman Anatolia. By the 1420s, however, Ottoman power had revived to the extent that fresh campaigns were undertaken in Greece. 17 Turkey: A Country Study 18 Historical Setting Aside from scattered outposts in Greece, all that remained of the Byzantine Empire was its capital, Constantinople. Cut off by land since 1365, the city, despite long periods of truce with the Turks, was supplied and reinforced by Venetian traders who controlled its commerce by sea. On becoming sultan in 1444, Mehmet II (r. 1444-46, 1451-81) immediately set out to con- quer the city. The military campaigning season of 1453 com- menced with the fifty-day siege of Constantinople, during which Mehmet II brought warships overland on greased run- ners into the Bosporus inlet known as the Golden Horn to bypass the chain barrage and fortresses that had blocked the entrance to Constantinople's harbor. On May 29, the Turks fought their way through the gates of the city and brought the siege to a successful conclusion. As an isolated military action, the taking of Constantinople did not have a critical effect on European security, but to the Ottoman Dynasty the capture of the imperial capital was of supreme symbolic importance. Mehmet II regarded himself as the direct successor to the Byzantine emperors. He made Con- stantinople the imperial capital, as it had been under the Byz- antine emperors, and set about rebuilding the city. The cathedral of Hagia Sophia was converted to a mosque, and Constantinople — which the Turks called Istanbul (from the Greek phrase eis tin polin, "to the city") — replaced Baghdad as the center of Sunni Islam. The city also remained the ecclesias- tical center of the Greek Orthodox Church, of which Mehmet II proclaimed himself the protector and for which he appointed a new patriarch after the custom of the Byzantine emperors. Ottoman Institutions At the apex of the hierarchical Ottoman system was the sul- tan, who acted in political, military, judicial, social, and reli- gious capacities, under a variety of titles. He was theoretically responsible only to God and God's law — the Islamic serial (in Arabic, sharia) , of which he was the chief executor. All offices were filled by his authority, and every law was issued by him in the form of a firman (decree). He was supreme military com- mander and had official title to all land. During the early six- teenth-century Ottoman expansion in Arabia, Selim I also adopted the title of caliph, thus indicating that he was the uni- versal Muslim ruler. Although theocratic and absolute in the- ory and in principle, the sultan's powers were in practice 19 Turkey: A Country Study limited. The attitudes of important members of the dynasty, the bureaucratic and military establishments, and religious leaders had to be considered. Three characteristics were necessary for acceptance into the ruling class: Islamic faith, loyalty to the sultan, and compliance with the standards of behavior of the Ottoman court. The last qualification effectively excluded the majority of common Turks, whose language and manners were very different from those of the Ottomans. The language of the court and govern- ment was Ottoman Turkish, a highly formalized hybrid lan- guage that included Persian and Arabic loanwords. In time Greeks, Armenians, and Jews were also employed in state ser- vice, usually in diplomatic, technical, or commercial capacities. The day-to-day conduct of government and the formulation of policy were in the hands of the divan, a relatively small coun- cil of ministers directed by the chief minister, the grand vizier. The entranceway to the public buildings in which the divan met — and which in the seventeenth century became the resi- dence of the grand vizier — was called the Bab-i Ali (High Gate, or Sublime Porte). In diplomatic correspondence, the term Porte was synonymous with the Ottoman government, a usage that acknowledged the power wielded by the grand vizier. The Ottoman Empire had Turkish origins and Islamic foun- dations, but from the start it was a heterogeneous mixture of ethnic groups and religious creeds. Ethnicity was determined solely by religious affiliation. Non-Muslim peoples, including Greeks, Armenians, and Jews, were recognized as millets (see Glossary) and were granted communal autonomy. Such groups were allowed to operate schools, religious establishments, and courts based on their own customary law. Selim I and Suleyman the Magnificent Selim I (r. 1512-20) extended Ottoman sovereignty south- ward, conquering Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. He also gained recognition as guardian of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. Selim I's son, Suleyman I (r. 1520-66), was called the "law- giver" (kanuni) by his Muslim subjects because of a new codifi- cation of seriat undertaken during his reign. In Europe, however, he was known as Suleyman the Magnificent, a recog- nition of his prowess by those who had most to fear from it. Bel- grade fell to Suleyman in 1521, and in 1522 he compelled the Knights of Saint John to abandon Rhodes. In 1526 the Otto- 20 Historical Setting man victory at the Battle of Mohacs led to the taking of Buda on the Danube. Vienna was besieged unsuccessfully during the campaign season of 1529. North Africa up to the Moroccan frontier was brought under Ottoman suzerainty in the 1520s and 1530s, and governors named by the sultan were installed in Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli. In 1534 Kurdistan and Mesopo- tamia were taken from Persia. The latter conquest gave the Ottomans an outlet to the Persian Gulf, where they were soon engaged in a naval war with the Portuguese. When Suleyman died in 1566, the Ottoman Empire was a world power. Most of the great cities of Islam — Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem, Damascus, Cairo, Tunis, and Baghdad — were under the sultan's crescent flag. The Porte exercised direct control over Anatolia, the sub-Danubian Balkan provinces, Syria, Pales- tine, and Mesopotamia. Egypt, Mecca, and the North African provinces were governed under special regulations, as were sat- ellite domains in Arabia and the Caucasus, and among the Crimean Tartars. In addition, the native rulers of Wallachia, Moldavia, Transylvania, and Ragusa (Dubrovnik) were vassals of the sultan. The Ottomans had always dealt with the European states from a position of strength. Treaties with them took the form of truces approved by the sultan as a favor to lesser princes, provided that payment of tribute accompanied the settlement. The Ottomans were slow to recognize the shift in the military balance to Europe and the reasons for it. They also increasingly permitted European commerce to penetrate the barriers built to protect imperial autarky. Some native craft industries were destroyed by the influx of European goods, and, in general, the balance of trade shifted to the disadvantage of the empire, making it in time an indebted client of European producers. European political intervention followed economic penetra- tion. In 1536 the Ottoman Empire, then at the height of its power, had voluntarily granted concessions to France, but the system of capitulations introduced at that time was later used to impose important limitations on Ottoman sovereignty. Com- mercial privileges were greatly extended, and residents who came under the protection of a treaty country were thereby made subject to the jurisdiction of that country's law rather than Ottoman law, an arrangement that led to flagrant abuses of justice. The last thirty years of the sixteenth century saw the rapid onset of a decline in Ottoman power symbolized by the defeat of the Turkish fleet by the Spanish and Portuguese at 21 Turkey: A Country Study the Battle of Lepanto in 1571 and by the unbridled bloody suc- cession struggles within the imperial palace, the Seraglio of Constantinople. Koprulu Era Ottoman imperial decadence was finally halted by a notable family of imperial bureaucrats, the Koprulu family, which for more than forty years (1656-1703) provided the empire with grand viziers, combining ambition and ruthlessness with genu- ine talent. Mehmet, followed by his son Ahmet, overhauled the bureaucracy and instituted military reforms. Crete and Lem- nos were taken from Venice, and large provinces in Ukraine were wrested temporarily from Poland and Russia. The Koprulu family also resumed the offensive against Austria, pushing the Ottoman frontier to within 120 kilometers of Vienna. An attempt in 1664 to capture the Habsburg capital was beaten back, but Ahmet Koprulu extorted a huge tribute as the price of a nineteen-year truce. When it expired in 1683, the Ottoman army again invaded Austria, laying siege to Vienna for two months, only to be routed ultimately by a relief force led by the king of Poland, Jan Sobieski. The siege of Vienna was the high-water mark of Ottoman expansion in Europe, and its failure opened Hungary to recon- quest by the European powers. In a ruinous sixteen-year war, Russia and the Holy League — composed of Austria, Poland, and Venice, and organized under the aegis of the pope — finally drove the Ottomans south of the Danube and east of the Car- pathians. Under the terms of the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699, the first in which the Ottomans acknowledged defeat, Hun- gary, Transylvania, and Croatia were formally relinquished to Austria. Poland recovered Podolia, and Dalmatia and the Morea were ceded to Venice. In a separate peace the next year, Russia received the Azov region (see fig. 6). The last of the Koprulu rulers fell from power when Mustafa II (r. 1695-1703) was forced by rebellious janissaries to abdi- cate. Under Ahmet III (r. 1703-30), effective control of the government passed to the military leaders. Ahmet Ill's reign is referred to as the "tulip period" because of the popularity of tulip cultivation in Istanbul during those years. At this time, Peter the Great of Russia moved to eliminate the Ottoman presence on the north shore of the Black Sea. Russia's main objective in the region subsequently was to win access to warm- water ports on the Black Sea and then to obtain an opening to 22 Historical Setting the Mediterranean through the Ottoman-controlled Bosporus and Dardanelles straits. Despite territorial gains at Ottoman expense, however, Russia was unable to achieve these goals, and the Black Sea remained for the time an "Ottoman lake" on which Russian warships were prohibited. External Threats and Internal Transformations During the eighteenth century, the Ottoman Empire was almost continuously at war with one or more of its enemies — Persia, Poland, Austria, and Russia. Under the humiliating terms of the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kaynarja that ended the Russo- Ottoman War of 1768-74, the Porte abandoned the Tartar kha- nate in the Crimea, granted autonomy to the Trans-Danubian provinces, allowed Russian ships free access to Ottoman waters, and agreed to pay a large war indemnity. The implications of the decline of Ottoman power, the vul- nerability and attractiveness of the empire's vast holdings, the stirrings of nationalism among its subject peoples, and the peri- odic crises resulting from these and other factors became col- lectively known to European diplomats in the nineteenth century as "the Eastern Question." In 1853 Tsar Nicholas I of Russia described the Ottoman Empire as "the sick man of Europe." The problem from the viewpoint of European diplo- macy was how to dispose of the empire in such a manner that no one power would gain an advantage at the expense of the others and upset the political balance of Europe. The first nineteenth-century crisis to bring about European intervention was the Greek War of Independence (1821-32). In 1827 an Anglo-French fleet destroyed the Ottoman and Egyptian fleets at the Battle of Navarino, while the Russian army advanced as far as Edirne before a cease-fire was called in 1829. The European powers forced the Porte to recognize Greek independence under the London Convention of 1832. Muhammad Ali, an Ottoman officer who had been desig- nated pasha of Egypt by the sultan in 1805, had given substan- tial aid to the Ottoman cause in the Greek war. When he was not rewarded as promised for his assistance, he invaded Syria in 1831 and pursued the retreating Ottoman army deep into Ana- tolia. In desperation, the Porte appealed to Russia for support. Britain then intervened, constraining Muhammad Ali to with- draw from Anatolia to Syria. The price the sultan paid Russia for its assistance was the Treaty of Hiinkar Iskelesi of 1833. 23 Turkey: A Country Study Historical Setting Under this treaty, the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits were to be closed on Russian demand to naval vessels of other powers. War with Muhammad Ali resumed in 1839, and Ottoman forces were again defeated. Russia waived its rights under the 1833 treaty and aligned itself with British efforts to support the Ottoman Empire militarily and diplomatically. Under the Lon- don Convention of 1840, Muhammad Ali was forced to aban- don his claim to Syria, but he was recognized as hereditary ruler of Egypt under nominal Ottoman suzerainty. Under an additional protocol, in 1841 the Porte undertook to close the straits to warships of all powers. The Ottoman Empire fought two more wars with Russia in the nineteenth century. The Crimean War (1854-56) pitted France, Britain, and the Ottoman Empire against Russia. Under the Treaty of Paris, which ended the war, Russia aban- doned its claim to protect Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire and renounced the right to intervene in the Balkans. War resumed between Russia and the Ottoman Empire in 1877. Russia opened hostilities in response to Ottoman sup- pression of uprisings in Bulgaria and to the threat posed to Ser- bia by Ottoman forces. The Russian army had driven through Bulgaria and reached as far as Edirne when the Porte acceded to the terms imposed by a new agreement, the Treaty of San Stefano. The treaty reduced Ottoman holdings in Europe to eastern Thrace and created a large, independent Bulgarian state under Russian protection. Refusing to accept the dominant position of Russia in the Balkans, the other European powers called the Congress of Berlin in 1878. At this conclave, the Europeans agreed to a much smaller autonomous Bulgarian state under nominal Ottoman suzerainty. Serbia and Romania were recognized as fully independent states, and the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina were placed under Austrian administration. Cyprus, although remaining technically part of the Ottoman Empire, became a British protectorate. For all its wartime exer- tions, Russia received only minor territorial concessions in Bessarabia and the Caucasus. In the course of the nineteenth century, France seized Algeria and Tunisia, while Britain began its occupation of Egypt in 1882. In all these cases, the occupied territories formerly had belonged to the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire had a dual economy in the nineteenth century consisting of a large subsistence sector and a small colonial-style commercial sector linked to European markets 25 Turkey: A Country Study and controlled by foreign interests. The empire's first railroads, for example, were built by foreign investors to bring the cash crops of Anatolia's coastal valleys — tobacco, grapes, and other fruit — to Smyrna (Izmir) for processing and export. The cost of maintaining a modern army without a thorough reform of economic institutions caused expenditures to be made in excess of tax revenues. Heavy borrowing from foreign banks in the 1870s to reinforce the treasury and the undertaking of new loans to pay the interest on older ones created a financial crisis that in 1881 obliged the Porte to surrender administration of the Ottoman debt to a commission representing foreign inves- tors. The debt commission collected public revenues and trans- ferred the receipts directly to creditors in Europe. The 1860s and early 1870s saw the emergence of the Young Ottoman movement among Western-oriented intellectuals who wanted to see the empire accepted as an equal by the Euro- pean powers. They sought to adopt Western political institu- tions, including an efficient centralized government, an elected parliament, and a written constitution. The "Ottoman- ism" they advocated also called for an integrated dynastic state that would subordinate Islam to secular interests and allow non-Muslim subjects to participate in representative parliamen- tary institutions. In 1876 the hapless sultan was deposed by a fetva (legal opin- ion) obtained by Midhat Pasha, a reformist minister sympa- thetic to the aims of the Young Ottomans. His successor, Abdul Hamid II (r. 1876-1909), came to the throne with the approval of Midhat and other reformers. In December of that year, on the eve of the war with Russia, the new sultan promulgated a constitution, based on European models, that had been drafted by senior political, military, and religious officials under Midhat's direction. Embodying the substance of the Young Ottoman program, this document created a representa- tive parliament, guaranteed religious liberty, and provided for enlarged freedom of expression. Abdul Hamid IPs acceptance of constitutionalism was a temporary tactical expedient to gain the throne, however. Midhat was dismissed in February 1877 and was later murdered. The sultan called the empire's first parliament but dissolved it within a year. Unrest in Eastern Rumelia led the European powers to insist on the union of that province with Bulgaria in 1885. Mean- while, Greek and Bulgarian partisans were carrying on a run- ning battle with Ottoman forces in Macedonia. In addition, the 26 Historical Setting repression of revolutionary activities in Armenia during 1894- 96 cost about 300,000 lives and aroused European public opin- ion against the Ottoman regime. Outside support for a rebel- lion on Crete also caused the Porte to declare war on Greece in 1897. Although the Ottoman army defeated the Greeks deci- sively in Thrace, the European powers forced a compromise peace that kept Crete under Ottoman suzerainty while install- ing the son of the Greek king as its governor. More isolated from Europe than it had been for half a cen- tury, the Ottoman regime could count on support only from Germany, whose friendship offered Abdul Hamid II a conge- nial alternative to British and French intervention. In 1902 Germany was granted a ninety-nine-year concession to build and operate a Beiiin-to-Baghdad rail connection. Germany continued to invest in the Ottoman economy, and German offi- cers held training and command posts in the Ottoman army. Opposition to the sultan's regime continued to assert itself among Westernized intellectuals and liberal members of the ruling class. Some continued to advocate "Ottomanism," whereas others argued for pan-Turanism, the union of Turkic- speaking peoples inside and outside the Ottoman Empire. The Turkish nationalist ideologist of the period was the writer Ziya Gokalp, who defined Turkish nationalism within the context of the Ottoman Empire. Gokalp went much farther than his con- temporaries, however, by calling for the adoption of the vernac- ular in place of Ottoman Turkish. Gokalp's advocacy of a national Turkish state in which folk culture and Western values would play equally important revitalizing roles foreshadowed events a quarter-century in the future. The Young Turks The repressive policies of Abdul Hamid II fostered disaffec- tion, especially among those educated in Europe or in Western- ized schools. Young officers and students who conspired against the sultan's regime coalesced into small groups, largely outside Istanbul. One young officer, Mustafa Kemal (later known as Ataturk), organized a secret society among fellow officers in Damascus and, later, in Thessaloniki (Salonika) in present-day Greece. Atatiirk's group merged with other nation- alist reform organizations in 1907 to form the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP). Also known as the Young Turks, this group sought to restore the 1876 constitution and unify the diverse elements of the empire into a homogeneous nation 27 Turkey: A Country Study through greater government centralization under a parliamen- tary regime. In July 1908, army units in Macedonia revolted and demanded a return to constitutional government. Appearing to yield, Abdul Hamid II approved parliamentary elections in November in which the CUP won all but one of the Turkish seats under a system that allowed proportional representation of all millets. The Young Turk government was weakened by splits between nationalist and liberal reformers, however, and was threatened by traditionalist Muslims and by demands from non-Turkish communities for greater autonomy. Abdul Hamid II was forced to abdicate and was succeeded by his brother, Mehmet V, in 1909. Foreign powers took advantage of the political instability in Istanbul to seize portions of the empire. Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina immediately after the 1908 revolution, and Bulgaria proclaimed its complete independence. Italy declared war in 1911 and seized Libya. Having earlier formed a secret alliance, Greece, Serbia, Mon- tenegro, and Bulgaria invaded Ottoman-held Macedonia and Thrace in October 1912. Ottoman forces were defeated, and the empire lost all of its European holdings except part of east- ern Thrace. The disasters befalling the empire led to internal political change. The liberal government in power since July 1912 was overthrown in January 1913 in a coup engineered by Enver Pasha, and the most authoritarian elements of the Young Turk movement gained full control. A second Balkan war broke out in June 1913, when the Balkan allies began fighting among themselves over the division of the spoils from the first war. Taking advantage of the situation, Ottoman forces turned on Bulgaria, regaining Edirne and establishing the western boundary of the empire at the Maritsa River. After a brief period of constitutional rule, the leadership of the CUP emerged as a military dictatorship with power concen- trated in the hands of a triumvirate consisting of Mehmet Talat Pasha, Ahmet Cemal Pasha, and Enver, who, as minister of war, was its acknowledged leader in the war. World War I As the two European alliance systems drew closer to war in 1914, Enver's pronounced pro-German sympathies, shared by many in the military and bureaucracy, prevailed over the prag- matic neutrality proposed by Talat and Cemal. Germany had 28 Ruins of ancient Troy Courtesy Hermine Drey fuss been pro-Ottoman during the Balkan wars, but the Porte had no outstanding differences with either Britain or France in the summer of 1914. In guiding his government toward alignment with Germany, Enver was able to play on fear of the traditional Ottoman enemy, Russia, the ally of Britain and France in the war. On August 2, 1914, Enver concluded a secret treaty of alli- ance with Germany. General mobilization was ordered the next day, and in the following weeks concessions granted to foreign powers under the capitulations were canceled. It remained for Germany, however, to provide the casus belli. Two German mil- itary vessels — the battleship Goben and the heavy cruiser Bres- lau — that had been caught in a neutral Ottoman port when war broke out in Europe were turned over to the Ottoman navy. In October they put to sea with German officers and crews and shelled Odessa and other Russian ports while flying the Otto- 29 Turkey: A Country Study man flag. Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire on November 5, followed the next day by Britain and France. Within six months, the Ottoman army of about 800,000 men was engaged in a four-front war that became part of the greater conflict of World War I. Enver launched an ill-prepared offensive in the winter of 1914-15 against the Russians in the Caucasus, vainly hoping that an impressive demonstration of Ottoman strength there would incite an insurrection among the tsar's Turkish-speaking subjects. Instead, a Russian counteroffensive inflicted stagger- ing losses on Ottoman forces, driving them back to Lake Van. During the campaign in eastern Anatolia, assistance was given to the Russians by some Armenians, who saw them as liberators rather than invaders. Armenian units were also part of the Rus- sian army. Enver claimed that an Armenian conspiracy existed and that a generalized revolt by the Armenians was imminent. During the winter months of 1915, as the shattered Ottoman army retreated toward Lake Van, a massive deportation of as many as 2 million Armenians was undertaken in the war zone. It shortly degenerated into a massacre, as ethnic Turks and Kurds descended on Armenian villages or slaughtered refugees along the road. The most conservative estimates put the num- ber of dead at 600,000, but other sources cite figures of more than 1 million. The situation of those Armenians who survived the march out of Anatolia was scarcely improved under the mil- itary government in Syria. Others managed to escape behind Russian lines. The episode occasioned a revulsion in Western Europe that had its effect in the harsh terms meted out by the Allies in the postwar settlement. In the spring of 1915, the Allies undertook naval and land operations in the Dardanelles that were intended to knock the Ottoman Empire out of the war with one blow and to open the straits for the passage of supplies to Russia. Amphibious land- ings were carried out at Gallipoli, but British forces, vigorously opposed by forces commanded by Atatiirk, were unable to expand their beachheads. The last units of the expeditionary force were evacuated by February 1916. In Mesopotamia the Ottoman army defeated a British expe- ditionary force that had marched on Baghdad from a base established at Basra in 1915. The British mounted a new offen- sive in 1917, taking Baghdad and driving Ottoman forces out of Mesopotamia. In eastern Anatolia, Russian armies won a series of battles that carried their control west to Erzincan by July 30 Historical Setting 1916, although Atatiirk, who was then given command of the eastern front, led a counteroffensive that checked the Russian advance. Russia left the war after the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917. The new Russian government concluded the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Central Powers in March 1918, under which the Ottoman Empire regained its eastern provinces. Sharif Husayn ibn Ali, the sultan's regent in Mecca and the Hijaz region of western Arabia, launched the Arab Revolt in 1916. The British provided advisers, of whom T.E. Lawrence was to become the best known, as well as supplies. In October 1917, British forces in Egypt opened an offensive into Pales- tine; they took Jerusalem by December. After hard fighting, British and Arab forces entered Damascus in October 1918. Late in the campaign, Atatiirk succeeded to command of Turk- ish forces in Syria and withdrew many units intact into Anato- lia. Ottoman resistance was exhausted. Early in October, the war government resigned, and the Young Turk triumvirate — Enver, Talat, and Cemal— fled to exile in Germany. Mehmet VI (r. 1918-22), who had succeeded to the rule upon his brother's death in July, sued for peace through a government headed by liberal ministers that signed an armistice at Mudros on Octo- ber 30, 1918, that had been dictated by the Allies. Allied war- ships steamed through the Dardanelles and anchored off Istanbul on November 12, the day after the end of the war in Europe. In four years of war, the Ottoman Empire had mobi- lized about 2.8 million men, of whom about 325,000 were killed in battle. In addition, more than 2 million civilians, including both Turks and Armenians, are believed to have died of war-related causes. Talat and Cemal, who were held responsi- ble for the deportation of Armenians and the mistreatment of refugees, were assassinated by Armenian nationalists in 1921. The following year, Enver was killed while fighting the Bolshe- viks in Central Asia. Atatiirk and the Turkish Nation Atatiirk returned to Istanbul at the end of the war, his mili- tary reputation untarnished by the defeat of the empire that he had served. Revered by his troops as well as the Turkish masses, Atatiirk soon emerged as the standard-bearer of the Turkish nationalist movement. Born in Thessaloniki in 1881, Atatiirk was the son of a minor government official in a city where Turks outnumbered 31 Turkey: A Country Study Greeks. His ardent Turkish nationalism dated from his early days as a cadet in the military school at Monastir (in the present-day Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia) during a time of constant conflict between Ottoman troops and Mace- donian guerrillas, who attacked the Turkish population in the region. Following graduation from the military academy in Istanbul, Atatiirk held various staff positions and served in gar- risons at Damascus and Thessaloniki, where he became involved in nationalist activities. He took part in the coup that forced Abdul Hamid IFs abdication in 1909. Atatiirk organized irregular forces in Libya during the war with Italy in 1911 and subsequently held field commands in the two Balkan wars (1912-13). Assigned to a post in the Ministry of War after the armistice, Atatiirk quickly recognized the extent of Allied intentions toward the Ottoman Empire. Plans for Partitioning Turkey Allied troops — British, French, and Italian, as well as a con- tingent of Greeks — occupied Istanbul and were permitted under the conditions of the armistice to intervene in areas where they considered their interests to be imperiled. During the war, the Allies had negotiated a series of agreements that outlined not only the definitive dismantling of the Ottoman Empire but also the partitioning among them of what Turkish nationalists had come to regard as the Turkish homeland. According to these agreements, Russia was at last to be rewarded with possession of Istanbul and the straits, as well as eastern Anatolia as far south as Bitlis below Lake Van. France and Italy were conceded portions of Anatolia, and Britain had promised Izmir to Greece — although it had also been prom- ised to Italy — to encourage Greek entry into the war in 1917. The Bolshevik government had renounced tsarist claims when it made its separate peace at Brest-Litovsk, but Britain, France, Italy, and Greece all pressed their respective claims at the Paris peace talks in 1919. All agreed with the provisions of President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points calling for an independent Armenia and an autonomous Kurdistan. How the Allies would implement the clause providing that the Turkish- speaking nation "should be assured of a secure sovereignty" was not clear. The terms of a peace treaty with the Ottoman Empire were presented by the Allies in April 1920 at San Remo, Italy, and were embodied in the Treaty of Sevres, which was concluded 32 Historical Setting the following August. The treaty was shaped by the wartime agreements made by the Allies. In addition, France received a mandate over Lebanon and Syria (including what is now Hatay Province in Turkey), and Britain's mandate covered Iraq, Jor- dan, and Palestine. Eastern Thrace up to a line from the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara as well as Izmir and its hinterland were to be occupied by Greece, with the final disposition of the territory to be decided in a plebiscite. The Treaty of Sevres was never enforced as such, as events in Turkey soon rendered it irrelevant. Nationalist Movement The sultan was kept in the custody of the Allies to ensure the cooperation of an Ottoman administration, which had effec- tive jurisdiction only in Istanbul and part of northern Anatolia, while they disposed of the rest of his empire. At the same time, a Turkish nationalist movement was organized under Ataturk' s leadership to resist the dismemberment of Turkish-speaking areas. Ataturk had been sent to eastern Anatolia as inspector general, ostensibly to supervise the demobilization of Ottoman forces and the disposition of supplies, but more particularly to remove him from the capital after he had expressed opposition to the Allied occupation there. Upon his arrival at Samsun in May 1919, Ataturk proceeded to rally support for the national- ist cause and to recruit a nationalist army. Guerrilla warfare against the government gradually grew to full-fledged cam- paigns against the Greek army that threatened to involve the other Allied occupation forces. In July 1919, a nationalist congress met at Erzurum with Ataturk presiding to endorse a protocol calling for an indepen- dent Turkish state. In September the congress reconvened at Sivas. Although the delegates voiced their loyalty to the sultan- caliph, they also pledged to maintain the integrity of the Turk- ish nation. The congress adopted the National Pact, which defined objectives of the nationalist movement that were not open to compromise. Among its provisions were the renuncia- tion of claims to the Arab provinces, the principle of the abso- lute integrity of all remaining Ottoman territory inhabited by a Turkish Muslim majority, a guarantee of minority rights, the retention of Istanbul and the straits, and rejection of any restriction on the political, judicial, and financial rights of the nation. 33 Turkey: A Country Study Negotiations continued between the nationalist congress and the Ottoman government, but to no avail. Ataturk resigned from the army when relieved of his duties. The nam- ing of a chief minister in Istanbul considered sympathetic to the nationalist cause brought a brief improvement in relations, however, and the Ottoman parliament, which met in January 1920, approved the National Pact. In reaction to these develop- ments, Allied occupation forces seized public buildings and reinforced their positions in the capital, arrested and deported numerous nationalist leaders, and had parliament dismissed. Allied actions brought a quick response from the national- ists. In April they convened the Grand National Assembly in Ankara, in defiance of the Ottoman regime, and elected Ataturk its president. The Law of Fundamental Organization (also known as the Organic Law) was adopted in January 1921. With this legislation, the nationalists proclaimed that sover- eignty belonged to the nation and was exercised on its behalf by the Grand National Assembly. War of Independence During the summer and fall of 1919, with authorization from the Supreme Allied War Council, the Greeks occupied Edirne, Bursa, and Izmir. A landing was effected at the latter port under the protection of an Allied flotilla that included United States warships. The Greeks soon moved as far as Usak, 175 kilometers inland from Izmir. Military action between Turks and Greeks in Anatolia in 1920 was inconclusive, but the nationalist cause was strengthened the next year by a series of important victories. In January and again in April, Ismet Pasha defeated the Greek army at Inonu, blocking its advance into the interior of Anatolia. In July, in the face of a third offensive, the Turkish forces fell back in good order to the Sakarya River, eighty kilometers from Ankara, where Ataturk took personal command and decisively defeated the Greeks in a twenty-day battle. An improvement in Turkey's diplomatic situation accompa- nied its military success. Impressed by the viability of the nationalist forces, both France and Italy withdrew from Anato- lia by October 1921. Treaties were signed that year with Soviet Russia, the first European power to recognize the nationalists, establishing the boundary between the two countries. As early as 1919, the Turkish nationalists had cooperated with the Bol- shevik government in attacking the newly proclaimed Arme- 34 Historical Setting nian republic. Armenian resistance was broken by the summer of 1921, and the Kars region was occupied by the Turks. In 1922 the nationalists recognized the Soviet absorption of what remained of the Armenian state. The final drive against the Greeks began in August 1922. In September the Turks moved into Izmir, where thousands were killed during the ensuing fighting and in the disorder that fol- lowed the city's capture. Greek soldiers and refugees, who had crowded into Izmir, were rescued by Allied ships. The nationalist army then concentrated on driving remain- ing Greek forces out of eastern Thrace, but the new campaign threatened to put the Turks in direct confrontation with Allied contingents defending access to the straits and holding Istan- bul, where they were protecting the Ottoman government. A crisis was averted when Atatvirk accepted a British-proposed truce that brought an end to the fighting and also signaled that the Allies were unwilling to intervene on behalf of the Greeks. In compliance with the Armistice of Mundanya, concluded in October, Greek troops withdrew beyond the Maritsa River, allowing the Turkish nationalists to occupy territory up to that boundary. The agreement entailed acceptance of a continued x\llied presence in the straits and in Istanbul until a compre- hensive settlement could be reached. At the end of October 1922, the Allies invited the nationalist and Ottoman governments to a conference at Lausanne, Swit- zerland, but Atattirk was determined that the nationalist gov- ernment should be Turkey's sole representative. In November 1922, the Grand National Assembly separated the offices of sul- tan and caliph and abolished the former. The assembly further stated that the Ottoman regime had ceased to be the govern- ment of Turkey when the Allies seized the capital in 1920, in effect abolishing the Ottoman Empire. Mehmet VI went into exile on Malta, and his cousin, Abdulmecid, was named caliph. Turkey was the only power defeated in World War I to nego- tiate with the Allies as an equal and to influence the provisions of the resultant treaty. Ismet Pasha was the chief Turkish nego- tiator at the Lausanne Conference, which opened in Novem- ber 1922. The National Pact of 1919 was the basis of the Turkish negotiating position, and its provisions were incorpo- rated in the Treaty of Lausanne, concluded in July 1923. With this treaty, the Allies recognized the present-day territory of Turkey and denied Turkey's claim to the Mosul area in the east (in present-day Iraq) and Hatay, which included the Mediterra- 35 Turkey: A Country Study nean port of Alexandretta (Iskenderun). The boundary with the newly created state of Iraq was settled by a League of Nations initiative in 1926, and Iskenderun was ceded in 1939 by France during its rule as mandatory power for Syria. Detailed provisions of the treaty regulated use of the straits. General supervisory powers were given to a straits commission under the League of Nations, and the straits area was to be demilitarized after completion of the Allied withdrawal. Turkey was to hold the presidency of the commission, which included the Soviet Union among its members. The capitulations and foreign administration of the Ottoman public debt, which infringed on the sovereignty of Turkey, were abolished. Turkey, however, assumed 40 percent of the Ottoman debt, the remain- der being apportioned among other former Ottoman territo- ries. Turkey was also required to maintain low tariffs on imports from signatory powers until 1929. The Treaty of Lau- sanne reaffirmed the equality of Muslim and non-Muslim Turk- ish nationals. Turkey and Greece arranged a mandatory exchange of their respective ethnic Greek and Turkish minori- ties, with the exception of some Greeks in Istanbul and Turks in western Thrace and the Dodecanese Islands. On October 29, 1923, the Grand National Assembly pro- claimed the Republic of Turkey. Ataturk was named its presi- dent and Ankara its capital, and the modern state of Turkey was born. Ataturk's Reforms On assuming office, Ataturk initiated a series of radical reforms of the country's political, social, and economic life that were aimed at rapidly transforming Turkey into a modern state (see table A). A secular legal code, modeled along European lines, was introduced that completely altered laws affecting women, marriage, and family relations. Ataturk also urged his fellow citizens to look and act like Europeans. Turks were encouraged to wear European-style clothing. Surnames were adopted: Mustafa Kemal, for exam- ple, became Kemal Ataturk, and Ismet Pasha took Inonii as his surname to commemorate his victories there. Likewise, Ataturk insisted on cutting links with the past that he considered anachronistic. Titles of honor were abolished. The wearing of the fez, which had been introduced a century earlier as a mod- ernizing reform to replace the turban, was outlawed because it 36 Historical Setting Table A. Chronobgy of Major Kemalist Reforms Year Reform 1922 Sultanate abolished (November 1). Treaty of Lausanne secured (July 24) . Republic of Turkey with capital at Ankara proclaimed (October 29). 1924 Caliphate abolished (March 3). Traditional religious schools closed, seriat abolished. Constitution adorned fAnril 90) 1925 Dervish brotherhoods abolished. Fez outlawed by the Hat Law (November 25). Veiling of women discour- aged; Western clothing for men and women encouraged. Western (Gregorian) calendar adopted. 1926 New civil, commercial, and penal codes based on European models adopted. New civil code ended Islamic polygamy and divorce by renunciation and introduced civil marriage. Millet system ended. 1927 First systematic census. 1928 secular (April 10); constitutional provision establishing Islam as offi- cial religion deleted. 1933 Islamic call to worship and public readings of the Kuran (Quran) required to be in Turkish rather than Arabic. 1934 Women given the vote and the right to hold office. Law of Surnames adopted — Mustafa Kemal given the name Kemal Ataturk (Father Turk) by the Grand National Assembly, Ismet Pasha took surname of Inonu. 1935 Sunday adopted as legal weekly holiday. State role in managing economy written into the constitution. had become for the nationalists a symbol of the reactionary Ottoman regime. The ideological foundation of Ataturk's reform program became known as Kemalism. Its main points were enumerated in the "Six Arrows" of Kemalism: republicanism, nationalism, populism, reformism, etatism (statism), and secularism. These were regarded as "fundamental and unchanging principles" guiding the republic, and were written into its constitution. The principle of republicanism was contained in the constitu- tional declaration that "sovereignty is vested in the nation" and not in a single ruler. Displaying considerable ingenuity, Ataturk set about reinventing the Turkish language and recasting Turk- ish history in a nationalist mold. The president himself went out into the park in Ankara on Sunday, the newly established day of rest, to teach the Latin alphabet adapted to Turkish as part of the language reform. Populism encompassed not only the notion that all Turkish citizens were equal but that all of 37 Turkey: A Country Study them were Turks. What remained of the millet system that had provided communal autonomy to other ethnic groups was abolished. Reformism legitimized the radical means by which changes in Turkish political and social life were implemented. Etatism emphasized the central role reserved to the state in directing the nation's economic activities. This concept was cited particularly to justify state planning of Turkey's mixed economy and large-scale investment in state-owned enterprises. An important aim of Ataturk's economic policies was to pre- vent foreign interests from exercising undue influence on the Turkish economy. Of all the Kemalist reforms, the exclusion of Islam from an official role in the life of the nation shocked Ataturk's contem- poraries most profoundly. The abolition of the caliphate ended any connection between the state and religion. The Islamic religious orders were suppressed, religious schools were closed, public education was secularized, and the seriatwas revoked. These changes required readjustment of the entire social framework of the Turkish people. Despite subsequent protests, Atatiirk conceded nothing to the traditionalists. In 1924 the Grand National Assembly adopted a new consti- tution to replace the 1876 document that had continued to serve as the legal framework of the republican government. The 1924 constitution vested sovereign power in the Grand National Assembly as representative of the people, to whom it also guaranteed basic civil rights. Under the new document, the assembly would be a unicameral body elected to a four-year term by universal suffrage. Its legislative authority would include responsibility for approving the budget, ratifying trea- ties, and declaring war. The president of the republic would be elected to a four-year term by the assembly, and he in turn would appoint the prime minister, who was expected to enjoy the confidence of the assembly (see table 3, Appendix A). Throughout his presidency, repeatedly extended by the assembly, Atatiirk governed Turkey essentially by personal rule in a one-party state. He founded the Republican People's Party (Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi — CHP) in 1923 to represent the nationalist movement in elections and to serve as a vanguard party in support of the Kemalist reform program. Ataturk's Six Arrows were an integral part of the CHP's political platform. By controlling the CHP, Atatiirk also controlled the assembly and assured support there for the government he had appointed. Atatiirk regarded a stage of personal authoritarian rule as nec- 38 Historical Setting essary to secure his reforms before he entrusted the govern- ment of the country to the democratic process. Foreign Policy Ataturk's foreign policy, which had as its main object the preservation of the independence and integrity of the new republic, was careful, conservative, and successful. The presi- dent enunciated the principle of "peace at home and peace abroad." This guideline, whose observance was necessary to the task of internal nation building, became the cornerstone of Turkey's foreign relations. By the end of 1925, friendship treaties had been negotiated with fifteen states. These included a twenty-year treaty of friendship and neutrality signed that year with the Soviet Union that remained in effect until unilaterally abrogated by the Soviet Union in 1945. Turkey subsequently joined Greece, Romania, and Yugoslavia in the Balkan Pact to counter the increasingly aggressive foreign policy of fascist Italy and the effect of a potential Bulgarian alignment with Nazi Germany. Turkey also entered into a nonaggression treaty with Afghani- stan, Iraq, and Iran in 1937. Ataturk attained his greatest diplomatic success in 1936, when Turkey persuaded the signatory powers of the Treaty of Lausanne to allow Turkish control and remilitarization of the straits as part of the Montreux Convention. Under its terms, merchant vessels were to continue to have freedom of naviga- tion of the straits, but Turkey took over the functions of the international commission for registry, sanitary inspection, and the levying of tolls. Turkey was permitted to refortify the straits area and, if at war or under imminent threat of war, to close them to warships. Turkey after Ataturk Ataturk's death in Istanbul on November 10, 1938, caused an outpouring of grief throughout the Turkish nation. With much ceremony, the president's body was transported to Ankara and placed in a temporary tomb from which it was transferred in 1953 to a newly completed mausoleum on a hill overlooking Ankara. The building has since become a national shrine. The stability of the new republic was made evident by the smoothness of the presidential succession. The day after Ataturk's death, the Grand National Assembly elected his chief 39 Turkey: A Country Study lieutenant, Inonii, president. Celal Bayar, who had succeeded Inonti as prime minister in 1937, continued in that office. World War II As tensions in Europe heightened, Inonti determined to keep Turkey neutral in the event of war, unless the country's vital interests were clearly at stake. The Nazi-Soviet nonaggres- sion pact of August 1939 prompted Turkey to sign a treaty of mutual assistance with Britain and France in October. Hedging its bets, the government concluded a nonaggression treaty with Nazi Germany on June 18, 1941, just four days before the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union. The early military successes of the Axis forces contributed to increased pro-German sentiment, even in some official circles. However, Inonti seems never to have wavered from his position that the Axis powers could not win the war. Despite German pressure, Turkey at no time per- mitted the passage of Axis troops, ships, or aircraft through or over Turkey and its waters, and the Montreux Convention was scrupulously enforced in the straits. Turkey broke diplomatic relations with Adolf Hitler's government in August 1944, and, in February 1945, declared war on Germany, a necessary pre- condition for participation in the Conference on International Organization, held in San Francisco in April 1945, from which the United Nations (UN) emerged. Turkey thereby became one of the fifty-one original members of the world organiza- tion. Multiparty Politics, 1946-60 The UN charter was approved by the Grand National Assem- bly in August 1945, but the debate on the measure during the summer brought about Turkey's first major postwar domestic political conflict. A proposal was entered by former Prime Min- ister Bayar, Adnan Menderes, and two additional CHP deputies calling for changes in Turkish law to assure the domestic appli- cation of the liberties and rights to which the government had ostensibly subscribed by accepting the principles of the UN Charter. When the proposal was disallowed, its four propo- nents left the CHP and resigned their seats in the assembly. Despite the rejection of Menderes's proposal, the govern- ment relaxed many wartime controls and agreed to the further democratization of the political process. In January 1946, the Democrat Party (DP), headed by Bayar and Menderes, was reg- istered; it subsequently became the main focus of opposition to 40 Ancient Roman aqueduct in Istanbul Courtesy Hermine Drey fuss the CHR The general elections in July 1946 gave the DP sixty- two seats out of 465 in the assembly, demonstrating the appeal of the new party. Although the DP represented the interests of private business and industry, it also received strong support in rural areas. In the May 1950 general election, about 88 percent of an electorate totaling about 8.5 million went to the polls, return- ing a huge DP majority. In the assembly, 408 seats went to the DP and only sixty-nine to the CHP, whose unbroken domi- nance since the founding of the republic was thus ended. Bayar was elected president by the new assembly, replacing Inonii, and named Menderes prime minister. As expected, the Men- deres government's economic policy reduced reliance on state direction while encouraging private enterprise and foreign investment in industrial development. In the May 1954 election, the DP increased its parliamentary majority. Taking its election victory as a mandate to make sweeping changes, including reform of the civil service and state-run enterprises, the Menderes government obtained the passage of a legislative package by means that the opposition characterized as "undemocratic and authoritarian." The CHP concentrated its attacks on a government-sponsored law that limited freedom of the press. Tension increased when the press law was tightened further and restrictions were imposed on 41 Turkey: A Country Study public assembly several months before the scheduled October 1957 election. The government argued that the legislation was necessary to prevent "irresponsible journalists" from inciting disorder. The inability of the two main political parties to coop- erate in the assembly brought the parliamentary process to a standstill as months passed. When a tour of central Anatolia by CHP leader Inonu in early 1960 became the occasion for out- breaks of violence along his route, the Menderes government reacted by suspending all political activity and imposing mar- tial law. On April 28, 1960, students in Istanbul who were dem- onstrating against government policies in defiance of martial law were fired on by police; several were killed. The following week, cadets from the military academy staged a protest march in solidarity with the student movement, thereby bringing an element of the armed forces into confrontation with civilian authorities. The Armed Forces Coup and Interim Rule, 1960-61 Atatiirk had always insisted that the military forces, as a national institution above partisanship and factionalism, should stay out of politics. The military leadership traditionally had subscribed to this viewpoint, with the proviso that a major role of the armed forces was to act as guardian of the constitu- tion and Kemalism. By 1960, with the military already deeply involved in political affairs because of the government's use of martial law to enforce its policies, the senior command con- cluded that the government had departed from Kemalist prin- ciples and that the republic was in imminent danger of disintegration. On May 27, 1960, Turkish army units, under the direction of the chief of General Staff, Cemal Gursel, seized the principal government buildings and communications cen- ters and arrested President Bayar, Prime Minister Menderes, and most of the DP representatives in the Grand National Assembly, as well as a large number of other public officials. Those arrested were charged with abrogating the constitution and instituting a dictatorship. The coup was accomplished with little violence and was accepted quickly throughout the country. The government was replaced by the Committee of National Unity (CNU), com- posed of the thirty-eight officers who had organized the coup. The committee acted as supreme authority, appointing a cabi- net, initially consisting of five officers and thirteen civilians, to carry out executive functions. The number of civilians in the 42 Historical Setting cabinet, however, was later reduced to three. General Gursel, who had fought at Gallipoli under Atatiirk, temporarily assumed the positions of president, prime minister, and defense minister. At the outset, Gursel announced that the committee's rule would be of an interim nature and that gov- ernment would be returned to civilian hands at an early date. The most pressing problems the CNU faced in the first months after the coup were economic. The ousted regime had been responsible for inflation and heavy debt, and emergency austerity measures had to be taken to stabilize the economy. An economic planning agency, the State Planning Organization, was established to study social and economic conditions and to draw up the country's five-year development plans. In January 1961, a constituent assembly was formed in which the CNU participated. This interim legislature produced a new constitution, which, after much debate, it ratified in May and submitted to a popular referendum in July. This constitution, which created Turkey's so-called Second Republic, contained a number of substantial departures from the 1924 constitution but continued to embody the principles of Kemalism. The new constitution was approved by 60 percent of the electorate. The large opposition vote was a disappointment to the CNU and showed that sympathy for the DP persisted, particularly in socially conservative small towns and rural constituencies. Meanwhile, the trial of some 600 former government offi- cials and DP functionaries had begun in October 1960 on the island of Yassiada in the Bosporus. All but about 100 of those tried were found guilty, and fifteen death sentences were pro- nounced. Partly in response to public appeals for leniency, the death sentences of former President Bayar and eleven others were commuted to life imprisonment, but Menderes and two former cabinet ministers were hanged. Fourteen political parties offered candidates in the October 1961 election, but only four won seats in the bicameral Grand National Assembly created under the new constitution. The results gave the CHP 173 seats in the lower house — the 450- member National Assembly — and only thirty-six in the 150- member Senate. The Justice Party (Adalet Partisi — AP), gener- ally recognized as the heir of the DP, obtained 158 seats in the lower house and seventy in the upper. The remaining seats were divided between the New Turkey Party and the Republi- can Peasants' Nation Party, subsequently renamed the Nation- alist Action Party (Milliyetci Haraket Partisi — MHP). The New 43 Turkey: A Country Study Turkey Party was led by onetime DP dissidents who had broken with Menderes in the mid-1950s; the MHP attracted militant rightists. Because neither of the two larger parties commanded a majority, formation of a broad coalition either between the two larger parties or between one of them and the two smaller parties would be necessary. Politics and Foreign Relations in the 1960s The new bicameral legislature elected General Gursel presi- dent of the republic. On taking office, he asked seventy-eight- year-old former President Inonu to form a government. Inonu, who had first been named prime minister by Atatiirk in 1923, attempted to reach an agreement with the AP for a coalition in which that party would share an equal number of cabinet posts with the CHP, but party leaders failed to resolve their differ- ences concerning amnesty for those convicted in the Yassiada trials. President Gursel and General Cevdet Sunay, chief of the General Staff, warned that the irresponsibility of some legisla- tors could provoke renewed military intervention in politics. In February 1962, a group of army officers staged a revolt in Ankara in protest of the role of the AP in government-pro- posed amnesty plans. The uprising was quickly suppressed, and suspected sympathizers in the officer corps were purged. Inonu subsequently introduced legislation granting amnesty to the officers involved in the revolt. In October 283 of those who had been convicted at Yassiada were given executive clemency on the recommendation of the assembly and freed. Another two years elapsed before former President Bayar and the remaining prisoners were released. The AP made such significant gains in the 1964 local elec- tions that Inonu stepped down as prime minister. After unsuc- cessful attempts by the AP and the CHP to form a government, an interim administration was appointed to serve until the October 1965 general election. Voters in that election gave the AP a clear majority in the Grand National Assembly. The vote allowed the new prime minister, forty-four-year-old Suleyman Demirel, to form a single-party government and claim a popu- lar mandate for his legislative program. An engineer and former head of the National Water Authority, Demirel was a onetime protege of Menderes. Although Demirel cultivated a pragmatic and technocratic image for the young party, the AP inherited the DP's identification with right-wing populism and catered to the same broadly based constituency. The party 44 Historical Setting attracted support from the business community and from arti- sans and shopkeepers, but its real strength lay in the peasantry and in the large number of workers who had recently arrived in the cities from the countryside. Although it never disavowed the principle of secularism enshrined in Kemalism, the AP pro- moted tolerance of the open expression of the traditional Islam that appealed to many in these latter groups. While accepting a large role for state enterprises in a mixed economy, the AP also encouraged the development of a stronger private sector than had been allowed previously and was receptive to foreign investment in Turkey. Although Demirel increased defense spending and took a hard line on law-and-order issues, military leaders remained suspicious of his party because of its roots in the DP. Demirel seemed to improve his standing among them by supporting the successful presidential candidacy of General Sunay when Giir- sel died in office in 1966, but objections by the military subse- quently forced the prime minister to withdraw legislation that would have restored full political rights to surviving former DP leaders. Enactment of other legislation was also hampered by growing factional splits in the AP. Representing the party's busi- ness-oriented liberal wing, Demirel urged greater reliance on a market economy. He was opposed on some issues and prodded on others by a traditionalist wing that was socially conservative, more agrarian in its orientation, and had ties to the Islamic movement. Following the CHP's defeat in the 1965 general election, that party engaged in an internal debate to determine its position in the left-right continuum. When forty-year-old Bulent Ecevit succeeded Inonii as party leader the following year, he sought to identify the CHP with the social democratic parties of West- ern Europe. The party platform favored state-directed invest- ment over private investment and recommended limits on foreign participation in the Turkish economy It also called for rapid expansion of public services financed by taxation that would restrict the growth of private incomes. Ecevit empha- sized the CHP's dedication to maintaining political secularism in contrast to the AP's leniency in the face of a revival of reli- gious influence. While promising to adhere to Turkey's defense commitments, he insisted on a more self-reliant foreign policy that included efforts to improve bilateral relations with the Soviet Union. 45 Turkey: A Country Study As party leader, Ecevit attempted to transform the CHP from an elitist party seeking to guide the nation from above into a mass movement involving a broadly based constituency in the political process. Ecevit's socialist rhetoric was compatible with the Kemalist principles of state direction of the economy, but the shift to the left he inaugurated caused dissension in the party. In 1967 forty-five CHP deputies broke away to form a centrist party that won nearly 7 percent of the vote in the Octo- ber 1969 general election. Both major parties lost votes, but right-of-center parties, led by the AP, outpolled the CHP and the small left-wing parties by nearly two to one, and the AP was able to increase its Grand National Assembly majority by six- teen seats. To some observers, the election results indicated a polarization of Turkish politics that would pull the AP and CHP in opposite directions and aggravate political extremism. The extreme left was represented in the Grand National Assembly during the 1960s by the Turkish Workers' Party (TWP). Its platform called for the redistribution of land, nationalization of industry and financial institutions, and the exclusion of foreign capital, and urged closer cooperation with the Soviet Union. The party attracted the support of only a small number of trade unionists and leftist intellectuals. Although it had won fifteen seats in the 1961 election, its share of the vote in 1965 and 1969 averaged less than 3 percent. Of greater consequence in the 1960s — and for the future — was the party of the extreme right led by Alparslan Tiirkes, one of the architects of the 1960 coup. Tiirkes had been among those offi- cers ousted from the CNU for opposing the restoration of dem- ocratic institutions. He subsequently resigned from the army and in 1965 took control of the Republican Peasants' Nation Party, later the MHP. Tiirkes came to personify the ultranation- alistic and authoritarian nature of his party. Labeled by some as fascist, the MHP demanded strong state action to maintain order and manage the economy. Although sympathetic to pri- vate ownership, the party was hostile toward capitalism and for- eign investment. Essentially secularist, the MHP nonetheless regarded Islam as one of the pillars of the Turkish state, and Tiirkes incorporated references to religion into his nationalist platform. Tiirkes's party had won 14 percent of the vote and fifty-four seats in the 1961 election, but electoral support plummeted to under 3 percent in 1965, when many marginal rightist voters switched to the AP. In 1969 the MHP was reduced to a single 46 St. Sophia in Istanbul, an Orthodox cathedral that became a mosque after the Ottoman conquest Courtesy Hermine Dreyfus s seat in the Grand National Assembly; however, Turkes's inflam- matory rhetoric and confrontational tactics gave the party a higher profile than its strength at the polls alone would have justified. He organized the party on military lines and indoctri- nated party activists, imposing strict discipline on them. The party's youth movement included a paramilitary arm, the "Gray Wolves," whose members disrupted left-wing student activities, initiated physical attacks on political opponents, and retaliated for assaults on MHP members. MHP-incited violence escalated in the late 1960s and set the tone for the volatile political atmo- sphere of the 1970s. Turkey's links to the United States grew rapidly in the after- math of World War II. Turkey took a resolutely pro-Western stance as the Cold War developed in the late 1940s and, in 1950, sent an infantry brigade to the Korean Peninsula to serve under UN command there. The pattern of close bilateral ties with the United States that characterized postwar Turkish for- eign relations began to take shape with an agreement signed in Ankara in September 1947 implementing a policy formulated by President Harry S Truman the previous March. Known as 47 Turkey: A Country Study the Truman Doctrine, the president's policy declaration spelled out United States intentions to guarantee the security of Turkey and Greece. Truman won approval from the United States Congress for an initial appropriation of US$400 million to aid both countries. Congress also authorized United States civilian and military personnel to assist in economic recon- struction and development and to provide military training. Turkey subsequently participated in the United States-spon- sored European Recovery Program (Marshall Plan). Turkey also was admitted to membership in the Council of Europe and in 1959 applied for association with the European Community (EC), later called the European Union (EU — see Glossary). Set aside after the 1960 coup, Turkey's application finally was approved in 1964. Turkey was admitted to the North Atlantic Treaty Organiza- tion (NATO — see Glossary) in 1952, and in 1955 joined with Britain, Iran, Iraq, and Pakistan in the Baghdad Pact, a multi- lateral defense agreement that became the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) after the overthrow of the Iraqi mon- archy in 1958. Turkey played a vital diplomatic and strategic role as the bridge between the NATO and CENTO alliance sys- tems. The headquarters of NATO's Allied Land Forces South- eastern Europe (LANDSOUTHEAST) was established at Izmir. In addition, operational bases near Adana were developed for NATO purposes. A 1954 military facilities agreement with the United States permitted the opening of other NATO installa- tions and the stationing of United States forces in Turkey. Headquarters for CENTO were moved to Ankara when Iraq withdrew from the alliance. Turkish participation in NATO was complicated by a regional dispute between Turkey and Greece involving the sta- tus of the island of Cyprus, until 1960 a British crown colony. The Greek-speaking Cypriots sought an end to British rule and many favored enosis (union) with Greece. Fearing discrimina- tion and the loss of identity, the Turkish-speaking minority countered with proposals for partition of the island between the two ethnic communities. Conflict between the two commu- nities led to major crises in 1964 and again in 1967, during which Turkey and Greece — both members of NATO — reached the verge of war. Crisis in Turkish Democracy The Demirel government's majority in the Grand National 48 Historical Setting Assembly gradually dissipated after the 1969 general election as factions within the circle of its initial supporters regrouped in new political constellations. In 1970 three small rightist parties that had usually cooperated with the government merged as the National Salvation Party (Milli Selamet Partisi — MSP), an explicitly Islamic-oriented party that imposed politically com- promising demands on Demirel as the price of their continued support. Some former AP members deserted the AP in 1971 to form the more right-wing Democratic Party. Other, more lib- eral AP members, dissatisfied with Demirel's concessions to the right, defected from the party and sat as independents. As a result of these shifts, the Demirel government lost its parlia- mentary majority and, in the eyes of critics, forfeited its right to govern the country. Acts of politically motivated violence and terrorism escalated in frequency and intensity. Unrest was fueled in part by economic distress, perceptions of social ineq- uities, and the slowness of reform, but protest was increasingly directed at Turkey's military and economic ties to the West. Politics and Elections in the 1970s On March 12, 1971, the armed forces chiefs, headed by army commander General Faruk Gurler, presented a memorandum to President Sunay demanding the installation of a "strong and credible government." The military leaders warned civilian officials that the armed forces would be compelled to take over the administration of the state once again unless a government were found that could curb the violence and implement the economic and social reforms, including land reform, stipu- lated in the 1961 constitution. Demirel resigned the same day. The incident was referred to as the "coup by memorandum." After consultation with Gurler and the other armed forces chiefs, Sunay asked Nihat Erim, a university professor and CHP centrist, to form a "national unity, above-party government" that would enlist the support of the major parties. Erim led the first of a series of weak caretaker cabinets that governed Turkey until the October 1973 elections. A joint session of the Grand National Assembly was con- vened in March 1973 to elect a successor to President Sunay. Many observers had assumed that General Gurler, whose candi- dacy had the open backing of the armed forces, would be elected without serious opposition, but Demirel was deter- mined to resist what he considered dictation by the military. The AP nominated Tekin Ariburun, chairman of the Senate, to 49 Turkey: A Country Study oppose Gurler. After seven ballots, Gurler and Ariburun with- drew. When Sunay's term expired on March 28, Ariburun, in his capacity as Senate chairman, became acting president under the constitution. On April 6, deputies and senators in the Grand National Assembly elected Fahri Koruturk president on the fifteenth ballot. Significantly, the new president, a sev- enty-year-old retired admiral who had served as an indepen- dent member of the Senate since 1968, had a direct tie to Ataturk, who reportedly had conferred on him the name Koruturk, meaning "Protect the Turks." In the 1973 election, Ecevit's CHP increased its support by more than 1 million votes by calling for redistribution of wealth through taxation and social services, rural development, land reform, continued state direction of economic activity, and a general amnesty for political prisoners detained under martial law. However, holding only 185 seats, the party failed to gain an overall majority in the Grand National Assembly. The AP, which saw its share of the vote decline to 30 percent, retained only 149 seats. A large segment of its right-wing support was siphoned off by the MSP and the Democratic Party, which won forty-eight seats and forty-five seats, respectively. The Republi- can Reliance Party (RRP), formed by the merger of centrist groups that had seceded earlier from the CHP, won thirteen seats. The MHP took three seats. The most significant consequence of the 1973 election was that the Democratic Party and the MSP held the balance of power in parliament, and it was unlikely that any coalition gov- ernment could be formed without the participation of one or both of them. The politicians in the Democratic Party strongly resented the warnings periodically handed down to elected officials by military leaders, but also disapproved of Demirel on personal as well as political grounds. The MSP was led by Nec- mettin Erbakan, who had been leader of the proscribed New Order Party. The MSP was regarded as a revival of that party under a new name. The principal plank in the MSP's platform was the restoration of Islamic law and practice in Turkey. The party sought improved relations with other Muslim countries and less reliance on the West, yet was also ardently anticommu- nist. Advocating direct election of the president and the strengthening of executive authority, the MSP, while upholding the right to private property, opposed the liberal economic pol- icies favored by the AP. 50 Historical Setting In January 1974, Ecevit, leader of the party founded by Ataturk, reached a short-lived agreement with Erbakan, the head of an Islamic revivalist party, to join in a coalition govern- ment in which Erbakan would be Ecevit's deputy prime minis- ter. In September the MSP pulled out of the coalition. Ecevit remained prime minister at the head of another caretaker gov- ernment while Korutiirk vainly tried to interest Demirel in join- ing with the CHP in a government of national unity. In November, Korutiirk persuaded Sadi Irmak, an elderly senator and an independent, to preside over a nonparty government and prepare the country for an early general election. Irmak's failure to obtain a parliamentary vote of confidence created a parliamentary crisis that left Turkey without a stable, majority- based government for more than a year, during which time economic conditions continued to deteriorate, fanning unrest around the country. Late in 1974, four of the five right-of-cen- ter parties in the Grand National Assembly — the AP, MSP, MHP, and RRP — formed an opposition bloc, called the National Front. In March 1975, the National Front parties joined in a minority coalition government under Demirel's pre- miership. Despite its ineffectiveness, the National Front coali- tion managed to struggle along for two years, maintaining a slim parliamentary majority dependent on support from inde- pendents. Trading on Ecevit's enormous popularity, in the 1977 elec- tion the CHP increased its share of the vote to more than 40 percent and remained the largest party in the Grand National Assembly. However, the 213 seats that it won were still insuffi- cient to form a single-party government. The AP had also improved its standing by taking back some of the votes lost to other right-wing parties in 1973; it returned 189 deputies. MSP representation was cut in half, to twenty-four seats, and the Democratic Party was reduced to one seat. The MHP, however, nearly doubled its vote and elected sixteen deputies. Despite its electoral success, the CHP failed to form a governing coalition. At length Demirel put together another right-of-center gov- ernment, linking the AP with the MSP and the MHP in a coali- tion that depended on a four-seat majority. But the inducements that he offered to assure cooperation caused con- cern within the liberal wing of his own party. Under the arrangement, responsibility for key areas of concern — public order, the economy, and social reform — was divided among the three party leaders. Demirel was assigned internal security, 51 Turkey: A Country Study Erbakan the economy, and Turkes social affairs, including edu- cation. Each leader expected to exercise exclusive authority in his particular area, but the arrangement soon proved unwork- able. Meanwhile, groups identified with one of the coalition partners, the MHP, were among the principal instigators of the mounting political violence. Anger and frustration at the government's ineffectiveness in dealing with the economy and restoring public order led to an erosion of support from liberal AP deputies. On the last day of 1977, the Demirel government was defeated on a vote of confi- dence in which a dozen AP deputies sided with the CHP oppo- sition. The party leaders having ruled out a "grand coalition," President Koruturk turned to Ecevit to lead a new government, which was backed by a four-seat parliamentary majority. The Ecevit administration was crisis-ridden from the start. The prime minister's attempt to combine regard for civil liber- ties with tougher law-and-order measures satisfied no one, least of all the military and the police. In December 1978, the gov- ernment was forced to proclaim martial law in thirteen prov- inces in reaction to a serious outbreak of sectarian violence. The calm imposed by martial law was only temporary, and in April 1979, the government extended legal restrictions. Ecevit resigned in October 1979, after the CHP lost ground to the AP in by-elections, and advised President Koruturk to summon Demirel to replace him. Demirel rejected Ecevit's sub- sequent proposal for a "grand coalition" and chose instead to put together a technocratic government whose members were selected for their competence rather than their political affilia- tion. Subsidies to state enterprises were reduced as part of a plan for restructuring, but attempts to rationalize the work- force and control labor costs were challenged by the trade unions in a series of strikes. Demirel countered by extending martial law still further, imposing severe curbs on union activ- ity, and restricting public assembly. Meanwhile, military leaders made no secret of their uneasiness at the growing influence that religious sectarianism was having on politics in obvious defiance of the constitution. President Korutiirk's seven-year term in office expired in April 1980. After 100 ballots, the joint session of the Grand National Assembly failed to agree on a successor. Koruturk retired on schedule, and the chairman of the Senate, Ihsan Sabri Qaglayangil, was installed as acting president of the 52 Historical Setting republic. £aglayangil could do little more than provide the sig- nature necessary for the enactment of legislation. Conflict and Diplomacy: Cyprus and Beyond The historical distrust between Turkey and Greece was com- pounded during the 1970s by the unfolding Cyprus dispute and conflicting claims in the Aegean Sea. Problems arising from the relationship between Turkish- and Greek-speaking Cypriots on the island had produced a pattern of confronta- tion between the two countries during the previous decade. In July 1974, the president of Cyprus, Archbishop Makarios III, demanded withdrawal of Greek army officers assigned to the National Guard on the well-founded charge that they were using their position to subvert his government. In reaction, Athens engineered an anti-Makarios coup, which was carried out successfully by conspirators planning union with Greece. In Ankara, Prime Minister Ecevit condemned the coup as consti- tuting a direct threat to Cyprus's Turkish minority. At the UN, the Turkish representative stated that his government had determined that Greece's direct involvement in the coup was aimed at the annexation of Cyprus in violation of the 1960 independence agreement guaranteed by Turkey, Greece, and Britain. He stressed that Turkey had a clear responsibility under the agreement to protect the rights of the Turkish Cyp- riot community. Between July 20 and 22, 1974, some 30,000 Turkish troops, supported by air and naval units, were dropped or landed on Cyprus in the Kyrenia area and advanced toward Nicosia, the Cypriot capital. By the time a UN-sponsored cease-fire went into effect on July 22, Turkish troops controlled the twenty- kilometer-long Nicosia-Kyrenia road and occupied territory on both sides of it, in some places thirty kilometers deep, in an area that had a large Turkish Cypriot population. The discredited Greek government fell within days as a result of the Cyprus imbroglio. Meeting in Geneva on July 30, the foreign ministers of the three guaranteeing powers — Turan Gunes of Turkey, James Callaghan of Britain, and Georgios Mavros representing the new provisional Greek government — accepted the establishment of a buffer zone between the two sides on Cyprus, patrolled by UN forces. They agreed to meet again at Geneva in a week's time to work out terms for a consti- tutional government that would be representative of both com- munities on the island. 53 Turkey: A Country Study Despite the cease-fire and a UN Security Council resolution calling for the phased reduction of hostile forces on Cyprus, the Turks continued to land reinforcements. In the week between the cease-fire and the first Geneva foreign ministers' conference, they pushed Greek Cypriot forces to the western extremity of the Kyrenia Range and consolidated their posi- tions around Nicosia. Glafcos Clerides, acting president of Cyprus, and Rauf Denktas, leader of the Turkish-Cypriot com- munity, attended the second session of the Geneva talks, held August 8-14. Denktas rejected the notion of communal auton- omy within a federal system favored by Greece and the Greek Cypriot authorities, proposing instead the creation of a single autonomous Turkish region in the northern third of the island, a suggestion Clerides refused to consider. Although Tur- key backed the Turkish Cypriot demand for regional auton- omy, Gunes, speaking for his government, offered an alternative plan that would have allowed the Turkish Cypriots the same amount of land by halving their holdings in the north and creating several autonomous Turkish enclaves elsewhere on the island. The Gunes plan would have sharply reduced the number of refugees from both communities. Talks broke down, however, when Gunes abruptly rejected a request from Mavros and Clerides for a three-day adjournment to enable them to communicate the Turkish proposal to their respective governments. Two hours after the collapse of the Geneva talks, Turkish forces on Cyprus moved out of the Kyrenia bridgehead to cut off the northeastern third of the island. After three days of fighting, Clerides accepted a Turkish cease-fire offer that left the Turks in control of all territory north of a line that ran from Lefka in the west to Famagusta in the east. Ecevit held that this division should form the basis for two autonomous regions within a federal state. In February 1975, the Turkish Federated State of Cyprus was established in the northern region with Denktas as president. In 1983 this entity was consti- tuted as the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) . To date, only Turkey has granted official recognition to the TRNC. The partition of Cyprus created about 200,000 refugees out of a population of about 600,000. About 10,000 Turkish Cyp- riot refugees from enclaves in the south were flown to north- ern Cyprus from British bases by way of Turkey. Greek Cypriot authorities protested this action and charged that at the same 54 Historical Setting time the Turks were sending in settlers from Anatolia to colo- nize areas where Greek Cypriots had been dispossessed. Relations between Turkey and Greece had already been tense before the Cyprus crisis as a consequence of the continu- ing dispute over competing rights in the Aegean region. Ten- sions heightened after March 1974, when Greek drillers struck oil off the island of Thasos. Given the dependence of both countries on oil imports, this development brought into focus a range of outstanding regional disputes: the demarcation of the continental shelf for the purpose of establishing seabed mineral rights, extension of territorial waters and airspace, and the militarization of Greek islands off the Turkish coast. A few months earlier, in late 1973, Turkey had granted oil conces- sions in several Aegean seabed areas, some of which were on part of the continental shelf claimed by Greece. In January 1975, Greece submitted a claim to the Interna- tional Court of Justice in The Hague for sole rights to the conti- nental shelf. Greece claimed seabed rights off each of the several hundred Greek islands in the Aegean, some of them no more than a few nautical miles from the Turkish coast. Greece also unilaterally attempted to extend its territorial waters from six nautical miles to the twelve nautical miles accepted else- where in the world and prohibited Turkish overflights in those areas. Prime Minister Irmak responded that it was "unthink- able" that Turkey would accept the Aegean as a "Greek lake" and charged that Greek claims and alleged Greek militariza- tion of the Aegean were in contravention of the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne. However, Greece maintained that it had primary responsibility for the defense of the Aegean as part of its NATO commitments. During the summer of 1976, Turkish naval escorts con- fronted Greek warships when the latter challenged a Turkish vessel engaged in seismic research on the seabed in disputed waters between the Turkish islands of Gokceada (Imroz) and Bozca Ada (Tenedos). For a brief period, war between the two NATO allies seemed imminent. Although Turkey and Greece subsequently agreed to settle outstanding disputes through negotiation, troop alerts and naval demonstrations were repeated the following year. Ecevit and Greek prime minister Konstantinos Karamanlis met in Switzerland in March 1978 to find a mutually acceptable framework for resolving their differ- ences. Two months later, they met again in Washington to dis- cuss issues of bilateral interest. At these meetings, the two 55 Turkey: A Country Study leaders affirmed their mutual wish to find peaceful solutions to their unresolved disputes, but relations between the two coun- tries remained strained. In February 1975, the United States Congress imposed an arms embargo on Turkey on the grounds that United States- supplied military equipment had been used illegally during the Cyprus operation. In June Turkey confirmed that twenty United States installations in Turkey would be subject to a "new situation" unless negotiations were opened on their future sta- tus. President Gerald Ford urged Congress to reconsider the arms embargo, citing the damage it would do to vital United States interests in the eastern Mediterranean. Angered by the defeat in Congress the following month of a measure to lift the embargo, the Turkish government announced the abrogation of the 1969 defense cooperation treaty with the United States and placed United States installations, mainly communications and monitoring stations, under Turkish control. This action, however, did not affect the only United States combat unit in Turkey, an aircraft squadron based in Incirlik under NATO command. President Ford signed legislation in October that partially lifted the embargo, allowing the release of arms already pur- chased by Turkey. In 1978 the administration of President Jimmy Carter succeeded in persuading Congress to end the embargo, although an amendment to the Security Aid Act required periodic review of conditions as a prerequisite to con- tinued military assistance. Shortly thereafter, Turkey allowed United States installations to reopen under Turkish supervi- sion while a completely new defense cooperation pact was negotiated. In 1980 United States military assistance to Turkey amounted to US$250 million, and economic aid to about US$200 million. The United States also joined other countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Develop- ment (OECD) in pledging emergency credits in a bid to halt Turkey's slide into bankruptcy during the financial crisis of the late 1970s. The Economy: An Unresolved Issue The Turkish economy was severely hurt by the increase in oil prices after 1973. Conditions deteriorated over the next several years, reaching the crisis level by 1977. Inflation reached a rate exceeding 50 percent that year, while unemployment was unof- 56 57 Turkey: A Country Study ficially estimated at as high as 30 percent of the available work- force. Domestic industries also lost ground in export markets because of increases in the cost of raw materials and energy. Turkey's trade deficit reached US$4 billion in 1977, contribut- ing to a balance of payments deficit nearly five times the 1974 level. Becoming skeptical of Turkey's ability to repay existing debts, a number of foreign creditors refused to extend further loans. As a result, the country virtually ran out of foreign exchange to meet its immediate commitments and was faced with national bankruptcy, which was averted only when the Central Bank intervened by suspending payments for many imports and, in effect, forced credit from foreign exporters. Under pressure from the International Monetary Fund (IMF — see Glossary), the Demirel government belatedly announced such measures as a 10 percent devaluation of the currency and substantial increases of some government-subsi- dized prices. By the end of 1977, Turkey had accumulated a total external debt of more than US$11 billion. The Ecevit gov- ernment came to power in January 1978 with a stabilization program that essentially had had to be approved by the IMF and the OECD. The plan included incentives for foreign invest- ment and further price adjustments to restrain domestic demand. An international consortium of six banks collabo- rated in restructuring the Turkish debt and arranged for a US$500 million loan to the Central Bank for economic devel- opment. Subsidies to state-directed enterprises were cut, but Ecevit insisted on increased public spending for employment and regional development, which he argued were required to maintain "domestic peace." Despite the stabilization program, another major devalua- tion of the Turkish lira (for value of the Turkish lira — see Glos- sary), and rescheduling of the foreign debt, there were no clear signs in 1978 that economic recovery was under way. In fact, austerities imposed under the program had the opposite effect to what was intended. Because of energy conservation efforts and restrictions imposed on imports of raw materials, industrial production fell. Consequently, exports lagged and unemployment continued to increase. State enterprises regis- tered losses of about US$2 billion for the year. Because of a lack of confidence in the government, the stabilization pro- gram failed to attract new investment from abroad. On returning to office in November 1979, Demirel pro- posed a new economic stabilization program that for the first 58 Historical Setting time emphasized private-sector initiatives. The program, drawn up in consultation with a consortium of international banks, was approved by parliament, and Turgut Ozal, an economist, was placed in charge of implementing it. Some progress was recorded, but the government's attention was diverted by intensified political violence, which by mid-1980 was claiming twenty or more lives a day. Challenges to Public Order Turkey faced recurrent political violence throughout the 1970s. Political parties, particularly those of the extreme right, organized strong-arm auxiliaries for street fighting. Kurdish nationalism and sectarian divisions were also factors. From time to time, specifically from 1971 to 1973 and again in December 1978, the frequency of such violence and the involvement of increasing numbers of persons led to the impo- sition of martial law in parts of the country. Most of the violence-prone groups of the right were appar- ently attached, directly or indirectly, to Tiirkes and the MHP. The best organized of these, the Gray Wolves, were armed and regularly resorted to terrorist tactics. Other groups — particu- larly those on the left — used violence in the hope that the reac- tion of the state would lead to revolution. Their members assaulted politicians and public officials, the police, journalists, and members of rival groups. United States military personnel stationed in Turkey were also targets of attack. Some groups involved in the violence were identified with the Kurdish nationalist movement. The Ecevit government initially tried to play down the signif- icance of Kurdish separatism and to avoid actions that might alienate the many Kurds who supported the CHP and lead them to join extremist groups that they might otherwise ignore. Opposition members in the Grand National Assembly, who tended to identify any sign of restiveness in the Kurdish regions with Kurdish separatism, insisted on stronger measures from the government. In April 1979, the martial law that had been proclaimed in some parts of the country the previous December was extended to provinces with Kurdish-speaking majorities. Estimates vary, but some sources claim that as many as 2,000 persons died in political violence in the two-year period 1978- 79. The single most serious incident erupted in the town of Kahramanmaras in December 1978, when more than 100 per- 59 Turkey: A Country Study sons were killed in sectarian conflict between Sunni and Alevi (see Glossary) Muslims. The incident led to the imposition of martial law in the Kahramanmaras Province that same month. The military became increasingly uneasy over continued criticism of the armed forces in the Grand National Assembly. The apparent inability of successive governments to deal with problems of the economy and public order led many in the military to conclude that the 1961 constitution was defective. Their frustration with the political process was confirmed in September 1980, when the assembly was unable to fulfill its constitutional responsibility to elect a new president. Military Intervention and the Return to Civilian Rule Military Interlude The summer of 1980 was a chaotic time in Turkey. Political violence and sectarian unrest mounted in the cities and spread through the countryside. The work of parliament had come almost to a standstill, and the country was left without an elected president. On September 5, Ecevit aligned the CHP with Erbakan and his NSP to force the resignation of Demirel's foreign minister, Hayrettin Erkman, whose strongly pro-West- ern views had won him the approval of General Staff officers. The next day, the NSP sponsored a massive rally at Konya, where Islamists (also seen as fundamentalists) demonstrated to demand the reinstatement of Islamic law in Turkey, reportedly showing disrespect for the flag and the national anthem. These acts were regarded as an open renunciation of Kemalism and a direct challenge to the military. On September 7, General Evren met secretly with armed forces and police commanders to set in motion plans for another coup. In the early morning hours of September 12, 1980, the armed forces seized control of the country. There was no orga- nized resistance to the coup; indeed, many Turks welcomed it as the only alternative to anarchy. Whereas the 1960 and 1971 military coups had institutional reform as their objective, the 1980 action was undertaken to shore up the order created by the earlier interventions. A five-member executive body, the National Security Council (NSC — see Glossary), was appointed. Composed of the service chiefs and the gendarme- rie commander, it was headed by General Evren, who was rec- ognized as head of state. On September 21, the NSC installed a predominantly civilian cabinet and named Biilent Ulusu, a 60 Historical Setting recently retired admiral, prime minister. A 160-member Con- sultative Assembly subsequently was appointed to draft a consti- tution for what would become Turkey's Third Republic. The first order of business for the military regime was to reestablish law and order in the strife-torn country. Martial law was extended to all the provinces. Suspected militants of all political persuasions as well as trade union and student activists were arrested, and party leaders were taken into custody along with a large number of deputies. Demirel and Ecevit were soon released but told to keep a low profile. When Ecevit began to publish political articles, he was rearrested and jailed for sev- eral months. The Grand National Assembly was dissolved and its members barred from politics for periods of up to ten years. Political parties were abolished and their assets liquidated by the state. The trade unions were purged and strikes banned. Workers who were striking at the time of the coup were given substantial pay raises and ordered back to their jobs. Altogether, some 30,000 people were reported arrested in the first few weeks after the coup. Figures are uncertain, but a year later about 25,000 were still being held, and, after two years, an estimated 10,000 remained in custody, some without having been formally charged. Tiirkes and nearly 600 of his fol- lowers from the MHP were tried on charges of committing or abetting terrorist acts. A number of those found guilty of ter- rorism were hanged. Erbakan and Tiirkes were subsequently convicted of election tampering and given two-year prison terms. Turkey's international reputation suffered as a result of charges of political repression, arbitrary arrest, imprisonment without trial, torture, and other human rights violations. West European governments appealed to the military regime to restore parliamentary rule, and a portion of the OECD's relief package for Turkey was withheld. The European Community also suspended financial assistance, and Turkish delegates were denied their seats in the assembly of the Council of Europe. The performance of the Turkish economy improved signifi- cantly in the first two years after the military intervention. The new regime saw to it that the economic stabilization program introduced by Demirel was implemented under the direction of Ozal, one of the few members of the former government retained after the coup. Austerity measures were strictly enforced, bringing the inflation rate down to 30 percent in 1982. Disagreement developed within the government, how- ever, over the strict monetarist policies promoted by Ozal, 61 Turkey: A Country Study which were seen in some quarters as running counter to Kemalist principles. Ozal was forced to resign as minister of state in July 1982, when the country's largest money broker, the Kastelli Bank, collapsed. Politics and the Return to Civilian Rule The draft of a new constitution was presented by the Consul- tative Assembly to the nation on July 17, 1982. In providing for a strong presidency, it took partial inspiration from the 1958 constitution that established France's Fifth Republic. The con- stitution was put to a national referendum on November 7, 1982, and received approval from 91.4 percent of the elector- ate. The only parts of the country to register significant "no" votes were those with large Kurdish populations. Included in the vote was approval of Evren as president for a seven-year term. He took office on November 9, 1982. A new law on political parties was issued in March 1983, which included a ten-year ban on all politicians active in the pre-September 1980 period. Parties were invited to form so as to contest parliamentary elections later in the year but were required to receive approval from the military rulers. Of fifteen parties requesting certification, only three received approval: the Motherland Party (Anavatan Partisi — ANAP), the Populist Party (Halkci Partisi — HP), and the Nationalist Democracy Party (Milliyetci Demokrasi Partisi — MDP), the latter being the clear favorite of the military. The Motherland Party was led by Turgut Ozal, who had helped formulate the economic stabilization plan under the 1979 Demirel government and then implemented the program under the military government. Ozal was able to draw on sup- port from a broad coalition of forces from the political land- scape of the 1970s. The Motherland Party drew to its ranks adherents of the old Justice Party, the Islamist National Salva- tion Party, and the extreme right-wing Nationalist Action Party. The Populist Party, which came closest to expressing the tradi- tional Kemalist values of the CHP, was led by Necdet Calp. The Nationalist Democracy Party was seen by the electorate as the party of the generals, who openly supported it. Its leader, Tur- gut Sunalp, was a retired general. The Motherland Party came to be viewed by the electorate as the most distant from the mili- tary, and its success in the first postcoup election may be largely attributed to this perception. 62 Historical Setting In parliamentary elections held on November 6, 1983, the Motherland Party won 45.2 percent of the vote and an absolute majority of seats in the new unicameral National Assembly The Populist Party won 30.5 percent of the vote, and the Nationalist Democracy Party obtained only 23.3 percent of the vote. The results were widely viewed as a rebuke to the military. Municipal elections followed the parliamentary elections early the following year. Prior to the March 25, 1984, election date, the assembly voted to allow some of the banned parties to participate. Among the new parties were the Social Democratic Party (Sosyal Demokrat Parti — Sodep), led by university profes- sor Erdal Inonii, son of Turkey's second president, and the True Path Party (Dogru Yol Partisi — DYP), led unofficially by Suleyman Demirel. The Motherland Party continued as Tur- key's leading party, claiming 41.5 percent of the vote nation- wide; the Social Democratic Party drew 23.5 percent, and the True Path Party 13.5 percent. Another new party with a reli- gious orientation, the Welfare Party (Refah Partisi — RP; also seen as Prosperity Party), garnered 4.5 percent. The two parties that had competed with the Motherland Party in the previous general elections now appeared even weaker, receiving some 7 percent of the vote each. The 1984 municipal elections would be the last in which each would compete. In November 1985, the Populist Party merged with the Social Democratic Party, and in May 1986 the leadership of the Nationalist Democracy Party voted to dissolve the organiza- tion. Most of the party faithful found a new home in the broad spectrum that made up the Motherland Party; others joined the True Path Party. At this time, Ecevit also emerged with a rival left-of-center party, the Democratic Left Party (Demokra- tik Sol Partisi — DSP), officially led by his wife, Rahsan. In national elections for local government officials held on September 28, 1986, Ozal's party saw its popularity decline, although it still garnered a plurality of votes. The Motherland Party received 32 percent of votes cast, compared with 23.7 per- cent for the True Path Party, which emerged as the second larg- est party at a time when Demirel, its de facto leader, was still officially banned from politics. The product of a merger, the new Social Democratic Populist Party (Sosyal Demokrat Halkci Parti— SHP) took 22.7 percent of the vote; the DSP drew 8.5 percent. Following this election, Ozal found himself under increasing pressure to restore the political rights of the banned politicians. The assembly repealed the provisional article of the 63 Turkey: A Country Study constitution that would have banned them from political activ- ity until 1991. Following the constitutional amendments, which also enlarged the National Assembly to 450 seats, the prime minis- ter announced that assembly elections would be held early, on November 29. Ozal also amended the election laws to increase the advantage to large parties, which under existing laws already stood to gain from minimum-threshold provisions and the manner in which extra seats were allocated. The Mother- land Party saw its electoral percentage drop to 36.3 percent, nearly 10 percentage points below its 1983 total, but given the late amendments to the electoral law, the party retained an absolute majority in the assembly with 292 seats, or 65 percent of the total. The SHP won 24.8 percent of the vote and received 22 percent of the seats; Demirel's party won 19.2 per- cent of the vote but only 13 percent of the seats. The leader of the True Path Party denounced the late changes to the election law and dubbed the new government the "election-law govern- ment." None of the other parties competing reached the required 10 percent threshold; Ecevit's DSP received 8.5 per- cent of the vote, while Erbakan's Welfare Party received less than 7 percent. In 1989, as Evren's term as president drew to an end, Ozal announced that he would seek to succeed him. This decision was made despite the steadily declining popularity of Ozal and the Motherland Party. In municipal elections on March 26, the Motherland Party polled only 21.9 percent of the vote, third behind the SHP's 28.2 percent and the True Path Party's 25.6 percent. On October 30, 1989, parliament elected Ozal Tur- key's eighth president. He was sworn in on November 9, after Bayar the second civilian in modern Turkish history to hold the position. Ozal's popularity declined steadily, largely because of prob- lems in the economy. Of particular concern was the recurrence of high inflation, which had returned to precoup levels and was rapidly eroding the purchasing power of most Turks. Cou- pled with economic difficulties were widespread perceptions of government corruption and nepotism, which forced the resig- nation of several members of Ozal's government. In the summer of 1990, the crisis in the Persian Gulf result- ing from Iraq's invasion of Kuwait gave Ozal the opportunity to regain the political initiative. The Turkish government moved quickly to support UN sanctions against Iraq, on August 7 stop- 64 Old-style house of Ottoman times in Istanbul Courtesy Hermine Dreyfus s ping the flow of oil through the pipeline from Iraq to Turkey's Mediterranean coast. In September the assembly voted to allow foreign troops onto Turkish soil and to authorize Turkish troops to serve in the Persian Gulf. Opposition parties found little to offer in the way of other options. Ozal no doubt hoped that Turkey's willing participation in the United States-led coa- lition would strengthen the country's image abroad as a crucial ally, a particular concern in the post-Cold War world. Some have speculated that he hoped Turkish involvement would lead to EC admission, much as Turkey's participation in the Korean War had provided the opportunity to join NATO. The govern- ment authorized the use of the air base at Incirlik by Allied air- craft in the bombing campaign against Iraq. In addition, Turkish troops were deployed along the Turkish-Iraqi border, although Ankara insisted that it did not intend to open a sec- ond front against Iraq and that it remained committed to Iraq's territorial integrity. In the aftermath of the Persian Gulf War, Iraqi Kurds attempted to throw off the rule of Saddam Husayn in northern Iraq, following encouragement by United States officials. The uprising, which failed to receive support from the allied coali- tion, was quickly crushed, leading a massive number of Iraqi Kurdish civilians to seek safety in Iran and Turkey. The Turkish government was unable or unwilling to permit several hundred 65 Turkey: A Country Study thousand refugees to enter the country. The coalition allies, together with Turkey, proposed the creation of a "security zone" in northern Iraq. By mid-May 1991, some 200,000 Kurd- ish refugees had been persuaded to return to Iraq. The collapse of the Soviet Union and its East European bloc had significant implications for Turkey's foreign policy. In the trans-Caucasian region of the former Soviet Union, the armed conflict between the newly independent republics of Armenia and Azerbaijan over the Nagorno-Karabakh region found the Turkish government trying to remain above the fray, despite popular sympathy for the Azerbaijani claims. Turkey sought close ties with the new republics of Central Asia, arguing that Turkey's experience as a secular republic could serve as a use- ful model for these states. Relations with Bulgaria, which were strained by the faltering communist regime's persecution of ethnic Turkish Bulgarians in the late 1980s, improved following that regime's collapse. The new government abandoned the campaign of ethnic harassment. Elsewhere in the Balkans, Turkey maintained close relations with Albania and established contact with the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Relations with Greece continued to be complicated by long- standing differences over Cyprus and naval and air rights in the Aegean Sea. In 1986 Ozal paid an official visit to the self-pro- claimed Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, which to date remains without diplomatic recognition from any state other than Turkey. In March 1987, Greece and Turkey nearly came to blows over oil-drilling rights in the Aegean Sea. Nevertheless, both countries' governments displayed a willingness to empha- size diplomacy over force. In June 1989, Ozal became the first Turkish prime minister to visit Athens in thirty-six years. Talks on the future of Cyprus, held under UN auspices, have remained inconclusive, and the island remains under a de facto partition after more than twenty years. Turkey's 1991 parliamentary elections may have been the most significant since the restoration of civilian rule. Political power passed peacefully from the Motherland Party to its major rival, the True Path Party. In the vote held on October 21, Demirel's party won about 27 percent and captured the largest block of seats, 178. The Motherland Party, widely pre- dicted as destined for oblivion, surprised its critics by polling some 24 percent of the vote and winning 115 seats. The SHP, which had expected to do better, won 20.8 percent of the vote, 66 Historical Setting or eighty-eight seats. Left-of-center votes were split between the SHP and the DSP; the latter gained about 10.8 percent of the vote and seven seats. The Welfare Party appeared to do very well, with 16.9 percent and sixty-two seats, but this result reflected a strategic decision to join forces with another reli- giously oriented party in order to surpass the 10 percent threshold. Following the elections, the alliance was dissolved in the assembly. Although the Motherland and True Path parties were not too far apart ideologically, the personal discord between Ozal and Demirel precluded any coalition arrange- ment. Instead, Demirel made common cause with Erdal Inonu's SHP, an alliance with the left that he had resisted throughout the 1970s. The coalition controlled 266 seats in parliament and reflected the support of almost 48 percent of the electorate. Defining the place of the Kurdish ethnic minority in Turkey remained a difficult challenge throughout this period; indeed, it may have ranked as the primary challenge to domestic politi- cal stability. Given the founding principles of the Turkish republic, conceiving the country as the homeland of the Turks, any proposed recognition of Kurdish linguistic or cultural rights has been questioned on the grounds that such recogni- tion would threaten the unity of the Turkish nation. President Ozal went farther than any Turkish official in extending recognition of Kurdish identity when, in January 1991, he proposed rescinding a law prohibiting the playing of Kurdish music or the use of Kurdish speech. Law 2932, passed in 1983 (declaring the mother tongue of Turkish citizens to be Turkish), was repealed in April 1991, thereby legalizing Kurd- ish speech, song, and music. Proposals were also floated for a relaxation of the ban on Kurdish in the print and broadcast media and in education, but such liberalization did not occur. Since the restoration of civilian rule, Turkish governments have been faced with the armed insurrection of the Kurdistan Workers' Party (Partiya Karkeran Kurdistan — PKK) . The PKK, one of several armed Kurdish guerrilla organizations, was founded by Abdullah Ocalan in 1978. Ocalan fled to Syria after the 1980 coup. The PKK, which was officially banned by the Turkish government, began a sustained guerrilla campaign in March 1984, timed to coincide with the beginning of the Kurd- ish new year. The conflict, which between 1984 and 1994 claimed about 12,000 lives, showed no signs of abating by the early 1990s. The Turkish army was unable to defeat the PKK 67 Turkey: A Country Study with military force alone, while the PKK was no closer to its goal of an independent Kurdish state in southeastern Turkey (see Political Parties, ch. 4; Kurdish Separatists, ch. 5). Economic Stabilization and Prospects for the 1990s In 1980 the rate of inflation was more than 100 percent at one point and stayed at 70 percent for most of the year. The economic stabilization program, begun before the coup, now proceeded unhindered by political resistance. The program aimed to improve Turkey's balance of payments, bring infla- tion under control, and create an export-oriented free-market economy. To achieve these goals, the plan sought devaluation of the lira on a continuing basis, increases in interest rates to reduce inflation and overconsumption, a freeze on wages, and a reduction in state subsidies. Exports were to be encouraged through subsidies for exporters, reductions in bureaucratic regulations, and the abolition of customs duties on imports needed for export-oriented industries. Foreign investment was actively encouraged by laws providing for easy repatriation of capital and export of profits,and the establishment of four free- trade zones. The results of the ambitious programs of the 1980s were mixed. On the negative side, purchasing power declined 40 to 60 percent in the decade from 1979 to 1989. Inflation, which had been brought down to annual rates of 30 to 40 percent in the early 1980s, was back up to nearly 70 percent by 1988. The steady decline in Ozal's popularity with the electorate can be attributed in large part to these disappointing results. The gov- ernment continued to run a high deficit, partly because of its unwillingness or inability to end support of large state-owned industries. On the positive side, exports grew by an average of 22 percent each year between 1980 and 1987. Exports in 1979 amounted to US$2.3 billion; in 1988 the value of exports had increased to US$11.7 billion. Moreover, industrial exports rose in this period from less than 45 percent of all exports to more than 72 percent. The government also undertook to modernize the country's infrastructure, emphasizing improvements in roads and tele- communications. In July 1988, a second bridge across the Bosporus was opened, paralleling the first bridge opened in 1973. Together with a bypass road around Istanbul, the bridges were intended to facilitate commercial traffic moving to and from Europe and the Middle East. Of perhaps the most long- 68 Historical Setting term significance was the ongoing commitment to the South- east Anatolia Project (Guneydogu Anadolu Projesi — GAP), a series of dams along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers that when completed would include hydroelectric plants as well as exten- sive irrigation works. The latter were projected to allow for the irrigation of 1.6 million hectares of land, or twice the area pre- viously under cultivation. In addition, the plentiful hydroelec- tricity would supply energy for Turkish industry. Because of Turkey's inability to come to agreement with its downstream neighbors, Iraq and Syria, no international funds were made available for GAP. The project, consequently, was self-financed. In 1992 a milestone was reached with the opening of the Atatiirk Dam on the Euphrates, northwest of Urfa. On April 17, 1993, President Ozal died suddenly of a heart attack. On its third ballot, on May 16, the assembly elected Suleyman Demirel as Turkey's ninth president. Demirel was succeeded by former economics minister Tansu (filler, who became Turkey's first woman prime minister. She received nearly 90 percent of the votes cast in a special election for the leadership of the True Path Party. The smooth succession of power may be seen as evidence that civilian rule was firmly in place. Moreover, the accession of filler to the prime minister's office, the second highest position in the nation, showed the extent to which Ataturk's legacy, and in particular the political rights of women, was becoming ingrained in the Turkish body politic. * * * A useful introduction to Turkish history from antiquity to the 1980s is Turkey: A Short History, by Roderic H. Davison, updated to 1988. The most thorough scholarly survey of Turk- ish history to 1975 available in English is the two-volume History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, by Stanford J. Shaw and Ezel Kural Shaw. For the modern period, Bernard Lewis's The Emergence of Modern Turkey remains useful. It may be supple- mented by two recent works, Feroz Ahmad's The Making of Mod- ern Turkey and Erik J. Zurcher's Turkey: A Modern History. Also useful for the period up to 1975 is Modern Turkey, by Geoffrey Lewis. Patrick Balfour Kinross has written the standard English biography of Atatiirk, offering a sympathetic evaluation of Tur- key's founding father. For contemporary Turkish history, see George S. Harris's Turkey: Coping with Crisis, Feroz Ahmad's The 69 Turkey: A Country Study Turkish Experiment in Democracy, 1950-1975, and Frank Tachau's Turkey: The Politics of Authority, Democracy, and Development. (For further information and complete citations, see Bibliography.) 70 Chapter 2. The Society and Its Environment Christianity and Islam have long coexisted, as reflected in this scene in Kars in eastern Turkey. THE OFFICIAL IMAGE OF TURKISH society promoted by the ruling elite since the 1920s is one of relative homogeneity This image has been enshrined in successive constitutions of the republic, including the 1982 document, in which it is stated that "the Turkish state, with its territory and nation, is an indi- visible entity. Its language is Turkish." In reality, however, Turk- ish society is a mosaic of diverse and at times contending ethnic and linguistic groups. The question, "Who is a Turk?," contin- ued to provoke controversy in the mid-1990s. Sociologists and other scholars, both Turkish and foreign, have noted that a majority of the population — estimated at the end of 1994 at 61.2 million — accepts as true Turks only those individuals whose native tongue is Turkish and who adhere to Sunni (see Glossary) Islam. This definition excludes a sizable minority of Turkish citizens from consideration as true Turks. The largest group within this minority is the Kurds, the over- whelming majority of whom speak Kurdish, an Indo-European language related to Persian, as their native tongue. In 1994 esti- mates of the size of the Kurdish minority in Turkey ranged from 10 to 20 percent of the country's total population. Since 1990 demands by Kurdish political leaders that the Kurdish minority be permitted to read, write, and speak Kurdish have created a major political issue in Turkey (see Political Interest Groups, ch. 4). Although most adult Kurds are Sunni Muslims, perhaps as much as one-third of the total Kurdish population in Turkey belongs to a Shia Muslim sect known as Alevi (see Glossary). In addition to the Kurdish Alevi, many of the nation's estimated 700,000 to 1 million Arabs are Alevi. The Alevi Arabs — most of whom live in or near Hatay Province — also are known as Nusayri and maintain discreet ties with the Alawi (also seen as Alawites) of neighboring Syria. A significant number of Alevi are ethnic Turks. The continued presence of linguistic and religious minori- ties conflicts with the elite's conception of a modern society that is Turkish-speaking and secular. This notion was an inte- gral part of the social revolution begun after World War I by Mustafa Kemal (later known as Atatiirk). Linguistic reform was essential to Atauirk's vision of the new Turkey, and the reconsti- tuted Turkish language has been both a central symbol and a 73 Turkey: A Country Study powerful mechanism for the establishment of a new national identity. Ataturk institutionalized the secularization of the country through measures that included abolishing the caliph- ate, disestablishing Islam as the state religion, suppressing the unorthodox but highly influential dervish — or mystical — orders, closing the religious courts, and ending locally based religious education (see Ataturk's Reforms, ch. 1; Secularist Reforms, this ch.). Under Ataturk's leadership, the ideologi- cally secularist and modernist urban elite ended state support and patronage of Islamic institutions and attempted to make religion a matter solely of private conscience. The result of Ataturk's reforms was the creation of two cul- tures: a secularized and Westernized elite culture and a mass culture based on traditional religious values. Prior to 1950, the elite's attitude toward traditional culture tended to be con- temptuous in general and specifically hostile toward religious expression. Since 1950, however, the elite generally has become more tolerant of religion, or at least of orthodox Sunni Islam, and various political parties have attempted to conciliate religious interests, albeit within the framework of Ataturk's institutional secularism. Nevertheless, in the mid- 1990s the single most significant distinction in Turkish society remained the gap separating the secular elite from traditional culture. Since the early nineteenth century, Western-oriented secular education has been a major factor distinguishing the elite and traditional cultures. By 1908 a substantial portion of the gov- erning stratum, particularly the military officers and higher- ranking members of the bureaucracy, had received a secular education in their youth. Their values, knowledge, and view- points separated them sharply from the illiterate, religiously observant, and socially traditional masses. The cultural differ- ence between the educated and the uneducated, the urban and the rural, the modernist and the traditionalist, has contin- ued to affect Turkish society in multiple, intertwined ways. The views of Ataturk, who articulated the values of the secular elite in the 1920s and 1930s, remain central in Turkey more than fifty years after his death. Ataturk identified "civilization" with the culture of Europe, contrasting it with what he said was the backwardness, ignorance, and obscurantism of the common people of Turkey. He actively promoted a "modern" Turkey that embraced the civilization of Europe as its inspiration and model. Since Ataturk's time, mediation between Turkey's two 74 The Society and Its Environment cultures has been and remains politically problematic. The emergence in the late 1980s and early 1990s of a relatively pop- ular political party appealing to what it defined as Islamic val- ues has tended to increase the polarization of the elite and nonelite cultures. In the mid-1990s, the Turkish government was attempting to reconcile this heretofore divisive trend. In the early republican period of the 1920s and 1930s, civil and military officials occupied the unchallenged pinnacle of the social structure. Since that time, however, competing ele- ments, especially businesspeople, industrialists, professionals, and employees of private organizations, have challenged the supremacy of the officials. As a result, the social complexion of the political elite has been in transition since the early 1980s, not just in Ankara and Istanbul but in other cities as well. In rural areas, however, and for the vast majority of the popula- tion, traditional forms and values, such as the centrality of fam- ily life and adherence to an ethical blueprint of behavior perceived in religious terms, have survived, although in altered form. Consequently, the balance between traditional and "modern" values remains uneasy. Geography Turkey is a large, roughly rectangular peninsula situated bridge-like between southeastern Europe and Asia. Indeed, the country has functioned as a bridge for human movement throughout history. Turkey extends more than 1,600 kilome- ters from west to east but generally less than 800 kilometers from north to south. Total land area is about 779,452 square kilometers, of which 755,688 square kilometers are in Asia and 23,764 square kilometers in Europe. The European portion of Turkey, known as Thrace (Trakya), encompasses 3 percent of the total area but is home to more than 10 percent of the total population. Thrace is separated from the Asian portion of Turkey by the Bosporus Strait (Istan- bul Bogazi or Karadeniz Bogazi), the Sea of Marmara (Mar- mara Denizi), and the Dardanelles Strait (Qanakkale Bogazi). The Asian part of the country is known by a variety of names — Asia Minor, Asiatic Turkey, the Anatolian Plateau, and Anatolia (Anadolu). The term Anatolia is most frequently used in spe- cific reference to the large, semiarid central plateau, which is rimmed by hills and mountains that in many places limit access to the fertile, densely settled coastal regions. Astride the straits separating the two continents, Istanbul is the country's primary 75 Turkey: A Country Study industrial, commercial, and intellectual center. However, the Anatolian city of Ankara, which Ataturk and his associates picked as the capital of the new republic, is the political center of the country and has emerged as an important industrial and cultural center in its own right (see fig. 1). External Boundaries Turkey is bounded by eight countries and six bodies of water. Surrounded by water on three sides and protected by high mountains along its eastern border, the country generally has well-defined natural borders. Its demarcated land frontiers were settled by treaty early in the twentieth century and have since remained stable. The boundary with Greece — 206 kilo- meters — was confirmed by the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, which resolved persistent boundary and territorial claims involving areas in Thrace and provided for a population exchange (see War of Independence, ch. 1). Under the agree- ment, most members of the sizable Greek-speaking community of western Turkey were forced to resettle in Greece, and the majority of the Turkish-speaking residents of Greek Thrace were removed to Turkey The 1923 treaty also confirmed Tur- key's 240-kilometer boundary with Bulgaria. Since 1991 the more than 500-kilometer boundary with the former Soviet Union, which was defined in the 1921 treaties of Moscow and Kars, has formed Turkey's borders with the inde- pendent countries of Armenia (268 kilometers), Azerbaijan (nine kilometers), and Georgia (252 kilometers). The 499-kilo- meter boundary with Iran was confirmed by treaty in 1937. Turkey's two southern neighbors, Iraq and Syria, had been part of the Ottoman Empire up to 1918. According to the terms of the Treaty of Lausanne, Turkey ceded all its claims to these two countries, which had been organized as League of Nations mandates under the governing responsibility of Britain and France, respectively. Turkey and Britain agreed on the 331-kilo- meter boundary between Turkish and Iraqi territory in the 1926 Treaty of Angora (Ankara). Turkey's boundary with Syria — 822 kilometers long — has not been accepted by Syria. As a result of the Treaty of Lausanne, the former Ottoman San- jak (province) of Alexandretta (present-day Hatay Province) was ceded to Syria. However, France agreed in June 1939 to transfer Hatay Province to Turkish sovereignty, despite the strong objections of Syria's political leaders. Since achieving independence in 1946, Syria has harbored a lingering resent- 7(3 The Society and Its Environment ment over the loss of the province and its principal towns of Antakya and Iskenderun (formerly Antioch and Alexandretta). This issue has continued to be an irritant in Syrian-Turkish relations. Geology Turkey's varied landscapes are the product of complex earth movements that have shaped Anatolia over thousands of years and still manifest themselves in fairly frequent earthquakes and occasional volcanic eruptions. Except for a relatively small por- tion of its territory along the Syrian border that is a continua- tion of the Arabian Platform, Turkey geologically is part of the great Alpine belt that extends from the Atlantic Ocean to the Himalaya Mountains. This belt was formed during the Tertiary Period (about 65 million to 1.6 million B.C.), as the Arabian, African, and Indian continental plates began to collide with the Eurasian plate, and the sedimentary layers laid down by the prehistoric Tethyan Sea buckled, folded, and contorted. The intensive folding and uplifting of this mountain belt was accompanied by strong volcanic activity and intrusions of igne- ous rock material, followed by extensive faulting during the Quaternary Period, which began about 1.6. million B.C. This folding and faulting process is still at work, as the Turkish and Aegean plates, moving south and southwest, respectively, con- tinue to collide. As a result, Turkey is one of the world's more active earthquake and volcano regions, Earthquakes range from barely perceptible tremors to major movements measuring five or higher on the open-ended Rich- ter scale. Earthquakes measuring more than six can cause mas- sive damage to buildings and, especially if they occur on winter nights, numerous deaths and injuries. Turkey's most severe earthquake in the twentieth century occurred in Erzincan on the night of December 28-29, 1939; it devastated most of the city and caused an estimated 160,000 deaths. Earthquakes of moderate intensity often continue with sporadic aftershocks over periods of several days or even weeks. The most earthquake-prone part of Turkey is an arc-shaped region stretching from the general vicinity of Kocaeli to the area north of Lake Van on the border with Armenia and Georgia (see fig. 7). Turkey's terrain is structurally complex. A central massif composed of uplifted blocks and downfolded troughs, covered by recent deposits and giving the appearance of a plateau with 77 Turkey: A Country Study rough terrain, is wedged between two folded mountain ranges that converge in the east. True lowland is confined to the Ergene Plain in Thrace, extending along rivers that discharge into the Aegean Sea or the Sea of Marmara, and to a few nar- row coastal strips along the Black Sea and Mediterranean Sea coasts. Nearly 85 percent of the land is at an elevation of at least 450 meters; the median altitude of the country is 1,128 meters. In Asiatic Turkey, flat or gently sloping land is rare and largely confined to the deltas of the Kizihrmak River, the coastal plains of Antalya and Adana, and the valley floors of the Gediz River and the Buyukmenderes River, and some interior high plains in Anatolia, mainly around Tuz Golii (Salt Lake) and Konya Ovasi (Konya Basin). Moderately sloping terrain is limited almost entirely outside Thrace to the hills of the Ara- bian Platform along the border with Syria. More than 80 percent of the land surface is rough, broken, and mountainous, and therefore is of limited agricultural value (see Agriculture, ch. 3). The terrain's ruggedness is accentu- ated in the eastern part of the country, where the two moun- tain ranges converge into a lofty region with a median elevation of more than 1,500 meters, which reaches its highest point along the borders with Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Iran. Turkey's highest peak, Mount Ararat (Agri Dagi) — about 5,166 meters high — is situated near the point where the boundaries of the four countries meet. Landform Regions Distinct contrasts between the interior and periphery of Tur- key are manifested in its landform regions, climate, soils, and vegetation. The periphery is divided into the Black Sea region, the Aegean region, and the Mediterranean region. The inte- rior is also divided into three regions: the Pontus and Taurus mountain ranges, the Anatolian Plateau, and the eastern high- lands. The seventh region of the country is the Arabian Plat- form in the southeast, adjacent to the Syrian border. Black Sea Region The Black Sea region has a steep, rocky coast with rivers that cascade through the gorges of the coastal ranges. A few larger rivers, those cutting back through the Pontus Mountains (Dogukaradeniz Daglan), have tributaries that flow in broad, elevated basins. Access inland from the coast is limited to a few narrow valleys because mountain ridges, with elevations of 78 International boundary (J) National capital • Populated place A Spot elevation in meters 50 100 KILOMETERS 1 11 'i 1 ■ 1 50 100 MILES 1 The Society and Its Environment 1,525 to 1,800 meters in the west and 3,000 to 4,000 meters in the east, form an almost unbroken wall separating the coast from the interior. The higher slopes facing northwest tend to be densely forested. Because of these natural conditions, the Black Sea coast historically has been isolated from Anatolia. Running from Zonguldak in the west to Rize in the east, the narrow coastal strip widens at several places into fertile, intensely cultivated deltas. The Samsun area, close to the mid- point, is a major tobacco-growing region; east of it are numer- ous citrus groves. East of Samsun, the area around Trabzon is world-renowned for the production of hazelnuts, and farther east the Rize region has numerous tea plantations. All cultiva- ble areas, including mountain slopes wherever they are not too steep, are sown or used as pasture. The mild, damp climate of the Black Sea coast makes commercial farming profitable. The western part of the Black Sea region, especially the Zonguldak area, is a center of coal mining and heavy industry. Aegean Region The European portion of the Aegean region consists mainly of rolling plateau country well suited to agriculture. It receives about 520 millimeters of rainfall annually. Densely populated, this area includes the cities of Istanbul and Edirne. The Bosporus, which links the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea, is about twenty-five kilometers long and averages 1.5 kilometers in width but narrows in places to less than 500 meters. Both its Asian and European banks rise steeply from the water and form a succession of cliffs, coves, and nearly landlocked bays. Most of the shores are densely wooded and are marked by numerous small towns and villages. The Dardanelles Strait, which links the Sea of Marmara and the Aegean Sea, is approx- imately forty kilometers long and increases in width toward the south. Unlike the Bosporus, the Dardanelles has few settle- ments along its shores. On its Asian side, the Aegean region has fertile soils and a typically Mediterranean climate with mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers. The broad, cultivated valley lowlands contain about half of the country's richest farmland. Major crops are olives, citrus, nuts (especially almonds), and tobacco. The most important valleys are the Kocaeli Valley, the Bursa Ovasi (Bursa Basin), and the Plains of Troy. The valley lowlands are densely populated, particularly around Bursa and Izmir, the country's third largest city and a major manufacturing center. 81 80 Turkey: A Country Study Mediterranean Region The narrow coastal plains of the Mediterranean region, sep- arated from Anatolia by the Taurus Mountains, which reach elevations of 2,000 to 2,750 meters, are cultivated intensively. Fertile soils and a warm climate make the Mediterranean coast ideal for growing citrus fruits, grapes, figs, bananas, various vegetables, barley, wheat, and, in irrigated areas, rice and cot- ton. The Cukur Ova in the east is a plain that is the most devel- oped agricultural area of the Mediterranean region. It is a significant cotton-growing center and also supports a major cotton-based textile industry. In general, summers are hot and dry in the Mediterranean region. The weather in combination with the region's numerous sandy beaches has encouraged the development of a tourist industry. Toward the east, the extensive plains around Adana, Tur- key's fourth largest city, consist largely of reclaimed flood lands. In general, rivers have not cut valleys to the sea in the western part of the region. Historically, movement inland from the western Mediterranean coast was difficult. East of Adana, much of the coastal plain has limestone features such as collapsed caverns and sinkholes. Between Adana and Antalya, the Taurus Mountains rise sharply from the coast to high elevations. Other than Adana, Antalya, and Mersin, the Mediterranean coast has few major cities, although it has numerous farming villages. Ponhis and Taurus Mountains The Pontus Mountains (also called the North Anatolian Mountains) in the north are an interrupted chain of folded highlands that generally parallel the Black Sea coast. In the west, the mountains tend to be low, with elevations rarely exceeding 1,500 meters, but they rise in an easterly direction to heights greater than 3,000 meters south of Rize. Lengthy, troughlike valleys and basins characterize the mountains. Riv- ers flow from the mountains toward the Black Sea. The south- ern slopes — facing the Anatolian Plateau — are mostly unwooded, but the northern slopes contain dense growths of both deciduous and evergreen trees. Paralleling the Mediterranean coast, the Taurus (Toros Dag- lan) is Turkey's second chain of folded mountains. The range rises just inland from the coast and uends generally in an east- erly direction until it reaches the Arabian Platform, where it arcs around the northern side of the platform. The Taurus Mountains are more rugged and less dissected by rivers than 82 The Society and Its Environment the Pontus Mountains and historically have served as a barrier to human movement inland from the Mediterranean coast except where there are mountain passes such as the Cilician Gates (Giilek Bogazi), northwest of Adana. Frequently interspersed throughout the folded mountains, and also situated on the Anatolian Plateau, are well-defined basins, which the Turks call ova. Some are no more than a wid- ening of a stream valley; others, such as the Konya Ovasi, are large basins of inland drainage or are the result of limestone erosion. Most of the basins take their names from cities or towns located at their rims. Where a lake has formed within the basin, the water body is usually saline as a result of the internal drainage — the water has no outlet to the sea. Anatolian Plateau Stretching inland from the Aegean coastal plain, the Anato- lian Plateau occupies the area between the two zones of the folded mountains, extending east to the point where the two ranges converge. The plateau-like, semiarid highlands of Ana- tolia are considered the heartland of the country. The region varies in elevation from 600 to 1,200 meters from west to east. The two largest basins on the plateau are the Konya Ovasi and the basin occupied by the large salt lake, Tuz Golu. Both basins are characterized by inland drainage. Wooded areas are con- fined to the northwest and northeast of the plateau. Rain-fed cultivation is widespread, with wheat being the principal crop. Irrigated agriculture is restricted to the areas surrounding riv- ers and wherever sufficient underground water is available. Important irrigated crops include barley, corn, cotton, various fruits, grapes, opium poppies, sugar beets, roses, and tobacco. There also is extensive grazing throughout the plateau. The Anatolian Plateau receives little annual rainfall. For instance, the semiarid center of the plateau receives an average yearly precipitation of only 300 millimeters. However, actual rainfall from year to year is irregular and occasionally may be less than 200 millimeters, leading to severe reductions in crop yields for both rain-fed and irrigated agriculture. In years of low rainfall, stock losses also can be high. Overgrazing has con- tributed to soil erosion on the plateau. During the summers, frequent dust storms blow a fine yellow powder across the pla- teau. Locusts occasionally ravage the eastern area in April and May. In general, the plateau experiences extreme heat, with 83 Turkey: A Country Study almost no rainfall in summer and cold weather with heavy snow in winter. Eastern Highlands Eastern Anatolia, where the Pontus and Taurus mountain ranges converge, is rugged country with higher elevations, a more severe climate, and greater precipitation than are found on the Anatolian Plateau. The region is known as the Anti-Tau- rus, and the average elevation of its peaks exceeds 3,000 meters. Mount Ararat, at 5,166 meters the highest point in Tur- key, is located in the Anti-Taurus. Many of the Anti-Taurus peaks apparently are recently extinct volcanoes, to judge from extensive lava flows. Turkey's largest lake, Lake Van, is situated in the mountains at an elevation of 1,546 meters. The headwa- ters of three major rivers arise in the Anti-Taurus: the east-flow- ing Aras, which empties into the Caspian Sea; the south-flowing Euphrates; and the south-flowing Tigris, which eventually joins the Euphrates in Iraq before emptying into the Persian Gulf. Several small streams that empty into the Black Sea or land- locked Lake Van also originate in these mountains. Most of eastern Anatolia comprises the area known histori- cally as Kurdistan. In addition to its rugged mountains, the area is known for severe winters with heavy snowfalls. The few valleys and plains in these mountains tend to be fertile and to support diverse agriculture. The main basin is the Mus Valley, west of Lake Van. Narrow valleys also lie at the foot of the lofty peaks along river corridors. Arabian Platform The Arabian Platform is in southeast Anatolia south of the Anti-Taurus Mountains. It is a region of rolling hills and a broad plateau surface that extends into Syria. Elevations decrease gradually, from about 800 meters in the north to about 500 meters in the south. Traditionally, wheat and barley were the main crops of the region, but the inauguration of major new irrigation projects in the 1980s has led to greater agricultural diversity and development. Climate Turkey's diverse regions have different climates, with the weather system on the coasts contrasting with that prevailing in the interior. The Aegean and Mediterranean coasts have cool, rainy winters and hot, moderately dry summers. Annual precip- 84 Land formations once used for dwellings in central Anatolia Farmer in eastern Turkey Courtesy Hermine Drey fuss 85 Turkey: A Country Study itation in those areas varies from 580 to 1,300 millimeters, depending on location. Generally, rainfall is less to the east. The Black Sea coast receives the greatest amount of rainfall. The eastern part of that coast averages 1,400 millimeters annu- ally and is the only region of Turkey that receives rainfall throughout the year. Mountains close to the coast prevent Mediterranean influ- ences from extending inland, giving the interior of Turkey a continental climate with distinct seasons. The Anatolian Pla- teau is much more subject to extremes than are the coastal areas. Winters on the plateau are especially severe. Tempera- tures of -30°C to -40°C can occur in the mountainous areas in the east, and snow may lie on the ground 120 days of the year. In the west, winter temperatures average below 1°C. Summers are hot and dry, with temperatures above 30°C. Annual precip- itation averages about 400 millimeters, with actual amounts determined by elevation. The driest regions are the Konya Ovasi and the Malatya Ovasi, where annual rainfall frequently is less than 300 millimeters. May is generally the wettest month and July and August the driest. The climate of the Anti-Taurus Mountain region of eastern Turkey can be inhospitable. Summers tend to be hot and extremely dry. Winters are bitterly cold with frequent, heavy snowfall. Villages can be isolated for several days during winter storms. Spring and autumn are generally mild, but during both seasons sudden hot and cold spells frequently occur. Population Turkey's population at the end of 1994 was estimated at 61.2 million. This number represented an 8.4 percent increase over the 56.5 million enumerated in the twelfth quinquennial cen- sus, conducted in October 1990. The State Institute of Statistics (SIS) has estimated that since 1990 the country's population has been growing at an average annual rate of 2.1 percent, a decrease from the 2.5 percent average annual rate recorded during the 1980s. Turkey's population in 1985 was about 50.7 million, and in 1980 about 44.7 million. In the fourteen years from 1980 to 1994, the population increased nearly 37 percent. Turkey's first census of the republican era was taken in 1927 and counted a total population of about 13.6 million. Less than seventy years later, the country's population had more than quadrupled. Between 1927 and 1945, growth was slow; in cer- tain years during the 1930s, the population actually declined. 86 The Society and Its Environment Significant growth occurred between 1945 and 1980, when the population increased almost 2.5 times. Although the rate of growth has been slowing gradually since 1980, Turkey's average annual population increase is relatively high in comparison to that of European countries. In fact, member states of the Euro- pean Union (EU — see Glossary) have cited this high popula- tion growth rate as justification for delaying a decision on Turkey's long-pending application to join the EU. The 1990 census is the most recent one for which detailed statistical data are available. That census revealed the relative youth of the population, with 20 percent being ten years of age or under (see table 4, Appendix A). About 50.5 percent of the population was male, and 49.5 percent female. The average life expectancy for females of seventy-two years was greater than the corresponding figure for men of sixty-eight years. The birth rate was twenty-eight per 1,000 population; the death rate was six per 1,000. Population Density, Distribution, and Settlement Population density has increased along with the relatively rapid growth rate. For example, although Turkey had an aver- age of only twenty-seven inhabitants per square kilometer in 1950, this figure had nearly tripled, to 72.5 persons people per square kilometer, by 1990. Population density was estimated at 78.5 people per square kilometer at the end of 1994. According to the 1990 census, the most densely populated provinces included Istanbul, with 1,330 persons per square kilometer; Kocaeli, with 260; and Izmir, with 220. The most lightly popu- lated provinces included Tunceli and Karaman, with seventeen and twenty-four persons, respectively, per square kilometer. Turkey's overall population density was less than one-half the densities in major EU countries such as Britain, Germany, and Italy. Although overall population density is low, some regions of Turkey, especially Thrace and the Aegean and Black Sea coasts, are densely populated. The uneven population distribution is most obvious in the coastal area stretching from Zonguldak westward to Istanbul, then around the Sea of Marmara and south along the Aegean coast to Izmir. Although this area includes less than 25 percent of Turkey's total land, more than 45 percent of the total population lived there in 1990. In con- trast, the Anatolian Plateau and mountainous east account for 62 percent of the total land, but only 40 percent of the popula- 87 Turkey: A Country Study tion resided there in 1990. The remaining 15 percent of the population lived along the southern Mediterranean coast, which makes up 13 percent of Turkey's territory. In 1990 about 50 percent of the population was classified as rural. This figure represented a decline of more than 30 per- cent since 1950, when the rural population accounted for 82 percent of the country's total. The rural population lived in more than 36,000 villages in 1990, most of which had fewer than 1,000 inhabitants (see Village Life, this ch.). For adminis- trative purposes, a village can be a small settlement or a num- ber of scattered rural households, jointly administered by a village headman ( muhtar) . By 1995 more than 65 percent of Turkey's population lived in cities, defined as built-up areas with 10,000 or more inhabit- ants. The urban population has been growing at a rapid rate since 1950, when it accounted for only 18 percent of Turkey's total. The main factor in the growth of the cities has been the steady migration of villagers to urban areas, a process that was continuing in the 1990s. The trend toward urbanization was revealed in the 1990 census, which enumerated more than 17.6 million people — more than 30 percent of the total popula- tion — as living in nineteen cities with populations then of more than 200,000. The largest was Istanbul, with a population then of about 6.6 million, approximately 12 percent of Turkey's overall population. Two other cities also had populations in excess of 1 million: Ankara, the capital (about 2.6 million), and Izmir, a major port and industrial center on the Aegean Sea (about 1.8 million). Turkey's fourth and fifth largest cities, Adana (about 916,000 in 1990) and Bursa (about 835,000), have been growing at rates in excess of 3 percent per year, and each is expected to have more than 1 million inhabitants before 2000. Gaziantep in the southeast and Konya on the Ana- tolian Plateau were the only other cities with populations in excess of 500,000 in 1990. The ten largest cities also included Mersin (about 422,000), Kayseri (about 421,000), and Eskisehir (about 413,000). Migration During the decade 1915 to 1925, the country experienced large population transfers — a substantial movement outward of minority groups and an influx of refugees and immigrants. The first major population shift began in 1915, when the Ottoman government, for a variety of complex and in some instances 88 The Society and Its Environment contradictory reasons, decided to deport an estimated 2 mil- lion Armenians from their historical homeland in eastern Ana- tolia (see Armenians, this ch.; World War I, ch. 1). The movement of Greeks out of Turkey, which began during the 1912-13 Balkan Wars, climaxed in the 1920s with an interna- tionally sanctioned exchange of population between Turkey and the Balkan states, primarily. In accordance with the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, Turkey accepted approximately 500,000 Muslims, who were forced to leave their homes in the Balkans, in exchange for nearly 2 million Greeks, who were forced to leave Anatolia. By special arrangement, Greeks living in Istan- bul and Turks living in the Greek part of Thrace were exempted from the compulsory exchanges. After 1925 Turkey continued to accept Muslims speaking Turkic languages as immigrants and did not discourage the emigration of members of non-Turkic minorities. More than 90 percent of all immigrants arrived from the Balkan countries. Between 1935 and 1940, for example, approximately 124,000 Bulgarians and Romanians of Turkish origin immigrated to Turkey, and between 1954 and 1956 about 35,000 Muslim Slavs immigrated from Yugoslavia. In the fifty-five-year period end- ing in 1980, Turkey admitted approximately 1.3 million immi- grants; 36 percent came from Bulgaria, 30 percent from Greece, 22.1 percent from Yugoslavia, and 8.9 percent from Romania. These Balkan immigrants, as well as smaller numbers of Turkic immigrants from Cyprus and the Soviet Union, were granted full citizenship upon their arrival in Turkey. The immi- grants were settled primarily in the Marmara and Aegean regions (78 percent) and in central Anatolia (11.7 percent). The most recent immigration influx was that of Bulgarian Turks and Bosnian Muslims. In 1989 an estimated 320,000 Bul- garian Turks fled to Turkey to escape a campaign of forced assimilation. Following the collapse of Bulgaria's communist government that same year, the number of Bulgarian Turks seeking refuge in Turkey declined to under 1,000 per month. In fact, the number of Bulgarian Turks who voluntarily repatri- ated — 125,000 — exceeded new arrivals. By March 1994, a total of 245,000 Bulgarian Turks had been granted Turkish citizen- ship. However, Turkey no longer regards Bulgarian Turks as refugees. Beginning in 1994, new entrants to Turkey have been detained and deported. As of December 31, 1994, an estimated 20,000 Bosnians were living in Turkey, mostly in the Istanbul 89 Turkey: A Country Study area. About 2,600 were living in camps; the rest were dispersed in private residences. In 1994 the government claimed that as many as 2 million Iranians were living in Turkey, a figure that most international organizations consider to be grossly exaggerated. Turkey is one of the few countries that Iranians may enter without first obtaining a visa; authorities believe that the relative ease of travel from Iran to Turkey encourages many Iranians to visit Turkey as tourists, or to use Turkey as a way station to obtain visas for the countries of Europe and North America. Conse- quently, as many as 2 million Iranians actually may transit Tur- key — including multiple reentries for many individuals — in a given year. Specialized agencies of the European Union and the United Nations that deal with issues of migrants and refu- gees believe a more realistic figure of the number of Iranians who live in Turkey, and do not have a residence in Iran or else- where, is closer to 50,000. In the 1960s, working-age Turks, primarily men, began migrating to Western Europe to find employment as guest workers. Many of these Turkish workers eventually brought their families to Europe. An estimated 2 million Turkish work- ers and their dependents resided in Western Europe in the early 1980s, before the onset of an economic recession that led to severe job losses. The Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) initiated the program of accepting Turkish guest workers. In the 1990s, however, Germany adopted a policy of economic incentives to encourage the voluntary repatriation of Turkish workers. At the end of 1994, an estimated 1.1 million Turks continued to reside in Western Europe as semiperma- nent aliens. About two-thirds of these Turkish migrants lived in Germany, and another 10 percent in France. Other European countries with sizable Turkish communities included Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Switzerland. In addi- tion, at least 150,000 Turks were working in Saudi Arabia and other Arab oil-exporting countries of the Persian Gulf. Government Population Policies For almost forty years after the establishment of the republic in 1923, the government of Turkey encouraged population growth. Use of contraceptives and distribution of information about them were prohibited by law, and the state provided financial incentives to encourage large families. During the 1950s, however, members of the political elite gradually 90 The Society and Its Environment became concerned that the country's relatively high popula- tion growth rate of nearly 3 percent was hurting economic development. Following the military coup of May 1960, popu- lation planning became a major government objective. A 1965 family planning law provided for the establishment of the Fam- ily Planning Division within the Ministry of Health and Social Assistance to extend birth control information and services to as many couples as possible. A 1967 law decriminalized abor- tion and authorized use of this procedure for a broad range of medical causes. Access to abortion was liberalized further by legislation in 1983 stipulating that a pregnancy could be termi- nated lawfully upon request in a public hospital up to ten weeks after conception. A married woman seeking an abortion was required to obtain her husband's permission or submit a formal statement of assumption of all responsibility prior to the procedure. Family planning services have expanded considerably since the mid-1960s. A primary focus has been on educating couples about the material and health benefits of both limiting and spacing births. The Ministry of Health adopted the 1978 Inter- national Congress on Primary Health Care recommendations that family planning be combined with maternal and child health services and undertaken in cooperation with state hospi- tals, maternity hospitals, health centers, and clinics in both urban and rural areas. In addition to its support of public edu- cation about family planning, the ministry has solicited the cooperation of volunteer associations and international organi- zations to promote its programs. But despite concerted govern- ment efforts to encourage smaller families, Turkey's birth rate between 1965 and 1994 declined at a relatively slow pace, fall- ing only from thirty-three to twenty-eight births per 1,000 pop- ulation. Concern about the continuing high birth rate prompted the Ministry of Health in 1986 to launch a new population conuol campaign that concentrated on rural areas, where the fertility rate was highest. The campaign included the construction of new health clinics, the expansion of centers training medical professionals in family planning counseling, and the enlist- ment of private-sector cooperation in the distribution of birth control information and materials in factories. Private busi- nesses established the Turkish Family Health and Planning Foundation, which has supplemented the state's population control efforts since 1986 through its financial support for spe- 91 Turkey: A Country Study cial training programs and nationwide television advertise- ments. Religion has not been an impediment to birth control. Tur- key's Sunni Muslim religious leaders, who have addressed the subject of birth control in religious publications, have stated that Islam does not prohibit married couples from trying to space births or limit the size of their families. The use of spe- cific birth control devices generally has not been addressed in religious literature. However, during the early 1990s there appeared to be a consensus among religious leaders that the resort to sterilization or abortion as a means of birth control was not permissible under Islam. Language Reform: From Ottoman to Turkish Within the Ottoman Empire, the Turks had constituted merely one of many linguistic and ethnic groups. In fact, for the ruling elite, the word Turk connoted crudeness and boor- ishness. Members of the civil, military, and religious elites con- versed and conducted their business in Ottoman Turkish, which was a mixture of Arabic, Persian, and Turkish. Arabic remained the primary language of religion and religious law (see Religious Life, this ch.). Persian was the language of art, refined literature, and diplomacy. At an official level, Ottoman Turkish usually was used only for matters pertaining to the administration of the empire. Ottoman Turkish not only bor- rowed vocabulary from Arabic and Persian but also lifted entire expressions and syntactic structures out of these languages and incorporated them into the Ottoman idiom. The multiple linguistic influences on Ottoman Turkish caused difficulties in spelling and writing. The constituent parts — Turkish, Persian, and Arabic — belong to three different language families — Ural-Altaic, Indo-European, and Semitic, respectively — and the writing system fits only Semitic. Phono- logical, grammatical, and etymological principles are quite dif- ferent among the three families. For these reasons, modernist intellectuals during the nineteenth century began to call for a reform of the language. They advocated a language that would be easier to read and write and contain more purely Turkish words. The principle of Turkish language reform thus was tied intimately to the reforms of the 1839-78 period (see External Threats and Internal Transformations, ch. 1). Later in the nineteenth century, language reform became a political issue. Turkish nationalists sought a language that would unite rather 92 The Society and Its Environment than divide the people. In the writings of Ziya Gokalp (d. 1924), Turkish nationalism was presented as the force uniting all those who were Turks by language and ethnic background. With the establishment of the republic, Atatiirk made lan- guage reform an important part of the nationalist program. The goal was to produce a language that was more Turkish and less Arabic, Persian, and Islamic; one that was more modern, practical, and precise, and less difficult to learn. The republi- can language reform called for a drastic alteration of both the spoken and the written language. This process was to be accomplished through two basic strategies — adoption of a new alphabet and purification of the vocabulary. The language revolution (dil devrimi) officially began in May 1928, when numbers written in Arabic were replaced with their Western equivalents. In November the Grand National Assem- bly approved a new Latin alphabet that had been devised by a committee of scholars. Many members of the assembly favored gradually introducing the new letters over a period lasting up to five years. Atatiirk, however, insisted that the transition last only a few months, and his opinion prevailed. With chalk and a portable blackboard, he traveled throughout the country giv- ing writing lessons in the new Latin alphabet in schools, village squares, and other public places to a people whose illiteracy rate was suddenly 100 percent. On January 1, 1929, it became unlawful to use the Arabic alphabet to write Turkish. The new Latin alphabet represented the Turkish vowels and consonants more clearly than had the Arabic alphabet. One symbol was used for each sound of standard Turkish, which was identified as the educated speech of Istanbul. By replacing the Arabic with the Latin alphabet, Turkey turned consciously toward the West and effectively severed a major link with a part of its Islamic heritage. By providing the new generation no need or opportunity to learn Arabic letters, the alphabet reform cut it off from Turkey's Ottoman past, culture, and value system, as well as from religion (see Ataturk's Reforms, ch. 1). Atatiirk and his language reformers viewed non-Turkish words as symbols of the past. They encouraged a national cam- paign, supported by government policies, to purify the lan- guage. Lexicographers began to drop Arabic and Persian words from dictionaries, substituting for them resurrected archaic terms or words from Turkish dialects or new words coined from old stems and roots. The Turkish Language Soci- 93 Turkey: A Country Study ety (Turk Dil Kurumu), founded in 1932, supervised the col- lection and dissemination of Turkish folk vocabulary and folk phrases to be used in place of foreign words. The citizenry at large was invited to suggest alternatives to words and expres- sions of non-Turkish origin, and many responded. In 1934 lists of new Turkish words began to be published, and in 1935 they began to appear in newspapers. Enthusiasm for language reform reached its height in the mid-1930s. Some of the suggested reforms were so extreme as to endanger the comprehension of the language. Although purists and zealots favored the complete banishment of all words of non-Turkish origin, many officials realized that some of the suggested reforms verged on the ridiculous. Ataturk resolved the problem with an ingenious political invention that, although embarrassing to language experts, appealed to the nationalists. He suggested the historically inaccurate but politically efficacious Sun-Language Theory, which asserted that Turkish was the "mother of all languages," and that there- fore all foreign words originally were Turkish. Thus, if a suit- able Turkish equivalent for a foreign word could not be found, the loanword could be retained without violating the "purity" of the Turkish language. By the late 1940s, considerable opposition to the purifica- tion movement had emerged. Teachers, writers, poets, journa- lists, editors, and others began to complain publicly about the instability and arbitrariness of the officially sanctioned vocabu- lary. In 1950 the Turkish Language Society lost its semi-official status. Eventually, some Arabic and Persian loanwords began to reappear in government publications. The language reform's long-term effects have been mixed. The phonetically designed alphabet based on the Latin script facilitated the quick acquisition of literacy. In addition, the developers of modern Turkish consciously incorporated scien- tific and technological terms. By making possible a uniform mass language that soon acquired its own literature, the reform also helped to lessen the linguistic gap between the classes, a legacy of Ottoman society. Although the newly created works lacked some of the rich connotations of the older lexicon, modern Turkish developed as a fertile literary language as prose writers and poets created powerful works in this new idiom, especially after 1950. The cost of language reform, how- ever, has been a drastic and permanent estrangement from the literary and linguistic heritage of the Ottomans. Although 94 The Society and Its Environment some prerepublican writings have been transliterated into the new alphabet, the vocabulary and syntax are barely under- standable to a speaker of modern Turkish. Language and language reform continue to be political issues in Turkey. Each decade since Ataturk's death has been characterized by its own particular stance vis-a-vis language reform: whether to support a more traditional lexicon or a modern, Turkified one abounding in Western loanwords and indigenous coinages. Language reform and modern usage have pushed forward during periods of liberal governments and been deemphasized under conservative governments such as those of the 1980s. Meanwhile, religious publications have not been as affected by language reforms as secular literature. Religious publications have continued to use an idiom that is heavily Arabic or Persian in vocabulary and Persian in syntax. The emergence of a popular religious-oriented political move- ment in the 1990s has resulted in the reintroduction of many Islamic terms into spoken Turkish. Linguistic and Ethnic Groups Since the founding of the Republic of Turkey, the govern- ment has sought to diminish the significance of ethnic, linguis- tic, and religious distinctions. For instance, the 1965 census was the last one to list linguistic minorities. The country's largest minority, the Kurds, has posed the most serious and most per- sistent challenge to the official image of a homogeneous soci- ety. During the 1930s and 1940s, the government had disguised the presence of the Kurds statistically by categorizing them as "Mountain Turks." With official encouragement, some scholars even suggested that Kurdish, an Indo-European language closely related to Persian, was a dialect of Turkish. By the 1980s, the Mountain Turks' label had been dropped in favor of a new euphemism for Kurds: "Eastern Turks" (dogulu). Officials of the SIS were prosecuted after preparing guidelines for the 1985 census that instructed enumerators to list Kurdish, when appropriate, as a language spoken in addition to Turkish. The same official and popular confusion exists in the application of the term Laz, which sometimes is used erroneously to refer to the inhabitants of the eastern end of Turkey's Black Sea coastal region. In actuality, the Laz constitute a small ethnic group (26,007 according to the 1965 census), speaking Lazi, a Cauca- sian language that is neither Indo-European nor Altaic. 95 Turkey: A Country Study The 1982 constitution includes a seemingly contradictory policy on the use of non-Turkish languages. Whereas one arti- cle prohibits discrimination on the basis of language, other articles ban the public use of languages "prohibited by law." Although legislation forbidding the use of specific languages has never been enacted, many Kurdish citizens were arrested prior to 1991 on charges relating to the public use of Kurdish. Although speaking or reading Kurdish no longer is cause for arrest, at an official level there remains an entrenched bias against the use of Kurdish. At the end of 1994, for example, imprisoned Kurds still were required to communicate with their lawyers and visiting family members in Turkish, even if they did not speak or understand that language. In a holdover from the Ottoman system of millets (see Glos- sary), Turks traditionally have tended to consider all Sunni Muslims as Turks and to regard non-Sunni speakers of Turkish as non-Turks. The revival of popular interest in religion since the early 1980s has reinvigorated popular prejudices against religious minorities, especially the adherents of the Shia Mus- lim sect, the Alevi, most of whom are ethnic Kurds or Arabs. Also, since 1984 the extensive migration of Kurds from the pre- dominantly Kurdish and rural provinces of the southeast to the cities of western Turkey has resulted at the popular level in the emergence of a relatively strong, urban-based Kurdish ethnic consciousness and popular resentment of the Kurds' presence among ethnic Turks. Turks People identified as ethnic Turks comprise 80 to 88 percent of Turkey's population. The Turks include a number of regional groups who differ from one another in dialect, dress, customs, and outlook. In most cases, these differences reflect variations in historical and environmental circumstances. In general, regional differences are beginning to decrease while differences arising from urbanization and social class stratifica- tion are assuming greater importance. The three most impor- tant Turkish groups are the Anatolian Turks, the Rumelian Turks (primarily immigrants from former Ottoman territories in the Balkans and their descendants), and the Central Asian Turks (Turkic-speaking immigrants from the Caucasus region, southern Russia, and Central Asia and their descendants). The Anatolian Turks historically lived on the central Anato- lian Plateau in isolated villages and small towns. Following the 96 The Society and Its Environment implementation of the Ottoman Land Code in the late 1860s, rural Anatolian Turks were likely to own their own land, culti- vating wheat and other cereal grains in addition to herding sheep and goats. During the early republican period, the Ana- tolian Turks' reputation for physical toughness and obstinate patience was applied to all Turks, and the Anatolians' culture, albeit as interpreted by the urban elite, became part of the foundation of Turkish nationalism. The Turks who lived in the coastal stretches along the Black, Aegean, and Mediterranean seas also were considered Anatolian Turks, although the more diverse and agreeable climate of the coastal areas encouraged the evolution of cultural patterns different from those predom- inating on the interior plateau. However, extensive industrial- ization, urbanization, and village-to-city migration since 1960 have tended to minimize regional differences, creating instead new class and occupational distinctions. Despite the social and economic changes, transhumance has remained an efficient means of raising livestock on the Anatolian Plateau, and as many as 1 million Turks were seminomadic herders of sheep and goats in the early 1990s. Included in this population were an estimated 600,000 Yiiruks, Turks of Asiatic origin, whom the government has not officially recognized as a separate group. The Rumelian Turks are descended from Turks who settled in the Balkans when, from the fifteenth to the nineteenth cen- turies, that region of southern Europe was part of the Ottoman Empire. They were stranded when imperial territories began acquiring national independence in the nineteenth century (see Migration, this ch.). Most of the Rumelian Turks resettled in Turkey between 1878 and 1924. In rural areas, Rumelian Turks tended to become farmers or artisans in the coastal vil- lages evacuated by Greeks during the 1920s population exchanges. Rumelian Turks also settled in urban centers, espe- cially Edirne, Tekirdag, Kirklareli, Nigde, Bilecik, and Bursa. The Central Asian Turks include Crimean Tartars and Turkomans. They live in scattered communities in various parts of the country; for example, there are several Crimean Tartar villages in the vicinity of Eskisehir. In 1945 an estimated 10,000 people spoke Tartar as their first language; since then several thousand additional Crimean Tartars have resettled in Turkey. The Turkomans, who speak a Turkic dialect distinct from Ana- tolian Turkish, have lived in eastern Turkey for several centu- ries. Historically, Turkomans were organized by tribe; tribal affiliations still retained importance for some Turkomans in 97 Turkey: A Country Study 1995. Since the establishment of the republic, no reliable esti- mate of the number of Turkomans has been published. Tradi- tionally, Turkomans have been Shia Muslims; scholars believe that most still adhere to Shia Islam. Kurds Turkey's largest non-Turkish ethnic group, the Kurds, are concentrated in eleven provinces of the southeast, the same area that their ancestors inhabited when Xenophon men- tioned the Kurds in the fifth century B.C. There also are iso- lated Kurdish villages in other parts of Turkey. Kurds have been migrating to Istanbul for centuries, and since 1960 they have migrated to almost all other urban centers as well. There are Kurdish neighborhoods, for example, in many of the gecekondus (see Glossary) or shantytowns, which have grown up around large cities in western Turkey. About half of all Kurds world- wide live in Turkey. Most of the rest live in adjacent regions of Iran, Iraq, and Syria. Turkey's censuses do not list Kurds as a separate ethnic group. Consequently, there are no reliable data on their total numbers. In 1995 estimates of the number of Kurds in Turkey ranged from 6 million to 12 million. Because of the size of the Kurdish population, the Kurds are perceived as the only minority that could pose a threat to Turk- ish national unity. Indeed, there has been an active Kurdish separatist movement in southeastern Turkey since 1984 (see Political Parties, ch. 4). The government's main strategy for assimilating the Kurds has been language suppression. Yet, despite official attempts over several decades to spread Turkish among them, most Kurds have retained their native language. In Turkey two major Kurdish dialects are spoken: Kermanji, which is used by the majority of Kurds, as well as by some of the Kurds in Iran and Iraq; and Zaza, spoken mainly in a triangular region in southeastern Turkey between Diyarbakir, Ezurum, and Sivas, as well as in parts of Iran. Literate Kurds in Turkey have used Kermanji as the written form of Kurdish since the seventeenth century. However, almost all literary development of the language since 1924 has occurred outside Turkey. In 1932 Kurds in exile developed a Latin script for Kermanji, and this alphabet continued to be used in the mid-1990s. Prior to the 1980 military coup, government authorities con- sidered Kurdish one of the unnamed languages banned by law. Use of Kurdish was strictly prohibited in all government institu- tions, including the courts and schools. Nevertheless, during 98 Kurdish village on Mount Ararat (Agn Dagi) Kurdish village in the mountains near Lake Van, eastern Turkey Courtesy Hermine Drey fuss 99 Turkey: A Country Study the 1960s and again in the mid-1970s, Kurdish intellectuals attempted to start Kurdish-language journals and newspapers. None of these publications survived for more than a few issues because state prosecutors inevitably found legal pretexts for closing them down. Between 1980 and 1983, the military gov- ernment passed several laws expressly banning the use of Kurd- ish and the possession of written or audio materials in Kurdish. The initiation of armed insurrection by the Kurdistan Work- ers' Party (Partiya Karkere Kurdistan — PKK) in 1984, along with the increasing international media interest in the Kurds of Iraq beginning in the mid-1980s, compelled some members of Turkey's political elite to question government policy toward the country's Kurdish population. Turgut Ozal, who became prime minister in 1983 and president in 1989, broke the offi- cial taboo on using the term Kurd by referring publicly to the people of eastern Anatolia as Kurds. Subsequently, indepen- dent Turkish newspapers began using the term and discussing the political and economic problems in the eleven predomi- nantly Kurdish provinces. In 1991 Ozal supported a bill that revoked the ban on the use of Kurdish and possession of mate- rials in Kurdish. However, as of 1995, the use of Kurdish in gov- ernment institutions such as the courts and schools still was prohibited. Although the Kurds comprise a distinct ethnic group, they are divided by class, regional, and sectarian differences similar to those affecting ethnic Turks. Religious divisions often have been a source of conflict among the Kurds. Although the gov- ernment of Turkey does not compile official data on religious affiliation, scholars estimate that at least two-thirds of the Kurds in Turkey nominally are Sunni Muslims, and that as many as one-third are Shia Muslims of the Alevi sect. Unlike the Sunni Turks, who follow the Hanafi school of Islamic law, the Sunni Kurds follow the Shafii school. Like their Turkish counterparts, adult male Kurds with religious inclinations tend to join Sufi brotherhoods. The Naksibendi and Kadiri orders, both of which predate the republic, have large Kurdish followings in Turkey although their greatest strength is among the Kurds of Iran. The Nurcular, a brotherhood that came to prominence during the early republican years, also has many Kurdish adherents in Turkey. Whereas the number of Kurds belonging to the Alevi sect of Shia Islam is uncertain, the majority of Alevi are either Arabs or Turks. Historically, the Alevi lived in isolated mountain com- 100 The Society and Its Environment munities in southeastern Turkey and western Syria. The Kurd- ish Alevi have been migrating from their villages to the cities of central Anatolia since the 1950s. Whereas Kurdish and Turkish Alevi generally have good relations, the competition between Alevi and Sunni Turks for urban jobs led to a revival of tradi- tional sectarian tensions by the mid-1970s. These intertwined economic and religious tensions culminated in a series of vio- lent sectarian clashes in Kahramanmaras, Corum, and other cities in 1978-79 in which hundreds of Alevi died. A small but unknown number of Kurds also adhere to the secretive Yazidi sect, which historically has been persecuted by both Sunni and Shia Muslims. Small communities of Yazidi live in Mardin, Siirt, and Sanli Urfa provinces. Yazidi are also found among Kurds in Armenia, Iran, and Iraq. In Turkey the Yazidi believe that the government does not protect them from reli- gious persecution. Consequently, as many as 50 percent of all Yazidi have immigrated to Germany, where they feel free to practice their heterodox form of Islam. Class differences also divide the Kurds. Wealthy landowners in rural areas and entrepreneurs in urban areas tend to coop- erate with the government and espouse assimilation. Many of these Kurds are bilingual or even speak Turkish more comfort- ably than Kurdish, which they disparage as the language of the uneducated. The economic changes that began in the 1960s have exacerbated the differences between the minority of assimilated Kurds and the majority who have retained a Kurd- ish identity. Militant Kurdish political groups such as the PKK have exploited these class differences since 1984. Arabs In 1995 Turkey's ethnic Arab population was estimated at 800,000 to 1 million. The Arabs are heavily concentrated along the Syrian border, especially in Hatay Province, which France, having at that time had mandatory power in Syria, ceded to Turkey in 1939. Arabs then constituted about two-thirds of the population of Hatay (known to the Arabs as Alexandretta) , and the province has remained predominantly Arab. Almost all of the Arabs in Turkey are Alevi Muslims, and most have family ties with the Alevi (also seen as Alawi or Alawite) living in Syria. As Alevi, the Arabs of Turkey believe they are subjected to state- condoned discrimination. Fear of persecution actually prompted several thousand Arab Alevi to seek refuge in Syria following Hatay's incorporation into Turkey. The kinship rela- 101 Turkey: A Country Study tions established as a result of the 1939-40 emigration have been continually reinforced by marriages and the practice of sending Arab youths from Hatay to colleges in Syria. Since the mid-1960s, the Syrian government has tended to encourage educated Alevi to resettle in Syria, especially if they seem likely to join the ruling Baath Party. Peoples from the Caucasus Three small but distinct ethnic groups (aside from the more numerous Armenians) have their origins in the Caucasus Mountains: the Circassians, the Georgians (including the Abkhaz), and the Laz. Approximately 70,000 Circassian Muslim immigrants, most originally from Russia, gradually settled, beginning in the late eighteenth century, in the Adana region, where they and their descendants continue to live as farmers and farm laborers. The Muslim Georgians and Laz are concentrated in the northeastern provinces. The Laz, who are primarily Black Sea fisherfolk, live in villages near the coastal city of Rize. The term Georgian actually refers to several different peoples who speak similar but mutually unintelligible languages. One distinct group of Georgians are the Abkhaz, who are primarily cultiva- tors and herders. Most Georgians live in Artvin Province, par- ticularly east of the Qoruh River and along the border with Georgia. Ddnme The Donme are descendants of the Jewish followers of a self- proclaimed messiah, Sabbatai Sebi (or Zevi, 1626-76), who was forced by the sultan to convert to Islam in 1666. Their doctrine includes Jewish and Islamic elements. They consider them- selves Muslims and officially are recognized as such. Their name is the Turkish word for convert, but it carries overtones of turncoat as well. The Donme have been successful in business and in the pro- fessions, but historically they have not been part of the social elite because neither Jews nor Muslims fully accept them. Expe- rience with prejudice inclines some Donme to hide their iden- tity to avoid discrimination and also has encouraged the Donme to become a tightly knit, generally endogamous group. Since the early 1980s, however, overt discrimination has less- ened, and intermarriage between Donme and other Muslims has grown common. 102 Men drinking tea, eastern Turkey Courtesy Hermine Drey fuss Greeks In 1995 fewer than 20,000 Greeks still lived in Turkey. Most of them are Eastern or Greek Orthodox Christians and live in Istanbul or on the two islands of Gokceada (Imroz) and Bozca Ada (Tenedos), off the western entrance to the Dardanelles. They are the remnants of the estimated 200,000 Greeks who were permitted under the provisions of the Treaty of Lausanne to remain in Turkey following the 1924 population exchange, which involved the forcible resettlement of approximately 2 million Greeks from Anatolia. Since 1924 the status of the Greek minority in Turkey has been ambiguous. Most Turks do not accept the country's Greek citizens as their equals. Begin- ning in the 1930s, the government encouraged the Greeks to emigrate, and thousands, in particular the educated youth, did so, reducing the Greek population to about 48,000 by 1965. Although the size of the Greek minority has continued to decline, the Greek citizens of Turkey generally constitute one of the country's wealthiest communities. Armenians The tiny Armenian minority, estimated at 40,000 in 1995, also is a remnant of a once-larger community. Before World War I, some 1.5 million Armenians lived in eastern Anatolia. 103 Turkey: A Country Study Starting in the late nineteenth century, intergroup tensions prompted the emigration of possibly as many as 100,000 Arme- nians in the 1890s. In 1915 the Ottoman government ordered all Armenians deported from eastern Anatolia; at least 600,000 of the Armenians, who numbered up to 2 million, died during a forced march southward during the winter of 1915-16. Arme- nians believe — and Turks deny — that the catastrophe that befell their community was the result of atrocities committed by Turkish soldiers following government directives. Arme- nians outside Turkey refer to the deaths of 1915-16 as an instance of genocide, and over the years various Armenian political groups have sought to avenge the tragedy by carrying out terrorist attacks against Turkish diplomats and officials abroad (see Armenian Terrorism, ch. 5). Most Armenians living in Turkey are concentrated in and around Istanbul. Like the Greeks, they are bankers and mer- chants with extensive international contacts. The Armenians support their own newspapers and schools. They are intensely attached to their Christian faith and their identity as Arme- nians rather than Turks. In addition, they have relatives in the Armenian diaspora throughout the world. The establishment of an independent Armenia on Turkey's eastern border follow- ing the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 was a source of ethnic pride for the Armenians of Turkey. However, Armenia's conflict with Turkic Azerbaijan, combined with the jingoistic support of Azerbaijan in the Turkish media, has raised appre- hensions among the Armenian minority about their future sta- tus in Turkey. jews In 1995 an estimated 18,000 to 20,000 Jews lived in Turkey. During the first half of the twentieth century, the Jewish popu- lation remained relatively stable at around 90,000. Following the establishment of Israel in 1948, an estimated 30,000 Jews immigrated to the new state. An average of 1,000 Jews annually left for Israel during the 1950s and early 1960s. By 1965 the Jewish minority had been reduced to an estimated 44,000, most of whom lived in Istanbul, where many Jewish men operated shops and other small businesses. Unlike the Armenians and Greeks, the Jewish minority is neither ethnically nor linguistically homogeneous. Most of its members are Sephardic Jews whose ancestors were expelled from Spain by the Roman Catholic Inquisition in 1492. They 104 The Society and Its Environment speak Ladino, a variant of fifteenth-century Spanish with bor- rowings from several other languages. The Ashkenazic minor- ity — Jews from central and northern Europe — speak Yiddish, a German-derived language. Both languages are written in the Hebrew script. Most Jews also speak Turkish. The Karaites — viewed by most other Jews as heretics — speak Greek as their native language. In general, the different Jewish communities have tended not to intermarry and thus have retained their identities. Religious Life The institutional secularization of Turkey was the most prominent and most controversial feature of Ataturk's reforms. Under his leadership, the caliphate — office of the successors to Muhammad, the supreme politico-religious office of Islam, and symbol of the sultan's claim to world leadership of all Mus- lims — was abolished. The secular power of the religious author- ities and functionaries was reduced and eventually eliminated. The religious foundations (evkaf; sing., vakif) were national- ized, and religious education was restricted and for a time pro- hibited. The influential and popular mystical orders of the dervish brotherhoods also were suppressed. Although Turkey was secularized at the official level, religion remained a strong force at the popular level. After 1950 some political leaders tried to benefit from popular attachment to religion by espousing support for programs and policies that appealed to the religiously inclined. Such efforts were opposed by most of the political elite, who believed that secularism was an essential principle of Kemalism. This disinclination to appreciate religious values and beliefs gradually led to a polar- ization of society. The polarization became especially evident in the 1980s as a new generation of educated but religiously moti- vated local leaders emerged to challenge the dominance of the secularized political elite. These new leaders have been asser- tively proud of Turkey's Islamic heritage and generally have been successful at adapting familiar religious idioms to describe dissatisfaction with various government policies. By their own example of piety, prayer, and political activism, they have helped to spark a revival of Islamic observance in Turkey. By 1994 slogans promising that a return to Islam would cure economic ills and solve the problems of bureaucratic ineffi- ciencies had enough general appeal to enable avowed religious 105 Turkey: A Country Study candidates to win mayoral elections in Istanbul and Ankara, the country's two most secularized cities. Islam Islam is a monotheistic religion. A believer is a Muslim, liter- ally, "one who submits to God." Muslims believe that Allah (Arabic for God) gave revelations through the angel Gabriel to the Prophet Muhammad (A.D. 570-632 ), a native of the Ara- bian Peninsula city of Mecca. Muhammad's efforts to convert people to monotheism disturbed the merchant elite, who feared that his preaching would adversely affect the pilgrims who regularly visited Mecca, which in the early seventh century had shrines to several gods and goddesses. Mecca's principal destination for pilgrims was the Kaaba, a shrine housing a ven- erated black rock which over the years had been surrounded by various idols. The lack of acceptance by Meccans of Muham- mad's preaching caused him and his followers in A.D. 622 to migrate to Medina in response to an invitation by that city's leaders. Muhammad's migration to Medina enabled him to organize the politico-religious community — the umma — that marked the beginning of Islam as a political movement as well as a religious faith. Thus, the date of the migration, or hicret (from the Arabic hijra), was adopted by the Muslim community as the beginning of the Islamic era. The Islamic calendar is based on a lunar year, which averages eleven days less than a solar year. The Islamic calendar is used in Turkey for religious purposes. By the time of the Prophet's death ten years after his migra- tion to Medina, most of the Arabian Peninsula, including the city of Mecca, had converted to Islam. During the last two years of his life, Muhammad led fellow Muslims on pilgrimages to Mecca, where the Kaaba was relieved of its idols and dedicated to the worship of Allah. Since then, praying at the Kaaba has been the ultimate goal of the pilgrimage, or hajj, which every able-bodied adult Muslim is expected to make at least once in his or her lifetime. Tenets of Islam Muslims believe that all of Allah's revelations to the Prophet are contained in the Kuran (in Arabic, Quran), which is com- posed in rhymed prose. The Kuran consists of 114 chapters, called suras, the first of which is a short "opening" chapter. The remaining 113 segments are arranged roughly in order of 106 The Society and Its Environment decreasing length. The short suras at the end of the book are early revelations, each consisting of material revealed on the same occasion. The longer suras toward the beginning of the book are compilations of verses revealed at different times in Muhammad's life. The central beliefs of Islam are monotheism and Muham- mad's status as the "seal of the Prophets," that is, the final prophet to whom God revealed messages for the spiritual guid- ance of humanity. Jesus Christ and the prophets of the Old Tes- tament are also accepted as Islamic prophets. Muslims who profess belief in God and Muhammad's prophethood, pray reg- ularly, and live by Islamic ethical and moral principles are assured that their souls will find eternal salvation in heaven. The profession of belief in one God and the prophethood of Muhammad is known as the sahadet (in Arabic, shahada), and is one of the five basic obligations or "pillars" of Islam. The pro- fession of faith — "There is no God but God and Muhammad is his Prophet" — always is recited in Arabic. It is repeated during prayer and on many other ritual occasions. The four other pillars of Islam are prayer (namaz; salat in Arabic), giving alms to the needy (zekat; zakah in Arabic), fast- ing (oru£ sawm in Arabic) during the month of Ramazan (from the Arabic, Ramadan) , and the pilgrimage (hac, from the Ara- bic hajj) to Mecca. The prescribed prayers are recited in Arabic and are accompanied by a series of ritual body movements meant to demonstrate submission to God: standing, bowing, kneeling, and full prostration. Muslims say the prayers at five prescribed times a day, always while facing in the direction of Mecca. Prayers are preceded by a ritual ablution, and, unless the prayer is said in a mosque, a ritual purification of the ground is achieved by the unrolling of a clean prayer rug. Although it is permissible to pray almost anywhere, men pray in congregation at mosques whenever possible, especially on Fridays. Women are not required to pray in public but may attend worship at mosques, which maintain separate sections for women. Despite more than sixty years of secularist govern- ment policies, a majority of Turkey's Muslims continue to recite prayers at least occasionally. In fact, mosque attendance in the urban areas, which formerly was significantly less than in rural areas, increased considerably during the 1980s. During the early 1990s, most city mosques were filled to capacity on Fridays and religious holidays. 107 Turkey: A Country Study The third pillar of Islam, almsgiving, is required of all Mus- lims. The faithful are expected to give in proportion to their wealth. In various historical periods, zekat assumed the status of a tithe that mosques collected and distributed for charitable purposes. In addition to zekat, Muslims are encouraged to make free-will gifts (sadaka, from the Arabic sadaqa). Abstinence from dawn to dusk from all food and beverages during the Islamic month of Ramazan is the fourth pillar of the faith required of Muslims. Persons who are ill; women who are pregnant, nursing, or menstruating; soldiers on duty; travelers on necessary journeys; and young children are exempted from the fast. However, adults who are unable to fast during Rama- zan are expected to observe a fast later. Ramazan is a period of spiritual renewal, and the daytime fasting is meant to help con- centrate a Muslim's thoughts on religious matters. Many mosques, especially in urban areas, sponsor special prayer meetings and study groups during the month. The evening meal that breaks the fast has special religious significance and also is an occasion for sharing among families and friends. Muslims who can afford to do so often host one or more fast- breaking meals for indigents during Ramazan. The month of fasting is followed by a three-day celebration, Seker Bayrami (in Arabic, Id al Fitr), which is observed in Turkey as a national holiday. The fifth pillar of Islam is the hac. Each Muslim who is finan- cially and physically able is expected at least once in his or her lifetime to make the pilgrimage to Mecca and participate in prescribed religious rites performed at various specific sites in the holy city and its environs during the twelfth month of the lunar calendar. In one of their most important rites, pilgrims pray while circumambulating the Kaaba, the sanctuary Muslims believe Ibrahim (Abraham) and his son Ismail (Ishmael) built to honor the one God. During the hac, pilgrims sacrifice domesticated animals such as sheep and distribute the meat among the needy. Known as the Feast of Sacrifice, Kurban Bayrami (in Arabic, Id al Adha), this occasion is celebrated not only by the pilgrims but by all Muslims, and is observed in Tur- key as a national holiday. The returning pilgrim is entitled to use the honorific had (in Arabic, hajji) before his or her name, a title that indicates successful completion of the pilgrimage. A pious Muslim strives to follow a code of ethical conduct that encourages generosity, fairness, chastity, honesty, and respect. Certain acts, including murder, cruelty, adultery, gam- 108 The Society and Its Environment bling, and usury, are considered contrary to Islamic practice. Muslims also are enjoined not to consume carrion, blood, pork, or alcohol. Many of the precepts for appropriate behav- ior are specified in the Kuran. Other spiritual and ethical guidelines are found in the hadis (in Arabic, hadith), an authen- ticated record of the sayings and actions of Muhammad and his earliest companions. Devout Muslims regard their words, acts, and decisions — called collectively the sunna — as models to be emulated by later generations. Because of its normative charac- ter, the sunna is revered along with the Kuran as a primary source of seriat (in Arabic, sharia), or Islamic law. Islamic law evolved between the eighth and tenth centuries. Islamic scholars reputed for their knowledge of the Kuran, hadis, and sunna were accepted as authoritative interpreters of seriat. Several of them compiled texts of case law that formed the basis of legal schools. Eventually, Sunni Muslims came to accept four schools of law as equally valid. Two schools of seriat exist in contemporary Turkey: the Hanafi, founded by Iraqi theologian Abu Hanifa (ca. 700-67), and the Shafii, founded by the Meccan jurist Muhammad ash Shafii (767-820). Most Muslim Turks follow the Hanafi school, whereas most Sunni Kurds follow the Shafii school. Early Development Following the death of the Prophet in 632, the Muslim com- munity failed to reach consensus on who should succeed him as the caliph. A majority of Muhammad's close followers sup- ported the idea of an elected caliph, but a minority believed that leadership, or the imamate, should remain within the Prophet's family, passing first to Muhammad's cousin, son-in- law, and principal deputy, Ali ibn Abu Talib, and subsequently to Ali's sons and their male descendants. The majority, who believed they were following the sunna of the Prophet, became known as Sunni Muslims. To them, the caliph was the symbolic religious head of the community; however, caliphs would also rule as the secular leaders of a major empire for six centuries. The first four caliphs — Abu Bakr, Omar, Osman, and Ali — were chosen by a consensus of Muslim leaders. Subsequently, how- ever, the caliphate was converted by its holders into a heredi- tary office, the first two dynasties being the Umayyad, which ruled from Damascus, and the second being the Abbasid, which ruled from Baghdad. After the Mongols captured Bagh- dad and executed the Abbasid caliph in 1258, a period of more 109 Turkey: A Country Study than 250 years followed when no one was recognized as caliph by all Sunni Muslims. During the sixteenth century, the Otto- man Dynasty resurrected the title, and gradually even Muslims outside the Ottoman Empire came to accept the Ottoman sul- tan as the symbolic leader — caliph — of Sunni Islam. The partisans of Ali — the Shiat Ali — evolved into a separate Islamic denomination that became known as the Shia. By the ninth century, however, the Shia Muslims split into numerous sects as a result of disagreements over which of several brothers was the legitimate leader, or imam, of the community. The major divisions occurred over the question of succession to the fourth, sixth, and twelfth imams. Consequently, the origins of almost all Shia sects can be traced to the followers of the fifth, seventh, or twelfth imam. By the fifteenth century, the sect known as the Twelve Imam Shia — a group that recognized Ali and eleven of his direct descendants as the legitimate succes- sors to the Prophet — had emerged as the predominant Shia sect. In addition to the orthodox Twelve Imam Shia, several sects that revered the twelve imams but otherwise subscribed to het- erodox beliefs and practices emerged between the ninth and twelfth centuries. One of these heterodox sects, the Nusayri, originated in the mid-ninth century among the followers of the religious teacher Muhammad ibn Nusayr an Namiri. The Nusayri became established in what is now northern Syria and southern Turkey during the tenth century when a Shia dynasty based in Aleppo ruled the region. Because of the special devo- tion of the Nusayri to Ali, Sunni Muslims historically and pejo- ratively referred to them as Alevi (see The Alevi, this ch.). Development of Islam in Turkey By the end of the seventh century, conversion to Islam had begun among the Turkish-speaking tribes, who were migrating westward from Central Asia. The initial wave of Turkish migrants converted to Sunni Islam and became champions of Islamic orthodoxy. As warriors of the Islamic faith, or gazis, they colonized and settled Anatolia in the name of Islam, especially following the defeat of the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzi- kert (1071). Beginning in the twelfth century, new waves of Turkic migrants became attracted to militant Sufi orders, which gradually incorporated heterodox Shia beliefs. One Sufi order that appealed to Turks in Anatolia after 1300 was the Safavi, based in northwest Iran. During the fourteenth and fif- 110 The Society and Its Environment teenth centuries, the Safavi and similar orders such as the Bek- tasi became rivals of the Ottomans — who were orthodox Sunni Muslims — for political control of eastern Anatolia. Concern about the growing influence of the Safavi probably was one of the factors that prompted the Ottomans to permit unorthodox Bektasi Sufism to become the official order of the janissary sol- diers (see The Ottoman Empire, ch. 1). Although the Bektasi became accepted as a sect of orthodox Sunni Muslims, they did not abandon their heterodox Shia beliefs. In contrast, the Safavi eventually conquered Iran, shed their heterodox reli- gious beliefs, and became proponents of orthodox Twelve Imam Shia Islam. The conquest of the Byzantine capital of Constantinople — which the Turks called Istanbul (from the Greek phrase eis tin polin, "to the city") — in 1453 enabled the Ottomans to consoli- date their empire in Anatolia and Thrace. The Ottomans revived the title of caliph, based their legitimacy on Islam, and integrated religion into the government and administration. Despite the absence of a formal institutional structure, Sunni religious functionaries played an important political role. Jus- tice was dispensed by religious courts; in theory, the codified system of seriat regulated all aspects of life, at least for the Mus- lim subjects of the empire. The head of the judiciary ranked directly below the sultan and was second in power only to the grand vizier. Early in the Ottoman period, the office of grand mufti of Istanbul evolved into that of seyhillislam (shaykh, or leader of Islam), which had ultimate jurisdiction over all the courts in the empire and consequently exercised authority over the interpretation and application of seriat. Legal opinions pro- nounced by the seyhillislam were considered definitive interpre- tations. Sufism and Folk Islam From the earliest days of Islam, some Muslims have been attracted to mystical interpretations of their religion. In Tur- key, at least since the thirteenth century, Islamic mysticism has been expressed through participation in Sufi brotherhoods that serve as centers of spiritual and social life. The term Sufi derives from the Arabic suf, which means wool. Early Muslims used the term Sufi to refer to fellow believers who wore simple woolen garments to demonstrate their rejection of materialism and worldly temptations and their devotion to a life of asceti- cism and prayer. Eventually, some Sufis who had acquired repu- 111 112 View of Istanbul and the Blue Mosque Courtesy Hermine Dreyfuss 113 Turkey: A Country Study tations for their learning and piety attracted disciples who aspired to learn from and emulate these Sufi masters. Initially, Sufi followers were like students whose bonds to a Sufi teacher were based on personal loyalty. Since the twelfth century, how- ever, most Sufis have organized themselves into orders or brotherhoods (tarikat; pi., tarikatlar — see Glossary) that follow the teachings of a particular Sufi master. Many Sufi tarikatlar established institutional bases, called tekke or dergah (lodges), that lasted for several generations and, in some instances, even for centuries. For example, two of con- temporary Turkey's largest tarikatlar, the Naksibendi and the Kadiri, date back at least to the fourteenth century. Some tarikatlar carry the name of the founding Sufi master, the seyh (in Arabic, shaykh). One example is the Mevlevi brotherhood. Its members popularly are called whirling dervishes because of the rhythmic whirling they engage in as a spiritual exercise and a means to achieve ecstatic proximity to God. The brotherhood is named after its founder, Mevlana (Jalal ad Din Rumi, d. 1273). Ordinarily, a designated successor to the seyh inherited his position of leadership as well as the mantle of his spiritual power. Induction into a particular tarikat became regulated and usually depended on the performance of prescribed initia- tion procedures. Initiates were placed at different levels, depending on the instruction they had mastered. Some of the larger Sufi tarikatlar established branches and through evkaf accumulated land and buildings, which functioned as tekkes, Kuran schools, residential monasteries, orphanages, and hos- pices. The early tarikatlar were strongly influenced by Shia doc- trines. Consequently, the political conflicts between the Sunni Ottoman and Shia Safavi dynasties affected the Sufi orders in Turkey. Sunni tarikatlar eventually deemphasized such prac- tices as the veneration of Ali ibn Abu Talib and received official patronage from some Ottoman sultans. However, at least one Shia tarikat, the Bektasi, supported the Ottomans and actually exercised significant political influence without changing their heterodox beliefs. The Bektasi and the Sunni tarikatlar also served an important social function by providing educational and social welfare services, constituting a means of social mobility, and offering spiritual guidance to the people, espe- cially in rural areas. Folk Islam in Turkey has derived many of its popular prac- tices from Sufism. Particular Sufi seyhs — and occasionally other 114 The Society and Its Environment individuals reputed to be pious — were regarded after death as saints having special powers to mediate between believers and God. Veneration of saints (both male and female) and pilgrim- ages to their shrines and graves represent an important aspect of popular Islam in both the city and the country. Folk Islam has continued to embrace such practices although the venera- tion of saints officially has been discouraged since the 1930s. Plaques posted in various sanctuaries forbid the lighting of can- dles, the offering of votive objects, and related devotional activ- ities in these places. The Alevi A significant Shia minority lives in Turkey. As in the Otto- man period, a census of the Shia population has never been taken in the republican period. Thus, there is no accurate information on the size of the Shia community, which has been estimated to constitute as little as 7 percent and as much as 30 percent of Turkey's total population. Sunni in Turkey tend to refer to all Shia as Alevi. In actuality, Alevi constitute but one of four Shia sects in the country. But Alevi are by far the largest Shia sect in Turkey, accounting for at least 70 percent of the country's Shia. Twelve Imam Shia and followers of the hetero- dox Ahl-i Haq and Bektasi have resided in Turkey for centuries. Twelve Imam Shia comprise a majority of all Shia worldwide, although their numbers in Turkey are estimated at only 20 to 25 percent of all Shia in the country. Scholars believe that the unorthodox Ahl-i Haq, whose adherents are almost exclusively Kurds, and the equally unorthodox Bektasi, whose followers primarily are ethnic Turks, are even fewer in number than the Twelve Imam Shia. Even though scholars of the contemporary Middle East tend to associate Alevi with Syria, where they have played an influen- tial political role since the 1960s, a majority of all Alevi actually live in Turkey. Alevi include almost all of Turkey's Arab minor- ity, from 10 to 30 percent of the country's Kurds, and many eth- nic Turks. In fact, a majority of Alevi may be Turks. Historically, Alevi resided predominantly in southeastern Turkey, but the mass rural-to-urban migration that has been relatively continu- ous since 1960 has resulted in thousands of Alevi moving to cit- ies in central and western Anatolia. Consequently, Alevi communities of varying size were located in most of the coun- try's major cities by the mid-1990s. 115 Turkey: A Country Study Because of centuries of persecution by Sunni Muslims, Alevi became highly secretive about the tenets of their faith and their religious practices. Consequently, almost no reliable information about Alevi Islam is available. Unsympathetic pub- lished sources reported that Alevi worshiped Ali ibn Abu Talib, observed various Christian rituals, and venerated both Chris- tian and Muslim saints. Prior to the twentieth century, informa- tion on the sect was so sparse and distorted that even Twelve Imam Shia regarded Alevi as heretics. However, the tendency among most contemporary Twelve Imam clergy is to recognize the Alevi as a distinct legal school within the Twelve Imam tra- dition. In addition, major Twelve Imam Shia theological col- leges in Iran and Iraq have accepted Alevi students since the 1940s. Secularist Policies In 1922 the new nationalist regime abolished the Ottoman sultanate, and in 1924 it abolished the caliphate, the religious office that Ottoman sultans had held for four centuries. Thus, for the first time in Islamic history, no ruler claimed spiritual leadership of Islam. The withdrawal of Turkey, heir to the Otto- man Empire, as the presumptive leader of the world Muslim community was symbolic of the change in the government's relationship to Islam. Indeed, secularism or laicism (laiklik) became one of the "Six Arrows" of Ataturk's program for remaking Turkey. Whereas Islam had formed the identity of Muslims within the Ottoman Empire, secularism was seen as molding the new Turkish nation and its citizens. Ataturk and his associates not only abolished certain reli- gious practices and institutions but also questioned the value of religion, preferring to place their trust in science. They regarded organized religion as an anachronism and contrasted it unfavorably with "civilization," which to them meant a ratio- nalist, secular culture. Establishment of secularism in Turkey was not, as it had been in the West, a gradual process of separa- tion of church and state. In the Ottoman Empire, all spheres of life, at least theoretically, had been subject to religious law, and Sunni religious organizations had been part of the state struc- ture. When the reformers of the early 1920s opted for a secular state, they removed religion from the sphere of public policy and restricted it exclusively to that of personal morals, behav- ior, and faith. Although private observance of religious rituals 116 The Society and Its Environment could continue, religion and religious organization were excluded from public life. The policies directly affecting religion were numerous and sweeping. In addition to the abolition of the caliphate, new laws mandated abolition of the office of seyhulislam; abolition of the religious hierarchy; the closing and confiscation of Sufi lodges, meeting places, and monasteries and the outlawing of their rituals and meetings; establishment of government con- trol over the evkaf, which had been inalienable under seriat; replacement of seriat with adapted European legal codes; the closing of religious schools; abandonment of the Islamic calen- dar in favor of the Gregorian calendar used in the West; restric- tions on public attire that had religious associations, with the fez outlawed for men and the veil discouraged for women; and the outlawing of the traditional garb of local religious leaders. Atatvirk and his colleagues also attempted to Turkify Islam through official encouragement of such practices as using Turkish rather than Arabic at devotions, substituting the Turk- ish word Tanri for the Arabic word Allah, and introducing Turk- ish for the daily calls to prayer. These changes in devotional practices deeply disturbed faithful Muslims and caused wide- spread resentment, which led in 1933 to a return to the Arabic version of the call to prayer. Of longer-lasting effect were the regime's measures prohibiting religious education, restricting the building of new mosques, and transferring existing mosques to secular purposes. Most notably, the Hagia Sophia (Justinian's sixth-century Christian basilica, which had been converted into a mosque by Mehmet II) was made a museum in 1935. The effect of these changes was to make religion, or more correctly Sunni Islam, subject to the control of a hostile state. Muftis and imams (prayer leaders) were appointed by the government, and religious instruction was taken over by the Ministry of National Education. Retreat from Secularism The expectation of the secular ruling elite that the policies of the 1920s and 1930s would diminish the role of religion in public life did not materialize. As early as 1925, religious griev- ances were one of the principal causes of the Seyh Sait rebel- lion, an uprising in southeastern Turkey that may have claimed as many as 30,000 lives before being suppressed. Following the relaxation of authoritarian political controls in 1946, large numbers of people began to call openly for a return to tradi- 117 Turkey: A Country Study tional religious practice. During the 1950s, even certain politi- cal leaders found it expedient to join religious leaders in advocating more state respect for religion (see Multiparty Poli- tics, 1946-60, ch. 1). A more direct manifestation of the growing reaction against secularism was the revival of the Sufi brotherhoods. Not only did suppressed tarikatlar such as the Kadiri, Mevlevi, and Naksi- bendi reemerge, but new orders were formed, including the Nurcular, Suleymanci, and Ticani. The Ticani became espe- cially militant in confronting the state. For example, Ticani damaged monuments to Ataturk to symbolize their opposition to his policy of secularization. Throughout the 1950s, there were numerous trials of Ticani and other Sufi leaders for anti- state activities. Simultaneously, however, some tarikatlar, notably the Suleymanci and Nurcular, cooperated with those politi- cians perceived as supportive of pro-Islamic policies. The Nur- cular eventually advocated support for Turkey's multiparty political system, and one of its offshoots, the Isikcilar, has openly supported the Motherland Party since the mid-1980s. The demand for restoration of religious education in public schools began in the late 1940s. The government initially responded by authorizing religious instruction in state schools for those students whose parents requested it. Under Democrat Party rule during the 1950s, religious education was made com- pulsory in secondary schools unless parents made a specific request to have their children excused. Religious education was made compulsory for all primary and secondary school children in 1982. Inevitably, the reintroduction of religion into the school cur- riculum raised the question of religious higher education. The secular elites, who tended to distrust traditional religious lead- ers, believed that Islam could be "reformed" if future leaders were trained in state-controlled seminaries. To further this goal, the government in 1949 established a faculty of divinity at Ankara University to train teachers of Islam and imams. In 1951 the Democrat Party government set up special secondary schools {imam hatip okullari) for the training of imams and preachers. Initially, the imam hatip schools grew very slowly, but their numbers expanded rapidly to more than 250 during the 1970s, when the pro-Islam National Salvation Party partici- pated in coalition governments. Following the 1980 coup, the military, although secular in orientation, viewed religion as an 118 The Society and Its Environment effective means to counter socialist ideas and thus authorized the construction of ninety more imam hatip high schools. During the 1970s and 1980s, Islam experienced a kind of political rehabilitation because right-of-center secular leaders perceived religion as a potential bulwark in their ideological struggle with left-of-center secular leaders. A small advocacy group that became extremely influential was the Hearth of Intellectuals, an organization that maintains that true Turkish culture is a synthesis of the Turks' pre-Islamic traditions and Islam. According to the Hearth, Islam not only constitutes an essential aspect of Turkish culture but is a force that can be reg- ulated by the state to help socialize the people to be obedient citizens acquiescent to the overall secular order. After the 1980 military coup, many of the Hearth's proposals for restructuring schools, colleges, and state broadcasting were adopted. The result was a purge from these state institutions of more than 2,000 intellectuals perceived as espousing leftist ideas incom- patible with the Hearth's vision of Turkey's national culture. The state's more tolerant attitude toward Islam encouraged the proliferation of private religious activities, including the construction of new mosques and Kuran schools in the cities, the establishment of Islamic centers for research on and con- ferences about Islam and its role in Turkey, and the establish- ment of religiously oriented professional and women's journals. The printing of newspapers, the publication of reli- gious books, and the growth of innumerable religious projects ranging from health centers, child-care facilities, and youth hostels to financial institutions and consumer cooperatives flourished. When the government legalized private broadcast- ing after 1990, several Islamic radio stations were organized. In the summer of 1994, the first Islamic television station, Chan- nel 7, began broadcasting, first in Istanbul and subsequently in Ankara. Although the tarikatlarhave played a seminal role in Turkey's religious revival and in the mid-1990s still published several of the country's most widely circulated religious journals and newspapers, a new phenomenon, Islamci aydin (the Islamist intellectual) unaffiliated with the traditional Sufi orders, emerged during the 1980s. Prolific and popular writers such as Ali Bulac, Rasim Ozdenoren, and Ismet Ozel have drawn upon their knowledge of Western philosophy, Marxist sociology, and radical Islamist political theory to advocate a modern Islamic perspective that does not hesitate to criticize genuine societal 119 Turkey: A Country Study ills while simultaneously remaining faithful to the ethical values and spiritual dimensions of religion. Islamist intellectuals are harshly critical of Turkey's secular intellectuals, whom they fault for trying to do in Turkey what Western intellectuals did in Europe: substitute worldly materialism, in its capitalist or socialist version, for religious values. Although intellectual debates on the role of Islam attracted widespread interest, they did not provoke the kind of contro- versy that erupted over the issue of appropriate attire for Mus- lim women. During the early 1980s, female college students who were determined to demonstrate their commitment to Islam began to cover their heads and necks with large scarves and wear long, shape-concealing overcoats. The appearance of these women in the citadels of Turkish secularism shocked those men and women who tended to perceive such attire as a symbol of the Islamic traditionalism they rejected. Militant sec- ularists persuaded the Higher Education Council to issue a reg- ulation in 1987 forbidding female university students to cover their heads in class. Protests by thousands of religious students and some university professors forced several universities to waive enforcement of the dress code. The issue continued to be seriously divisive in the mid-1990s. Throughout the first half of the 1990s, highly educated, articulate, but religiously pious women have appeared in public dressed in Islamic attire that conceals all but their faces and hands. Other women, especially in Ankara, Istanbul, and Izmir, have demonstrated against such attire by wearing revealing fashions and Ataturk badges. The issue is discussed and debated in almost every type of forum — artistic, commercial, cultural, economic, political, and reli- gious. For many citizens of Turkey, women's dress has become the issue — at least for the 1990s — that defines whether a Mus- lim is secularist or religious. Non-Muslim Minorities Because of the absence since 1965 of census data on the eth- nic background and religious affiliation of Turkish citizens, the size of non-Muslim communities in Turkey in 1995 was difficult to estimate. The 1965 census enumerated about 207,000 Chris- tians, about 169,000 of whom resided in urban areas and about 38,000 in the countryside. The Christians included Armenian, Greek, and Syrian Orthodox; Armenian and Syrian Catholics; and members of various Protestant denominations. The Jewish population in 1965 numbered about 44,000, all but a tiny frac- 120 Muslim woman with prayer beads, Ortahisar, central Anatolia Courtesy Hermine Dreyfuss People praying on Ulu Dag Mountain, near Bursa, in northwestern Turkey Courtesy Hermine Dreyfuss tion of whom were urban residents. By 1995 it was estimated that the size of these populations had decreased substantially, the Christians to just under 140,000 and the Jews to about 20,000. The members of these religious minorities are found primarily in the coastal cities and towns, but some live in the mountainous regions of eastern Anatolia near the borders with Armenia and Georgia. In 1995 members of religious minorities continued to occupy an anomalous position in Turkish society. Non-Muslims remain to some extent second-class citizens, although they gen- erally are not subject to overt discrimination. A disproportion- ately large segment of the minority population is represented among the wealthy business and professional groups. Prosely- tizing by non-Muslim religions is strongly discouraged by the government. Under the law, a Muslim man or woman may marry a non-Muslim spouse, but such marriages are infrequent and usually do not entail conversion. 121 Turkey: A Country Study The Syrian Orthodox, or Jacobite, community, which num- bered about 50,000 in 1995, ranks as the largest Christian denomination in Turkey. An Arabic-speaking community that uses ancient Aramaic in its liturgy, the Syrian Orthodox histori- cally have lived in villages in the vicinity of Mardin and Midyat in southeastern Turkey Since the late 1980s, intense fighting in this region between government forces and the PKK has threat- ened many villages and prompted a migration to local cities and even to Istanbul, where a community of Syrian Orthodox, initially established during the Ottoman era, was estimated to number 10,000 in 1995. The Syrian Orthodox Church has its own head, referred to as a metropolitan. The metropolitan (Timotheos Samuel Aktash in 1995) resides in an ancient mountain monastery near Midyat. Also, an estimated 2,000 Syr- ian Catholics, whose ancestors converted from the Syrian Orthodox rite, are scattered in small communities in the south- east. Syrian Catholics retain the distinct Syrian Orthodox rite but recognize the spiritual authority of the Roman Catholic pope. The Armenian Orthodox (or Gregorian) community, with some 35,000 members in 1995, ranks as the second largest Christian denomination in Turkey. In addition, an estimated 7,000 other Armenians belong to an autonomous Orthodox church, to an Armenian Catholic church in union with Rome, or to various Protestant denominations. In 1995 the Armenian Orthodox Church's patriarch, Karekin Bedros Kazandjian, resided in Istanbul. In 1995 the Armenian Orthodox Church maintained more than thirty churches and chapels; seventy-five elementary and middle schools, and two orphanages. Arme- nian Catholics maintained ten churches in Istanbul, as well as six elementary and middle schools. The Greek Orthodox Church, the largest Christian church in Turkey as recently as 1960, had fewer than 20,000 members in 1995. The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, located in the Fener quarter of Istanbul, is the central church authority for Greek Orthodox Christians in most of Europe and beyond. Because the patriarch's authority extends to all Orthodox believers outside Greece and the Middle East, he is considered the honorary head of the church for communities of Orthodox Christians living in the United States, Canada, Central and South America, Australia, and New Zealand. From these communities, the patriarchate in Istanbul receives moral and financial support. The ecumenical patriarch's status has 122 The Society and Its Environment been affected by the continual tension in Turkish-Greek rela- tions. During the 1950s and 1960s, thousands of members of the Greek Orthodox community left Turkey on account of the discrimination or overt hostility they experienced following Greco-Turkish conflicts over the status of Cyprus. The diminu- tion of the community has weakened the patriarchate and undermined its status in its dealings with the Turkish govern- ment. Nevertheless, the patriarchate's importance has remained considerable because of its ecumenical and interna- tional connections. Other Christian communities present in Turkey include sev- eral small groups affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church. Melchites (Greek Catholics) and Maronites live among the Arabs in southeast Hatay Province. Although accepted by the Vatican as part of the Roman Catholic Church, Melchites and Maronite Catholics retain their own separate liturgies. Chaldean-rite Catholics live in the Diyarbakir region, while Bul- garian, Greek, and Latin-rite Catholics live in Istanbul and Izmir. The total number of Catholics of various persuasions in early 1995 has been estimated at 25,000. Since 1948 the Jewish population has decreased steadily. In 1995 the Jewish community, estimated at 18,000 to 20,000, con- sisted primarily of Sephardic Jews. At least 90 percent of Tur- key's Jews live in Istanbul, where a chief rabbi presides. In 1995 the Jewish community maintained one high school and four elementary schools offering limited courses in Hebrew. Structure of Society Contemporary Turkish society has evolved both as a conse- quence of and a response to the major socioeconomic changes initiated by the republican government since the early 1920s. A predominantly agrarian society with little industry and high illiteracy rates when the Ottoman Empire collapsed at the end of World War I, Turkey by the 1990s had become a predomi- nantly urban and industrialized society in which mass public education and the ability to vote for government leaders in competitive elections are regarded as basic rights. Accompany- ing the changes has been the growth of new classes and interest groups, especially in the large cities, where the demands of entrepreneurs and industrial workers are championed by vari- ous political parties. A notable characteristic of many govern- ment programs aimed at inducing specific socioeconomic changes, however, has been the penchant of ruling civilian and 123 Turkey: A Country Study military elites for implementing policies without consulting those who might be affected and for using force whenever pop- ular resistance is encountered. One consequence of this approach has been the gradual creation of two distinct cultures in Turkey: a secular, elitist culture that defines what is progres- sive and modern; and a mass culture that continues to be influ- enced by Islam, whether in its traditional, mystical, modern, or radical interpretations. The Changing National Elite Turkey's national political elite is a self-perpetuating group; membership is based on a demonstrated commitment to secu- larism and the other principles of Ataturk. During the initial years of the republic, the elite was recruited from the Ottoman bureaucracy and military. Its members thus shared a sense that they knew best how to carry out policies that served the inter- ests of the state and country. In addition, most of the early republican elite had been involved with or sympathetic to the pre-World War I Ottoman political parties that had espoused major political and economic reforms. Ataturk himself, for example, had been a member of the Unionist Party while serv- ing as an Ottoman army officer in Macedonia (see The Young Turks, ch. 1). During the 1920s and 1930s, the ruling elite accepted the need for significant, even revolutionary, reforms and generally embraced Ataturk's programs enthusiastically. In effect, service to the country and higher education, rather than wealth per se, became primary qualifications for accep- tance into the political elite as early as 1930. The national political elite essentially ruled Turkey unchal- lenged for more than thirty years. Beginning in the 1950s, how- ever, the socioeconomic changes resulting from government policies provided numerous and varied opportunities for the accumulation of private capital in finance, commerce, trade, and industry. The emergence of a wealthy business class inevi- tably led to the development of class-specific political interests and ambitions. Because of this new business elite's experience in entrepreneurial activities rather than the bureaucracy, its members' views differed sharply from those of the established ruling elite, which generally supported state intervention in the economy. Increasing competition between the two elites over appropriate state policies was one of the reasons for the polarization that characterized Turkey's national politics dur- ing the 1970s. 124 The Society and Its Environment A nongovernment professional elite also gradually emerged after 1950, including architects, engineers, lawyers, managers, physicians, and university professors, who were not necessarily unified in their political views. Nevertheless, as a group they tended to resent what they perceived as the patronizing, even authoritarian, political attitudes of the ruling elite. This group's frustration with the political system, emerging at the same time as dissatisfaction within the business elite, high- lighted the need for genuine political reform. During the 1970s, some members of the ruling elite recognized this need, but they were unable to enact remedial legislation. The 1980 military coup symbolized the deep divisions that had emerged within the ruling elite over strategies for dealing with the political demands of diverse and competitive interest groups. The officers and their civilian supporters, who included some factions of the business elite, wanted the state to impose social order through the type of authoritarian methods they believed had worked successfully under Ataturk. They were sufficiently angry with dissenting members of the ruling elite to arrest the most prominent politicians, including two former prime ministers. The coup in effect split the ruling elite into two ideological factions that continue to coexist uneasily in the mid-1990s. One elite group believes in the efficacy of a strong government to maintain social and political stability; the other elite faction believes in accommodating interest group demands that do not threaten the national cohesion of the country and generally supports broadening political pluralism. Urban Life By 1995 approximately two-thirds of Turkey's population lived in urban areas, which continued to grow rapidly (see Pop- ulation Density, Distribution, and Settlement, this ch.). Urban- ization and industrialization have helped to create social-class structures that are similar in all large cities (population of more than 100,000) and most smaller ones (population 20,000 to 100,000). Government officials, wealthy businesspeople, and professionals together constitute the urban upper class. The business elite in most cities is very diverse and generally includes industrialists, financiers, large-scale retailers and wholesalers, real estate developers, construction firm owners, transportation company operators, and, in Ankara and Istan- bul, owners of commercial publishing and broadcasting com- panies. The business elite, which constitutes the largest 125 Turkey: A Country Study component of the upper class, has been expanding since the early 1980s as a result of government incentives for private investors and entrepreneurs. However, because statistics on personal income in Turkey are neither complete nor reliable, there is no accurate means of determining the composition of the upper class. Political power and education continue to be significant, albeit much less so than before the 1980 coup, as qualifications for upper-class status. The upper class makes up about 10 percent of the total population of all cities. The urban middle class is larger and more diverse than the upper class. It includes various types of administrators; middle- level bureaucrats and public employees; engineers lacking advanced college degrees; journalists and other writers; manag- ers of industrial enterprises, commercial offices, and social-ser- vice centers; owners of small-scale retail establishments and restaurants; technicians; self-employed artisans; professionals; and tradespeople. Education, particularly a college degree, has been key to joining the middle class. Although the middle class was continuing to expand during the early 1980s, most of its members felt threatened by persistently high inflation rates that had eroded their savings and impeded their upward social mobility. In 1995 the middle class was estimated to constitute 20 to 25 percent of the total urban population. It was larger in prosperous cities but smaller in economically depressed areas. The phenomenal growth of cities since the 1950s has been the result of large-scale migration of lower-class people from the villages; in 1995 more than 60 percent of Turkey's urban population belonged to the lower class. Most villagers who came to the cities in search of work were unable to find afford- able housing. Thus, they built temporary shelters on undevel- oped land on the outskirts of Ankara and Istanbul and other large cities. These squatter settlements, or gecekondus, soon became permanent neighborhoods, albeit ones that lacked urban amenities such as piped water, electricity, and paved streets. Eventually, some gecekondus were incorporated into the cities and provided with electricity. By 1980 up to 60 percent of the residents of Ankara, Adana, Bursa, Istanbul, and Izmir lived in new gecekondus or in city neighborhoods that had originated as gecekondus. During the 1970s, researchers affiliated with gov- ernment-funded institutes tried to depict the expanding gecekondus as settlements that facilitated the adaptation of rural migrants to the urban environment. In actuality, all such neigh- 126 The Society and Its Environment borhoods were urban slums where poverty and its associated social ills remained pervasive in the mid-1990s. Obtaining work in private manufacturing or state industries is a typical goal of lower-class men because of the steady employment and wages offered. Among industrial workers, there has been a long tradition of group identification and sol- idarity. By 1975, when more than 79 percent of all industrial workers had been unionized, labor leaders were able to exer- cise political influence on behalf of legislation protecting work- ers' rights. This situation changed dramatically following the 1980 coup. The military government forcibly dissolved existing labor unions, arrested prominent labor leaders, and banned strikes. Subsequently, to ensure that unions remained under supervision, the civilian government of Turgut Ozal encour- aged the formation of tradespeople-artisan guilds. By 1995 these guilds, however, represented only 10 percent of the entire labor force and lacked the political influence of their predecessors (see Human Resources and Trade Unions, ch. 3). In the prevailing climate of economic and political uncer- tainty following the coup, several factories ceased production, a situation that meant immediate job and income loss for thou- sands of workers. Even after the restoration of civilian rule, eco- nomic conditions for the lower class did not improve. Up to 25 percent of adult males in the gecekondus were unemployed in the mid-1980s; throughout the first half of the 1990s, the level of industrial unemployment remained at the 10 to 11 percent level. An excess labor supply relative to available industrial jobs has tended to keep wages depressed. There are more nonindustrial than industrial jobs in the cit- ies, and as many as two-thirds of all lower-class urban families depend on nonindustrial, unskilled work for their livelihood. Such work includes crafts; automotive repair; brick masonry; butchering; carpentry; deliveries; bus and taxi driving; enter- tainment; equipment operation in bakeries; laundry, machine shop, and dockyard work; home painting and repairs; mainte- nance of grounds and buildings; personal services in public bathhouses, barbershops, beauty salons, and private homes; operation of small retail shops; service jobs in hotels, institu- tions, offices, restaurants, and retail establishments; street cleaning and maintenance; street vending of products and ser- vices; textile piecework in the home; and various transport and haulage jobs. 127 Turkey: A Country Study Towns In addition to large and small cities, Turkey has scores of semiurban places that officially are classified as towns. A town {kasaba) is defined as an incorporated settlement with a popu- lation between 2,000 and 20,000. Towns generally provide basic economic and political services to the regions in which they are located. The social structure of larger towns is similar to that of the cities. There is an elite composed of government officials, military officers, and a few wealthy landowning, mercantile, and professional families; a middle class made up of adminis- trators, merchants, shopkeepers, soldiers, and teachers; and a lower class consisting of artisans and various categories of work- ers. Some of these diverse occupational groups may be absent in the smaller towns. Traditionally, elite status in towns derived from both wealth and family descent. Political and economic influence was exer- cised for several generations by local landowning families that had intermarried with Ottoman officials sent by the govern- ment to administer the towns. The policies introduced by Ataturk during the 1920s and 1930s changed the composition of most town elites, however. Families unable or unwilling to adapt lost influence and power, whereas those families who embraced the new values continued to wield local influence. Since the 1960s, the educated descendants of some members of the traditional landed elite have become governors, mayors, doctors, lawyers, judges, and merchants, as well as large land- owners employing modern farm technology and business prac- tices. These individuals also have assumed leadership of the local hierarchies of the political parties. Village Life Until the early 1950s, more than 80 percent of the inhabit- ants of Turkey lived in villages, which numbered more than 36,000. As defined by the government, a village {hoy) is any set- tlement with a population of less than 2,000. Although Turkey's rural population has continued to grow, the percentage of the total population living in villages has declined as a result of rural-to-urban migration. In 1970 about 67 percent of the pop- ulation lived in villages; five years later, this proportion had shrunk to 59 percent. In 1980 more than 54 percent still lived in villages, but by 1985 most people lived in urban areas. In 1995 less than 35 percent of the population lived in villages. 128 The Society and Its Environment Since the 1950s, agriculture has become increasingly mecha- nized, and this gradual change has affected land tenure pat- terns and village society (see Land Tenure, ch. 3). Small landowners and landless families generally have not benefited from this change, and consequently they have been the rural residents most likely to migrate to the cities. In contrast, larger landowners have profited from the new agricultural methods by increasing their holdings and investing their increased wealth in industry. By the early 1980s, the personal and share- cropping relationships between landowners and agricultural laborers and tenants had been replaced by new and impersonal wage relations. This development prompted agricultural wage earners with grievances against landowners to seek advice and relief from labor unions or labor-oriented groups in the towns. In the 1990s, the extended family network remains the most important social unit in village society, even though most households tend to be composed of nuclear families. The extended family serves a crucial economic function in villages by fostering cooperation among related households by way of informal arrangements concerning shared machinery, shared labor, and even shared cash income. The extended family also is expected to provide support if one of its constituent nuclear households faces an economic, political, or social crisis. An extended family may be composed of a father, his married adult sons, and their children and wives, but usually it is a broader concept embracing several generations headed by one or more senior males who can trace common descent from a male ancestor. In this sense, an extended family is a patrilin- eage. Although such kin groups lack status as corporate entities in custom or law, they have an important role in defining fam- ily members' rights and obligations. There are important similarities among villages within a given region, as well as differences from one region to the next. In this sense, it is possible to distinguish among villages in three distinct geographic regions: Anatolia, the coastal area, and southern and eastern Turkey. Anatolian Villages The family (aile) is the basic structure of Anatolian village life. The word lacks a single specific meaning in peasant usage, referring instead to the conceptual group of coresidents, whether in a household, lineage, village, or nomadic band. The unit functions as the primary element in any concerted group 129 Turkey: A Country Study action. The two most frequent referents of the concept are household and village community; every sedentary (i.e., non- nomadic) villager in the Anatolian countryside belongs to at least these two groups. Consequently, household and village are what the Anatolian Turk means by aile. The household provides the framework for the most inti- mate and emotionally important social relations, as well as for most economic activities. The activities of the household, then, form the nucleus of village economic and social life. House- hold members are expected to work the household's fields cooperatively and reap the harvests that sustain its life. Because household members share an identity in the eyes of the village at large, every member is responsible for the actions of any other member. Wider kinship ties of the extended patrilineal family are also important. Because of the pervasiveness and significance of kinship groups and relationships defined on the basis of kinship, nonk- inship groups in Anatolian villages tend to be few in number and vague in their criteria for membership. Generally, three kinds of voluntary associations can be found in Anatolian vil- lages: religious associations and brotherhoods headed by der- vishes, local units of the main political parties, and gossip groups that meet in the guest rooms (misafir odasi) of well-to-do villagers. Prior to the 1950s, most Anatolian villagers owned the land they farmed, and within individual villages there were relatively small differences in wealth. Three criteria influenced social rank: ascribed characteristics such as age, sex, and the position of a person in his or her own household, lineage, and kinship network; economic status as indicated by landholding, occupa- tion, and income; and moral stature as demonstrated by piety, religious learning, and moral respectability. However, by 1995 absentee landlordism and large landholdings had become common, and wealth alone tended to be the determining fac- tor in ascribing social status. Thus, resident large landowners often dominated the political, economic, and social life of the villages. The relationship of wealth to influence and social rank is illustrated by the institution of the guest room. It is estimated that only 10 percent of homes in Anatolian villages have guest rooms because they are very expensive to maintain. Village men gather most evenings in guest rooms and spend much of their time there during the winter months. Regular attendance 130 The Society and Its Environment at a particular guest room implies political and social support of its owner because, by accepting his hospitality, a villager places himself in the owner's debt and acknowledges his supe- rior status. Every village in Anatolia, as well as elsewhere in Turkey, has an official representative of the central government, the head- man (muhtar), who is responsible to Ankara and the provincial administrators. The headman is elected every two years by vil- lagers (see Provincial and Local Government, ch. 4). The posi- tion generally is not considered a prestigious one because most villagers distrust the government. Thus, in Anatolia, it is not unusual to find relatively young men serving as village head- men. Coastal Villages Unlike the traditionally isolated villages of Anatolia, villages in European Turkey and along the Black Sea and Aegean Sea, and to a lesser degree along the Mediterranean Sea, have been exposed to urban influences for several generations. Agricul- ture tends to be specialized and is generally undertaken in association with fishing and lumber production. Economic links with market towns historically have been very important. Although the extended family plays a significant role through- out a villager's life, economic considerations rather than kin- ship tend to shape social relations. The commercial nature of these villages has resulted in the substitution of nonkinship roles — such as employer and employee, buyer and seller, and landlord and tenant — for most interactions outside the home. In coastal villages, the elite is primarily a landed group. Large landowners, by providing employment and — to a lesser degree — land to their laborers and tenants, and by serving as an economic link between the village and urban markets, acquire influence and power. Their personal contact with the laborers and tenants on their lands, however, has lessened since the 1950s. By the 1990s, urban businesspeople with both the resources and the inclination to serve as middlemen between village production and city markets generally wielded as much influence as local large landowners. Businesspeople's influence continues to expand as a result of increasing crop specialization and market dependency. Villages in the South and East The villages of southeastern Turkey are predominantly Arab 131 Turkey: A Country Study and Kurdish. Tribal organization — the grouping of several patrilineages claiming a common historical ancestor — remains important in some Kurdish villages. However, the political autonomy once enjoyed by tribal leaders was usurped by the central government during the 1920s and 1930s. Tribal leaders who retain local influence do so because they are large land- owners. Large landholdings are typical of the region. In most villages, one or two families own most of the arable land and pasturage; the remainder is divided into small plots owned by several families. Most of the small landowners have holdings fit only for subsistence agriculture. From 10 to 50 percent of all families may be landless. Villagers who do not own land work as agricultural laborers or herders for the large landlords. The poverty of most villagers compels them to enter into depen- dent economic, political, and social relations with the wealthier landlords. The fighting between the PKK and the government in south- eastern Turkey since 1984 has disrupted life in many villages. About 850 Kurdish villages have been uprooted by the govern- ment and their inhabitants forcibly removed to western Anato- lia. Thousands of other villagers have migrated to cities to escape the incessant fighting. The migrants have included all types of villagers: the landless, small landowners, and large landlords. The long-term effects of these changes were difficult to assess in the mid-1990s. The Individual, the Family, and Gender Relations Prior to the establishment of the republic, matters of per- sonal status, including marriage, divorce, and inheritance, were regulated by Islamic law and influenced by cultural cus- toms that had evolved during several centuries of Ottoman rule. Atatiirk and his associates regarded both religious rules and traditional cultural practices as hindrances to the creation of their shared vision of a modern society. In fact, their societal ideal for Turkey was the pattern of personal and family rela- tions that prevailed among the educated upper classes of Europe during the 1920s and 1930s. Consequently, many poli- cies enacted during the early republican period were designed explicitly to remold Turkish society according to an urban European model. One of the most significant measures on behalf of this goal was the abolition of Islamic law. In 1926 a new civil code derived from Swiss civil laws replaced the reli- gious legal system. The disestablishment of Islam as the state 132 A dervish whirling to induce a trance for prayer Courtesy Hermine Drey fuss religion and other measures aimed at religion reduced the influence of Islam in life-cycle rituals. The social changes induced by state policies after 1923 failed to create a new Turkish culture. Instead, at least two distinct cultures had emerged in Turkey by the 1950s. One was an elite culture characterized by secular values and patterns of family and gender relationships similar to those found in much of urban, middle-class Europe. The majority popular culture, in contrast, was influenced by a melange of secular ideas learned in the compulsory state education system (through middle school), religious values learned within the family and from community organizations such as the mosques, and traditional views about the appropriate public role of the sexes. Marriage As part of their rejection of the symbols of Islam, Atatiirk and his associates outlawed traditional marriage practices. The 1926 civil code mandated that all marriages be registered with civil authorities. Marriages contracted before a member of the religious establishment henceforth were not recognized as law- ful unions, and the children of such unions were considered illegitimate. The male prerogative to have up to four wives simultaneously, enshrined in Islamic law, was prohibited. Mar- 133 Turkey: A Country Study riage between a Muslim woman and a non-Muslim man, a prac- tice forbidden under Islamic law, became legal. Traditionally, marriage has been — and frequently continues to be — a contract negotiated and executed by the families of the betrothed and blessed by a member of the religious estab- lishment. Representatives of the bride and groom negotiate the contract, which stipulates such terms as the size and nature of the bride-price paid by the family of the groom to the family of the bride and whatever conditions of conjugal life are mutu- ally agreeable. After a series of meetings between the two fami- lies, an exchange of gifts, and the display of the trousseau, the marriage is formalized at a ceremony presided over by a reli- gious official. The civil code requires only that the bride and groom, as individuals, swear vows before two witnesses and a representative of the state who registers the union. Despite the legal necessity for civil marriage, traditional courtship and mar- riage practices persist. Many couples, especially among the lower classes in cities and in rural areas, hold two ceremonies, a religious one to satisfy their families and a civil one to entitle them to government social benefits, as well as to confer legiti- macy on future children. Despite government attempts to outlaw the bride-price, dur- ing the 1990s this traditional prenuptial practice has continued in both urban and rural areas. The payment of the bride-price involves considerable expenditures and often requires finan- cial cooperation from a number of kinfolk. The exact amount and the terms of payment form a part of the premarital negoti- ations. For example, the families sometimes agree to postpone payment of the full bride-price until after the wedding, stipulat- ing that the full amount must be paid in the event of divorce, a practice that provides some protection for the bride if the match subsequently proves incompatible. Ordinarily the amount of the bride-price is directly related to the status of the families involved. However, the amount tends to be less if the two families have a close blood relationship. For these reasons, among, others, most rural and urban families continue to pre- fer that their children marry closely related kin — first or sec- ond cousins. Divorce also is affected by the civil code. Under Islamic law, a man can initiate divorce easily and is not required to cite any reasons; the grounds on which a woman can seek divorce, how- ever, are tightly restricted, and she is obligated to prove fault on her husband's part. Under the civil code, divorce, like mar- 134 The Society and Its Environment riage, is not recognized as legitimate unless registered with civil authorities. The code permits either partner to initiate divorce proceedings, but the state, which claims an interest in main- taining marriage unions, especially in cases involving children, decides whether to grant a request for divorce. The Extended Family Although a majority of households in Turkey are nuclear family units, the larger extended family continues to play an important social role in the lives of most individuals. The extended family always includes all relatives by blood or mar- riage through an individual's paternal grandfather, or some- times, great-grandfather. In addition, many individuals, especially those of middle-class and elite social status, consider the parents and siblings of their own mother to be part of the extended family. In general, the extended family functions as pn emotional support network during life-cycle events such as birth, marriage, and death, or during major family crises. It often functions as an economic support network by providing loans for exceptional personal expenses, finding employment for new graduates, and caring for indigent members who are elderly or disabled. In urban areas, the extended family — espe- cially fathers and sons or two or more brothers — can serve as a means for the formation of business partnerships. In rural areas, members of an extended family may work together to farm large acreages or raise large herds of sheep. By expressing approval or disapproval of its members' social behavior, the extended family also functions as an effective mechanism of social control. Every individual is expected to comport himself or herself in ways that do not bring dishonor to the family. There are many types of behavior that might bring shame to a family, but sexual promiscuity, especially among women, is considered the most serious offense. Regard- less of class, women are expected to avoid any activity that might raise suspicions about their sexual conduct. Thus, unmarried females are expected to abstain from all sexual activity before marriage, and married women are expected to remain faithful to their husbands. Female adultery carries heavy social sanctions; among the lower classes in cities and in villages, it still is socially — albeit not legally — acceptable for a betrayed husband to redeem his family's honor by killing his adulterous wife. 135 Turkey: A Country Study The unequal burden placed upon women to uphold family honor highlights the ambiguous role of women in society. Offi- cial state ideology extols the equality of men and women. Intel- lectually, men tend to accept women as equals, and elite women have been able to achieve high positions in profes- sional careers since the 1960s. Since the mid-1980s, women also have been active in politics; one, Tansu filler, became prime minister in 1993. Nevertheless, men traditionally view women as emotionally and physically inferior and thus in need of male protection, which in practice means male control. Both men and women traditionally have judged a woman's social status not on the basis of her personal accomplishments but by the number of sons she has borne. Thus, women — like their hus- bands — customarily have prized boys over girls. Mothers have tended to socialize their sons and daughters differently, rearing boys to be assertive and girls to be obedient and passive. The relationship between a mother and a son tends to be warm and intimate throughout life. The traditional status of women continues to be established during the early years of marriage for most lower-middle-class and lower-class women. Within the extended family, a new bride tends to be under the critical surveillance of her hus- band's relatives, especially his mother. Whether the new couple lives in a separate household — this often is a requirement of the bride-price — or resides temporarily in the home of the groom's parents, the bride is isolated from her own family and friends and is expected to learn from her mother-in-law how to care for her husband. Her situation is recognized in the lan- guage: the expression gelinlik etmek, used to refer to the status of a new bride, means to be "on call." Although a bride may estab- lish a close personal relationship with her mother-in-law, espe- cially if the latter is also her aunt, friction and tension are more common. In such cases, the mother-in-law expects her son to side with her against his wife. A new bride only gains status and security within a traditional extended family after she has pro- duced a son. The status of a wife changes as she matures because within all extended families, whether traditional or modern, consider- able respect is accorded to age. Younger family members are expected to show respect toward their elders regardless of their gender. Respect has many dimensions, but usually it means not speaking in the presence of one's elders unless requested, and refraining in their presence from arguing, smoking, or behav- 136 The Society and Its Environment ing in a casual way. Thus, a woman whose children are nearly grown is accorded respect and does not expect to be harassed by her mother-in-law. The authority of a mature wife and her opinions in family matters are important. If she also has employment outside the home, her influence increases. The migration of husbands to cities or foreign countries in search of work also changes the role of married women within fami- lies. Left at home to rear the children on remittances sent by her spouse, the wife often is forced to assume many of the daily decision-making roles previously filled by her husband. In addi- tion, since the late 1960s, thousands of migrant workers have sent for their wives and children to join them in the foreign countries where they are employed. These prolonged resi- dences abroad have tended to alter traditional extended-family relationships. Gender Relations Male-female relations remain an area of some tension in Turkish society. The conflict between traditional and modern values and between patterns of socialization within the family and at school affect the social relationships that both men and women establish. Even among modernized urban dwellers, family loyalty, family obligations, and family honor remain strong considerations. Thus, even though Turks professing to have modern values may define the "ideal" family as one in which equality exists between spouses, wives who actually attempt to establish themselves as equal partners usually meet with resistance from their husbands. Among more traditional families, both men and women generally expect husbands to be dominant, especially with respect to matters involving household interactions with the public; wives are expected to be obedient. Even in traditional families, however, wives may not accept passive roles, and their efforts to assert themselves can come up against strong disapproval. The conflicting tensions of traditional and modern values also influence social relations outside the family. The mass media and modern education popularize ideas such as social equality, openness between spouses, romantic love, and pla- tonic friendships between the sexes, concepts that men and women with traditional values find objectionable but that their adolescent children may find appealing. Furthermore, whereas some young women have been readopting headscarves and modest dress to demonstrate their commitment to Islam, oth- 137 Turkey: A Country Study ers have been attracted to the latest Western fashions in clothes and cosmetics, which traditionalists perceive as evidence of a general decline in female morality. Men and women generally constitute largely separate subso- cieties, each with its own values, attitudes, and perceptions of the other. Even among modernized urbanites, gender roles constrain social relations. For example, friendships between men and women who are unrelated generally are not accept- able. Among elite youth, men and women do meet socially and dating is fashionable, but parents try to monitor such relation- ships and discourage their daughters from becoming involved with any man unless marriage is contemplated. Among more traditional families, dating would ruin the reputation of a young woman and dishonor her family. The Status of Women Traditional views of gender roles and relations have per- sisted in tandem with changes in the status of women both within and outside the family. These changes began during the latter years of the Ottoman Empire, when women were given opportunities to work as teachers, clerks, and industrial work- ers. Change accelerated during the early republican era. The 1926 civil code granted women unprecedented legal rights, and in 1934 they received the right to vote and to stand for election. Since the 1950s, their participation in the labor force, the professions, and in politics has increased steadily but unevenly. By 1991 women made up 18 percent of the total urban labor force. But not all changes have resulted in improved conditions. In some instances, especially among rural and newly urbanized women, changes have disturbed a traditional order that has provided meaningful, guaranteed roles for women without introducing new ones. During the 1950s, rural women who migrated to the urban gecekondus generally found work as maids in private homes. Since the 1960s, employment opportunities for women in industry, especially light manufacturing, have been expanding. By 1991, the most recent year for which detailed statistics are available, almost 20 percent of employees in manufacturing were women. Nevertheless, a majority of women in the gecekon- dus do not work outside the home. Most urban working-class women are single and hold jobs for less than five years; they tend to leave paid employment when they get married. While 138 The Society and Its Environment working and contributing to family income, women enjoy enhanced status and respect. Urban middle-class and upper-middle-class women tend to have more education than working-class women and generally are employed in teaching, health care, and clerical work. Since 1980 more than one-third of all bank clerks have been women. Upper-class women tend to work in the prestigious professions, such as law, medicine, and university teaching. On average about 18 percent of all professionals in Turkey were women in 1991; they were concentrated in Ankara, Istanbul, Izmir, and a few other large urban centers. In 1995 the status of women in Turkey remained a multifac- eted, complex issue. Although the government guarantees women equal work and pay opportunities, the traditional value system elevates gender segregation in the workplace and other public spaces as a social ideal. Even urban, educated, profes- sional women may encounter the persistence of traditional, religiously colored values about gender roles among their puta- tively modern, secular husbands. Education The contemporary Turkish education system was established in 1924 after Atatiirk closed the religious schools, set up new secular schools, and made elementary school attendance com- pulsory. It was many years before the country had the educa- tional infrastructure to provide universal primary education, but since the early 1980s almost all children between the ages of six and ten have been enrolled in school. The most recent data on literacy (1990) put Turkey's overall adult literacy rate around 81 percent. This statistic broke down as 90 percent lit- eracy among males aged fifteen and over, and 71 percent among females in that age-group. The public education system provides for five stages of edu- cation: preschool, primary school, middle school, high school, and university. Noncompulsory preschool programs estab- lished in 1953 offer education to children between the ages of four and six. The demand for preschool education has been limited, apparently because of parents' unwillingness to entrust the education of small children to institutions outside the fam- ily. Preschool programs are most common in large cities, where, since the 1980s, they have been increasing in popularity and in numbers. Primary education is coeducational as well as compulsory, and encompasses a five-year program for ages six 139 Turkey: A Country Study to eleven. Attendance at the country's estimated 46,000 pri- mary schools was reckoned at 97 percent for the 1994-95 school year. Education officials believe school attendance is lower in villages than in urban areas because it is easier for par- ents to keep older children, especially girls, at home. The two-year middle-school program, for ages twelve to four- teen, also is coeducational and has been compulsory since 1972. However, authorities generally do not enforce middle- school attendance, especially in rural areas, where middle schools are few in number and most students must travel long distances to attend. The Ministry of National Education does not publish data on middle-school attendance, but overall it probably does not exceed 60 percent of the relevant age-group. To encourage higher levels of attendance, a 1983 law prohib- ited the employment of youths younger than fourteen. Middle- school graduation is a prerequisite to access to general, voca- tional, and technical high schools, and is deemed advanta- geous for admission to many vocational training programs. Secondary school education is not compulsory but is free at all of the country's estimated 1,300 public high schools. The Ministry of National Education supervises the high schools, which are divided into lycee (general) and vocational schools. The lycees are coeducational and offer three-year college pre- paratory programs. A select number of lycees in the largest cit- ies are bilingual, teaching classes in Turkish and either English, French, or German. Twelve lycees are open to students from the three legally recognized minorities — Armenians, Greeks, and Jews — and teach classes on some subjects in Armenian or Greek. In contrast, many of the vocational high schools offer four-year programs. Vocational high schools include technical training schools for men; domestic science schools for women; teacher-training schools; auxiliary health care, commercial, and agricultural schools; Muslim teacher-training schools; and other specialized institutions. The Muslim teacher-training schools, called imam hatip okullari, have expanded dramatically since the late 1970s. During the early 1990s, they numbered about 350 and enrolled 10 percent of all high school students. Except for the emphasis on religious subjects, the curriculum of the imam hatip okullari resembles that of the lycees rather than the vocational schools. Higher education is available at several hundred institutions, including professional schools and academies, institutes, and conservatories, but primarily at the twenty-seven public univer- 140 Istanbul University Courtesy Hermine Drey fuss sides, which enrolled more than 450,000 students in 1993-94. In the mid-1980s, when Ozal was prime minister, his govern- ment authorized Turkey's first private university, Bilkent, in Ankara. The university law of 1946 granted academic auton- omy to Turkey's universities. However, government policies since the 1980 coup, especially a 1981 law on higher education, have institutionalized extensive government interference in university affairs. The military leaders believed that the univer- sities had been the center of political ideas they disliked and perceived as harmful to Turkey's stability. They thus sought through the 1981 higher education law and applicable provi- sions of the 1982 constitution to introduce both structural and curricular changes at the universities. For example, the consti- tution stipulates that the president of the republic may appoint university rectors, establishes the government's right to found new universities, and assigns duties to the Council of Higher 141 Turkey: A Country Study Education ( Yuksek Ogretim Kurumu — YOK) . The higher edu- cation law prohibits all teachers and matriculated students from belonging to or working for a political party and requires curricular standardization at all universities. The YOK consists of twenty-five members, of whom eight are appointed directly by the president, eight by the Interuniversity Council, six by the Council of Ministers, two by the Ministry of National Education, and one by the General Staff of the armed forces. The chair of the YOK is appointed by the president of the republic. The YOK's powers include recommending or appointing rectors, deans, and professors; selecting and assign- ing students; and planning new universities. The YOK also has authority to transfer faculty members from one university to another. The YOK effectively has reduced the faculty senates, which prior to 1980 had authority to enact academic regula- tions, to mere advisory bodies. Education has continued to serve as an important means of upward social mobility. Annually since at least 1975, the num- ber of students applying for university admission has exceeded the number of available spaces. To qualify for admission, every applicant must pass the nationwide university entrance exam, which is designed, administered, and evaluated by the Center for Selection and Placement of Students. During the early 1990s, more than 100,000 applicants sat for the entrance exam each year. Scoring is based on a complicated system that assures that the number who pass does not exceed the number of available spaces. Even if an applicant qualifies for admission, the individual's actual score determines whether he or she may study a chosen discipline or must take up a less preferred one. In addition to the five levels of education described above, the system provides special education for some children with disabilities, as well as a wide range of adult education and voca- tional programs. Labor specialists consistently have cited inade- quate skills as a key factor in Turkey's high level of unemployment, which during the early 1990s averaged 10 per- cent annually. In 1995 half of the urban unemployed had only a primary education, and an estimated 40 percent of pupils dropped out of school upon completing this level of education. Since 1980 the Ministry of National Education has conducted major literacy campaigns aimed at the population between ages fourteen and forty-four, with emphasis on women, resi- dents of the urban gecekondus, and agricultural workers. The ministry also has provided primary, middle school, and second- 142 The Society and Its Environment ary equivalency program courses to upgrade education levels. In addition, through its Directorate of Apprenticeship and Nonformal Education, the ministry provides nonformal voca- tional training to people lacking required skills, such as school dropouts, seasonal agricultural workers, and people in the urban informal sector. The World Bank (see Glossary), which has provided funds for industrial training programs since the early 1970s, has been a major source of support for nonformal vocational training programs. These programs are intended to provide skilled per- sonnel above and beyond the supply from the formal voca- tional education system, which was projected to meet 86 percent of the estimated industrial demand for skilled and semiskilled workers through 1995. Government plans have pro- vided for a major expansion of the nonformal vocational train- ing system; 650,000 additional people are expected to receive training in employment-related trades, including 150,000 to be trained in industrial skills during 1994 and 1995. Although the government program was expected to improve the quality and availability of skill education in less-developed regions such as eastern Turkey, the intense fighting there since 1991 has dis- rupted training. Health and Welfare Health care and related social welfare activities in the 1990s remain the responsibility of the Ministry of Health. Legislation has directed and authorized the ministry to provide medical care and preventive health services, train health personnel, make preservice and in-service training available, establish and operate hospitals and other health care centers, supervise pri- vate health facilities, regulate the price of medical drugs, and control drug production and all pharmacies. In addition, the ministry supervises all medical and health care personnel in the public sector. Availability of health care in the mid-1990s is significantly better than it was twenty years earlier, but its quality remains uneven. Medical facilities are concentrated in the cities and larger towns, leaving most rural areas without adequate access to medical care. This situation is especially acute in eastern Anatolia, where medical care is generally available only in the provincial capitals. The salaries paid to state-employed physi- cians are low compared with what doctors in private practice 143 Turkey: A Country Study earn. Consequently, most Turkish physicians prefer to work in the more highly developed urban centers or even to emigrate. The overall ratio of inhabitants to physicians has continued to improve significantly. Whereas there was one physician for every 2,860 individuals in 1965, that ratio improved to one to 1,755 in 1976, one to 1,391 in 1985, and an estimated one to 1,200 in 1995. From 1977 to 1995, the number of all health care facilities — hospitals, health centers, clinics, and dispensa- ries — rose from 7,944 to 12,500. Simultaneously, the number of available hospital beds increased even more rapidly than the rate of population growth; the ratio was one bed per 400 citi- zens in 1995. Turkey has achieved progress in controlling various debilitat- ing and crippling diseases and in treating major infectious dis- eases. The incidence of measles, pertussis, typhoid fever, and diphtheria all declined dramatically between 1969 and 1994. The greater availability of potable water in both urban and rural areas has contributed to a general fall in the former prev- alence of water-borne illnesses, especially of diarrhea among children and infants. Infant mortality, which at 120 per 1,000 live births in 1980 was among the highest rates worldwide, had declined to fifty-five per 1,000 live births by 1992. Nevertheless, this rate was still very high by European standards, being six times the rate of neighboring Greece, which had an infant mortality rate of nine per 1,000 live births. Turkey had reported sixteen cases of acquired immune defi- ciency syndrome (AIDS) to the World Health Organization in the first nine months of 1994. The rate of AIDS cases per 100,000 population was 0.1 for both 1992 and 1993, with twenty-nine cases reported in 1992 and thirty in 1993. In the early 1990s, the most important underwriters of social security plans were the Government Employees' Retirement Fund, the Social Insurance Institution, and the Social Insur- ance Institution for the Self-Employed. In 1995 at least 15 per- cent of the working population participated in the social welfare system. If the agricultural sector is excluded, this per- centage rises to 40 percent. Less than 1 percent of agricultural workers were part of the social security system in 1995, but the government has made efforts for at least a decade to increase their participation. Employers pay insurance premiums to cover work-related injuries, occupational diseases, and mater- nity leave. Both employers and employees contribute specified proportions to cover premiums for illness, disability, retire- 144 The Society and Its Environment ment, and death benefits. Thus, in these and other instances, Turkey is moving toward a more Westernized approach to socioeconomic, educational, and health matters, and is seeking to lay a firmer basis for participation in the EU. * * * Feroz Ahmad' s The Making of Modern Turkey includes a detailed analysis of Ataturk's secularist and linguistic reforms, as well as an excellent overview of the impact of social changes from the 1930s to the end of the 1980s. With the exception of the Kurds, studies on the experience of Turkey's ethnic and religious minorities have not been published for more than two decades. Martin van Bruinessen has written extensively about the social and economic conditions of Turkey's Kurds. His book Agha, Shaikh, and State analyzes how state policies have induced changes in the social organization of Kurdistan during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Numerous arti- cles about contemporary Islam in Turkey have appeared since the mid-1980s. An excellent collection that examines social and educational issues is a volume edited by Richard Tapper, Islam in Modern Turkey. Insight into the effect of the post-1980 eco- nomic reforms on labor relations and class structure can be obtained from articles in The Political and Socioeconomic Transfor- mation of Turkey, edited by Atila Eralp, Muharrem Tunay, and Birol Yesilada. Nermin Abadan-Unat has published books and articles about the changing status of women in Turkey; see especially her Women in the Developing World: Evidence from Tur- key, which contains a wealth of statistical data. Jenny B. White's Money Makes Us Relatives is a detailed study of the intertwined cultural, social, and economic aspects of the lives of women who undertake at-home contract labor in Istanbul's lower-class neighborhoods. (For further information and complete cita- tions, see Bibliography.) 145 Chapter 3. The Economy i Ferry on the Bosporus with Istanbul and the Galata Tower in the background THE TURKISH ECONOMY is being transformed in the 1990s from a state-led to a market-oriented economy. As in most economies undergoing market reforms, the process of change has caused severe internal dislocations. External economic "shocks" such as the Persian Gulf War of 1991 and the resulting United Nations (UN) embargo on Iraq have complicated the transition. The Turkish economy's ongoing and turbulent reorienta- tion has left the economy a study in contrasts. Modern indus- tries coexist with pockets of subsistence agriculture. The major cities of western Anatolia are cosmopolitan centers of industry, finance, and trade, whereas the eastern part of the country is relatively underdeveloped. Several decades of state planning followed by economic liberalization have made industry Tur- key's leading economic sector, even as most Turks continue to work on farms. Industry has undergone a fairly rapid transfor- mation as a consequence of the far-reaching market reforms implemented in the 1980s and early 1990s. Despite the reforms, however, public enterprises continue to dominate raw- materials processing and the manufacture of heavy industrial and military goods. The smaller firms that dominate the pri- vate sector produce intermediate and consumer goods for domestic and foreign markets. The services sector is perhaps the most diverse, embracing large export-oriented marketing groups and world-scale banks as well as small shops and individ- ual domestic workers. To a large extent, the last 200 years in Turkey have been marked by its rulers' attempts to transform it into a modern European industrial nation. The Ottoman Empire encoun- tered serious economic problems beginning in the eighteenth century with the imposition of unequal treaties, the capitula- tions (see Glossary), which affected trade and taxation. The tanzimat (reorganization) reforms of 1839-78, an important component of which was the reorientation of the economy toward development of an indigenous industrial base, led to deepening indebtedness to Western imperial powers by the end of the nineteenth century. This dependence on the West, which was seen as one of the main causes of Turkey's "back- wardness," created the context for the economic policy of the new republic formed in 1923. The other important influence 149 Turkey: A Country Study on the new leaders of the republic was the example of state planning in the Soviet Union. Given these influences, state planning was the route Turkey's new leaders took to modernize the country. From the 1930s until 1980, the state pursued import-substi- tution industrialization by means of public enterprises and development planning. This policy created a mixed economy in which industrial development was rapid. However, during the post-World War II period the drawbacks of excessive state intervention became ever more apparent to policy makers and the public. State enterprises, which came to account for about 40 percent of manufacturing by 1980, were often overstaffed and inefficient; their losses were a significant drain on the gov- ernment budget. State planning targets were often excessively ambitious, yet they neglected such essential sectors as agricul- ture. Concentration on import substitution deemphasized exports, resulting in chronic trade deficits and a pattern in which periods of rapid growth, financed in part by foreign bor- rowing, led to balance of payments crises that necessitated aus- terity programs. The rapid transition from an agricultural to an industrial society also produced distortions in the country's labor markets and led to unequal income distribution. As was the case in most developing countries, there was a high birth rate, which contributed to unemployment in the postwar period by causing the labor force to grow rapidly. In addition, the modernization of agriculture tended to make small farms economically nonvi- able. As a result, many rural people migrated to urban areas. Those who left farming, however, often lacked skills needed in modern industry and could find employment only in the infor- mal sector of the urban economy. Meanwhile, industrial enter- prises became more capital intensive, which increased productivity but reduced the demand for unskilled labor. At the same time, firms had trouble recruiting skilled employees. In January 1980, the Turkish government undertook a major reform program to open the Turkish economy to inter- national markets. Leading the reform was Turgut Ozal, then deputy prime minister and minister for economic affairs. Ozal became prime minister in 1983, following a three-year military regime, and served as president from 1989 until his death in 1993. Ozal's reform program included a reduced state role in the economy, a realistic exchange rate and realistic monetary policies, cutbacks on subsidies and price controls, and encour- 150 The Economy agement of exports and foreign direct investment. During its early years, the liberalization program achieved considerable success in reducing external deficits and restoring economic growth. Despite significant foreign direct investment during the 1980s and early 1990s, however, Turkey's balance of pay- ments remained burdened by an external debt of more than US$65 billion at the end of 1993. A balance of payments crisis occurred in 1994 in the aftermath of a domestic political crisis in the wake of deep divisions within the administration over economic policy and a sharp decrease in exports to Turkey's beleaguered neighbors, Iraq and Iran. This situation led to a steep fall in the Turkish lira (TL; for value of the lira — see Glos- sary) . The success of the Ozal program was predicated on develop- ing satisfactory relationships with the country's economic part- ners and continued access to export markets. Rapid development required large capital imports because domestic savings were insufficient for needed investments. Foreign inves- tors, attracted by Turkey's great economic potential and increasingly liberal economic policies, made major commit- ments to infrastructure projects during the mid-1980s. How- ever, continued high inflation, as well as memories of the political instability of the late 1970s, caused investors to hesi- tate. These insecurities were heightened after the Iraqi inva- sion of Kuwait in 1990, the rise of strong Islamist (sometimes seen as fundamentalist) parties in the early 1990s, and persis- tent macroeconomic problems. Whatever short-term difficulties Turkey faces, most observ- ers believe the country's long-term economic prospects are good. Mining and agriculture provide raw materials for indus- try, and the growing and resourceful population provides abundant labor. Turkey is one of the few countries that is self- sufficient in food; indeed it can export food to European and Middle Eastern markets. Economic reforms have led to increases in exports of processed foods, textiles, motor vehi- cles, and consumer durables. Considerable investments in tour- ism, the revitalization of banking, and upgraded transportation facilities should allow Turkey to compete in the international services market in the 1990s. Turkey has made great strides toward building close eco- nomic ties with Europe, and Turkey's leaders have promoted the country as a vital link between the industrial economies of Europe and the underdeveloped economies of the Middle East 151 Turkey: A Country Study and Central Asia. On several fronts, however, Turkey suffered a number of setbacks in the early 1990s. A critical one was the embargo on Iraq. Because of it, Turkey lost a huge export mar- ket as well as fees for allowing Iraqi oil to pass through a pipe- line on Turkish territory. In addition, Iran, a major trading partner in the 1980s, reoriented its trade directly with Europe and Asia in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Early expectations for commerce with the Central Asian countries have gone unfulfilled because of the economic and social dislocations they have suffered in breaking away from the Soviet Union. Worst of all, Turkey's political relations with Europe have dete- riorated, mainly because of human rights abuses of its Kurdish population and increasing intolerance in Europe of Turkish immigrants. As a result, Turkey's accession to the European Union (EU — see Glossary) appeared increasingly unlikely to happen as targeted in 1995, despite its having been an associ- ate member since 1963 of the EU's predecessor body, the Euro- pean Community (EC — see Glossary), and having applied for full membership in 1987. Growth and Structure of the Economy At the time of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire during World War I, the Turkish economy was underdeveloped: agri- culture depended on outmoded techniques and poor-quality livestock, and the few factories producing basic products such as sugar and flour were under foreign control. Between 1923 and 1985, the economy grew at an average annual rate of 6 per- cent. In large part as a result of government policies, a back- ward economy developed into a complex economic system producing a wide range of agricultural, industrial, and service products for both domestic and export markets. Economic Development At the birth of the republic, Turkey's industrial base was weak because Ottoman industries had been undermined by the capitulations. World War I and the War of Independence (1919-22) also had extensively disrupted the Turkish econ- omy. The loss of Ottoman territories, for example, cut off Ana- tolia from traditional markets. Agricultural output — the source of income for most of the population — had dropped sharply as peasants went to war. Even the production of wheat, Turkey's main crop, was insufficient to meet domestic demand. In addi- 152 The Economy tion, massacres and the emigration of Greeks, Armenians, and Jews, who had dominated urban economic life, caused a short- age of skilled laborers and entrepreneurs. Turkey's economy recovered remarkably once hostilities ceased. From 1923 to 1926, agricultural output rose by 87 per- cent, as agricultural production returned to prewar levels. Industry and services grew at more than 9 percent per year from 1923 to 1929; however, their share of the economy remained quite low at the end of the decade. By 1930, as a result of the world depression, external markets for Turkish agricultural exports had collapsed, causing a sharp decline in national income. The government stepped in during the early 1930s to promote economic recovery, following a doctrine known as etatism (see Glossary). Growth slowed during the worst years of the depression but between 1935 and 1939 reached 6 percent per year. During the 1940s, the economy stagnated, in large part because maintaining armed neutrality during World War II increased the country's military expendi- tures while almost entirely curtailing foreign trade. After 1950 the country suffered economic disruptions about once a decade; the most serious crisis occurred in the late 1970s. In each case, an industry-led period of rapid expansion, marked by a sharp increase in exports, resulted in a balance of payments crisis. Devaluations of the Turkish lira and austerity programs designed to dampen domestic demand for foreign goods were implemented in accordance with International Monetary Fund (IMF — see Glossary) guidelines. These mea- sures usually led to sufficient improvement in the country's external accounts to make possible the resumption of loans to Turkey by foreign creditors. Although the military interven- tions of 1960 and 1971 were prompted in part by economic dif- ficulties, after each intervention Turkish politicians boosted government spending, causing the economy to overheat. In the absence of serious structural reforms, Turkey ran chronic current account deficits usually financed by external borrow- ing that made the country's external debt rise from decade to decade, reaching by 1980 about US$16.2 billion, or more than one-quarter of annual gross domestic product (GDP — see Glos- sary). Debt-servicing costs in that year equaled 33 percent of exports of goods and services. By the late 1970s, Turkey's economy had perhaps reached its worst crisis since the fall of the Ottoman Empire. Turkish authorities had failed to take sufficient measures to adjust to 153 Turkey: A Country Study the effects of the sharp increase in world oil prices in 1973-74 and had financed the resulting deficits with short-term loans from foreign lenders. By 1979 inflation had reached triple-digit levels, unemployment had risen to about 15 percent, industry was using only half its capacity, and the government was unable to pay even the interest on foreign loans. It seemed that Turkey would be able to sustain crisis-free development only if major changes were made in the government's import-substitution approach to development. Many observers doubted the ability of Turkish politicians to carry out the needed reforms. Reforms under Ozal In January 1980, the government of Prime Minister Stiley- man Demirel (who had served as prime minister 1965-71, 1975-78, and 1979-80) began implementing a far-reaching reform program designed by then Deputy Prime Minister Tur- gut Ozal to shift Turkey's economy toward export-led growth. The Ozal strategy called for import-substitution policies to be replaced with policies designed to encourage exports that could finance imports, giving Turkey a chance to break out of the postwar pattern of alternating periods of rapid growth and deflation. With this strategy, planners hoped Turkey could experience export-led growth over the long run. The govern- ment pursued these goals by means of a comprehensive pack- age: devaluation of the Turkish lira and institution of flexible exchange rates, maintenance of positive real interest rates and tight control of the money supply and credit, elimination of most subsidies and the freeing of prices charged by state enter- prises, reform of the tax system, and encouragement of foreign investment. In July 1982, when Ozal left office, many of his reforms were placed on hold. Starting in November 1983, how- ever, when he again became prime minister, he was able to extend the liberalization program. The liberalization program overcame the balance of pay- ments crisis, reestablished Turkey's ability to borrow in interna- tional capital markets, and led to renewed economic growth. Merchandise exports grew from US$2.3 billion in 1979 to US$8.3 billion in 1985. Merchandise import growth in the same period — from US$4.8 billion to US$11.2 billion — did not keep pace with export growth and proportionately narrowed the trade deficit, although the deficit level stabilized at around US$2.5 billion. Ozal's policies had a particularly positive impact on the services account of the current account. Despite a jump 154 Atatiirk Dam, major part of Southeast Anatolian Project ( GAP) Courtesy Turkish Information Office in interest payments, from US$200 million in 1979 to US$1.4 billion in 1985, the services account accumulated a growing surplus during this period. Expanding tourist receipts and pipeline fees from Iraq were the main reasons for this improve- ment. Stabilizing the current account helped restore creditwor- thiness on international capital markets. Foreign investment, which had been negligible in the 1970s, now started to grow, although it remained modest in the mid-1980s. Also, Turkey was able to borrow on the international market, whereas in the late 1970s it could only seek assistance from the IMF and other official creditors. The reduction in public expenditures, which was at the heart of the stabilization program, slowed the economy sharply in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Real gross national product (GNP — see Glossary) declined 1.5 percent in 1979 and 1.3 per- cent in 1980. The manufacturing and services sectors felt much 155 Turkey: A Country Study of the impact of this drop in income, with the manufacturing sector operating at close to 50 percent of total capacity. As the external-payments constraint eased, the economy bounced back sharply. Between 1981 and 1985, real GNP grew 3 percent per year, led by growth in the manufacturing sector. With tight controls on workers' earnings and activities, the industrial sec- tor began drawing on unused industrial capacity and raised output by an average rate of 9.1 percent per year between 1981 and 1985. The devaluation of the lira also helped make Turkey more economically competitive. As a result, exports of manu- factures increased by an average rate of 45 percent per annum during this period. The rapid resurgence of growth and the improvement in the balance of payments were insufficient to overcome unem- ployment and inflation, which remained serious problems. The official jobless rate fell from 15 percent in 1979 to 11 percent in 1980, but, partly because of the rapid growth of the labor force, unemployment rose again, to 13 percent in 1985. Infla- tion fell to about 25 percent in the 1981-82 period, but it climbed again, to more than 30 percent in 1983 and more than 40 percent in 1984. Although inflation eased somewhat in 1985 and 1986, it remained one of the primary problems facing eco- nomic policy makers. Economic Performance in the Early 1990s Turkey benefited economically from the Iran-Iraq War (1980-88). Both Iran and Iraq became major trading partners, and Turkish business supplied both combatants, encouraged by government export credits. With limited access to the Per- sian Gulf, Iraq also came to depend heavily on Turkey for export routes for its crude oil. Iraq had financed two pipelines located next to one another from its northern Kirkuk oilfields to the Turkish Mediterranean port of Qeyhan, slightly north- west of Iskenderun. The capacity of the pipelines totaled around 1.1 million barrels per day (bpd). Not only did Turkey obtain part of its domestic supplies from the pipeline, but it was paid a sizable entrepot fee. Some sources have estimated this fee at US$300 million to US$500 million. Turkey's economy was battered by the 1991 Persian Gulf War. The UN embargo on Iraq required the ending of oil exports through the £eyhan pipelines, resulting in the loss of the pipeline fees. In addition, the economy may have lost as much as US$3 billion in trade with Iraq. Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, 156 The Economy and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) moved to compensate Turkey for these losses, however, and by 1992 the economy again began to grow rapidly. The Turkish economy again was plunged into crisis in 1994. The central government's moves in 1992 and 1993 to grant large salary increases to civil servants and to increase transfers to state enterprises enlarged the public-sector borrowing requirement to a record 17 percent of GDP in 1993. This high government spending sharply boosted domestic demand's rate of growth to 6.4 percent in 1992 and 7.6 percent in 1993. In turn, inflation rates went up, with the annual rate peaking at 73 percent in mid-1993. The resulting rise in the real exchange rate translated into increased imports and slowed the expan- sion of exports. The trade deficit rose in 1993 to US$14 billion, while the current account deficit reached US$6.3 billion, or 5.3 percent of GDP. Turkey's impressive economic performance in the 1980s won high marks from Wall Street's credit-rating agencies. In 1992 and 1993, the government used these ratings to attract funds to cover its budget deficits. International bond issues over this period amounted to US$7.5 billion. These capital flows helped maintain the overvalued exchange rate. In a mar- ket economy, a high level of government borrowing should translate into higher domestic interest rates and even possibly "crowd out" private-sector borrowers, thereby eventually slow- ing economic growth. But the government's foreign borrowing took the pressure off domestic interest rates and actually spurred more private-sector borrowing in an already over- heated economy. Sensing an easy profit opportunity during this period, commercial banks borrowed at world interest rates and lent at Turkey's higher domestic rates without fear of a depreciating currency. As a result, Turkey's foreign short-term debt rose sharply. External and internal confidence in the gov- ernment's ability to manage the impending balance of pay- ments crisis waned, compounding economic difficulties. Disputes between Prime Minister Tansu (filler (1993- ) and the Central Bank governor undermined confidence in the gov- ernment. The prime minister insisted on monetizing the fiscal deficit (selling government debt instruments to the Central Bank) rather than acceding to the Central Bank's proposal to issue more public debt in the form of government securities. The Central Bank governor resigned in August 1993 over this issue. In January 1994, international credit agencies down- 157 Turkey: A Country Study graded Turkey's debt to below investment grade. At that time, a second Central Bank governor resigned. Mounting concern over the disarray in economic policy was reflected in an accelerated "dollarization" of the economy as residents switched domestic assets into foreign-currency depos- its to protect their investments. By the end of 1994, about 50 percent of the total deposit base was held in the form of for- eign-currency deposits, up from 1 percent in 1993. The down- grading by credit-rating agencies and a lack of confidence in the government's budget deficit target of 14 percent of GDP for 1994 triggered large-scale capital flight and the collapse of the exchange rate. The government had to intervene by selling its foreign-currency reserves to staunch the decline of the Turkish lira. As a result, reserves fell from US$6.3 billion at the end of 1993 to US$3 billion by the end of March 1994. Before the end of April, when the government was forced to announce a long-overdue austerity program following the March 1994 local elections, the lira had plummeted by 76 per- cent from the end of 1993 to TL41,000 against the United States dollar. The package of measures announced by the government on April 5, 1994, was also submitted to the IMF as part of its request for a US$740 million standby facility beginning in July 1994. Measures included a sharp increase in prices the public- sector enterprises would charge the public, decreases in bud- getary expenditures, a commitment to raise taxes, and a pledge to accelerate privatization of state economic enterprises (SEEs). Some observers questioned the credibility of these measures, given that the tax measures translated into a revenue increase equivalent to 4 percent of GDP and the expenditure cuts were equivalent to 6 percent of GDP. The government actually succeeded in generating a small surplus in the budget during the second quarter of 1994, mainly as a result of higher taxes, after running a deficit of 17 percent of GDP in the first quarter. The slowdown in govern- ment spending, a sharp loss in business confidence, and the resulting decline in economic activity reduced tax revenues, however. The fiscal crisis resulted in a decline in real GDP of 5 percent in 1994 after the economy had grown briskly in 1992 and 1993. Real wages also fell in 1994: average nominal wage increases of 65 percent were about 20 percent below the rate of consumer price inflation. 158 The Economy Analysts pointed out that despite the fragility of the macro- economic adjustment process and the susceptibility of fiscal policy to political pressures, the government continued to be subject to market checks and balances. Combined with a stron- ger private sector, particularly on the export front, the econ- omy was expected to bounce back to a pattern of faster growth. Structure of the Economy In the years after World War II, the economy became capa- ble of supplying a much broader range of goods and services. By 1994 the industrial sector accounted for just under 40 per- cent of GDP, having surpassed agriculture (including forestry and fishing), which contributed about 16 percent of produc- tion. The rapid shift in industry's relative importance resulted from government policies in effect since the 1930s favoring industrialization (see fig. 8). In the early 1990s, the govern- ment aimed at continued increases in industry's share of the economy, especially by means of export promotion. Services increased from a small fraction of the economy in the 1920s to just under half of GDP by 1994. Several factors accounted for the growth of the services sector. Government— already sizable under the Ottomans — expanded as defense expenditures rose; health, education, and welfare programs were implemented; and the government work force was increased to staff the numerous new public organizations. Trade, tourism, transportation, and financial services also became more important as the economy developed and diver- sified. Human Resources and Trade Unions In the early 1990s, Turkey suffered from serious structural unemployment, although the country continued to lack skilled workers and managers. The number of people engaged in sub- sistence agriculture and in informal labor complicated efforts to make accurate estimates of unemployment and underem- ployment. In the absence of direct surveys, available statistical data only broadly indicated trends in labor markets (see table 5, Appendix A). In 1992 the civilian labor force totaled almost 18.5 million; the government estimated that unemployment was about 8.7 percent, but unofficial sources put it at 15 per- cent for 1993. In a study, the State Institute of Statistics esti- mated that unemployment in urban areas among those aged 159 Turkey: A Country Study GDP 1985 ■ TL25,770 MILLION 1 OTHER SERVICES CONSTRUCTION 3.9% 1 Current prices; for value of the Turkish lira — see Glossary. 2 Agriculture includes forestry and fishing, industry includes mining, utilities, and manufacturing, transportation includes communications. Figure 8. Structure of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 1985 and 1993 160 The Economy fifteen to twenty-four was 30.2 percent. According to official figures for 1992, about 44 percent of those employed worked in agriculture — down from more than 75 percent in the early 1960s. Employment in industry and construction amounted to about 20 percent in 1994, and the services sector employed about 35 percent. During the postwar period, as agriculture modernized and grew more productive, many agricultural workers became redundant. Many now-jobless farmers, attracted by higher wages in the urban economy, migrated to the cities. Although industry and services grew rapidly after 1950, these sectors did not create enough jobs to meet the demand. Demographic trends portend continued unemployment problems. Population growth rates declined somewhat after the 1970s, but in the mid-1990s demographers were predicting that the active population (those between fifteen and sixty-four years of age) would increase at more than 2 percent per year until at least 2000. The labor force grew at an estimated aver- age annual rate of 2 percent during the 1960s and 1970s, at 1.5 to 2.0 percent during the early 1980s, and at 2.2 percent per year from 1985 to 1992. The several austerity programs since 1980 exacerbated the unemployment situation in the mid- 1980s, with an estimated 3 million Turks unemployed in 1985. The recovery of the economy in the late 1980s appeared to improve the overall situation; manufacturing employment increased 3.4 percent per year. However, the economic crisis of early 1994 and the austerity program once again were expected to slow employment growth. The labor force would have grown even faster during the 1970s and 1980s had it not been for a fall in the work force par- ticipation rate from about 73 percent in the 1970s to 35 per- cent in the early 1990s. This decline resulted from increased enrollments in secondary and postsecondary education and from the tendency of rural women who migrated to the city to refrain from entering the work force. Most demographers believed that participation rates would continue to fall as a result of higher overall school and female education rates. By 1991 the secondary school enrollment ratios, particularly for females, lagged significantly behind primary school enrollment ratios, implying room for higher future enrollment. Even if participation rates continue to fall, however, projected popula- tion growth rates will make unemployment a continuing prob- lem. 161 Turkey: A Country Study Unemployment has caused distortions in rural and urban labor markets. Many farmers have remained on unproductive farms to avoid more uncertain fates in the cities. In addition, the large postwar increase in employment in the services sector probably reflects wide-scale underemployment, as unemployed persons resort to working as street vendors and domestic work- ers. The largest groups of the unemployed include educated youths from urban areas, migrants dislocated from the villages and living in shantytowns, and Turks returning from working abroad. Emigration has provided a partial safety valve for excess labor, especially during the period between 1969 and 1973, when more than 100,000 workers left each year to seek jobs abroad. The capital-intensive, labor-short countries of north- western Europe began recruiting workers from southern Europe and the Mediterranean basin in the 1950s. Turkish workers began emigrating to Western Europe in large numbers in the early 1960s, as the demand for labor increased in north- ern Europe and as the supply from southern Italy dried up because of increased domestic demand. Although Turks worked in many European counties, most went to the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany). Many Turkish workers also went to France, Austria, and the Netherlands. The number of Turkish workers going abroad peaked near 136,000 in 1973. The oil shock of that year and the 1974-75 recession led to restrictions on new guest workers throughout Western Europe, including a ban in West Germany. These measures caused a sharp decline in Turkish emigration to Western Europe — which averaged only 18,000 per year from 1974 to 1980 — and became an important issue between Turkey and the European Community. Despite the restrictions, in 1981 there were still about 1 million Turkish workers in Western Europe, half of them in West Germany. After the unification of Germany in 1989, pressure mounted to return so-called foreign workers to their home countries even though many had been born in Europe. High unemploy- ment rates, especially in eastern Germany, spurred neo-Nazi political parties to agitate for forced repatriation, and some groups used violence against immigrants. In one celebrated case in Rostock, members of a Turkish family were burned to death in their own home. Other European states also witnessed a rise in hostility toward guest workers, including Turks. In 162 The Economy France, the National Front Party, led by Jean-Marie Le Pen, gained much support for its anti-immigrant stance. After 1975 Turkish workers went more often to Arab oil states than to Western Europe. Each year from 1980 through 1982, more than 24,000 workers went to Libya and more than 10,000 to Saudi Arabia. During the same period, a yearly aver- age of only 370 Turkish workers went to West Germany. By 1982 about 150,000 Turks were employed in Saudi Arabia, Libya, and the small Arabian Peninsula states. However, eco- nomic difficulties faced by oil-producing states in the mid- and late 1980s reduced opportunities for further Turkish emigra- tion. In general, the Turkish government has looked favorably on worker emigration, despite concerns that skilled workers are being lost because it is better-educated Turks who tend to emi- grate. In 1994 an estimated 1.1 million Turkish workers were in Western Europe, of whom about 750,000 were in Germany. More than 200,000 were in Middle Eastern countries. Workers in Europe usually stay abroad several years, remitting funds to relatives in Turkey. Most eventually return with their accumu- lated savings to start a small business or buy a farm. Turks work- ing in the Middle East, in contrast, tend to work for Turkish construction firms and typically return after each project is completed; these workers tend to remit a larger share of earn- ings to their families. The flow of workers' remittances became financially significant after 1965, when they reached the equiv- alent of US$70 million. By the early 1990s, this figure had reached US$3 billion per year. Like most developing countries, Turkey lacks an adequate number of trained and skilled personnel. In the early 1990s, the demand for educated and skilled workers exceeded the limited number of technically and scientifically trained gradu- ates. Trade unions play an important role with reference to labor in the more modern sectors of the economy. Most agricultural and service workers do not belong to unions, but a substantial part of the industrial labor force in larger enterprises and some workers in other sectors, such as transportation, trade, and finance, are unionized; public-sector workers are the most likely to join a union. In the 1960s and 1970s, the wage and benefit gains of unionized workers exerted a positive influence on the income levels of nonunionized workers. After the 1980s, however, the labor movement weakened. Not only are unions 163 Turkey: A Country Study smaller in terms of membership — Ministry of Labor and Social Security figures for 1985 suggested that unions included about 1.8 million workers, or about 10 percent of the civilian work force — but severe limits on their activities have kept them polit- ically weak. As a result, during the 1980s organized labor suf- fered large cuts in real earnings. By the mid-1970s, Turkey had about 800 unions, many of which had memberships in the hundreds. Few were what might be called nationwide unions; several had extensive member- ship in a particular industry, which gave them a leverage that most unions lacked. Many unions joined national federations to exert more influence. Before the 1980 coup, four main trade union federations with differing political orientations dominated the labor scene. The main union organization, the Confederation of Turkish Trade Unions (Turkiye Isci Sendikalari Konfederasyonu — Turk-Is) was politically moder- ate, adhering to legal limits on its activities. The other major union group, the Confederation of Revolutionary Workers' Trade Unions of Turkey (Turkiye Devrimci Isci Sendikalari Konfederasyonu — DISK), originated from a faction of Turk-Is in 1967. DISK was much smaller than Turk-Is but more mili- tant. In addition, small numbers of workers belonged to the pro-Islamist Confederation of Turkish Just Workers' Unions (Turkiye Hak Isci Sendikalari Konfederasyonu — Hak-Is) and the right-wing Confederation of Turkish Nationalist Workers' Unions (Turkiye Milliyetci Isci Sendikalari Konfederasyonu — MISK). After the 1980 coup, all union federations except Turk- Is were banned for a period. Subsequently, the government allowed the other union groups to resume their activities. Figures on trade union membership vary, but Ministry of Labor statistics at least give an idea of the relative sizes of the unions. According to this source, in 1992 Turk-Is had a mem- bership of about 1.7 million, Hak-Is had about 330,000 mem- bers, and DISK had about 26,000 members. In addition, Turkey had twenty-four independent unions that did not belong to federations. The size of their memberships was uncertain in early 1995, but organized labor totaled almost 2.2 million workers in 1992. Workers could legally belong to more than one union, which explains some of the confusion sur- rounding membership statistics. Established in 1952, Turk-Is includes many workers employed in SEEs and was the only union group actively involved in large-scale collective bargaining in the early 1990s. 164 The Economy Strongly centralized, Turk-Is is dominated by a few large, con- servative unions; the social democratic unions that figure among its thirty affiliates have little say in federation affairs. In adherence to the law, Turk-Is has remained technically aloof from party politics but is interested in issues affecting labor. Turk-Is is affiliated with the American Federation of Labor- Congress of Industrial Organizations through its membership in the Asian-American Free Labor Institute, which provides training for union leaders. Since 1980 Turk-Is has generally refrained from calling strikes, perhaps because of fears that labor conflicts might lead to layoffs of surplus SEE personnel. Against a background of growing labor unrest in 1994, related to deepening economic problems, budget cuts, and privatization, Turk-Is coordinated wage talks with the govern- ment at the end of the year. Although accused of earlier and questionable cooperation with the government, Turk-Is faced widespread pressure from affiliated unions and their members not to agree to the increase the government was offering. Both DISK and Hak-Is had strongly opposed a pay increase of 102 percent for the Turk-Is-affiliated Teksif union at the end of 1994 on the grounds that the size of the pay increase did not meet the much higher inflation rates and the agreement was co-op tive. DISK, Tiirk-Is's chief rival, draws its members primarily from the private sector and from municipal workers. In the mid- 1990s, it seemed that supporters of left-wing unions such as DISK were shifting to Islamist-oriented ones. Nonetheless, DISK-af filiated unions continued to exert some influence as part of overall labor pressure to maintain wage and employ- ment levels. Before 1980 Hak-Is was reportedly tied to the pro-Islamic National Salvation Party (Milli Selamet Partisi — MSP), whereas MISK supported the Nationalist Action Party (Milliyetci Hareket Partisi — MHP). In 1980 the two federations claimed memberships of 68,000 and 290,000, respectively. After 1984 they played only a minor role in collective bargaining because they lacked sufficient membership to be considered represen- tative under new labor legislation. The 1980 military intervention severely restricted trade union activities. The 1982 constitution and the laws on union organization, collective bargaining, strikes, and lockouts passed in 1983 have made Turkey's unions the most tightly controlled in noncommunist Europe. To have the right to represent the 165 Turkey: A Country Study workers at a given facility, unions must prove that they have the support of at least 10 percent of union membership within the industry and a majority at the particular workplace. Political and general strikes and many forms of industrial action, includ- ing secondary strikes, work slowdowns, and picketing, are pro- hibited. About half of the unionized workers, including those in the gas, water, electricity, mining, and petroleum industries as well as those in banking, urban transit, garbage collection and firefighting, are allowed to strike. Strikes can be called only after a written announcement to the government, which may require a ninety-day cooling-off period followed by compulsory arbitration. Workers who strike illegally may be punished with as much as eighteen months in prison, and those who partici- pate in such strikes can be fired, with the loss of all accumu- lated financial claims, including pensions. Following the 1980 coup, the military government prohib- ited collective bargaining until May 1984, after which time offi- cials continued trying to restrain wage settlements in order to limit inflation. Although private-sector wage settlements in 1984 and 1985 included increases ranging from 25 to 60 per- cent, pay adjustments generally continued to run behind the inflation rate, resulting in declines in real wages. The govern- ment took a more relaxed attitude in the late 1980s, but by 1994 the authorities were once again using antistrike regula- tions from the early 1980s to stop strikes and other job actions. In the public sector, the government has been even more successful at holding the line against wage increases, although large increases in 1992-93 led to a sharp jump in government expenditures. With a limited endorsement by the IMF, govern- ment employees' wages were targeted as the primary means of achieving budget cuts in 1994 and early 1995. As part of this strategy, Prime Minister (filler attempted to use illegal strikes as a pretext for liquidating certain public enterprises; unionized workers also would be notified that there were plenty of unem- ployed people willing to do their jobs for lower pay. In early 1995, unions for public-sector workers outside the public enter- prises faced the possibility of being abolished altogether. Also, seasonal workers with part-time jobs working on village roads, irrigation projects, and other infrastructure components were to be placed under the authority of provincial authorities, an arrangement that would cost them their labor rights. People employed with "worker" status, who therefore had certain rights under the law, were reclassified as "public servants" with 166 The Economy no right to bargain collectively or to strike. Members of this group fared badly in the mid-1990s, with declining wages accompanying their loss of rights. Role of Government in the Economy The Ottoman Empire established a strong tradition of gov- ernment direction of the economy. Ottoman economic doc- trine ascribed to the state both the right and the duty to control the economy for the common good. The state con- trolled a large proportion of the land and suppressed power centers, blocking the development of a landed aristocracy. One's position in the imperial hierarchy was the primary deter- minant of income. Because the sultan confiscated his function- aries' wealth when they died, status could be passed on only by means of education. For example, candidates for positions in the bureaucracy were required to have command of the Otto- man language. Peasants and artisans also claimed and received protection from the state, often at the expense of economic modernization. The bureaucracy had little interest in eco- nomic growth, which might lead to the rise of a new class that would challenge its dominance. To ensure control of certain urban-based production and service functions, they were reserved for minority groups. Republican Turkey inherited attitudes and memories from the Ottomans that continue to play a key role in the country's political economy in the late twentieth century. Republican leaders believe that the state has a duty to intervene in the economy, not only to strengthen the nation against foreign intervention but ultimately to further the well-being of the peo- ple. Liberal Interlude Scholars traditionally have stressed the significance of state intervention in the economy during the early years of the republic, but more recent research indicates that Turkish eco- nomic policy was relatively liberal until the 1930s. The govern- ment made significant investments in railroad and other infrastructure projects, but the Law for the Encouragement of Industry of 192V and other measures encouraged private enter- prise. Moreover, Turkey's economy was relatively open to inter- national markets during the 1920s. Under the provisions of the Treaty of Lausanne of 1923, the capitulations were abolished, 167 Turkey: A Country Study but Turkey could not introduce protective tariffs until August 1929. As a result, tariffs remained low, and the Turkish lira was convertible and floating. Foreign interests invested in both public and private enterprises, helping to initiate industrial development. During these early years, economic growth was satisfactory, but the country ran chronic foreign trade deficits despite the continued fall in the value of the lira. Turkish economic development reached a turning point with the Great Depression. By 1930 foreign markets for Turkish agricultural products had collapsed, causing sharp declines in the prices of agricultural goods and a corresponding decline in national income. Dissatisfied with the slow development of industry, Turkey's leaders began to look for alternative policies. During the late 1920s and the early 1930s, economic and politi- cal thinkers discussed alternative approaches to national eco- nomic development. The interventionist trend in Western economic thinking, represented by works such as John May- nard Keynes's The End of Laissez-Faire (1926), influenced the theoretical debate. The apparent successes of the Soviet Union's drive to develop heavy industry under its First Five-Year Plan (1928-33) also impressed Turkish thinkers, although in the end Turkish policy borrowed primarily from the West. Etatism At its 1931 congress, the Republican People's Party (Cum- huriyet Halk Partisi — CHP) adopted etatism, one of Ataturk's Six Arrows, as its official economic strategy. According to this program, individual enterprise was to retain a fundamental role in the economy, but active government intervention was necessary to boost the nation's welfare and the state's prosper- ity. The CHP also declared that etatism was an intermediate road between capitalism and socialism. In practice, etatism entailed the promotion of industrialization by means of five- year plans and the creation of public enterprises. Comprehen- sive protective tariffs also were introduced during the 1930s, establishing a pattern of import-substitution industrialization that would continue for many years. After World War II, all major parties claimed to support etat- ism. The sharp reorientation of Turkey's economic policies after 1980 included a repudiation of much etatist doctrine, which, however, still influenced Turkish economic thinking. Inasmuch as Ataturk had declared that once Turkey had reached a satisfactory level of development certain state enter- 168 The Economy prises could be returned to private control, the post-1980s eco- nomic reforms perhaps could be considered a continuation of one aspect of the original etatist program. Moreover, the gov- ernment continued to use policy tools such as SEEs and devel- opment planning that had originated during the etatist period. Nonetheless, by the mid-1990s deepening government indebt- edness dictated a faster reduction of the state's economic com- mitments. Given Turkey's high inflation, job insecurity, and unemployment, etatism could be in vogue again, but in the mid-1990s no major opposition party was calling for the whole- sale renationalization of the economy. . State Economic Enterprises and Privatization An important tool of etatism to further government eco- nomic policies, State Economic Enterprises (SEEs) are vari- ously organized, but the government owns at least a 50 percent share in each of them. SEEs are set up by the government, and each has a board that reflects the ownership of the particular SEE, combining government representatives, who direct the enterprise, with private interests. During the etatist industrial- ization campaign of the 1930s, the government set up many industrial SEEs. In the mid-1990s, SEEs continue to dominate sectors considered to be of national importance or sectors where private investors have hesitated to invest because capital requirements are too great in light of expected returns. SEEs include national transportation, communications, and energy enterprises; banks that own companies, in particular branches such as textiles or refining; and conglomerates with holdings in many fields. Some SEEs control companies in which ownership is shared with private and foreign investors. In 1964 the State Investment Bank was established to provide long-term invest- ment credits to SEEs. Credits from the Central Bank of Turkey, transfers from the Treasury, and capital markets also finance SEEs. In the mid-1990s, SEEs accounted for more than 40 percent of value added in manufacturing and employed about 550,000 workers, or about 20 percent of the industrial work force. Until 1980 SEEs set their prices in accordance with government directives, but after the introduction of that year's reform pack- age, they were expected to set prices independently. Neverthe- less, prices of some major commodities, such as fertilizers, continue to be determined by the government. SEEs also influ- 169 Turkey: A Country Study ence markets, especially those for agricultural goods, by estab- lishing guaranteed minimum prices for commodities. Aside from their role in industrial development, SEEs are charged with social goals. The farm-support program stabilizes farmers' incomes, while low consumer prices for food, energy, and transportation help the urban poor. SEEs also provide training and employ surplus university graduates and constitu- ents of influential politicians, contributing to overstaffing. Some SEEs are placed in underdeveloped regions to spur industrial development, a practice that increases transporta- tion and infrastructure costs. One objective of the Ozal reforms was to improve SEEs' effi- ciency and reduce their need for subsidies. By 1982 the govern- ment had freed most SEE prices and had given SEE managers greater autonomy and responsibility. The administration favored opening state monopolies to outside competition and decided in 1983 to limit SEE investments in manufacturing. Nevertheless, in the mid-1980s the state sector had to take over several failed banks that had significant industrial holdings, and the low rate of private investment meant that the public share in industrial investment actually rose. By the mid-1990s, SEEs remained a major burden on the public exchequer. Of the fifty SEEs, only fifteen were expected to report profits in 1994. Funding the operating losses of the SEEs — TL90 trillion in 1994 alone — annually cost the Treasury around TL20 tril- lion (about US$70 billion) in 1993 and 1994; the remainder was borrowed from banks. The total debt stock of the public enterprises by late 1994 was estimated at TL250 trillion, the bulk of which was owed to the Treasury and Central Bank. This debt generated an interest charge of around TL60 trillion in 1994 alone on collective sales of TL550 trillion. Deepening eco- nomic problems in the 1990s were part of the reason for the losses. This situation was exacerbated by a requirement that took effect after 1989 stipulating that SEEs borrow at high mar- ket rates. Major plans for privatization of SEEs were supposed to go into effect as early as 1987 but as of early 1995 had not yet occurred. Prime candidates for sale include the state airline, the cement industry, and the textile industry. Almost all SEEs are considered potentially suitable for privatization except for certain infrastructure facilities such as power plants and rail- roads. 170 The Economy Some SEE managers and unions oppose privatization, fear- ing that, once under private management, the enterprises will eliminate unprofitable subsidiaries or aggressively reduce over- staffing. Some opposition parties also fear that public assets will be allocated among "friends" of government officials, with the result being the creation of private monopolies. Observers anticipate that certain "strategic" industries, including much mining and defense production, will remain in the public sec- tor and that the best the administration can hope for would be to force them to approximate private- sector practices. More- over, certain privatization moves, particularly the sale of cement mills belonging to the public enterprise Citosan, and a controlling stake in the airport management company Havas, were reversed by the Constitutional Court on administrative grounds. After becoming prime minister, (filler accepted the existing legislation on privatization and even sought wider powers to hasten the process. Law 3291, passed in 1986, had established the Public Participation Administration, which would control SEEs designated for privatization and prepare them for the process. In late 1994, the National Assembly passed a bill intro- duced by (filler to revamp the administrative procedures deal- ing with privatization. The bill established the Privatization Administration to carry out technical work and a Privatization High Board to make final decisions. The latter would control the Privatization Fund into which revenues were to be channeled. The Privatiza- tion High Board would consist of the prime minister, the minis- ter of state "responsible for privatization," and the ministers of finance and industry and trade. The board was also to be responsible for deciding which public enterprises are of special strategic importance and in which the state should retain pref- erence shares. Turkish Petroleum, Ziraat Bank, Halk Bank, Turkish Airlines, and the Soil Products Office Alkaloid Plant were placed in the latter category. Railroads, airports, and the General Management for Trade in Tobacco, Tobacco Products, and Alcoholic Spirits (Tiitun, Tiitun Mamulleri, Tuz ve Alkol Isletmeleri Genel Mudurlugii — TEKEL) were not designated to be privatized in the mid-1990s. Privatization of telecommuni- cations and the electricity production and distribution board were to be dealt with in separate legislation. All other types of SEEs were again targeted for privatization in various ways, including the sale of all or parts of a company through share 171 Turkey: A Country Study offers, block sales, auctions, and the transfer of plants to pri- vate domestic and foreign entities and to companies formed by workers and local townspeople. Some of the early candidates were the Eregli Iron and Steelworks, the Turkish Petroleum Refineries Corporation (Ttirkiye Petrol Refinerileri As — TUPRAS), the state oil products distributor (Petrol Ofisi), the petrochemicals company (Petkim), the industrial interests of the state holding company, Sumerbank, the national airline (Turkish Airlines), and the airport company (Havas). The bill also set guidelines to prevent the formation of private monopo- lies and methods for dealing with workers who lose their jobs. Workers made redundant would continue to receive their wages for up to eight months and, depending on length of ser- vice, would get pensions or severance pay. Development Planning Turkey first introduced five-year plans in the 1930s as part of the etatist industrialization drive. The first five-year plan began in 1934. A second plan was drafted but only partially imple- mented because of World War II. These early plans were largely lists of desirable projects, but they provided guidance for the development of infrastructure, mining, and manufacturing. During the 1950s, the Democrat Party (DP) eliminated central economic planning, but the 1961 constitution made social and economic planning a state duty. In 1961 the government estab- lished the State Planning Organization (SPO), which was given responsibility for preparing long-term and annual plans, fol- lowing up on plan implementation, and advising on current economic policy. The SPO comes under the prime minister's office and receives policy direction from the High Planning Council (also seen as the Supreme Planning Council), which is chaired by the prime minister and includes cabinet ministers. The Central Planning Organization, the secretariat of the High Planning Council, formulates the strategy and broad targets on which the SPO bases detailed plans. Plan targets are binding for the public sector but only indicative for private enterprises. SPO plans include — in addition to investment levels — mac- roeconomic targets, social goals, and policy recommendations for individual subsectors of the economy. Turkey was one of the first countries to develop regional planning, a major challenge given the limited development of eastern and southeastern Anatolia. The SPO has approached planning from a long-term perspective and drew up the First Five- Year Plan (1963-67) and 172 The Economy the Second Five-Year Plan (1968-72) in the context of what should be accomplished by the mid-1970s. Similarly, develop- ment goals for 1995, including a customs union with the EC, were set in the Third Five-Year Plan (1973-77) and the Fourth Five-Year Plan (1979-83). Successive plans took stock of prob- lems and previous accomplishments, but many policy sugges- tions were never effectively implemented. Early plans were heavily weighted toward manufacturing, import substitution, and the intermediate goods sector. The economic and political disorder of the late 1970s, however, made it impossible to achieve plan targets. After the 1980 coup, the Fourth Five-Year Plan was modified to favor the private sec- tor, labor-intensive and export-oriented projects, and invest- ments that would pay for themselves relatively quickly. The Ozal administration delayed the Fifth Five-Year Plan (1984-89) for one year to take account of the structural reform program introduced in 1983. Unlike earlier plans, the Fifth Five-Year Plan called for a smaller state sector. According to the plan, the state would take more of a general supervisory role than it had in the past, concentrating on encouraging private economic actors. Nevertheless, the state was to continue an aggressive program of infrastructure investments to clear bottlenecks in energy, transport, and other sectors. In May 1989, the government published the 1990-95 Devel- opment Plan. The plan called for overall economic growth of 7 percent per year. The growth of private-sector investment was targeted at an average of 11 percent per year, whereas the aim was to increase exports 15 percent per year. The inflation rate was targeted at 10 percent per year. As it developed, although high growth rates were maintained during the 1990-95 period, they came at the cost of increased foreign and domestic bor- rowing, which funded an inflationary government budgetary and monetary policy. Rapid rates of growth also were boosted by foreign direct investment. Excessive borrowing and domes- tic political problems led to a balance of payments crisis that sharply reduced domestic investment rates and ultimately led to a decline in incomes. Whereas the development plan had called for high growth rates and macroeconomic stability, Tur- key actually has experienced high growth rates and macroeco- nomic instability. Budget Public-sector spending is the most important means of state 173 Turkey: A Country Study intervention in the Turkish economy. The consolidated gov- ernment budget comprises central government spending and a number of annexed budgets of such partially autonomous enti- ties as the State Highway Administration, state monopolies, and some universities and academies. Local budgets and most SEE budgets generally are not included in the consolidated budget, nor are special and extrabudgetary funds. The most important of the latter are the Mass Housing Fund, financed from luxury- import duties; the Defense Industry Support Fund, financed from levies on sales of gasoline, cigarettes, and alcoholic bever- ages; and the Public Revenue Sharing Schemes Fund. The par- tially autonomous organizations are included in the calculations for the public-sector borrowing requirement (PSBR). Since 1983 the Treasury, under the direct control of the prime minister's office, has had sole responsibility to raise domestic tax revenues. The Ministry of Finance and the SPO are mainly responsible for planning spending policies, but the minister of finance presents the annual budget to parliament, which approves the annual government budget and legislates supplementary appropriations as required during the fiscal year, at times making significant modifications. Turkish governments have persistently run large budget deficits, which have fueled inflation, capital flight, and heavy foreign and domestic borrowing. At the heart of this problem is the political system, which tends to be largely unrepresenta- tive even when democracy is formally operating. Prior to major elections, governments have been prone to boost spending, particularly salaries for government workers. Despite recent modest changes to this system, Turkish governments have been averse to increasing taxes to pay for their high spending. Taxes, excluding social security contributions, are still around 20 per- cent of GNP — the lowest figure among the member countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Develop- ment. Prior to 1980, local administrations had limited revenue- earning power and depended heavily on funds transferred from the central government. Even with such transfers, local governments were often short of funds needed to provide ser- vices required during a period of rapid urbanization when many city dwellers lacked even the most basic services. After 1980 reforms significantly strengthened the revenue base of municipalities, in part by providing that 5 percent of govern- 174 The Economy ment tax revenues would be withheld at the local level. In 1994 (filler also attempted to increase the revenues that local gov- ernments might raise. During the early and mid-1980s, the government made seri- ous attempts to reduce Turkey's inflationary budget deficits, implementing policies to streamline government, improve public resources allocation, and modernize the tax system. The government, for example, designed tax reforms to increase rev- enues and to reduce inequities. In addition, the introduction of a lump sum tax on small businesses and a new system of income tax payments for self-employed people reduced tax evasion. The government also started to tax farmers' incomes systematically for the first time since the 1920s. Other reforms strengthened tax administration, established new tax courts, and instituted heavier penalties for tax evasion. Overall, the consolidated budget deficit declined during the 1980s as a result of the reform measures. During the decade, the deficit averaged 3 percent of GNP. However, the deficit went up in the 1990s, reaching 7.4 percent in 1991, 6.1 percent in 1992, 9.8 percent in 1993, and 8 percent in 1994 (see table 6, Appendix A). The 1994 figure includes a first-quarter budget deficit of 17 percent, which was sharply offset in subsequent quarters after the promulgation of the April 5 measures and tight supervision by the IMF. These measures more than reversed some of the increases in wages and other spending made in 1992 and 1993. Public-sector borrowing requirements have been much higher as a percentage of GNP. After averag- ing around 6 percent during the 1980s, they ranged from about 10 to 17 percent in the 1990s. Agriculture Agriculture — the occupation of the majority of Turks — con- tinued to be a crucial sector of the economy in the mid-1990s, although industrial production was rising. Turkey's fertile soil and hard-working farmers make the country one of the few in the world that is self-sufficient in terms of food. Turkey's great variety of microclimates and adequate rainfall permit a broad range of crops. Farming is conducted throughout the country, although it is less common in the mountainous eastern regions, where animal husbandry is the principal activity. In the mid-1990s, crop cultivation accounted for about two-thirds and livestock for one-third of the gross value of agricultural 175 Turkey: A Country Study production; forestry and fishing combined contributed a mini- mal amount. Agriculture's share in overall income has fallen progres- sively, declining from almost 50 percent of GDP in 1950 to around 15 percent of GDP by 1993. During the same period, the sector grew only about 1 percent faster than the country's population, and per capita food production declined in abso- lute terms. The relatively poor showing of the agricultural sec- tor reflected in part government policies that had made rapid industrialization a national priority since the 1930s. In addi- tion, farmers were slow to adopt modern techniques, with agri- cultural output suffering from insufficient mechanization, limited use of fertilizer, excessive fallow land, and unexploited water resources. The result has been low yields. Despite agriculture's relative decline in the 1980s as a per- centage of GDP, the sector played an important role in foreign trade. Turkey enjoys a comparative advantage in many agricul- tural products and exports cereals, pulses, industrial crops, sugar, nuts, fresh and dried fruits, vegetables, olive oil, and live- stock products. The main export markets are the European Union and the United States — to which Turkey primarily exports dried fruit and nuts, cotton, and tobacco — and the Middle East, which primarily imports fresh fruit, vegetables, and meat from Turkey. As late as 1980, agricultural exports accounted for nearly 60 percent of the total value of exports. In the early 1990s, agricultural products accounted for 15 percent of total exports. Around 50 percent of manufactured exports originate in the agricultural sector; counting these exports, the agricultural sector's contribution to exports again would rise to around 60 percent. Agriculture has great potential for further development, provided that the state can implement successful agrarian reforms and development projects. Observers believe that to achieve balanced growth, Turkey needs to improve the training of farmers, make better seed available, upgrade livestock herds, standardize products, expand food-processing facilities (including cold storage and refrigerated transport), and reor- ganize marketing networks. Since 1980 the government has encouraged investments in packaging, processing, livestock, and slaughterhouses, and has imported new seed varieties. These efforts had a modest impact on overall production by the mid-1990s. 176 Irrigation of an olive grove in the Izmit area Courtesy Hermine Drey fuss Tea plantation nearArtvin, northeastern Turkey; olives and tea are major Turkish crops. Courtesy Hermine Dreyfus s The failure to exploit the country's great agricultural poten- tial has contributed to Turkey's periodic economic crises and poses serious problems for future development. Glaring ine- qualities of income between urban and rural residents — and among segments of the farm population — have created social tensions and contributed to emigration from rural to urban areas. Malnutrition continues to threaten segments of the rural population, especially children. The Kurdish insurgency in eastern Turkey has added to problems in some rural areas. Ris- ing incomes in the urban areas have caused increased demand for more "exotic" foodstuffs, especially meat and poultry. Since 1984 Turkey has liberalized its policy on food imports, partly to meet this urban demand and partly to offset domestic price pressure. Many previously banned luxury food imports and imports that compete with domestically produced staples are permitted for these reasons; in turn, the growth of these 177 Turkey: A Country Study imports has contributed to pressures on foreign trade accounts. Overall, agricultural output needs to expand along with the rest of the economy to maintain adequate supplies for industry and exports. Longer-term economic growth prospects and macroeconomic stability, therefore, depend on the perfor- mance of Turkey's agricultural sector and rural incomes. Agricultural Policy By 1980 Turkey was self-sufficient in food, and agricultural output was growing at a respectable rate, albeit more slowly than the economy as a whole. Starting in the early 1970s, crop intensification resulted from a reduction of fallow areas and increased use of fertilizer, fuel, and pesticides. The livestock industry, however, showed little improvement in productivity, and the later years of the decade saw the stagnation of all agri- culture. Although production became less dependent on the weather as a result of irrigation and high-yielding varieties of seeds, these methods required adequate supplies of fertilizers, chemicals, equipment, and fuel, much of which had to be imported. Productivity shortcomings, along with the new export-ori- ented development strategy, led to the adoption of different agricultural policies after 1980. Under the new approach, the government switched from promoting food self-sufficiency to maximizing agriculture's net contribution to the balance of trade. The incentive system was partially dismantled, fertilizer and pesticide subsidies were curtailed, and the remaining price supports were gradually converted to floor prices. The tight monetary policy limited agricultural credit, but real interest rates on loans to farmers remained negative. Nonetheless, a high proportion of defaults by farmers occurred on loans with high interest rates. In some cases, this led to the confiscation of land, tractors, or other property by the state, prompting one Turkish daily, Milliyet, to run an article entitled, "Bailiff Officer: The New Lord of the Peasants." The elimination of export licenses and minimum export prices, along with currency devaluation, an export-incentive system, and flat domestic demand, encouraged agricultural exports. In addition, a wider range of food imports was permitted, providing competition for domestic products. The government's hope of rapidly increasing agricultural exports was slow in materializing, and total values fell sharply in the mid-1980s. This decline reflected both softer demand 178 The Economy abroad (especially in the Arab oil-producing countries) and Turkey's own attempts to increase the share of agricultural products processed prior to export. Still, by the early 1990s agricultural exports had risen, with the most dramatic increase occurring in textiles and clothing, which depend on indige- nously grown cotton. Despite the turn toward liberal agricultural policies, govern- ment intervention in agriculture remained pervasive in the mid-1990s. Many of the institutions established between 1930 and 1980 continue to play important roles in the daily life of the farmer, and many old attitudes and practices remain. A large number of ministries, agencies, SEEs, and banks adminis- ter government price supports, credit measures, extension and research services, and irrigation projects. In the past, overlap- ping responsibilities and lack of coordination had often diluted the effectiveness of government activities. Some progress was made in the 1980s, however, when the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Rural Affairs reorganized its eleven departments into five general directorates. Subsequently, the ministry was divided into the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs and the Ministry of Forestry. After 1980 the government reduced budget transfers to agricultural SEEs and decreased the level of price supports, but the state still controlled most markets in the sector. Public mar- keting agencies and marketing or credit cooperatives adminis- tered prices and handled a large share of exports. Several of the SEEs involved in agricultural production had been slated for privatization in the early 1990s. The Meat and Fish Board, the Fodder Industry (Yem Sanayili), and the Milk Industry Board (SEK) were targeted for immediate privatization when they were placed under the control of the Public Participation Administration. However, officials in 1994 stated that they lacked sufficient funds to pay the sizable debts these organiza- tions had accumulated, a necessary step before privatization. Nearly all farm produce except livestock and fresh fruits and vegetables has support prices, which became more effec- tive when the ministry started announcing them in the fall, giv- ing farmers time to choose which crops would be most profitable. For most crops (except tea, sugar beets, and opium, for which the state is the only buyer), farmers can choose between selling to private buyers or to the state. Supports stabi- lize crop prices and improve aggregate farm income but add to the disparities of income between large and small farmers. Sup- 179 Turkey: A Country Study port prices grew slowly in the 1980s and did not keep up with inflation. However, in the summer of 1991, in anticipation of the forthcoming elections, Ozal's Motherland Party govern- ment raised all support prices by 60 to 70 percent. Subsequent governments under Demirel and (filler maintained increases in support prices roughly in line with the high inflation rate. During 1994, however, these increases were not maintained. In addition, the Agricultural Supply Organization provides many farm materials at subsidized prices, including fertilizers, pesti- cides, and insecticides. The Agricultural Bank of Turkey (Turkiye Cumhuriyeti Ziraat Bankasi — TCZB) provides most loans to farmers and cooperatives and closely watches agricultural credit. Although the TCZB was intended to favor small farmers in the distribu- tion of credit, its loan requirements restrict credit for the many small farmers who either rent or lack a secure title to land or other properties needed as collateral. Much of the bank's lend- ing consists of short-term loans extended to cooperatives for commodity price support. Farmers also obtain credit from mer- chants, wealthy farmers, and money lenders, often at extortion- ate interest rates. Much of the World Bank's lending for agricultural projects in Turkey is channeled through the TCZB. Agricultural extension and research services are poorly organized and generally inadequate because of shortages of qualified advisers, transportation, and equipment. Well-trained personnel willing to work in the field are difficult to find, and agricultural research is fragmented among more than ninety government and university institutes. Research is organized by commodity, with independent units for such major crops as cotton, tobacco, and citrus fruit. Observers note that coordina- tion of the efforts of different research units and links between extension services are inadequate. During the mid-1980s, the government attempted to strengthen and rationalize research and extension services, but the organizational complexity of the entities involved made reform difficult. Irrigation Getting enough water to crops is a major problem for many Turkish farmers. Rainfall tends to be relatively abundant and regular in the coastal areas because of the mountains behind them. However, the bulk of the agricultural land is on the Ana- tolian Plateau, which receives less rainfall because it is ringed by mountains. Although rainfall on the plateau varies consider- 180 The Economy ably among regions, it is barely adequate over large areas. In addition, the amount and time of rains vary sharply from year to year, causing sharp fluctuations in harvests. Since World War II, officials have stressed irrigation as a means of increasing and stabilizing farm output, and irrigation projects have consumed more than half of public investment in agriculture. In the mid-1980s, observers estimated that private irriga- tion, depending on weirs and small barrages to direct water into fields, reached up to 1 million hectares. In addition, some farmers pumped water from wells to irrigate their own fields. Development of large-scale irrigation was delayed until the 1960s. Public-sector irrigation systems, built and operated by the General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works (Devlet Su Isleri — DSI) under the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, tend to be large and costly. Most provide water for entire valleys, and some large projects — for example, the Southeast Anatolian Project (Guneydogu Anadolu Projesi — GAP) — combine water supplies for urban areas, protection from flooding, hydroelectric power, and irrigation. Irrigation projects are dispersed throughout the country, but most are concentrated in the coastal regions of the Aegean and Mediter- ranean seas, where the longer growing seasons are particularly favorable to crops. Public irrigation water was available to 3.7 million hectares in the mid-1990s, although the area irrigated with public water totaled about 3 million hectares. Deficiencies in irrigation included a serious lag between the construction of the main parts of an irrigation system and the completion of land leveling and drainage on farms. Also, crop research and farmer training were inadequate to assure the planting of suitable crops to obtain maximum yields from irri- gated land. In the late 1970s, government officials estimated that only one-third of the irrigated land was being cultivated to its full potential. Moreover, low user fees did not initially per- mit the authorities to regain their initial investments; the fees were adjusted in the 1980s, however. Major projects were planned to expand the irrigation sys- tem because government surveys had indicated that irrigation of up to 8.7 million hectares was possible. The most important project of the late 1980s and early 1990s is the GAP, which is linked with the 2,400-megawatt Atatiirk Dam on the Euphrates River and is expected to irrigate 1.7 million hectares when it is completed in 2002. The system consists of a twin-bore 24.6-kilo- meter tunnel, which will take water from the reservoir to irri- 181 Turkey: A Country Study gate the plains around Harran, Mardin, and Ceylanpinar in southeastern Turkey. In the GAP region, farmers face a six- month dry season allowing them only one cash harvest per year. Irrigation will probably enable expansion to two or even three harvests. Crop rotation, which is largely unknown in areas without irrigation, has been introduced in the GAP region. Winter vegetables are expected to alternate with cotton as the summer crop. Although wheat and pulses dominate cropping patterns, cotton could take a larger share as access to water increases. The government projects that the GAP will increase Turkish wheat production by more than 50 percent, barley by a similar figure, and the region's production of cotton by more than four times by 2005, thus increasing national cot- ton production by 60 percent. The value of food surpluses expected to result from this project is estimated at US$5 bil- lion. Land Use Turkey's land surface totals about 78 million hectares, of which roughly 48 million hectares were being used for some form of agriculture by 1991. There were almost 24.2 million hectares in field crops, of which 5.2 million lay fallow. Another 3.7 million hectares were in use as vineyards, orchards, and olive groves, and 20.2 million hectares were covered by forests and other woodlands. Other land areas accounted for about 29 million hectares; included in this figure was land classified as lakes, marshes, wasteland, and built-up areas. The "other" cate- gory also included about 9 million hectares of permanent pas- tureland. During the twentieth century, population pressure resulted in the expansion of farmland. The cultivated area increased from about 8 million hectares in the 1920s to nearly 19 million hectares in 1952 and to almost 28 million hectares by 1991. Using Marshall Plan credits that first became available in 1948, Turkey began to import large numbers of tractors, which made it feasible to expand cultivation of marginal lands, especially on the Anatolian Plateau. Although total production grew rapidly, average yields did not. By about 1970, nearly all arable land was under cultivation. Cultivation increased primarily at the expense of meadows and grasslands, which diminished from about 46 million hec- tares in the mid-1920s to about 14 million hectares in the mid- 1980s. Although cultivation of the larger area made greater 182 Pickers of sultana grapes in fields east of Izmir, western Turkey Courtesy Hermine Drey fuss Turkey: A Country Study agricultural production possible over the short run, it created long-term problems for livestock production. It also resulted in the destruction of tree cover and the plowing of marginal fields that were too steep and that received barely sufficient rainfall even in normal years. By the early 1960s, government agents were encouraging farmers to practice contour plowing and to take other measures to minimize erosion, but to little effect. By the late 1970s, more than half the country's land was judged to have serious erosion problems, and some plains regions were experiencing dust-bowl conditions. All of Turkey was affected, with the mountainous eastern provinces hit hardest. Some areas lost all topsoil and could support few plants. In the 1970s, the government conducted land-use studies and found that more than one-fifth of the land should have been used differently to achieve optimum long-term produc- tion. Misuse was greatest in rain-fed cropped fields, but some grazing land and wasteland were found better suited to other uses such as cropping and forestry. Turkey's unusually high proportion of fallow land also limited production; in 1981 the government began encouraging double cropping and the planting of feed crops on fallow fields. The government also was considering a broad land-use policy. However, reform proved difficult because of government inefficiency and the lack of alternative crops in areas cut off from markets, where farmers had little choice but to use their land to grow grain to feed their families. Expansion of the road network, irrigation facilities, and extension services continued to offer hope for eventual improvements in land use. Land Tenure From the time of Ataturk, it has been generally recognized that land reform would speed rural development. Most atten- tion focused on land redistribution — a highly charged political issue. People who favored land reform pointed to the higher yield achieved by owner-operators and attacked absentee land- lords. Opponents pointed out that land reform would not solve the difficulties of the rural population because there was insuf- ficient land to establish farms large enough to support families. Whatever the merits of land reform proposals, large landown- ers effectively blocked most action, and governments often lacked the will to implement those measures that were enacted. Moreover, landless peasants continued to migrate to the cities in sufficient numbers to reduce the pressure for reform. 184 The Economy Historically, Turkey has been a land inhabited by indepen- dent peasants. The Ottoman state restricted the growth of a landowning class; and in the early years of Ottoman rule, the central government retained ownership of most of the land, which was leased to farmers under relatively secure tenure arrangements. To maintain farms large enough to support a family and a pair of oxen, the Ottomans exempted land from Muslim inheritance policy, a practice subsequently reversed as the state reinstituted Islamic inheritance practices, sold land to gain revenues, and authorized land transfers. These changes favored the growth of a class of large landowners during the lat- ter decades of the empire. By 1923 landownership had shifted in favor of a small group with large holdings. However, during the republican period land concentration declined, a develop- ment that perhaps reflected the effects of division through inheritance or the attraction of alternative investments. At the same time, the opening of new areas to cultivation made land available to those farmers without holdings. Because no comprehensive cadastral surveys have been car- ried out, landownership data are still poor in the mid-1990s, but a general picture of ownership patterns emerges. Accord- ing to the 1980 agricultural census, about 78 percent of the farms consisted of five hectares or less and together accounted for 60 percent of farmland. About 23 percent of the farms were between five and twenty hectares in size, accounting for another 18 percent of the land. Fewer than 4 percent of the farms covered more than twenty hectares, although these occu- pied more than 15 percent of the farmland. Few farms exceeded 100 hectares. Although experts believed that land- ownership was more concentrated than data on farm size implied, it was clear that Turkey had more equal distribution of land than did many other developing countries. Some observers estimate that, despite widespread leasing and sharecropping, a majority of farms are owner operated. However, tenure patterns vary significantly among regions, reflecting different geographical conditions and historical developments. In general, Islamic inheritance practices, which establish set shares for each male and female child, cause frag- mented holdings and make leasing and sharecropping exten- sive. Joint ownership of land is common, and even very small farms normally consist of several noncontiguous plots. Farmers often rent out some of their own land while leasing or share- cropping other plots in order to till areas reasonably close 185 Turkey: A Country Study together and large enough to support their families. Owners of small plots may rent out their land and work on other farms or in town. Owners of large holdings, sometimes whole villages, usually rent out all or most of their land. Between one-tenth and one-fifth of farmers lease or sharecrop the land they till, and landless rural families also work as farm laborers. Tenancy arrangements are many and complex. Some lease- holds can be inherited, but many tenants lack sufficient secu- rity to make a long-term commitment to the soil they till. Sharecroppers generally receive about half of the crop, with the owner supplying inputs such as seed and fertilizer. Grazing rights are often held by groups rather than individuals. Many villages have common pastures open to the village herd. Culti- vated areas have expanded as individuals appropriate village pastureland to grow grains, a process that not only has caused village strife but also has worsened erosion. After 1950 the commercialization of agriculture accelerated changes in land-use and tenure patterns. Many of the large holdings on the coastal plains of the Aegean Sea and Mediter- ranean Sea were converted to modern farms, often benefiting from irrigation projects and specializing in high-value fruits, or industrial crops. Landless families supplied the labor for such modern farms, while sharecroppers and owners of small farms tilled the adjacent land. In these more fertile areas, a five-hect- are farm might produce as much income as a twenty-hectare farm in the semiarid central Anatolian Plateau. Southeastern Anatolia, one of the poorest regions of Turkey, included feu- dal-style landlords who controlled entire villages and many landless families. Although Atatiirk had stressed the need for upper and lower limits on landownership, the latter to halt the fragmenta- tion process, little in the way of effective land reform had been carried out by the early 1990s. Nevertheless, more than 3 mil- lion hectares had been distributed to landless farmers between the 1920s and 1970, most of it state land. The problems of land tenure remain, and some have wors- ened. Many farms are too small to support a family and too fragmented for efficient cultivation. Tenancy arrangements foster neither long-term soil productivity nor the welfare of tenants. In many areas, the rural poor are becoming poorer while land better suited to grazing continues to be converted to grain fields. At the same time, however, many large landhold- ings have been turned into productive modern farms that con- 186 The Economy tribute to the country's improved agricultural performance. Major irrigation projects in the Euphrates River Valley and else- where offer the prospect of increasing the supply of productive land. The declining population growth rate has reduced the pressure for land reform, and industrialization offers an alter- native for landless farm workers, who prefer city life to that of rural areas. Cropping Patterns and Production Turkey's varied ecology allows farmers to grow many crops, yet the bulk of the arable land and the greater part of the farm population traditionally have been dedicated to producing cereal crops, which supply 70 percent of Turkey's food con- sumption in terms of calories. As of 1992, cereal crops occu- pied 12.5 million hectares or more than half of the country's cultivated area. Wheat accounted for about 9 million hectares of this area, and barley for about 3 million hectares. Other grain crops include rye, millet, corn, and rice. Grains are pro- duced in most parts of the country (see fig. 9). Small or subsistence farmers produce most of Turkey's grain. Because most fields depend on rainfall, production var- ies considerably from year to year. Farmers traditionally have left grain fields fallow for a year to allow water to accumulate in the soil. Although the government encourages planting soy- beans as a secondary crop following the wheat crop, farmers have been slow to adopt the practice. The integration of forage crops into crop rotation and the elimination of fallow periods offer the possibility of increased soil fertility and moisture retention. Wheat has long been the basic food in the Turkish diet, gen- erally eaten in the form of bread — of which Turkish per capita consumption ranks among the highest in the world. Farmers consume about half of the crop; the other half moves through commercial channels. The Soil Products Office buys up to one- fifth of the crop at support prices, which largely determine the prices for the open market, and handles most imports and exports of grain. Production increases in the late 1970s turned the country into a wheat exporter. After 1980 the country also imported small amounts of high-quality wheat to improve baked prod- ucts. Steady increases continued in the 1980s, with wheat pro- duction averaging 15 million tons. Even in the drought- stricken 1989 harvest, wheat production totaled 16.2 million 187 The Economy tons. By the early 1990s, wheat production was averaging 20 million tons per year. Barley production did not rise substantially after the 1960s; crops averaged 6 million tons per year in the 1980s and 7 mil- lion tons in the early 1990s. One reason for the slow growth in barley production was a change in dietary habits: whereas bar- ley previously had been a staple food, it came to be used almost exclusively as animal feed or for export. Harvests of corn, which is also used for feed, increased from an average of about 1.1 million tons per year during the 1970s to around 2 million tons per year in the early 1990s (see table 7, Appendix A). Turkey is the main pulse producer in the Middle East, and pulse output increased dramatically from an annual average of 617,000 tons in the 1970-75 period to more than 1.1 million tons in the 1980-85 period. By the early 1990s, however, pulse output had fallen to about 860,000 tons in 1990 and 610,000 tons in 1992. The country made a major effort to meet the increased demand for dry beans, lentils, and peas in the Mid- dle East, and exported increasing amounts during the 1980s. Nevertheless, declining export demand in the 1990s and better opportunities in raising other crops led to falling output. Cotton is the major industrial crop in terms of value, supply- ing seed for vegetable oil and fiber for textiles, a major export. In the 1950s and 1960s, cotton cultivation increased rapidly fol- lowing the introduction of new varieties and the extension of irrigation. The main cotton areas are on the coastal plains of the south and southwest, where yields have exceeded interna- tional averages since the 1950s. Annual output of cotton lint rose from about 145,000 tons in the early 1950s to about 600,000 tons in the early 1990s. Exports averaged 10 percent of production in the early 1990s, having fallen from around 30 percent in the 1980s. Tobacco is a classic industrial crop, but output rose rela- tively slowly after World War II, reaching about 200,000 tons per year by the 1980s and 300,000 tons by the early 1990s. European consumers' preference for Virginia tobacco was a factor in the slow expansion, although foreign investment in the domestic tobacco industry in the 1980s spurred produc- tion. Sugar beet production expanded in the 1950s and 1960s, leveling off at a rate sufficient to produce an annual average of 677,000 tons during the first half of the 1970s. The yield met domestic needs and allowed limited exports. Production 189 Turkey: A Country Study jumped sharply, to about 1.5 million tons in 1981, and ended the decade at around 11 million tons in 1989. The annual aver- age in the early 1990s was 14 million tons. Oilseed cultivation expanded during the 1980s and 1990s, but harvests averaging about 2 million tons in the latter half of the 1980s and early 1990s continued to lag behind consump- tion, causing Turkey to import vegetable oils. Production of sunflower seeds, the main source of edible oil, declined, and the use of degenerated seed resulted in lower oil production. In 1987 Turkey produced 1.1 million tons of sunflower seeds; by 1992 production had declined to 950,000 tons. Olive pro- duction has experienced a two-year cycle with small crops every other year. Cultivation of opium poppies as a field crop traditionally was fairly extensive in parts of the Anatolian Plateau. The opium gum had cash value, and the plant served villagers as food, forage, and thatch. Official figures showed that during the second half of the 1960s, annual production of opium gum averaged about 110 tons per year. During this period, the crop played an important role in the international illegal drug trade. With the United States pushing for a ban on poppy culti- vation, after 1974 the Turkish government strictly controlled poppy harvesting, requiring that the mature pod be removed and processed at a state-run plant. During the first half of the 1990s, the area sown with opium ranged from 7,000 to 19,000 hectares, producing between 3,700 and 13,700 tons of opium pods. Most observers believed that government measures were effective in keeping opium derivatives in legal channels with- out causing undue hardship to farmers. During the mid-1990s, cultivation of fruit, nuts, and vegeta- bles contributed nearly 33 percent of the value of crop produc- tion, although such cultivation occupied only about 13 percent of cultivated land. Improved export possibilities led to the expansion of fruit and vegetable hectarage during the 1980s and 1990s; in 1991 about 593,000 hectares were devoted to green vegetables, tomatoes, and other produce, of which about 20,000 hectares were grown in greenhouses. Turkey is a major producer of high-quality hazelnuts, despite stiff competition in international markets from rising production in Spain, the United States, and Italy. The annual crop averages 400,000 tons per year, roughly half of which is exported. Turkey is also a major producer and exporter of various fruits, including grapes, sultana raisins, citrus fruits, and melons. Total fruit and 190 The Economy vegetable exports yielded Turkey nearly US$1 billion per year in the early 1990s. Livestock Animal husbandry is an important part of Turkey's agricul- tural sector and economy. Livestock products, including meat, milk, eggs, wool, and hides, contributed more than 33 percent of the value of agricultural output in the mid-1990s. Sheep and cattle are kept mainly on the grazing lands of Anatolia. Despite growing demand for animal products in Turkey's cities as incomes rose, animal numbers were static in the 1980s and fell in the early 1990s. Although yields were growing, traditional methods kept the livestock industry from achieving its consid- erable potential. Only 20 percent of cattle, for example, were high-yielding variety breeds. The oil boom in the Persian Gulf, however, led to an expansion of export markets and to major investments in the meat industry of the eastern Turkish towns of Erzurum and Van. In 1992 meat exports totaled US$140 mil- lion; exports, however, were being hurt by the UN embargo on Iraq. Wool is also a significant export. Traditional Turkish sheep varieties produce a coarse wool suitable for carpets and blankets rather than clothing. Merino sheep, which produce a finer wool, have been introduced in the Bursa region. During the 1950s, officials expected that livestock produc- tion would decline as grain cultivation increased at the expense of grazing lands. In fact, the period of most rapid expansion of grain cultivation also saw an upswing in the number of farm animals. One result was overgrazing of grasslands, wasteland, forests, and mountain meadows, which damaged the soil, although not enough to reduce the size of herds. Another result was smaller, less productive animals. Cattle, which pro- cess coarse forage less efficiently than sheep and goats, suf- fered most from the loss of grazing land, but nearly all animals produced less meat and milk and fewer offspring. Farmers made a modest beginning toward improving live- stock production techniques in the 1980s, but traditional prac- tices were hard to change. Even if they have no land, most village families own a few animals. Animals essentially scrounge for an existence, foraging on crop stubble, weeds, and grass on fallow land, and on uncultivable grazing areas. Few farmers integrate livestock production with cropping activities or match feed supply to their animals' requirements. Rural families raise livestock on land that lacks alternative uses, but the system does 191 Turkey: A Country Study not allow the high levels of production necessary to meet the needs of the rapidly expanding population. Moreover, over- grazing has caused environmental damage that is difficult to repair. Data on the livestock industry are poor but indicative of general trends. Official statistics reveal that recent years have seen changes in the relative roles of various animals in the farm economy. Given Turkish dietary preferences, sheep have rela- tively high value and increased in number from about 36.8 mil- lion head in 1970 to about 40.4 million head in 1992. The number of goats declined during the same period, from about 18.9 million to about 10.7 million because of grazing restric- tions in forests and government policies encouraging herd reduction. The use of tractors probably has caused the decline in the number of oxen. Cattle, which have risen in value as farmers strive to meet the growing urban demand for milk, increased in number from about 2.1 million in 1970 to about 11.9 million in 1992. Livestock output has increased over the years, although less rapidly than demand. In the early 1980s, the country was essen- tially self-sufficient in milk products, producing about 5.2 mil- lion tons per year. By the early 1990s, milk output had doubled, to 10 million tons per year. Annual meat production averaged 660,000 tons per year; this figure, however, represents only an estimate because most slaughtering occurs outside official slaughterhouses. During the 1980s, the price for red meat increased sharply, leading to a fall in domestic meat demand and an increase in poultry consumption. However, meat demand was partially sustained by exports of live animals — some of them smuggled over borders — to Middle Eastern countries, especially Iran and Iraq. The UN embargo on Iraq hurt domestic meat exporters after 1990. Poultry production expanded rapidly after 1980 and appears capable of rising with demand as incomes increase and diets begin to include animal products. Poultry exports to Iran and Iraq also grew in the 1980s but fell somewhat in the 1990s. Many Turkish poultry operations are small, producing between 5,000 and 10,000 fowl at a time. However, larger, integrated operations have also been established, particularly in urban areas. One, Yupi of Izmir, claims to be one of the largest poul- try producers in the world. By 1992 Turkey had 134 million head of poultry, double the number that it had had in 1987. 192 The Economy Forestry and Fisheries Forestry contributes little to the economy, but it holds potential for future development. In the early 1990s, Turkey's forests covered an estimated 20.2 million hectares, or 201,990 square kilometers (26 percent of the land area). Official statis- tics indicate that forests have doubled in size since 1950; the figures do not reflect actual growth in forested areas but rather continuing survey efforts and the inclusion of less productive wooded areas under the jurisdiction of the forestry administra- tion. The most productive lumber area is the Black Sea region, followed by central, western, and southern Anatolia, where mostly pine wood is produced. The forests in the eastern part of the country are in poor condition and yield little besides firewood. Many forests are overmature because of poor man- agement and infrequent cutting, and thus only about 20 per- cent of the total forested area is commercially exploitable. By the mid-1950s, the state had taken over all forest areas from private owners. Compensation was largely in the form of access to fuel wood at low prices. The one-third of the rural population that lives in or near forests includes many of the country's poorest families. The bulk of their income comes from farming; forest products provide supplemental income and fuel. The main objective of forest management is control of traditional logging and grazing rights; the lack of alternative fuel supplies makes it impossible to stop illegal wood harvests in state forests. The General Directorate of Forestry in the Ministry of For- estry has assumed responsibility for logging and reforestation operations and for reducing erosion. Whereas wood produc- tion has been substantially below potential, partly because of a lack of equipment and roads, reforestation efforts increased Turkey's wooded area by about 2 percent between 1977 and 1981. During the early 1980s, annual wood production aver- aged 5.2 million cubic meters of lumber. By 1991 production had risen to about 6.5 million cubic meters. Despite the country's long coastline and large freshwater bodies, fishing is an underdeveloped industry. The Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara constitute the main fishing grounds. The tonnage of the fishing fleet has increased, but in the early 1990s it still included about 7,000 traditional boats, some 1,500 of which lacked motors. The annual catch rose from around 430,000 tons in 1981 to about 625,200 tons in 1988, but 193 Turkey: A Country Study declined to about 365,000 tons in 1991. Frogs' legs, snails, shrimp, and crayfish are exported to Europe. Industry Turkish modernizers have long struggled to build an indus- trial system that would help restore the country's economic power. The import-substitution strategy followed until 1980 was designed to make the country an independent producer of manufactured goods. The result was a striking unfolding of industry, especially between 1950 and 1977, when the sector (including energy and natural resources) grew at an annual average rate of 8.6 percent in real terms, expanding its share of GDP from about 12 percent to about 25 percent. Despite the retrenchment of the early 1980s, the recovery of the industrial sector — which registered an average annual growth rate of 5.9 percent between 1987 and 1992 — restored the sector to its pre- 1980 proportion of more than 23 percent of GDP in 1993. By the early 1990s, industry was broadly based; the only individual industries accounting for more than 5 percent of industrial output were food processing, petroleum, textiles, and iron and steel. Under the republic, the Turks have vastly improved their country's infrastructure and have achieved the ability to pro- duce a wide range of products. The country's first factories pro- cessed food, such as sugar and flour, and nondurable consumer goods, such as textiles and footwear. Next came intermediate industrial products, including iron and steel, chemicals, cement, and fertilizer. By the end of the 1970s, the country was developing capital goods industries and high-tech- nology products. Production of trucks and buses in coopera- tion with the West German firm Mercedes-Benz, and of F-16 fighter aircraft with the United States firm General Dynamics, indicated Turkey's industrial ambitions. The press for rapid industrialization minimized the atten- tion given to efficiency, and excessive protection forestalled competition that would have promoted efficiency; selling in the protected home market was much more attractive than attempting to export. Moreover, the rise of montage industries, which assembled such products as motor vehicles, consumer durables, and elecUonic goods primarily using imported com- ponents, meant that industrial growth required ever more imports. Hence, attempts at import substitution paradoxically tended to aggravate the country's trade balance. The 194 Fish vendor on the Bosporus Courtesy Hermine Dreyfus s Fisherman mending his net, Trabzon Courtesy Hermine Drey fuss Turkey: A Country Study capital-intensive nature of many industrial investments, espe- cially those in the intermediate goods sector, caused employ- ment in industry to grow relatively slowly, contributing to structural unemployment. Dependence on imported petro- leum made the country highly vulnerable to increases in oil prices. By the end of the 1970s, industry had reached a turning point. In the short run, the sector needed to overcome short- ages of energy, imported machinery, parts, and processing materials that had caused a decline in industrial output during the last years of the decade. In the longer run, to become more efficient and to enable increased exports, the industrial struc- ture had to be adjusted in accordance with the country's com- parative advantages. In effect, industry would have to transfer resources out of uncompetitive industries to favor those that could compete in world markets. The difficult adjustment pro- cess started during the early 1980s, and substantial progress was made under the Ozal team. Under the new outward-oriented development strategy, as under the old import-substitution pol- icies, industry was to be the leading sector of the economy. Industrial performance — especially in export markets — would determine if that strategy would be successful. Many of the problems of import substitution had not yet been overcome by the mid-1990s. Much progress had been made in spurring private-sector-led industrialization, particu- larly in light manufacturing and export promotion, however. Light manufactures and iron and steel accounted for an increasing proportion — and since the 1980s, the majority — of exports. Moreover, foreign investment in the industrial sector, made either directly or through the stock market, had begun to have a positive impact on Turkish industry. However, much of industry was still dominated by the public sector in early 1995, and private-sector companies still depended on crucial inputs from public-sector industries. Industrial Policy In line with the shift to an outward-oriented development strategy, in 1980 Turkey's policy makers began to revamp the country's industrial policy. The new policy set forth four related goals for industry: upgrading the role of market signals in decision making, increasing manufacturing exports, enlarg- ing the private share in manufacturing, and reforming the SEEs to reduce inefficiency. In the early 1990s, a fifth goal was 196 The Economy added: privatization of public-sector entities. Policy makers were also concerned with obtaining adequate energy supplies and providing enough work for the growing labor force. Energy Turkey is relatively well endowed with energy and mineral resources. The extensive mountainous terrain provides numer- ous hydroelectric sites, although most are far from the main population and consumption centers. The country also has substantial exploitable lignite resources and small reserves of hard coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Commercially exploit- able deposits of many minerals have been located, but the terri- tory has been surveyed only partially. Exploitation of these natural resources has occurred relatively slowly. The combined demands of industrialization and urbaniza- tion nearly tripled energy consumption in the 1960s and 1970s. An inappropriate pricing policy, especially the subsidy of petro- leum that led to unduly cheap products, was one cause of shifts in the sources of energy that exacerbated shortages. In 1960 more than half of the primary energy consumed came from noncommercial sources, mainly firewood but also manure and other agricultural wastes. These noncommercial sources, plus domestic coal and lignite, accounted for more than 80 percent of all primary energy consumed; oil supplied only 18 percent. By 1980, in contrast, oil supplied about 47 percent of the pri- mary energy consumed, coal and lignite about 21 percent, hydroelectric power 8 percent, and noncommercial sources such as firewood and animal wastes only 23 percent. By 1992, 43.5 percent of final energy came from petroleum, 31.1 per- cent from lignite and hard coal, 4.1 percent from hydroelectric power, 6.9 percent from natural gas, and 14.4 percent from other energy sources, including solid fuels, geothermal, solar power, and wind power. During the 1970s, the demand for electricity began to exceed supply, and by the late 1970s the power gap began to constrain industry. After 1977 rotating blackouts affecting industrial, commercial, and residential consumers were neces- sary to meet demand. By 1979 the shortage of foreign exchange had so restricted imports of crude oil that fuel for cars, trucks, and tractors had to be rationed. In the mid-1980s, in an attempt to deal with the energy shortage the Ozal admin- istration launched the build, operate, and transfer (BOT) sys- tem, under which foreign investors would provide the capital 197 Turkey: A Country Study and technology to build plants, operate them for a number of years with guaranteed revenues, and finally transfer the units to the government when the investment had been fully returned. The Ataturk Dam was a major project designed to increase electricity output. Its first two power units came on line in 1992. Although Turkey's energy resources remained underdevel- oped in early 1995, the country had relatively good energy pro- duction potential. One estimate places the economically feasible hydroelectric potential at around 29,500 megawatts, which would allow annual production to reach roughly 100,000 gigawatt-hours in years with normal rainfall. Lignite is the sec- ond most important potential source of energy, with proven and probable deposits put around 6.4 billion tons. However, Turkish lignite, containing high amounts of water and sulfur, is hard to burn and pollutes the air. Turkey's proven and esti- mated petroleum stocks are equivalent to about three years' consumption. Proven reserves are estimated at about 16 mil- lion tons, and enhanced oil-recovery techniques may allow extraction of another 30 million tons. Proven reserves of natu- ral gas total about 12.4 billion cubic meters, and reserves of hard coal about 1 billion tons. Turkey's geothermal resources are considerable, but they have not yet been systematically explored. Imports of petroleum averaged more than 15 million tons per year in the early 1980s and increased to about 23 million tons in the early 1990s. Most of Turkey's oil fields are located in southeastern Anatolia near the borders with Iran, Iraq, and Syria (see fig. 10). Because of the country's fractured substrata, deposits are often contained in small pockets, which makes exploration and extraction difficult. In 1985 exploration proved that Turkey has oil deposits at very deep levels, but it was not known how large the deposits might be. Shell Oil determined that oil at Paleozoic levels would be recoverable, and other investigations proved significant deposits in central Anatolia under the salt flats in the plain north of Konya. In 1991 British Petroleum began exploring for oil in offshore areas of the Black Sea. It is also suspected that the Aegean shelf contains considerable petroleum deposits, but as long as rela- tions with Greece remain strained, conflicting claims to the Aegean seabed limit prospects for exploration. To speed up the exploration process, the Turkish government in 1983 eased regulations on such activities by foreign oil companies, allow- 198 The Economy ing them to export 35 percent of production from fields they discovered in Anatolia and 45 percent from offshore fields. Although several foreign concerns started exploration after the liberalization package went into effect, up to the mid-1990s no major finds had been reported. The state-owned oil company, Turkish Petroleum Corpora- tion (TPAO), Shell Oil, and Mobil control most petroleum out- put, which had climbed gradually to a peak of 3.6 million tons in 1969 but declined to about 2.1 million tons in 1985 as depos- its were depleted (see table 8, Appendix A.). By the early 1990s, output had increased once again to nearly 4.4 million tons. The main petroleum project during the 1980s was an attempt at secondary recovery at the Bati Raman fields in southeastern Anatolia, which were expected to produce roughly 1.5 million tons a year over a twenty-year period. TPAO stepped up oil exploration efforts at home and abroad in the hope of raising output. But prospects for new domestic finds were endangered by the escalating conflict with Kurdish rebels in southeastern Turkey. Western operators in the area were nervous after a sharp increase in the number of attacks on oil installations. Mobil suspended operations at its 3,200-bpd Selmo field and other small sites after Kurdish attacks on its staff. In the early 1990s, talks were underway on a possible transfer of the Selmo operation to TPAO. Shell Oil's rig near the 25,000-bpd Batman refinery was also hit, although operations there continued. TPAO reported no attacks. Total Turkish production in 1993 of about 78,600 bpd — down from about 84,500 bpd in 1991 — met 17 percent of the country's 458,000-bpd needs. The state firm in 1993 pumped about 60,550 bpd, Shell Oil about 14,500 bpd, Mobil about 3,230 bpd, and Aladdin Middle East about 330 bpd. On several aging fields, rising water content has halved productivity. TPAO drilled sixty exploration wells in 1993, only one of which hit oil. In 1994 it planned to drill eighty-one, stepping up work outside the affected southeast. Meanwhile, Mobil was doing seismic work in central and southern Turkey, and Shell Oil and United States Arco were both exploring in the southeast. TPAO's joint venture in Kazakhstan, which holds seven con- cessions, should help to increase the company's oil reserves. In addition, preliminary tests in 1993 near Aktyubinsk and Atyrau were promising. It is expected to be several years, however, before the oil or gas reaches Turkey, given the need to work out export routes or an exchange agreement with Russia. Turk- 199 Turkey: A Country Study 200 The Economy ish sources are cofinancing the venture with the Kazakh state oil company. The project is TPAO's first major overseas enter- prise, although its subsidiary, the Turkish Petroleum Interna- tional Corporation, holds concessions in Australia, Pakistan, and Egypt. Five refineries with a total capacity of about 713,000 bpd meet most of the country's need for petroleum products. Until early 1995, about 85 percent of refinery capacity was in public hands in four refineries located at Aliaga near Izmir, Kocaeli, Kirikkale, and Batman. A fifth refinery, jointly owned by Mobil, Shell Oil, British Petroleum, and a Turkish company, is located at Mersin. In early 1995, Turkey's privatization program appeared to be back on track after a period of wrangling over the legality of the sale of the state refinery company TUPRAS and the retail company Petrol Ofisi. The sale of part or all of each company is scheduled to take place before the end of 1995. Petrol Ofisi's 4,000 stations control 56 percent of a domestic gasoline market that since 1987 has grown by an average of 5.5 percent a year to 94,000 bpd. Full privatization is expected by the end of 1995. A TPAO pipeline extends for nearly 500 kilometers from the oil fields near Batman to Dortyol on the Mediterranean coast. The corporation also owns and operates the Turkish sec- tion of the pipeline from Iraq's Kirkuk fields to a port facility near Dortyol. This pipeline was enlarged in 1984 to carry 1.1 million bpd, a share of which Turkey purchased at preferential rates. A second, smaller-capacity Kirkuk-Dortyol pipeline was built in the late 1980s, which increased capacity to 1.5 million bpd. Oil flows through the two pipelines ceased after the UN embargo on Iraq was imposed in 1990. The pipeline cannot be used for domestic oil because according to international law the oil in the pipeline at the time of the embargo must be stored, awaiting UN disposition. Apart from the country's own oil prospects in the Black Sea, Turkish officials see their nation as a strategic hub bringing oil from Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan to the Mediterranean and connecting Turkmenistan and possibly Iran to the European gas network. Turkish officials have pushed their own brand of pipeline diplomacy, encouraging the nations of Central Asia and the Caucasus — as well as Iran — to cooperate so that they can start exporting their prime resources to the outside world via Turkey. 201 Turkey: A Country Study The Turks are convinced that at least some of the projects eventually will come to fruition, beginning with a projected pipeline to bring Azerbaijani crude to the eastern Mediterra- nean. In the early 1990s, the governments of Turkey and Azer- baijan officially approved plans for such a line. But a series of obstacles remained to be overcome, including rival pipeline projects that would bypass Turkey, border disputes that would render key intervening areas dangerous, and even a degree of antagonism toward Turkey on the part of some neighboring states. The most immediate challenge was the effort to bring oil from Kazakhstan's Tengiz field to the Russian Black Sea port of Novorossiysk, which would mean an upsurge in tanker traffic not only in the Black Sea, but also in the Bosporus and Dar- danelles. Turkey has opposed this project vehemently but is constrained by international conventions that guarantee pas- sage between the Black and the Mediterranean seas. In some places, the straits are only 800 meters wide, and the Bosporus bisects Turkey's largest city, Istanbul. The threat to one of the nation's greatest attractions has turned Turkish officials into ardent environmentalists. Natural gas became important in the 1980s. Gas tapped in Thrace (Trakya, European Turkey) was piped to the Istanbul region and used to produce electricity, thereby reducing the need for energy imports from Bulgaria. In 1986 Turkey began construction of a pipeline to carry Soviet natural gas from the Bulgarian border to Ankara; the line was completed in the late 1980s. In 1990 government officials announced that they also desired to purchase natural gas from Algeria, a move that would help balance Turkey's large purchases from the Soviet Union. Policy makers in the early 1970s had targeted lignite as the most abundant domestic source of hydrocarbons, and produc- tion grew rapidly from an average of about 7.9 million tons for the 1970-75 period to more than 31 million tons in 1985. Mines operated by the state-owned Turkish Lignite Company are responsible for about two-thirds of output; private firms produce the remainder. Production of hard coal is entirely controlled by the government-owned Turkish Coal Company, which suffers from poor management and outmoded technol- ogy. Coal production is also hampered by the great depth of the country's deposits. Hard coal output fell from around 6.5 million tons in 1976 to about 3.8 million tons in 1983, and unit costs exceeded those of coal imports. As a result of these 202 The Economy trends, Turkey is beginning to import coal for use in power plants. In 1992 Turkey produced about 12 million tons of coal and imported a net of about 4.2 million tons. The Turkish Electricity Authority (Tiirkiye Elektrik Kurumu — TEK) is responsible for most electric power genera- tion and distribution. In Adana the Cukurova Electrical Com- pany produces some electricity privately. In Kepez, a city in Antalya Province, another private company produces electric- ity. Upgrading of the national distribution grid began in the 1980s, and by 1985 about 70 percent of Turkey's villages were receiving electricity. The Fifth Five-Year Plan (1984-89) called for the completion of village electrification by 1989; by the mid-1990s no village was without electricity. Demand for electricity has increased rapidly, in large part because of the growth of industry, which consumed more than 56 percent of electricity in 1992. By 1985 thermal plants pro- duced 53 percent of total installed capacity; hydroelectric plants produced the remainder. During the early 1980s, short- ages of electricity had to be covered with imports from Bulgaria and the Soviet Union. In 1984 Turkey and the Soviet Union agreed to build a second transmission line that would allow future increases in Soviet electricity deliveries. Although in the 1990s electricity imports meet less than 1 percent of Turkey's needs, the Turks want to be independent of supplies from unreliable neighbors. Sources for generating such electricity varied. By 1992 elec- tricity generated by coal accounted for 36 percent of total installed capacity, with hydroelectric plants accounting for 40 percent. The rest was generated using petroleum products. Turkey's chronic energy shortages make development of hydroelectric power imperative. In 1994 the General Director- ate of State Hydraulic Works was building or planning to build about 300 hydroelectric plants. The centerpiece of Turkey's ambitious hydroelectric program, the Southeast Anatolia Project, which includes dams on the Tigris and Euphrates riv- ers, will increase Turkey's irrigable land about 25 percent and its electricity-generating capacity about 45 percent. As of early 1987, the first two of the three large dams in the program (the Keban Dam and the Karakaya Dam, both on the Euphrates, northeast of Malatya) had been built, and the third, the Atatiirk Dam, was under construction, completed in 1994. The World Bank refused to help finance the construction of the Atatiirk Dam because Turkey had not reached an agreement 203 Turkey: A Country Study on sharing the water of the Euphrates River with Syria and Iraq; Turkey, however, arranged independent financing. Turkish officials had long discussed the possibility that nuclear power might help the country address its energy prob- lems. During the 1980s, the military government drew up a nuclear energy program and established the Nuclear Power Plants Division of the Turkish Electricity Authority to make fea- sibility studies and to build nuclear plants. Given Turkey's desire to diversify its energy sources, nuclear power was expected to remain on the agenda. By early 1995, however, no electricity had been generated from nuclear power. Although Turkey has made a good start at addressing its energy problems, some analysts feel that more attention needs to be paid to conservation and pricing policies to limit the growth of demand. Industry is the major consumer of energy, and industrial consumption is expected to grow rapidly if left unchecked. The most energy-intensive sectors of industry, such as iron and steel, food processing, textiles, mining and nonfer- rous metals, chemicals, cement, and bricks and ceramics, prob- ably could reduce demand significantly if required to do so. However, the government needs to audit major energy users to discover which could cut back consumption. In addition, a shift in relative energy prices to reflect long-run costs might induce industrial restructuring that would take Turkey's energy endowment into account. Moreover, energy policy makers need to improve management of firewood and agricultural wastes, which continue to play an important role in the rural energy economy. Mineral Resources Turkey's most important minerals are chromite, bauxite, and copper. The country also exploits deposits of other miner- als such as iron, manganese, lead, zinc, antimony, asbestos, pyrites, sulfur, mercury, and manganese. Mining contributed slightly under 2 percent of GDP in 1992, but the subsector pro- vides the raw material for such key manufacturing industries as iron and steel, aluminum, cement, and fertilizers. Turkey exports a variety of minerals, the most important of which are blister copper, chrome, and boron products. Minerals accounted for an average of about 2 percent of export earnings in the mid-1990s. The public sector dominates mining, accounting for about 75 percent of sales. Etibank, set up in 1935 to develop Turkey's natural resources, manages most of 204 Market in Bodrum, in central Anatolia Courtesy Hermine Drey fuss Vendor of simit, the traditional bread, in Istanbul Courtesy Hermine Dreyfus s the state's mineral interests, particularly bauxite, boron miner- als, chromite, and copper. Private-sector mining enterprises are generally small, con- centrating on lead, zinc, and marble; some operate intermit- tently depending on market conditions. A 1978 law nationalized all private holdings, but it was only partially imple- mented before being invalidated by the Constitutional Court. In 1980 the government began to encourage foreign invest- ment, and in 1983 and 1985 mining laws were revised to pro- vide incentives for private investment. Etibank sought to encourage joint ventures with private firms in Turkey and for- eign investors. Although some partnerships were struck, mainly for copper production, foreign and private investors in 1995 continued to hesitate to make major investments. Manufacturing Turkey's manufacturing industries are diverse and growing. Public-sector entities dominate manufacturing, accounting for 205 Turkey: A Country Study about 40 percent of value added. Private-sector firms are domi- nated by a number of large conglomerates that have diversified across several industries. The manufacture of textiles is Turkey's largest industry, very competitive in international markets, and the most important foreign-exchange earner. Domestic cotton and wool provide much of the raw material for the industry, but synthetics pro- duction has also expanded. The textile sector contributed 20 percent of total manufacturing output and employed 33 per- cent of all workers in the mid-1990s. Textiles are produced by factories controlled by the country's largest SEE, Sumerbank, and a number of private firms. Installed capacity is equivalent to around 33 percent of that of the EU in terms of cotton spin- ning and around 11 percent of EU woolen yarn and textiles. In 1994 Sumerbank was identified as a likely candidate for privati- zation. Textile exports grew rapidly after 1980, but protectionism in industrial countries, including the EC nations and the United States, threatened the sector's growth. Nonetheless, between 1987 and 1992 textile export values expanded at an average annual rate of 19 percent. By 1992 textiles accounted for 35 percent of total exports. Investment in increased capacity in the 1980s resulted in increased exports of finished products and ready-made garments. In 1990 the administration of Presi- dent George Bush increased the quota for United States textile imports from Turkey by 50 percent to compensate for Turkey's economic problems caused by sanctions on Iraq. Agroprocessing is one of the most dynamic branches of Turkish industry, supplying both domestic and export markets. Main product lines are sugar, flour, processed meat and milk, and fruits and vegetables. Processed food exports grew at an average rate of 8 percent per year between 1987 and 1992, accounting for 9 percent of total exports. SEEs are the most important producers of intermediate goods, although private firms are also active. The iron and steel sector has become more competitive in adjacent Middle East- ern markets, where Turkey's location is an advantage. However, competitiveness results largely from heavy subsidies to the state companies. Two-thirds of Turkey's steel is produced by three public-sector steel mills, which remain heavily subsidized. Twenty smaller private plants produce steel from arc furnace operations. Public plants include the old and outmoded mill at Karabuk, the Eregli works completed in 1965, and the plant at 206 Women crocheting lace edgings on head scarves, Goreme Courtesy Hermine Drey fuss Woman beating and washing wool near Lake Van Courtesy Hermine Drey fuss Iskenderun, which was built with Soviet aid and opened in 1975. The overstaffed Iskenderun plant, although the largest and most modern, performs poorly. Private plants, often more profitable than state plants, tend to use scrap as a raw material and to export to neighboring countries. In December 1994, the government indicated that 51.7 percent of the Eregli Iron and Steel Works would be privatized in 1995. This company was cited as one of the most profitable in Turkey, especially after a US$1.5 billion upgrade designed to raise raw steel capacity by one-third, to about 3 million tons annually. Capacity use in the iron and steel sector increased rapidly in the 1980s and early 1990s. Total output of crude iron grew from about 3.1 million tons in 1985 to about 4.5 million tons in 1992. Steel ingot output rose from about 7 million tons in 1987 to 10.3 million tons in 1992. The value of exports of iron and steel rose from US$34 million in 1980 to US$1.6 billion in 1992. Such exports accounted for around 10 percent of total exports. 207 Turkey: A Country Study The demand for cement also increased in the late 1980s and early 1990s as a result of an upswing in domestic construction stimulated by infrastructure and housing projects. The cement industry consists of a large SEE, the Turkish Cement Corpora- tion, and a number of smaller companies. Until 1970 the coun- try imported most of its cement, but it has since become self-sufficient. Total output increased from 22.7 million tons in 1987 to 28.5 million tons in 1992. Exports of cement, especially to the Middle East, grew rapidly in the early 1980s because of the construction boom in that region. The chemical industry, one of the country's largest in terms of value, is concentrated in a few large state enterprises, includ- ing the Petrochemical Corporation (Petrokimya Anonimsir- keti — Petkim) and Etibank, and some 600 private enterprises. Chemicals produced in Turkey include boron products, caustic soda, chlorine, industrial chemicals, and sodium phosphates. The high quality of the country's minerals gives it a compara- tive advantage in several products. Chemical exports increased during the second half of the 1980s but fell sharply in the early 1990s, mainly because of increasing competition and lower prices elsewhere. In the late 1980s, petrochemical production, dominated by Petkim, started with a complex at Yarmica, near Kocaeli, followed by a second at Aliaga, near Izmir. The com- plex includes twelve plants, seven subplants, a thermal power station, and a water supply dam. These plants supply small private-sector plants, which in turn manufacture finished prod- ucts. The sector's goal is to make the country self-sufficient in petrochemicals rather than to export. In 1992 Turkey pro- duced about 144,000 tons of polyvinyl chloride, about 238,000 tons of polyethylene, about 85,000 tons of benzine, and about 32,000 tons of carbon black. Turkey's automobile industry, established in the mid-1960s, was gradually exposed to imports after 1980. Although the sec- tor recovered from low production levels after 1983, domestic producers remain weak. Industry observers believe that Tur- key's automobile makers are too numerous and too inefficient, but market prospects appear fairly favorable because of the low per capita ownership of cars. Car output rose from about 55,000 units in 1985 to about 300,000 units in 1993. Including trucks, buses, and tractors, Turkey produced about 345,000 units in 1992. Some 60,000 vehicles were imported in that year, a figure that should increase in the near future if Turkey gains 208 The Economy entrance into the European customs union. Turkish producers benefit from a 20 percent tariff on foreign imports. The Turkish automobile industry in 1995 consisted of three producers, each affiliated with a foreign manufacturer: Tofas, which assembles Fiat passenger cars; Oyak-Renault, which assembles Renaults; and General Motors, builder of Opel Vec- tras. Toyota in partnership with local conglomerate Sabanci Holding completed a plant in 1994 designed to produce 100,000 cars per year, and a Hyundai factory that would pro- duce 100,000 units is scheduled to open in 1996. Construction Turkey has several relatively large, internationally com- petitive construction firms, some of which specialize in particu- lar types of projects such as dam or pipeline construction. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, domestic demand was relatively weak, but Turkish firms were quite successful at sell- ing their services abroad, especially in the oil-producing states of the Middle East. However, by the mid-1980s construction projects in the Middle East had slowed down because of falling oil prices. Fortunately, Turkey's major infrastructure program and housing projects saved contracting firms from financial ruin. For example, the establishment of the Mass Housing Fund in the 1980s offered opportunities to Turkish contrac- tors. A number of large infrastructure projects — particularly the GAP and the construction of state highways — provided enormous contracts for local builders. With the demise of the Soviet Union, Turkish contractors set their sights on Central Asia and Russia, with estimates of potential business in this region around US$700 million. The end of the Iran-Iraq War in 1988 also promised new opportunities for Turkish contrac- tors; however, the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and subsequent Per- sian Gulf War damaged such hopes. Contractors estimated their combined losses as a result of the crisis at US$800 million. Nonetheless, the external market accounted for a substantial portion of the industry's revenues. At the end of 1992, Turkish contractors had contracts worth US$20.6 billion; Libya accounted for US$10.3 billion, Saudi Arabia US$5.4 billion, and the republics of the former Soviet Union US$1 billion. Policy makers have made housing — perhaps the most defi- cient sector of the economy — a priority. The combination of rapid population growth and high rates of urbanization has overwhelmed available housing. In the mid-1980s, perhaps 209 Turkey: A Country Study more than half of the inhabitants of urban centers lived in shanties lacking sewers, water, and electricity. According to a tradition dating back to Ottoman rule, shelters built overnight had been tolerated by the authorities. These shanties, or gecekondus (see Glossary), had been a problem since the 1950s. In the early 1980s, the government took several steps to improve the housing situation. A law was passed transferring ownership of existing gecekondus to their inhabitants but declar- ing that any new structures would be destroyed. In addition, a housing fund, set up in 1984 and financed by a tax on tobacco, liquor, and luxury imports, offered financing for the construc- tion of up to 100,000 houses a year. Monies could be used to improve existing gecekondus or for new construction and could be lent to homeowners, cooperative associations, or contrac- tors. Analysts believed it unlikely that the fund would grow fast enough to eliminate the gecekondus, although it might stem their proliferation. Services After seventy years of development, the services sector has grown to account for more than half of the labor force but nev- ertheless remains relatively unproductive. In addition to tradi- tional enterprises, services include modern activities such as banking and engineering. The development of government services has been significant, but the state has paid little atten- tion to increasing the efficiency of private-sector service enter- prises. Services have traditionally produced only a small fraction of exports; however, after 1980 the government encouraged development of service earnings and allowed for- eign enterprises to enter previously protected markets such as those in finance. Banking and Finance The government, banks, and industry form a complex sys- tem through which legislation and government policies direct credit flows. Most state-owned banks were established to finance particular industries, whereas private banks generally have intimate connections with large industrial groups. The Central Bank of Turkey often provides credit to other banks at negative real interest rates. Banks, in turn, funnel credit to industries or groups they serve. The amounts available to par- ticular sectors of the economy thus depend largely on the 210 Man making brooms, Trabzon Courtesy Hermine Drey fuss Rug vendor displaying his wares, central Anatolia Courtesy Hermine Drey fuss 211 Turkey: A Country Study resources available to the institutions for that sector, rather than on market assessments. The Central Bank set up a system of quarterly reporting in the mid-1980s, enabling timely warning of banks in difficulties. This reform was a start toward making banking more transpar- ent, but it is still difficult to assess the condition of the banks. Strong political pressures to keep weak industries and groups afloat during the adjustment period make it likely that several years will pass before standard accounting rules can be system- atically applied. Legislation introduced in 1993 sought to bring the Turkish banking sector into line with European standards on capital adequacy and other prudential ratios. However, in December 1993, the Constitutional Court blocked this legisla- tion because the executive had enacted it without approval of the legislature. No further action had occurred as of early 1995. Despite some setbacks, the government's new policies have effected rapid changes in the financial sector. The banking sys- tem in early 1995 consisted of the Central Bank and fifty-eight banks, including twenty-one foreign banks, divided between Ankara, where most state-owned banks are located, and Istan- bul, the center for most privately owned banks. Turkey also had three state investment and development banks. The Develop- ment Bank is funded from the Treasury and invests in the pri- vate sector. The Export Credit Bank of Turkey (Turkiye Ihracat Kredi Bankasi) provides export finance. The Municipalities Bank (Iller Bankasi) supports local institutions. In 1995 nine merchant banks also operated in Turkey, six domestically owned and three foreign owned. The Central Bank, founded in the early 1930s, has the usual central bank responsibilities, such as issuing banknotes, pro- tecting the currency, and regulating the banking system and credit. The Central Bank also finances the government's bud- get deficits and makes loans to public and private banks. Start- ing in 1983, however, the Central Bank began to reduce lending and stepped up its supervisory functions. Six of Turkey's commercial banks are in the public sector, and twenty-one are partly or wholly foreign owned. Of the banking sector's assets, 46 percent are concentrated in four banks: the oldest and largest public bank, the Agricultural Bank of the Republic of Turkey (Turkiye Cumhuriyet Ziraat Bankasi — TCZB); the Real Estate Bank (Turkiye Emlak Ban- kasi As); and two private banks, Isbank and Akbank TAS. The 212 The Economy TCZB has many branches in rural areas, a strong deposit base, and favored access to state credits, which it uses partly for the agricultural commodity price-support program. After 1983 the TCZB was forced to take over other banks that had failed, a move that reduced earnings. Much as in Germany and Japan, the major private banks are closely linked to industrial groups. Yapi ve Kredi Bankasi, Pam- ukbank, and Interbank are owned by the Cukurova Group con- glomerate. Akbank, reputed to be the most profitable private bank in Turkey, is owned by the Sabanci Group. Partially pub- licly traded Kocbank is owned by the Koc Holding Company. Tiitunbank is owned by the Yasar Holding Corporation. Before 1980 there were only four foreign banks in Turkey, but their numbers grew rapidly during the 1980s as the govern- ment liberalized conditions. Several joint ventures were cre- ated in the 1980s, as well as two Islamic banks specializing in trade finance. Private banks remain the most vulnerable sector of the banking system because the public banks enjoy de facto state guarantees. During the 1980s, most private banks engaged in trade financing or in sales of state bonds because investment activity was depressed. The largest private banks maintained their ties to Turkey's major corporations despite a 1983 bank- ing law enacted to discourage such links. Although a few pri- vate banks were able to eliminate nonperforming loans, many remained vulnerable to their customers' difficulties. By 1986 private-bank balance sheets began to improve, as several years of high-interest earnings made it possible for banks to write off bad loans. Although the government, public enterprises, and private undertakings increased their use of stocks and bonds after 1970, capital markets remained underdeveloped in the 1970s. After the passing of the Capital Markets Law in 1982, a Capital Markets Board was established to issue regulations for institu- tions marketing bonds and other financial instruments. Most Turkish corporations were closely held and tended to finance expansion through their own funds from their small circles of stockholders. But in the 1980s, companies were allowed to issue profit-and-loss-sharing certificates with liability limited to the face value of the certificate. The Ozal administration also took steps to revive Istanbul's stock market, which had closed down in the late 1970s. The Istanbul Stock Exchange (ISE) reopened in December 1985. With the rise of "emerging mar- 213 Turkey: A Country Study ket" funds, trading on the ISE expanded rapidly in the early 1990s; indeed, it was the best performing of any market in 1993. Foreign investment accounted for 25 percent of the daily trading volume. In early 1994, however, the stock market crashed in the wake of the currency and balance of payments crisis. Plans for privatization of SEEs were expected to revive the stock market, if foreign investment and confidence in the government's attempts to stabilize the macroeconomic situa- tion increased. Government securities are quite liquid in secondary mar- kets; this has been true especially since the Treasury began issu- ing T-bills in 1986 and an interbank market was established in 1987. Government T-bill issues jumped in the early 1990s as the budget deficit exploded. In 1986 the public snapped up revenue-sharing certificates used to finance the Keban hydro- electric project on the Euphrates; the Oymapinar Dam, also on the Euphrates south of Malatya; and a second bridge across the Bosporus. Such certificates were popular, in part because they conformed to Islamic strictures prohibiting interest. Low returns discouraged the government from using such certifi- cates in the 1990s. Transportation and Telecommunications Under the Ottomans, foreign companies constructed the portion of the Berlin-to-Baghdad railroad that crossed Turkey, as well as a few other lines used mostly for mining development and the export of agricultural products. Ataturk and the nationalists took an active interest in the development of the railroad system for strategic reasons, setting up the Turkish Republic State Railways (Tiirkiye Cumhuriyeti Devlet Demir- yollari Isletmesi Genel Mudurlugu — TCDD) in 1920. The nationalists set two priorities for railroad development: extend- ing lines to major areas, such as eastern Anatolia and the new capital at Ankara, and buying out foreign railroad interests. The TCDD invested large sums during its first two decades, bringing all railroads under state control by 1948 and increas- ing track lengths from 4,018 kilometers in 1923 to 7,324 kilo- meters in 1950. By 1950 the rail system linked the major areas and accounted for about three-quarters of surface freight traf- fic. After 1950 the railroads received only small investments and insufficient maintenance because of increasing emphasis on road transport. By the 1970s, the tracks and rolling stock were 214 The Economy in poor condition and the TCDD was running chronic deficits, partly because of its low rate structure. In the 1970s, as mining expanded to support the metalworking and fuel industries, the railroads received additional funds to expand and upgrade ser- vice. Between 1985 and 1992, the rail network grew modestly, from 8,193 kilometers of track to 8,430 kilometers. Almost all rail was single-tracked and nonelectrified. Although rail lines linked most important cities, there were few cross connections between lines, and routes were often circuitous. Passengers preferred other means of transport because the railroads were slow and unsafe; in 1982 there were 210 train collisions and 737 derailments. As a result of increased use of trucks, the railroads carried only one-quarter of surface freight, mostly long-haul bulk commodities. After World War II, transportation development concen- trated on the road system. As a result, by early 1995 Turkey had nearly 59,770 kilometers of all-weather highways, of which about 27,000 kilometers were paved. There were also some 308,000 kilometers of gravel and earth roads in rural areas. The government planned to build 3,000 additional kilometers by the year 2000 and to upgrade existing roads. The Ozal administration in the early 1980s began a major project that was expected to result in highways that would traverse the country, making it possible for Turkey to handle increased levels of freight between Europe and the Middle East. This project, along with the second bridge across the Bosporus, would form a 3,600-kilometer link in a 10,000-kilometer trans-European highway going from Gdansk on the Baltic Sea to cities on the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf. Several road and highway improvements were underway in the mid-1990s. The four-lane highway linking Ankara, Istanbul, and Edirne is complete except for a thirty-kilometer stretch under construction west of Bolu (see fig. 11). Another four- lane highway in the southeast, designed to link Gaziantep with Mersin via Adana, lacks about eighty kilometers west of Gaziantep. Another offshoot of this highway that would con- nect with Iskenderun via Dortyol is under construction. Other highways in the planning stage include improved links between Iskenderun and Antalya, Ankara and Adana, and Istanbul and Izmir. Additional highways are needed because traffic is extremely dense around major cities in western Anatolia, creat- 215 Turkey: A Country Study The Economy ing frequent traffic jams and contributing to a high accident rate. Truck transport of surface freight increased from about 25 percent of the total of such freight in 1950 to more than 75 percent by the mid-1980s. According to one source, in 1984 trucks carried about 40 percent of exports by tonnage. As the oil boom hit the Persian Gulf states and imports clogged their ports during the mid-1970s, heavy truck traffic passed through Turkey. By 1985, however, transit traffic had fallen off some- what as a result of the fall in demand from oil-exporting coun- tries and a cutback on purchases by Iran and Iraq. The end of the Iran-Iraq War modestly helped revive transit traffic, which was disrupted again by the 1990 Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and the resulting UN embargo. In the mid-1990s, goods moved by truck accounted for 27 percent of total export tonnage. Shipping is much less important than land transport, but capacity expanded rapidly in the early 1990s. The Ozal admin- istration encouraged the growth of Turkey's merchant marine by granting tax rebates to companies registering their ships under the Turkish flag. As a result, the fleet grew from about 1.7 million gross registered tons (GRT) in 1975 to about 2.5 million GRT in 1983. In 1990 the merchant marine's 2,996 cargo ships had a combined capacity of about 3.8 million GRT. A large number of these ships were owned by the Maritime Bank (Denizcilik Bankasi) and Deniz Nakliyati, a large private company. In the 1980s and early 1990s, private cargo lines expanded rapidly. Aside from the ferry across Lake Van, inter- nal shipping is insignificant because few of Turkey's rivers are navigable. Five ports handle the bulk of the country's sea freight. Istan- bul is the most important port, followed by Mersin, Izmir, Isk- enderun, and Kocaeli. There are also many small ports along the country's extensive coastline; coastal shipping is substan- tial, particularly of such bulk commodities as coal and iron ore. Cargo handling is slow and storage limited, however. The main oil terminals near Iskenderun handle both domestic and Iraqi crude. In 1992 ships brought 60 million tons of cargo to Tur- key; 26 million tons were exported by sea. Turkey has 105 usable airports, sixty-nine of which have paved runways. Turkish Airlines (Turk Hava Yollari — THY), plagued by a poor safety record in the 1970s, fought its way back to profitability during the 1980s, although heavy capital expenditures in the 1990s put it back in the red. By 1995 it was 217 Turkey: A Country Study a prime candidate for partial privatization, which was expected to net the government US$300 million. By 1985 Turkish Air- lines was serving thirty-six international and sixteen domestic destinations with a fleet that had been recently augmented by the purchase of several Airbus Industrie A-310 passenger air- craft. Much of the company's international business involves serving the many Turks who work in Europe and the Middle East. Domestic flights are popular because surface travel between major cities is time consuming; THYs domestic ser- vices probably will be further upgraded. In 1992 the total num- ber of passengers carried to, from, or within Turkey on all airlines landing in Turkey reached about 13.8 million (about 2.8 million domestic and 11 million international); the domes- tic carrier transported about 2.4 million passengers within Tur- key and about 1.7 million international passengers. Private airlines entered the market in the 1980s; Istanbul Airlines and Green Air handle both domestic and foreign routes. Turkey's archaic telecommunications system, which had long been overloaded, received expanded domestic and inter- national lines in the 1980s and early 1990s. Until the 1980s, more than half of Turkey's villages lacked telephone connec- tions, and customers had to wait years to get telephones installed. In the early 1980s, authorities designed a program to eliminate the waiting list for telephones; make service available to all of the country's settlements; and install countrywide auto- matic dialing, a new telex system, and a connection with the European telecommunications satellite. The number of tele- phones increased from about 351,000 in 1966 to an estimated 7.96 million by the end of 1991. The Turkish Radio-Television Corporation (Turkiye Radyo- Televizyon Kurumu — TRT) has flagship radio stations in Ankara and Istanbul, with subsidiary networks in fifteen other urban centers. Frequency modulation (FM) transmitters are located in ten cities, including Ankara and Istanbul. In addi- tion to Turkish, broadcasts are made in Albanian, Arabic, Azer- baijani, Bulgarian, Chinese, English, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Persian, Romanian, Serbo-Croatian, and Urdu. Turkish television has two main channels that reach more than forty population centers. The Istanbul area has three addi- tional channels. In early 1995, the Turkish population had some 8.8 million radios and some 10.53 million television sets. 218 The Economy Tourism Turkey's long and varied sea coast, high mountains and lakes, and its many historical, religious, and archaeological sites (possibly including more Greek ruins than survive in Greece) give the country unrivaled tourist potential. Until the 1980s, Turkish tourism lagged far behind its counterparts in other Mediterranean countries, and visitors tended to stay for shorter periods of time and spend less money than in countries such as Spain, Portugal, and Greece. The Ozal government's promo- tion of tourism in the 1980s led to dramatic change. The num- ber of visitors grew rapidly during the 1980s and early 1990s, and Turkey was able to appeal to tourists from many different countries. Including business travelers, Turkey hosted about 1.3 million visitors in 1983 and 2.1 million in 1984, whereas Greece during the same period received at least 6 million and Spain 40 million visitors annually. By 1987 visits to Turkey had increased to about 2.9 million, and by 1992 close to 7 million. In the ear \f\ 980s, most tourists came from European coun- tries, especially Greece and West Germany, but the number of Middle Eastern tourists also increased. Even in the late 1980s, however, European tourists accounted for nearly 61 percent of total arrivals. By 1992 the European proportion had fallen to 45 percent.The largest increase was registered in tourists from the republics of the former Soviet Union. By 1992 they accounted for 43 percent of tourists, whereas the Middle East- ern share had shrunk from 11 percent to 8 percent. Regional origin is a good predictor of the type of tourism and destination. Middle-class Turks, who started to take vaca- tions in the early 1980s, usually prefer the beach resorts on the Aegean and Mediterranean seas. Tourists from Western Europe, Israel, and the United States tend to visit beaches and historical sites. East European tourists, particularly from the former Soviet Union, typically come to Istanbul or Black Sea towns to shop or barter goods. Tourists from Iran and other Middle Eastern countries generally take longer holidays in Istanbul and Bursa, also coming to shop in Turkey. Although tourism earnings reached US$770 million in 1985 and jumped to US$3.6 billion by 1992, the industry has been plagued by political, economic, and environmental problems. The fallout from the nuclear power plant disaster at Chernobyl in the Soviet Union, terrorist attacks by Kurdish insurgents, and economic problems in Europe and the Middle East have tended to discourage tourism. Turkey has attempted to over- 219 Turkey: A Country Study come these impediments by improving domestic services. The number of beds for visitors rose from about 49,000 in 1980 to about 206,000 in 1992, for example. The total will probably reach 600,000 by the end of the 1990s. One important effort, the South Antalya Project, involves transforming a seventy-four-kilometer stretch of Mediterranean beaches into a base for resort villages. Istanbul, the main tourist center, still lacks sufficient beds, however, and there is a tendency to concentrate on luxury hotels that are too expensive for middle-class tourists. Nevertheless, the mid-1990s saw a notice- able improvement in the average spending per day by tourists: US$141 compared with the world average of US$70-US$100. Shopping tours helped raise the average significantly. Foreign Economic Relations Foreign Trade Trade played a minor role in the economy until 1980 but grew rapidly thereafter, the sum of exports and imports reach- ing about 49 percent of GNP by 1985. By 1994 this total had fallen somewhat, to 42 percent of GNP. The trend toward increased trade had begun in the 1970s as imports increased — primarily as a result of the rise in oil prices — and limited incen- tives for exports were implemented. The turning point came after 1980, when a realistic exchange rate, strict monetary pol- icy, and efforts to strengthen bilateral cooperation with the country's trading partners led to sharply increased exports. Improvements in the balance of trade, in turn, allowed gradual liberalization of the import regime. Turkey's trade policy traditionally has been subordinate to the country's etatist development strategy. The demand for imports historically has exceeded the country's supply of for- eign currency, forcing the government to set up extensive con- trols to mobilize foreign exchange for products deemed essential for investment or production. As Turkish industry developed, the proportion of finished goods declined as a share of imports. Despite liberalization of import regulations after 1980, in the mid-1990s petroleum, machinery, and indus- trial raw materials continued to account for the bulk of Turkish imports. Turkey's export performance since 1980 has been particu- larly striking. Traditionally, Turkey has exported agricultural products and minerals. As of 1980, total merchandise exports 220 221 Turkey: A Country Study amounted to about US$2.9 billion, or 5 percent of GNP, of which 58 percent was agricultural products, 22 percent pro- cessed agricultural products and textiles, and 6.5 percent min- eral products. By 1992, when exports reached 17 percent of GNP, the share of processed and manufactured products had risen to 82 percent, whereas the share of agricultural exports had declined to 15.0 percent and that of minerals to 1.7 per- cent (see table 9, Appendix A). The shift in the structure of exports resulted largely from the trend toward domestic pro- cessing of agricultural products before exportation, which caused them to be reclassified as industrial exports. Textile exports also increased during the 1980s, becoming twice as important as agricultural exports by 1992. Observers had expected that limitations on textile imports implemented by industrialized countries would hamper growth in textile exports during the late 1980s, but special concessions by the United States in 1990 — related to compensation for Turkey's effort in the Persian Gulf crisis — helped open export markets even further. Industrial diversification has enabled Turkey to export a wide range of products, including rubber, plastics, petroleum products, glass, ceramics, and cement. Turkey's trade is largely with Organisation for Economic Co- operation and Development (OECD) members, particularly the European countries, notwithstanding a sharp upswing in trade with Middle Eastern oil-producing countries in the early 1980s. Exports to the EG increased from 35 percent of total exports in 1950 to almost 45 percent in 1992, while imports from the EC grew from 33 percent to about 40 percent during the same period. Turkey's most important trading partner, Ger- many, accounted for 15 percent of imports and 24 percent of exports in 1993. Trade with Middle Eastern countries increased considerably after 1970, partly as a result of Turkey's increased expenditures for petroleum imports, and peaked in 1982 at 45 percent of total trade, declining to about 15 percent by the early 1990s. Turkey's commerce with Iran and Iraq was important because they bought food and other products and provided petroleum to Turkey in exchange (see table 10, Appendix A). Turkey remained neutral in the Iran-Iraq War, hoping for further improvement in trade when the two coun- tries made peace. The embargo on Iraq after its invasion of Kuwait dramatically reduced Turkish-Iraqi trade. In 1988 Tur- key sent 8.8 percent of its exports to Iraq and bought 10 per- 222 The Economy cent of its imports from that country. Trade between the two countries was almost nonexistent in 1994. Trade with the United States was much greater in the 1950s and 1960s than in the 1970s and 1980s. In 1992 imports from the United States constituted a little over 11 percent of Tur- key's total imports, but exports to the United States repre- sented only 6 percent of Turkey's exports (see table 11, Appendix A). Although trade with the Soviet Union began in the 1930s and the Soviet Union supplied much aid, in 1992 imports from the former Soviet Union constituted less than 1 percent of Turkey's imports, while exports were about 5 per- cent of the total. Historically, trade with the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe had increased to more than 10 percent of total trade during periods, such as the late 1970s, when Turkey expe- rienced balance of payments difficulties. After 1980 Turkey shifted its emphasis in trade policy from strictly limiting imports to actively encouraging exports. In March 1985, Turkey signed the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which committed the country to abolish- ing most export subsidies over a three-year period. In January 1993, in accordance with its commitments under the GATT agreement, Turkey consolidated and reduced most import charges. Turkey and the EC entered into an association agreement on December 1, 1964, with the aim of full membership for Tur- key after the implementation of a customs union, which the Turkish government hoped would occur in 1995. Turkey's record in meeting the European body's tariff-reduction sched- ule has undergone several permutations. It was adhered to until 1976, when it was abandoned, only to be reinstituted in December 1987. Several Turkish industries — in particular the automobile industry — fear total integration, whereas the EU in the mid-1990s fears the competitive strength of the Turkish tex- tile industry. Balance of Payments Throughout the twentieth century, Turkey has suffered from a shortage of foreign exchange, a problem that has con- tinued despite the improved export performance of the 1980s and the early 1990s. During the 1950-80 period, three balance of payments crises followed periods of rapid economic growth. After the crisis of the late 1950s, brought on by inflationary financial policies and excessive use of short-term commercial 223 Turkey: A Country Study credits, Turkey received substantial aid from an OECD consor- tium, and the country's external debt had to be rescheduled. The foreign-exchange shortage of the 1960s was less the result of inflation than of increased demand for imports. The 1970 devaluation, along with increased workers' remittances during the early 1970s, sufficed to overcome the problem. Turkey's improved balance of payments status during the first half of the 1970s allowed the government to resort to foreign borrowing to finance rapid economic growth. However, the 1970 devalua- tion, government deficits, and the 1973 oil price increase wors- ened inflation. After 1976 Turkey tried several reform packages, none of which effectively addressed the underlying causes of the deficits. In 1979 Turkey's creditors had to reschedule some US$14 billion in debt in an arrangement that delayed repayments of principal for five years. The policy package introduced after 1980 enabled growth to resume, largely by improving the balance of trade. Exports grew at an annual average rate of more than 20 percent from 1980 to 1985, much more rapidly than imports, reducing the trade deficit from more than US$4.6 billion in 1980 to an aver- age of slightly less than US$3 billion a year from 1983 to 1985. Nevertheless, Turkey's merchandise trade balance remained in deficit because of continued high levels of imports. In 1993-94, Turkey experienced its fourth major balance of payments crisis in the past forty years, despite a decade of reforms and structural adjustment. An expansionist fiscal and monetary policy had led to a sharp deterioration in the trade balance in 1993 as imports soared to US$29 billion, while exports lagged sharply behind at US$15.6 billion (see table 12, Appendix A). A draconian adjustment program accompanied by an IMF standby agreement helped sharply reduce imports in 1994, but the trade deficit remained around US$4 billion and was projected at about the same level for 1995. Economic reforms had strengthened the services account of the balance of payments in the 1980s, although this increase was insufficient to offset the periodic deterioration of the trade account in the 1990s. Meanwhile, remittances from Turkish workers abroad remained an important source of foreign exchange. Remittances averaged roughly US$2 billion annually from 1980 to 1985 but fell during that period from a peak of almost US$2.5 billion in 1981 to US$1.7 billion in 1985. In the late 1980s, they once again recovered, reaching a level of US$3 billion during the first half of the 1990s. The flow of remit- 224 The Economy tances through legal channels is very sensitive to the real exchange rate and to foreign-exchange regulations. Tourism was a relatively small source of services income until 1985 when earnings jumped to US$770 million, reaching around US$4 billion in 1994 as investments in this sector paid off. Interest payments on Turkey's foreign debt, which aver- aged about US$1.5 billion from 1980 to 1985, grew to US$3.2 billion in 1990 and were US$3.6 billion in 1994. They remained a major burden on the services account. Turkey's deficit on the current account declined from US$3.4 billion in 1980 to about US$1 billion in 1985 as a result of the decline in the trade deficit and the increased surplus on the services account. Despite fluctuations mid-decade, by the end of the 1980s the current- account deficit was sharply reduced, although 1990 saw the deficit at US$2.6 billion as a result of high oil prices and loss of income stemming from the Persian Gulf War. Aid payments and certain policy measures led to a small surplus in 1991, but a lax fiscal and monetary pol- icy by 1993 pushed the deficit to its highest level at US$6.4 bil- lion. The policy measures enacted in coordination with the IMF helped the current account register a surplus of US$3 bil- lion in 1994. Turkey's capital account suffered from the heavy foreign- debt payments that came due in increasing amounts after 1985. Heavy borrowing in the late 1980s and early 1990s pushed prin- cipal payments up to US$4.4 billion in 1993, US$5.9 billion in 1994, and a projected US$7.7 billion in 1995. As a percent of exports of goods and services, Turkey's debt-service ratio rose to 33 percent in 1994, close to crisis levels. Domestic savings were insufficient for the country's develop- ment plans, making continued foreign borrowing necessary. Direct foreign investment averaged only US$70 million from 1980 to 1985, as foreign investors hesitated to put money into the country. The growth of emerging market funds in the developed countries, combined with Turkey's economic- and financial-sector reforms, had led to a sharp increase in foreign direct and portfolio investment in the 1990s. In 1994 such investments were estimated at US$300 million. However, the country's 1994 balance of payments crisis was expected to dampen near-term enthusiasm for Turkish stocks and bonds. Turkey's short-term debt increased in the mid- and late 1980s as the country scrambled to meet debt payments. In 1985 Turkey broke off negotiations with the IMF concerning a 225 Turkey: A Country Study standby agreement and turned to commercial banks for short-term loans. In 1986 alone, Turkey's outstanding short-term debt increased by more than 40 percent to at least US$9.4 billion. As a result, short-term debt amounted to about 33 percent of total foreign debt, a development that sparked concerns abroad. By early 1987, it was reported that some for- eign banks were limiting long-term loans to Turkey pending the outcome of the 1987 local elections. A similar situation transpired in 1993 in the run-up to the 1994 local elections. Short-term debt jumped from US$9.5 billion in 1990 to US$12.7 billion in 1992 and US$18.5 billion in 1993. The aus- terity measures enacted by the government and a surplus on the current account helped reduce the short-term debt to US$12.6 billion by the end of 1994, when long-term debt was US$52.8 billion. A little more than half of this amount was owed to private-sector creditors, which was a sign of the success of the economic reforms of the 1980s. Nonetheless, bilateral and multilateral creditors accounted for nearly US$18 billion. The relative shares of private and public creditors were expected to change during the mid-1990s as Turkey was obliged to borrow more from international agencies to stabi- lize its balance of payments. Regional Economic Integration After 1980 Turkey's need for foreign markets led the coun- try to try to strengthen cooperation with trading partners worldwide. Trade ties with the Middle East received particular attention under Ozal, but Turkish businesspeople also worked to improve trade with countries in North America, East Asia, and Eastern Europe. In the protectionist climate of the mid- and late 1980s, policy makers also took up proposals for regional integration with the economies of Turkey's West Euro- pean and Middle Eastern neighbors. For many years, Turkish policy makers and politicians had expressed interest in closer multilateral cooperation with other Islamic countries, especially with oil-producing Middle Eastern states. Starting in the late 1970s, Turkey's increased attention to Middle Eastern markets boosted exports of manufactured goods and construction services, attracted tourists from Middle Eastern countries, and provided additional sources of foreign direct investment and commercial financing. During the early 1980s, exports to Iran, Iraq, Libya, and Saudi Arabia grew rap- idly but then declined again after 1982 as oil revenues fell. In 226 Fatih Bridge over the Bosporus in Istanbul Courtesy Hermine Dreyfus s the mid-1980s, Turkey served as a conduit for West European exports to Iran under a countertrade arrangement according to which Turkey received oil and other commodities in exchange for manufactures. Trade with Iraq was reduced after the latter announced in late 1985 that it could not make more than US$1.2 billion in payments, thereby forcing credit from Turkey. Although the Turks remained open to discussions of an "Islamic common market," disappointment with Middle Eastern markets in the mid-1980s refocused their attention on upgrading economic ties with Western Europe. During the early 1970s, both European countries and Tur- key adhered to the terms of a 1973 protocol for reducing trade barriers. The EC began granting preferential treatment to most Turkish agricultural imports, and Turkey was given a period of twenty-two years to align its agricultural policies with the EC's Common Agricultural Policy (see Glossary). In 1977, 227 Turkey: A Country Study however, Turkey stopped reducing tariffs on EC goods because of the deterioration of the domestic economy. By the late 1970s, relations had deteriorated between Turkey and the EC. The EC imposed quotas and other restrictions on certain Turk- ish imports, including cotton yarn and T-shirts; in retaliation, Turkey applied levies on imports of European iron and steel. In 1980 the military coup froze relations between Turkey and the EC, although the EC continued to apply the commercial provisions of the association agreement. After 1981 the EC sus- pended financial assistance in the amount of 600 million Euro- pean Currency Units (see Glossary) because of reservations concerning human rights violations under Turkey's military government. After Turkey's return to civilian government in 1983, politi- cal relations between Turkey and the EC countries began to improve, and in September 1986 the EC-Turkey Association Council held its first meeting since the 1980 coup. In early 1987, West European diplomats seemed to be united in urging Turkey to pursue the advantages offered by the association agreement, including the provision for a customs union by 1995, before making an application for membership. In April 1987, the Ozal government overrode both Turkish hesitation and European misgivings and made a formal application for EC membership. The European Commission issued an official opinion on the Turkish application in December 1989, which was later adopted unchanged by the community's Council of Ministers. In this opinion, the commission proposed that nego- tiations should not begin until 1993. Negotiations thereafter led the EU to vote for Turkey's inclusion in the free-trade area in 1995. Some observers have postulated that the EU will never admit Turkey. In addition to criticizing Turkey's human rights policies, they cite three main reasons. First, the level of indus- trialization in Turkey lags behind that of the European econo- mies. Second, the degree of budgetary transfers from the EU necessary to lift Turkey to the levels of even the poorest Euro- pean countries would place a huge burden on Europe's resources. Third, given that entry into the union permits labor mobility, Turkey's economic structure, relatively high unem- ployment, and low wages particularly discourage Europeans at a time when violence in Europe against foreigners has increased dramatically, mainly as a result of high levels of job- lessness there. 228 The Economy Since the fall of the Soviet Union, Turkey has shown a keen interest in developing strong economic ties with the states of Central Asia, the Caucasus, and the Black Sea region. In 1990 Turkey and the other states — Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Georgia, Greece, Moldova, Romania, Russia, and Ukraine — surrounding the Black Sea initiated the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) project to broaden and deepen coopera- tion and trade relations among themselves, nonmember states, and other regional structures. Despite obstacles, on June 24, 1992, a basic structure, including concrete plans for integra- tion, was articulated. The most ambitious aspect of the BSEC is an attempt to create a free-trade area to promote easy move- ment of capital, labor, and goods. The wide range of generally complementary economies in the BSEC area is seen as a factor encouraging integration. Nonetheless, one important differ- ence among the economies — particularly between the Turkish economy and those of the republics of the former Soviet Union — is that many of them are only in the early stages of transition from statist structures. Some observers consider this an impediment to smooth integration. Another major project of the BSEC is the creation of a development bank to finance projects in the region. Some observers, however, have noted that in a capital-poor area the ability of such an institution to mobilize sufficient funds from within the region must be doubted. Outlook Regionally, Turkey faces a host of potential political and security threats, largely as a consequence of the end of the Cold War and conflicts in the Middle East, which have forced the government to devote extensive resources to the military. Also, Turkey's attempts to forge regional cooperation arrange- ments and exploit economic opportunities have been largely stillborn. Strong nationalist sentiment at home, combined with a poor human rights record, also contributes to an uncertain domestic economic future. The Kurdish insurgency has taken its toll on government resources and foreign confidence. Tur- key's long-standing attempt to integrate its economy into that of Europe has been jeopardized by the opposition of European governments to Turkey's incursion into Iraq in late 1994 and its repression of its Kurdish population. Despite setbacks, the steady liberalization of the economy and integration into the world economy begun by former Pres- 229 Turkey: A Country Study ident Ozal has continued without interruption. Turkey's trade sector accounts for a growing proportion of GDP, and foreign funds are a major source of investment. Despite crises in mid- 1994 such as the devaluation of the currency, the stock market crash, and a number of bank failures, Turkey has been desig- nated a major emerging market by the main international financial centers. And because a large proportion of foreign investments has gone into industrialization, most observers have expressed confidence in the economy and the govern- ment's ability to steer it carefully toward the objective of mak- ing Turkey a major regional and international industrial power. * * * The OECD's annual economic survey, Turkey, is an authori- tative and readily available summary of the Turkish economy that includes up-to-date statistical tables. The International Energy Agency's Energy Statistics and Balances ofOECD Countries provides energy sector data on Turkey. Economic data on Tur- key can also be found in the publications of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. The Turkish weekly journal Briefing provides insightful, lively, and independent analysis of the Turkish economy. Among non-Turkish journals, regular economic and political coverage can be found in the Financial Times, Middle East Eco- nomic Digest, and the Economist Intelligence Unit's annual Country Profile: Turkey. The Middle East Journal and Middle East Report offer in-depth articles on Turkey. Three excellent books on Turkey that include discussion of the economic and politi- cal consequences of structural adjustment are Ziya Onis and James Riedel's Economic Crises and Long-Term Growth in Turkey, F.T. Nas and Mehmet Odekon's Liberalization and the Turkish Economy, and The Political and Socioeconomic Transformation of Turkey by Atila Eralp et al. (For further information and com- plete citations, see Bibliography.) 230 Chapter 4. Government and Politics Double-headed eagle, symbol of the ancient Seljuk Turks TURKEYS POLITICAL SWEM faced four distinct but inter- twined challenges in early 1995: accommodating the disaf- fected Kurdish ethnic minority; reconciling the growing differences, expressed with increasing stridency, between the secular elite and groups using traditional Islamic symbols to manifest their opposition to the political status quo; establish- ing firm civilian control over the military, which had a long his- tory of intervening in the political process; and strengthening weak democratic practices and institutions. Turkey displays the trappings of a Western-style democratic government: a legisla- ture whose deputies are elected by secret ballot, multiple and competitive political parties, and relatively free news media. However, Turkey also is a country where, on three occasions since 1960, military coups have overthrown elected civilian gov- ernments. The most recent military government, which seized power in September 1980, governed for three years. During the period of military rule, strict limits were imposed on per- sonal and political rights and liberties. Political parties were banned, and prominent civilian politicians were barred from participating in political activity for up to ten years. The mili- tary justified its intervention on the premise that it was return- ing the country to the principles of Kemal Atatiirk (see Ataturk and the Turkish Nation, ch. 1). The supervised restoration of civilian rule began in Novem- ber 1983 with National Assembly elections for which every can- didate needed to obtain military approval. A civilian government with Turgut Ozal as prime minister was formed after Ozal's Motherland Party (Anavatan Partisi — ANAP) won a majority of the seats in the new assembly. Ozal worked with the president, General Kenan Evren, a leader of the 1980 coup, to reestablish the primacy of civilian authority. By November 1987, martial law decrees had been repealed in most of Turkey except Istanbul and the predominantly Kurdish provinces of the southeast, and the military refrained from interfering in the selection of candidates for National Assembly and local elections. The strengthening of democratic practices, however, was hindered by a lack of consensus within the political elite on the issue of granting cultural freedom and local government autonomy to the country's Kurdish minority. The Kurdish ques- 233 Turkey: A Country Study tion began to reemerge in 1984 after the Kurdistan Workers' Party (Partiya Karkere Kurdistan — PKK) initiated armed strug- gle against the state by attacking rural police posts in southeast- ern Turkey. The military's inability to suppress the militant PKK, combined with the international media attention gener- ated in 1988 by the arrival of tens of thousands of Iraqi Kurdish refugees fleeing chemical weapons attacks by their own govern- ment, made the Kurdish situation a leading topic of public dis- course. Ozal, whom the National Assembly elected president in 1989, became the first prominent politician to acknowledge openly that the Kurds were not merely "mountain Turks" but a separate ethnic group whose culture merited respect. Kurdish politicians opposed to the violent tactics and separatist ideol- ogy of the PKK responded by participating actively in the Social Democratic Party (Sosyal Demokrat Parti — Sodep) and the Social Democratic Populist Party (Sosyal Demokrat Halkci Parti — SHP). Following the October 1991 National Assembly elections, a group of SHP-aligned Kurdish deputies, who previ- ously had formed the People's Labor Party (Halkin Emek Par- tisi — HEP) to promote the full equality of Kurds and Turks within Turkey, organized themselves as a separate parliamen- tary party. However, many Turkish leaders were unable to dis- tinguish between a separate Kurdish political party and a Kurdish separatist movement, and they campaigned to have the HEP banned and its members arrested, even though HEP deputies enjoyed parliamentary immunity. In a severe blow to democratic procedures, seven Kurdish deputies were arrested in March 1994; they were sentenced to long prison terms in December after being convicted of "crimes against the state." During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the intensification of the PKK insurgency in southeastern Turkey tended to enhance the status of the military as the guardian of the country's terri- torial integrity and security. Consequently, Turkish politicians tended to treat the armed forces cautiously, apparently as part of a strategy to dissuade senior officers from initiating yet another coup. Civilian wariness was evident in the govern- ment's acquiescence to a number of extrajudicial measures that violated basic due process rights, for example, military censorship of news coverage of operations against the Kurdish guerrillas. In 1993 and 1994, scores of Turkish journalists whose reportage was perceived by the military as endangering state security were detained for trials in special military courts. The military also forcibly deported more than 150,000 Kurds 234 Government and Politics from some 850 villages in the southeast. Most of the evicted vil- lagers subsequently resettled in the cities of western Turkey, where as many as one-half of the country's Kurdish minority was estimated to be residing in 1994. The presence of so many Kurds in Ankara, Istanbul, Izmir, and other large cities has con- tributed to a transformation of the Kurdish situation from a regional problem to a national one, whose characteristics include increasing ethnic polarization between Kurds and Turks. Another cause of polarization is the ideological competi- tion between Turkey's elite, which is imbued with the secular philosophy of Ataturk, and a new generation of grassroots lead- ers, influenced by Islamic ideas. Islamic political activists began organizing in 1983, after the government authorized the for- mation of political parties, and subsequently founded the Wel- fare Party (Refah Partisi — RP; also seen as Prosperity Party). Its candidates competed in both national and local elections, cam- paigning in middle- and lower-class urban neighborhoods with a consistent message. They blamed the country's economic and political problems on the alleged indifference of secular lead- ers to Muslim values. The Welfare Party steadily increased its share of the popular vote, and won more than sixty seats out of a total of 450 in the 1991 National Assembly elections. In nationwide local elections held in March 1994, Welfare Party candidates won 19 percent of the total vote, placing the party third behind the ruling True Path Party (Dogru Yol Partisi — DYP) of President Svileyman Demirel and Prime Minister Tansu (filler and the main opposition Motherland Party. The Welfare Party's electoral successes included winning the mayor's office in Ankara, Istanbul, and twenty-seven other major cities, as well as in 400 smaller municipalities, including almost all the towns in the Kurdish provinces of the southeast. In early 1995, Turkey was still in the process of trying to redefine its regional foreign policy in the wake of the two major international developments on its borders during 1991: the Persian Gulf War fought by the United States-led interna- tional coalition against Iraq and the unexpected collapse of the Soviet Union. Turkey's de facto participation in the Persian Gulf War — Ankara permitted United States aircraft to use a Turkish air base for bombing missions over Iraq — helped to strengthen ties with the United States, a fellow member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO — see Glossary). However, the aftermath of that same war — hundreds of thou- 235 Turkey: A Country Study sands of Iraqi Kurds trying to flee into Turkey following the collapse of their uprising against the Iraqi government — was one of the factors that contributed to the intensification of the Kurdish problem within Turkey. The military efforts to sup- press the PKK and the political efforts to silence Kurdish politi- cal leaders prompted international human rights organizations to accuse the Turkish government of systematic human rights violations. These charges complicated relations with the Euro- pean Union (EU — see Glossary), an economic organization that Turkey aspired to join as a full member, because several EU countries opposed Turkish membership on grounds that the country's practice of democracy fell short of EU standards. In addition, Turkey and its neighbor Greece, an EU state and a member of NATO, had failed to resolve their dispute over the status of Cyprus and their conflicting offshore claims in the Aegean Sea. The consequences of the Soviet Union's dissolution poten- tially are more promising for Turkish diplomacy than the con- sequences of the Persian Gulf War. The fifteen countries that replaced the Soviet Union include five Asian states whose peo- ples speak Turkic languages. Ozal and his successor as presi- dent, Demirel, promoted Turkey as a political and economic model for these Turkic-speaking countries. In keeping with this role, they sought to expand Turkey's influence through numer- ous bilateral agreements pertaining to cultural and economic relations. However, the long-term success of Turkey's efforts is not assured because both Iran and Russia are trying to extend or maintain their respective influence in Azerbaijan and Cen- tral Asia. Initially, Turkish leaders seemed to welcome the pros- pect of competition with Iran for influence in the region, and they confidently asserted the superiority of their secular state over Iran's Islamic model. By the end of 1993, however, Tur- key — perhaps out of concern about Russian intentions — began to stress the need to work with Iran through multilateral regional arrangements such as the Economic Cooperation Organization. The Constitutional System The government of Turkey functions in accordance with the constitution of 1982, which was drafted and adopted dur- ing the period of military rule following the September 1980 coup. The National Security Council (NSC — see Glossary), composed of the commanders of the army, navy, air force, and 236 Government and Politics gendarmerie, and headed by the president, established a Con- sultative Assembly in June 1981 to draft a new constitution. This assembly consisted of 160 members, forty of whom were appointed directly by the NSC and the remaining 120 selected from a list of about 10,000 names compiled with the aid of pro- vincial governors. In July 1982, a fifteen-member constitutional committee of the Consultative Assembly produced a draft that subsequently was amended by the Consultative Assembly and the NSC. The constitution was submitted to a public referen- dum on November 7 and approved by 91.4 percent of the vot- ers; 91.3 percent of the registered electorate cast ballots. A factor in this high turnout was Provisional Article 16 of the con- stitution, which stipulated that registered voters who failed to vote would lose their electoral rights for five years. The 1982 constitution replaced the constitution of 1961, which also had been drafted following a military coup (see The Armed Forces Group and Interim Rule, 1960-61, ch. 1). Under the 1961 constitution, an elaborate system of checks and bal- ances had limited the authority of the government; the powers of the president were curtailed, and individual rights and liber- ties were given greater emphasis. In contrast, the 1982 constitu- tion expands the authority of the president and circumscribes the exercise of individual and associational rights. The 1982 constitution also limits the role and influence of political par- ties, which are governed by more detailed and restrictive regu- lations than under the 1961 document. For example, political parties are required to obtain a minimum percentage of the total vote cast before any candidates on their lists can qualify for seats in the National Assembly. The 1982 constitution also provides for the enactment of electoral laws to regulate the for- mation of parties and the rules for their participation in elec- tions. Provisions of the 1982 Constitution Article 2 of the 1982 constitution stipulates that the Repub- lic of Turkey is a "democratic, secular, and social state governed by the rule of law," respecting human rights and loyal to the political philosophy of Kemal Atatiirk. Article 5 vests sover- eignty in the nation, stipulating that it is not to be delegated to "any individual, group, or class." The fundamental objective and duty of the state is defined as safeguarding the indepen- dence and integrity of the democratic Turkish nation and ensuring "the welfare, peace, and happiness of the individual 237 Turkey: A Country Study and society." The constitution divides the powers of the state among the three branches of government. The legislative branch consists of a unicameral parliament, the National Assembly, composed of 400 members (later increased by amendment to 450) elected to five-year terms. The executive branch consists of the president, who is elected to a seven-year term by the National Assembly, and a prime minister, who is appointed by the president from among National Assembly deputies. The prime minister heads the Council of Ministers, members of which are nominated by the prime minister and appointed by the president. The judicial branch is indepen- dent of the legislature and the executive. Like its predecessor, the 1982 constitution includes a detailed bill of rights covering the social, economic, and politi- cal rights and liberties of citizens. According to Article 5, all individuals are equal before the law and possess "inherent fun- damental rights and freedoms which are inviolable and inalien- able." However, articles 10 through 15 authorize the government to restrict individual rights in the interest of safe- guarding the "integrity of the state" and "the public interest." The government may impose further limitations on individual rights "in times of war, martial law, or state of emergency." Articles 28 and 67 of the 1982 constitution stipulate that the individual is entitled to privacy and to freedom of thought and communication, travel, and association; that the physical integ- rity of the individual must not be violated; that torture and forced labor are prohibited; that all persons have access to the courts and are assumed innocent until proven guilty; that all Turkish citizens over twenty years of age have the right to vote in elections and to take part in referenda; and that the news media are free and not liable to censorship, except by a court order when national security or the "indivisible integrity of the state" are threatened. According to articles 35, 44, and 46, all citizens have the right to own and inherit property. The state is obligated to provide land to landless farmers or to farmers with insufficient land, and, if the public interest so requires, the state may expropriate private property, provided that compen- sation is paid in advance. Articles 49 through 54 of the 1982 constitution pertain to labor. The constitution stipulates that it is the right and duty of all people of working age to work and that all have the freedom to work in the field of their choice. The state is given responsi- bility to take necessary measures to raise the standard of living 238 Government and Politics of workers, to protect them, and to create suitable economic conditions for the prevention of unemployment. Workers have the right to rest and leisure; minors, women, and people with disabilities are to be provided special protection at work. Work- ers and employers are free to form labor unions and employ- ers' associations without prior permission, but no one may be compelled to join a union or association. Workers are allowed to bargain collectively and to strike, but not in a manner "detri- mental to society." General and politically motivated strikes are prohibited. According to Article 42, primary education is compulsory and free in public schools. Only Turkish may be taught as the primary language, and all schools must follow the principles and reforms of Atatiirk. Education is to be based on "contem- porary science and education methods" and is provided under the supervision and control of the state. The state provides scholarships and other means of assistance "to enable students of merit lacking financial means to continue their education." Article 24 guarantees freedom of religion, provided that the exercise of this right does not threaten the "indivisible integrity of the state." No one may be compelled to worship or to partic- ipate in religious ceremonies or rites. Primary and secondary schools are required to provide religious instruction under state supervision and control. Secularism, a primary principle of Ataturk's reforms, is reaffirmed in the provision forbidding "even partially basing the fundamental, social, economic, polit- ical, and legal order of the state on religious tenets." Articles 68 and 69 of the 1982 constitution stipulate that cit- izens may form or join political parties without prior permis- sion from the government. However, political parties must act according to the principles of the constitution and may be dis- solved by the Constitutional Court if that body determines that their activities "conflict with the indivisible integrity of the state." Political parties may not have ties with any association, union, or professional organization. Judges, teachers at institu- tions of higher education, students, civil servants, and mem- bers of the armed forces may not join political parties. Other articles of the constitution obligate citizens to pay taxes and to render national service in the armed forces or elsewhere in the public sector, grant them the right to petition competent authorities and the National Assembly for redress of complaints, and stipulate that the constitutionality of all laws and decrees is subject to review by the Constitutional Court. To 239 Turkey: A Country Study amend the constitution, at least one-third of the members of the National Assembly first must propose an amendment. The actual proposal then must win the votes of a two-thirds majority of all members of the assembly. If the amendment is vetoed by the president, the votes of a three-quarters majority of the members are required to override the veto. The 1982 constitution also included a set of provisional arti- cles, the first of which stipulated that the chair of the NSC and head of state would become president of the republic for seven years following approval of the constitution in a referendum. Another provisional article stipulated that the NSC would be transformed into an advisory Presidential Council after the for- mation of a civilian government following elections for the National Assembly. This Presidential Council would function for a period of six years and then be dissolved. Yet another pro- visional article made permanent a 1981 NSC decree that barred more than 200 politicians from joining new political parties or becoming candidates for a period of ten years. Some of the provisional articles were later rescinded. Once the 1982 constitution had been approved but before it was implemented, the NSC in April 1983 issued a Political Par- ties Law (Law No. 2820) that placed further restrictions on political activities. This law, which was intended to regulate the formation of political parties in advance of the November 1983 National Assembly elections, stipulates that political organiza- tions cannot be based on class, religion, race, or language dis- tinctions. To qualify for registration, a political party is required to have at least thirty founders, each of whom must be approved by the minister of interior. New political parties are prohibited from claiming to be continuations of any parties in existence before 1980. The law also requires each party to establish organizations in at least half the country's provinces and in one-third of the districts within those provinces. Politi- cal parties are prohibited from criticizing the military interven- tion of September 1980 or the actions or decisions of the NSC. The Political Parties Law empowers the NSC and its successor, the Presidential Council, to investigate all party members and candidates for office and to declare any unsuitable. Electoral System The 1982 constitution stipulates that elections are to be held on the basis of free universal suffrage with direct, equal, and secret balloting. Ballots are to be sorted and counted pub- 240 Government and Politics licly under the supervision of judicial authorities. The Supreme Electoral Council, composed of eleven judges elected by the Court of Appeals (also known as the Court of Cassation) and the Council of State from among their own members, has jurisdiction over all electoral proceedings. The Supreme Elec- toral Council is empowered to rule in cases of complaints con- cerning the validity of elections and may declare a particular election invalid. The executive and legislative branches of the government are prohibited from exercising any control over the electoral process. Prior to the first elections under the new constitution, the NSC issued the Electoral Law of June 1983 (Law No. 2839), which stipulates that only parties obtaining 10 percent or more of the total national vote can be represented in the National Assembly. Law No. 2839 maintains the system of proportional representation on a provincial basis, but subdivides the more populous provinces for electoral purposes so that no single constituency can elect more than seven deputies. Each prov- ince automatically is assigned at least one seat, regardless of population. These measures work to the advantage of the larger parties and the rural provinces. Government Following the military coup of September 1980, Turkey was ruled by the NSC, a five-member collective body representing all branches of the armed forces. The NSC scheduled the first elections under the 1982 constitution for November 1983. The new National Assembly convened soon after the elections, and subsequently a civilian government consisting of a prime minis- ter and a Council of Ministers was formed. In late 1983 and early 1984, the NSC turned over its executive and legislative functions to these new institutions. National Assembly The 1982 constitution vests the power to enact legislation in the unicameral National Assembly (Millet Meclis). The first National Assembly, consisting of 400 deputies, was elected in November 1983 to a five-year term. The new Motherland Party headed by Turgut Ozal won a majority of seats (211) and formed Turkey's first civilian government since the 1980 coup. In 1987 Ozal convinced the National Assembly to adjourn itself one year short of its five-year mandate and hold new elections, 241 Turkey: A Country Study a procedure that is permitted under the constitution. Prior to these elections, the assembly approved two constitutional amendments that affected its future structure and composi- tion. One amendment expanded the assembly from 400 to 450 seats. A second amendment repealed the provisional article of the constitution that had banned more than 200 political lead- ers from all political activity for a ten-year period ending in 1991. This article had permitted the military to retain a degree of control over the electoral process, both at the national and local levels. Its repeal enabled Turkey's best-known politicians, including Suleyman Demirel and Biilent Ecevit, to participate openly in the electoral process. Consequently the National Assembly elections held in November 1987 constituted the first genuinely free balloting in the country since the 1980 coup. Ozal's party won a majority (292 of 450 seats) in the 1987 assembly elections, and he continued to head the government until 1989, when he was elected president. In 1991 the National Assembly again voted to schedule elections one year early. However, as a result of the October balloting, the Mother- land Party won only 24 percent of the vote, coming in second behind Demirel's True Path Party, which obtained 27 percent of the vote. Because none of the political parties had won a clear majority, Demirel obtained the agreement of the Social Democratic Populist Party to form a coalition government. The next National Assembly elections are due to be held in October 1996. Although the constitution stipulates that by-elections to fill vacant seats may be held once between general elections — unless the number of vacancies reaches 5 percent of the total assembly membership — the National Assembly has not sched- uled such elections on a regular basis. The assembly holds a convocation following elections, but does not open its annual legislative term until the first day of September. By law, it can- not be in recess for more than three months in a year. Article 93 of the constitution empowers the president during an assembly adjournment to summon the deputies for an extraor- dinary session, either on his or her own initiative or at the writ- ten request of one-fifth of the members. The National Assembly's powers include exclusive authority to enact, amend, and repeal laws. It also can pass legislation over the veto of the president. The assembly supervises the Council of Ministers and authorizes it to issue government decrees. The assembly is responsible for debating and approv- 242 Government and Politics ing the government's budget and making decisions pertaining to the printing of currency. In addition, the assembly approves the president's ratification of international treaties and has authority to declare war. The constitution stipulates that the assembly can request that the executive respond to written questions, investigations, and interpellations, and can vote the Council of Ministers out of office. According to Article 76 of the constitution, every Turkish citizen over the age of thirty is eligible to be a National Assem- bly deputy, provided that he or she has completed primary edu- cation and has not been convicted of a serious crime or been involved in "ideological and anarchistic activities." In addition, men are required to have performed their compulsory military service. Members of higher judicial and education institutions as well as civil servants and members of the armed forces must resign from office before standing for election. Article 80 of the constitution stipulates that deputies represent the whole nation, not just their own constituencies. Articles 83 and 84 of the constitution grant deputies parlia- mentary immunities, such as freedom of speech and, with some qualifications, freedom from arrest. These freedoms were put to a severe test in March 1994, when the National Assembly voted to strip the parliamentary immunities of seven deputies who had spoken out within the assembly on behalf of civil rights for the country's Kurdish minority. The seven deputies were arrested at the door of the National Assembly building in Ankara and charged with making speeches that constituted "crimes against the state." Articles 83 and 84 also provide for a deputy to be deprived of membership in the National Assembly by vote of an absolute majority of its members. Furthermore, a deputy who resigns from his or her political party after an election may not be nominated as a candidate in the next election by any party in existence at the time of that resignation. As was also the case before the 1980 coup, deputies in the National Assembly in early 1995 typically were fairly young, well-educated members of the elite, with as many as two-thirds having college degrees. However, since 1983 there has been a shift in occupational representation away from a predomi- nance of government officials. In the three assemblies elected starting in 1983, a large percentage of deputies were lawyers, engineers, businesspeople, and economists (see The Changing National Elite, ch. 2). 243 Turkey: A Country Study President, Council of Ministers, and Prime Minister The 1982 constitution vests executive authority in the presi- dent, who is the designated head of state. The president ensures implementation of the constitution and the orderly functioning of the government (see fig. 12). The president serves a seven-year term and cannot be reelected. Under a pro- visional article of the constitution, General Evren, who was chair of the NSC, automatically assumed the presidency when the constitution took effect at the end of 1982. Article 102 of the constitution provides the procedures for electing subse- quent presidents, who must be chosen by the National Assem- bly from among its members. A deputy nominated for the presidency must obtain a two-thirds majority vote of the assem- bly. If a two-thirds majority cannot be obtained on the first two ballots, a third ballot is held, requiring only an absolute major- ity of votes. If a presidential candidate fails to obtain a majority on the third ballot, a fourth and final ballot is held, the choice being between the two candidates who received the greatest number of votes on the third ballot. If this procedure fails to produce a winner, new assembly general elections must be held immediately. When Evren's seven-year term ended in November 1989, the assembly failed to produce a two-thirds vote for any candi- date on the first two ballots. Prime Minister Turgut Ozal won a majority on the third ballot and became Turkey's second presi- dent under the 1982 constitution. Ozal died of a heart attack in April 1993 before completing his term in office. In the subse- quent assembly vote for a new president, no candidate won a two-thirds majority on the first two ballots. Suleyman Demirel, who had become prime minister in November 1991, garnered the simple majority required for the third ballot and became the country's third president since the 1980 coup. A candidate for president must have completed secondary education and must be at least forty years old. Articles 101 and 102 of the constitution provide that a presidential candidate can be nominated from outside the membership of the National Assembly if the candidate meets the stipulated qualifi- cations and if the nomination is presented to the assembly in the form of a written resolution that has the endorsement of at least one-fifth of the deputies. In accordance with the require- ment that the president-elect terminate relations with his or her political party, both Ozal and Demirel resigned as heads of 244 Government and Politics their respective parties following their election to the presi- dency. The 1982 constitution gives the president a stronger and more extensive role than did the 1961 constitution, under which the presidency was a largely ceremonial office. The pres- ident is empowered to summon meetings of the National Assembly, promulgate laws, and ratify international treaties. The president also may veto legislation passed by the National Assembly, submit constitutional amendments proposed by the assembly to popular referenda, and challenge the constitution- ality of assembly laws and cabinet decrees. The president's responsibilities include appointing the prime minister, conven- ing and presiding over meetings of the Council of Ministers, and calling for new elections to the National Assembly. The president also is authorized to dispatch the Turkish armed forces for domestic or foreign military missions and to declare martial law The constitution also provides the president with appointive powers that he or she may exercise independently of the Coun- cil of Ministers. For example, the president is empowered to appoint the members of the Constitutional Court, one-quarter of the members of the Council of State, all diplomatic repre- sentatives, the chief of the General Staff, members of the Supreme Military Administrative Court, the Supreme Council of Judges and Public Prosecutors, the State Supervisory Coun- cil, the Council of Higher Education, and all university presi- dents. The president may be impeached for high treason at the recommendation of one-third of the members of the National Assembly and removed from office by the vote of a three-quar- ters majority. Otherwise, Article 105 of the constitution stipu- lates that "no appeal shall be made to any legal authority, including the Constitutional Court, against the decisions and orders signed by the president of the Republic on his own ini- tiative." The constitution also provides for the establishment of a State Supervisory Council to conduct investigations and inspections of public organizations at the president's request. The president presides over the National Security Council, a body that contains civilian as well as military members. It should not be confused with the former NSC, an all-military body, which ruled the country following thel980 coup and sub- sequently became the advisory Presidential Council. The present National Security Council is composed of the prime 245 Turkey: A Country Study MILITARY COURTS COURT HALS >■ 5- rr o. ILITAI OF A ?ITY S o t STATE SE COUR IVIL URTS 8 1 SINGLE JUDGE COURTS -J CRIMINA IRTS JUDGE RTS ENTRAL COL SINGLE COU u e 2 <0 g D. R LU CO < UJ o z < Bfs °§ o £ d. £ m h m J < < => o JZih )0 ON i 246 Government and Politics minister, the chief of the General Staff, the ministers of national defense, interior, and foreign affairs, and the com- manders of the branches of the armed forces and the gen- darmerie. This body sets national security policy and coordinates all activities related to mobilization and defense. An advisory Presidential Council, composed of the armed forces commanders who had joined Evren in the 1980 military coup and the military government that lasted until 1983, con- tinued to advise the president until 1989. At that time, in accor- dance with the provisional articles appended to the 1982 constitution, the Presidential Council was dissolved (see Politi- cal Developments since the 1980 Coup, this ch.). The Council of Ministers, or cabinet, is headed by the prime minister, who is appointed by the president from among the elected deputies of the National Assembly. In practice, the president asks the head of the party with the largest number of deputies to form a government. The prime minister then nom- inates ministers for appointment by the president. Within one week of being selected, each new cabinet must be presented to the full assembly for a vote of confidence; a simple majority is required. If at any time during the Council of Ministers' tenure an absolute majority of the assembly should support a motion of no confidence, the ministers must resign. In the event that no party obtains a majority in National Assembly elections, a coalition of parties is allowed up to six weeks to form a govern- ment. If no new cabinet can be formed within forty-five days, the president may dissolve the assembly and call for new elec- tions. The prime minister supervises the implementation of gov- ernment policy. Members of the Council of Ministers have joint and equal responsibility for the implementation of this policy. In addition, each minister is responsible for the conduct of affairs under his or her jurisdiction and for the actions of sub- ordinates. In early 1995, the prime minister was Tansu Ciller, the first woman to hold this office. Her cabinet consists of a deputy prime minister and the following ministers: agriculture and rural affairs, communications and transport, culture, edu- cation, energy and natural resources, environment, finance, foreign affairs, forestry, health, industry and trade, interior, jus- tice, labor, national defense, public works and housing, and tourism, (filler's Council of Ministers also includes a number of ministers of state with cabinet rank. 247 Turkey: A Country Study In the area of national defense, the Council of Ministers is responsible to the assembly for national security and for the readiness of the armed forces. However, the president nor- mally serves as commander in chief of the armed forces. With the president as chair, the cabinet is empowered to declare martial law or a state of emergency and to issue decrees without restriction during such periods. The 1982 constitution strengthens the role of the Council of Ministers vis-a-vis the National Assembly by empowering the cabinet to issue regulations pertaining to the implementation of laws. However, the cabinet also is weakened in terms of its relationship to the president. The constitution grants the presi- dent the right to dismiss any minister upon the suggestion of the prime minister. In effect, individual ministers are subject to removal at the discretion of either the president or the prime minister. Judiciary Since legal reforms instituted in 1926, Turkey's judicial sys- tem has been based on the Swiss Civil Code, the Italian Penal Code, and the Neuchatel (Swiss) Code of Civil Procedure. The 1982 constitution guarantees judicial independence and pro- hibits any government agency or individual from interfering with the operations of the courts and judges. Members of the National Assembly also are not allowed to discuss or make state- ments concerning pending court cases. Although trials nor- mally are held in open court, the constitution provides that they can be closed "for reasons of public morality or public security." Headed by the minister of justice, the High Council of Judges and Public Prosecutors is the principal body charged with responsibility for ensuring judicial integrity. This council acts on matters pertaining to the careers of judges, including appointments, promotions, transfers, and supervision. The high council is empowered to remove judges and abolish courts and the offices of judges and public prosecutors. How- ever, judges themselves are protected against arbitrary removal from office by a constitutional provision stipulating that they cannot be dismissed without due cause or retired involuntarily before age sixty-five. In early 1995, Turkey's legal system consisted of three types of courts: judicial, military, and administrative. Each system includes courts of first instance and appellate courts. In addi- 248 Government and Politics tion, a Court of Jurisdictional Disputes rules on cases that can- not be classified readily as falling within the purview of one court system. The judicial courts form the largest part of the system; they handle most civil and criminal cases involving ordinary citi- zens. The two supreme courts within the judicial system are the Constitutional Court and the Court of Appeals. The Constitutional Court reviews the constitutionality of laws and decrees at the request of the president or of one-fifth of the members of the National Assembly. Its decisions on the constitutionality of legislation and government decrees are final. The eleven members of the Constitutional Court are appointed by the president from among candidates nominated by lower courts and the High Council of Judges and Public Prosecutors. Challenges to the constitutionality of a law must be made within sixty days of its promulgation. Decisions of the Constitutional Court require the votes of an absolute majority of all its members, with the exception of decisions to annul a constitutional amendment, which require a two-thirds majority. The Court of Appeals (also known as the Court of Cassa- tion) is the court of last instance for review of decisions and verdicts of lower-level judicial courts, both civil and criminal. Its members are elected by secret ballot by senior judges and public prosecutors. Below the Court of Appeals are the ordi- nary civil and criminal courts. At the lowest level of the judicial system are justices of the peace, who have jurisdiction over minor civil complaints and offenses. Single-judge criminal courts have jurisdiction over misdemeanors and petty crimes, with penalties ranging from small fines to brief prison sen- tences. Every organized municipality (a community having a minimum population of 2,000) has at least one single-judge court, with the actual number of courts varying according to the total population. Three-judge courts of first instance have jurisdiction over major civil suits and serious crimes. Either of the parties in civil cases and defendants convicted in criminal cases can request that the Court of Appeals review the lower- court decision. The Turkish courts have no jury system; judges render decisions after establishing the facts in each case based on evidence presented by lawyers and prosecutors. The administrative court system consists of the Council of State, an appellate court, and various administrative courts of first instance. The Council of State reviews decisions of the lower administrative courts, considers original administrative 249 Turkey: A Country Study disputes, and, if requested, gives its opinion on draft legislation submitted by the prime minister and the Council of Ministers. The president appoints 25 percent of the Council of State's judges. The other 75 percent are appointed by the High Coun- cil of Judges and Public Prosecutors. The military court system exercises jurisdiction over all mili- tary personnel. In areas under martial law, the military also has jurisdiction over all civilians accused of terrorism or "crimes against the state." The military court system consists of military and security courts of first instance, a Supreme Military Admin- istrative Court, an appellate State Security Court, and the Mili- tary Court of Appeals, which reviews decisions and verdicts of the military courts. The decisions of the Military Court of Appeals are final. Provincial and Local Government The 1982 constitution retains Turkey's centralized adminis- trative system. Each province is administered by a governor {vagi) appointed by the Council of Ministers with the approval of the president. The governors function as the principal agents of the central government and report to the Ministry of Interior. The constitution grants governors extraordinary pow- ers during a state of emergency, powers similar to those of mili- tary authorities in areas under martial law. The constitution also stipulates that the central administration oversee elected local councils in order to ensure the effective provision of local services and to safeguard the public interest. The minister of interior is empowered to remove from office local administra- tors who are being investigated or prosecuted for offenses related to their duties. In early 1995, Turkey was divided into seventy-six provinces (vilayetlar) . Each province was further subdivided into an aver- age of about eight districts, or kazalar, each roughly equivalent in size to a county in a United States state. Each district was seg- mented into an average of 493 subdistricts, or bucaklar. Each provincial capital, each district seat, and each town of more than 2,000 people is organized as a municipality headed by an elected mayor. Government at the provincial level is responsi- ble for implementing national programs for health and social assistance, public works, culture and education, agriculture and animal husbandry, and economic and commercial matters. As chief executive of the province and principal agent of the central government, each governor supervises other govern- 250 Government and Politics merit officials assigned to carry out ministerial functions in his or her province. Civil servants head offices of the national gov- ernment that deal with education, finance, health, and agricul- ture at the provincial level. In each province, these directors form the provincial administrative council (vilayet genel meclisi), which, with the governor as chair, makes key administrative decisions and, when necessary, initiates disciplinary actions against errant provincial employees. The governor also heads the provincial assembly and several service departments concerned mainly with local trade and industrial matters. The provincial assembly, which advises and works closely with the provincial administrative council, is elected every five years and, with the governor chairing, meets annually to approve the provincial budget and to select one person from each district to serve on the province's administra- tive commission. With the governor presiding, the administra- tive commission meets weekly for mutual consultation. Provincial budgets derive their income from rents, payments for services, fines, state aid, and a 1 percent share of national tax revenues. In most provinces, provincial funds are spent pri- marily on agricultural and reforestation programs, irrigation, and schools. Each district in a province has its own administration based in the district seat. The district administration consists of a dis- trict chief (kaymakam) , central government representatives, and a district administrative board. The more than 500 district chiefs are appointed by the president upon nomination by the minister of interior. Each district chief is responsible to the gov- ernor, serving essentially as his or her agent in supervising and inspecting the activities of government officials in the district. The district in which a provincial capital is located may not have a district chief but instead be headed directly by the gover- nor. Each subdistrict director (bucak mudur) is appointed by the minister of interior on the nomination of the governors. The subdistrict directors, who number about 40,000, are responsi- ble for law enforcement in the villages. They are assisted by officials in charge of rural security; land titles; vital statistics; schools; and postal, telephone, and telegraph services. Municipal governments exist in each provincial and district capital, as well as in all communities with at least 2,000 inhabit- ants. Municipal governments are responsible for implementing national programs for health and social assistance, public works, education, and transportation. Each municipality 251 Turkey: A Country Study (belediye) is headed by a mayor (belediye reisi), who is elected by the citizens to a five-year term and is assisted by deputy direc- tors of departments and offices. Municipal councils, also elected for five years, vary in size according to each town's pop- ulation. Municipal councils meet three times a year to decide on such issues as the budget, housing plans, reconstruction programs, tax rates, and fees for municipal services. A variety of municipal standing committees, appointed by the mayor and municipal department directors or selected by municipal council members from among themselves, deal with financial issues and decide on the appointment and promotion of municipal personnel. The smallest unit of local government in Turkey is the vil- lage (kdy derneg), a locality with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants. The principal authority in a village, the headman (muhtar), is chosen by an assembly of all the village's adults. This informal assembly also makes decisions pertaining to village affairs and elects a council of elders (ihtiyar meclisi) that includes the vil- lage schoolteacher and the imam (see Glossary). The headman supervises the planning and operation of communal projects and services and administers directives from higher authori- ties. The headman receives government officials, maintains order, collects taxes, and presides at civil ceremonies. The vil- lage council supervises village finances, purchases or expropri- ates land for schools and other communal buildings, and decides on the contributions in labor and money to be made by villagers for road maintenance and other community improvements. The village council also arbitrates disputes between villagers and imposes fines on those who fail to per- form the services allotted to them. Civil Service Since the early years of the Turkish republic, the civil bureaucracy has played an important role in politics. It became one of the bases of Ataturk's power and was a key instrument of his reform policy, which emphasized adherence to the "Six Arrows" of secularism, republicanism, populism, nationalism, etatism (see Glossary), and reformism (see Ataturk's Reforms, ch. 1). During the 1930s and 1940s, a consistently high percent- age of parliament members had a civil service background. However, the power and social prestige of the official elite declined with the emergence of competitive political parties in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Civil bureaucrats generally 252 Government and Politics believed they worked in the service of the entire nation, and they tended to view politicians, especially those affiliated with the Democrat Party (Demokrat Partisi — DP), as being too par- tisan to comprehend the difference between policies beneficial to the nation and those merely serving special interests. Demo- crats and their Justice Party (Adalet Partisi — AP) successors did not appreciate these attitudes, and consequently bureaucrats lost credibility and influence among these politicians, who tried, generally with little success, to restrict the autonomy of the civil service. The military regime that seized power in 1980 was less toler- ant of an independent bureaucracy than its predecessor had been in 1960. Accordingly, it took measures designed to reduce the bureaucracy's autonomy and involvement in partisan poli- tics. For example, civil servants lost the right to challenge or appeal decisions made by members of the Council of Ministers or the Council of State. Martial law commanders were empow- ered to remove or reassign civil servants under their jurisdic- tion at their own discretion. In April 1981, a Supreme Board of Supervision was established to oversee the bureaucracy. Its investigations resulted in a large number of officials receiving administrative or penal punishments and prompted many senior bureaucrats to leave government service. The tension between the military government and the civil service did not cease with the end of military rule. When Turgut Ozal became prime minister at the end of 1983, he proclaimed that stream- lining the bureaucracy was part of the fundamental administra- tive reform he intended to implement. Gradually, however, cooperation between bureaucrats and political leaders was restored; by the early 1990s, it was no longer fashionable to blame civil servants for the country's problems. In early 1995, the civil service operated in accordance with provisions stipulated in the 1982 constitution and subsequent regulations. For example, civil servants are appointed for life on the basis of competitive examinations and can be removed from their posts only in exceptional cases. They must remain loyal to the constitution and may not join political parties. If a public employee wishes to compete in National Assembly elec- tions, that individual first must resign from government ser- vice. All disciplinary decisions pertaining to civil servants are subject to judicial review. 253 Turkey: A Country Study Political Dynamics Since the military coup of 1960, Turkish politics have been characterized by two opposing visions of government. Accord- ing to the "rule from above" view, which has been dominant among the military elite and some of the civilian political elite, government is an instrument for implementing the enduring principles of Kemalism. Thus, if a government fails to carry out this mandate, it must be replaced by those who are the guard- ians of Ataturk's legacy, which is identified as synonymous with Turkish nationalism. In contrast, the "rule from below" view, which predominates among more populist-oriented politicians and thinkers, tends to regard government as an instrument for protecting the civic rights and individual freedoms of Turkish citizens. Thus, if elected leaders fail in their responsibilities, they should be voted out of office. Supporters of the first view tend to interpret democracy as a political order in which all Turks share common goals and national unity is not disrupted by partisan politics. When they perceive partisan politics as threatening this democratic ideal, they back military interven- tion as a corrective measure. Those favoring rule from below tend to accept diversity of opinion, and its organized expres- sion through competitive political parties, as normal in a healthy democracy. These two very different conceptions of government have contributed significantly to Turkey's political history since 1960, an era in which periods of parliamentary democracy have alternated with periods of military authoritari- anism. The legacy of military intervention, in particular a general fear among politicians that it may recur, has adversely affected democratic practices in Turkey. For instance, the successor civilian governments have lifted only gradually the harsh restrictions imposed on political rights by the 1980-83 regime. In early 1995, various restrictions on the formation of political parties and free association remained in effect; civilians accused of "crimes against the state" continued to be remanded to military courts for detention, interrogation, and trial. Political Developments since the 1980 Coup Immediately following the September 1980 coup, the mili- tary government arrested Turkey's leading politicians, dis- solved the bicameral Grand National Assembly, declared 254 Painting of Atatilrk, the father of modern Turkey Courtesy Hermine Drey fuss martial law, and banned all political activity (see Military Inter- lude, ch. 1). In October 1981, all political parties then in exist- ence were disbanded and their property and financial assets confiscated by the state. In April 1983, the NSC issued regula- tions for the formation of new political parties — which could have no ties to the disbanded parties — in anticipation of elec- tions for a new single-chamber National Assembly to be held later that year. Subsequently, the ban on political activity was lifted, except for 723 politicians active before the coup who were forbidden to participate in politics. About 500 — former deputies and senators of the dissolved Grand National Assem- bly — were barred until 1986. The remaining group of more than 200 was not allowed to be involved in politics until 1991. In addition to these restrictions, each party had to submit its list of candidates for NSC approval in order to compete in the assembly elections. Although fifteen parties were established by August 1983, the NSC disqualified all but three of them on the grounds that they had ties to banned political leaders such as Suleyman Demirel and Bulent Ecevit. For a variety of other political reasons, the NSC also vetoed several proposed candi- dates on the lists presented by the three approved parties. The parties allowed to participate in the November 1983 National Assembly elections were the Nationalist Democracy Party (Milliyetci Demokrasi Partisi — MDP), headed by retired 255 Turkey: A Country Study general Turgut Sunalp, an ally of NSC chair and president Kenan Evren; the Motherland Party, led by Turgut Ozal, a civil- ian who had served in the military government from 1980 to 1982 as deputy prime minister for economic affairs; and the Populist Party (Halkci Partisi— HP), led by Necdet Calp. The military publicly supported Sunalp's party and expected it to win a majority of seats in the new assembly. However, the elec- tions proved to be a stunning repudiation of the military gov- ernment: the Nationalist Democracy Party won only 23.3 percent of the total votes cast and obtained only seventy-one of the assembly's 400 seats. Ozal's Motherland Party won an abso- lute majority of seats (211 total); subsequently, Evren asked Ozal to form a new government, which took office in Decem- ber 1983. The restoration of civilian government did not mean an immediate restoration of civilian rule. Although the NSC had dissolved itself, Evren, as president of the republic, was in a position to veto any policies that might displease the military. In addition, most of Turkey remained under martial law, which meant that military officers retained ultimate decision-making authority at the local level. Although Ozal proceeded cau- tiously to reassert civilian authority, he recognized that easing various military-imposed restrictions was essential to improve Turkey's international image, especially in Western Europe. Following the 1980 coup, the members of the European Community, which Turkey aspired to join, had frozen relations with Ankara. The pan-European parliament, the Council of Europe, had cited the military regime's record of human rights violations as justification for banning Turkish participation in 1982 (see Foreign Relations, this ch.). To demonstrate his com- mitment to democracy, Ozal allowed three political parties whose participation in the 1983 general elections had been vetoed by the military to contest the municipal elections his government had scheduled for March 1984. All three parties seemed to be obvious continuations of dissolved precoup par- ties, and they did not try very hard to disguise their ties to banned politicians. For example, the True Path Party had been formed by former members of the Justice Party, and its de facto leader was widely acknowledged to be Suleyman Demirel. Sup- porters of the old Republican People's Party (Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi — CHP) had formed the Social Democratic Party (Sosyal Demokrat Parti — Sodep) under the leadership of Erdal Inonu, the son of Ismet Inonu, a former president and close political 256 Government and Politics ally of Ataturk. The Welfare Party (Refah Partisi — RP) was headed by Necmettin Erbakan, an Islamic activist whose politi- cal views had been irksome to the military since the early 1970s. The local elections held on March 25, 1984, constituted a further repudiation of the military, with Sunalp's Nationalist Democracy Party obtaining less than 10 percent of the vote. At the level of local politics, Sodep and the True Path Party emerged as the second and third strongest parties behind Ozal's Motherland Party, which won 40 percent of the vote. The Populist Party, which had the second largest contingent in the National Assembly, did poorly in the municipal elections, probably because most of its potential support went to Sodep, a party with which it shared ideological affinities, as well as com- mon origins in the old Republican People's Party. Subse- quently, in November 1985 a majority of Populist Party deputies voted to dissolve their party and merge with Sodep to form a single party, the Social Democratic Populist Party (Sos- yal Demokrat Halkci Parti — SHP) . The local elections and the lifting of martial law in several Turkish provinces had a positive effect on some European governments, and in May 1984, the Council of Europe voted to readmit Turkey as an associate member of the European Community. Following the 1984 municipal elections, former political leaders challenged restrictions on their activities by appearing at political meetings and making public speeches. Demirel and Ecevit were the most prominent of the leaders who openly defied the bans on political activities. The Ozal government was under pressure from the military to enforce the bans but under equal pressure from both domestic public opinion and international human rights organizations to relax the restric- tions on the country's former leaders. The government responded with alternating tolerance and legal harassment. Inconsistency also characterized the government's treatment of other democratization issues. For example, by the end of 1987 martial law had been lifted in most of Turkey's provinces, but the number of civilians being tried in military courts actually had increased. In addition, the government was embarrassed by reports published by Amnesty International and similar organizations charging the continuation of systematic torture in Turkish prisons, press censorship, and the denial of civil rights for the Kurdish minority. Although the Ozal government 257 Turkey: A Country Study dismissed these reports, they tended to complicate already deli- cate relations with members of the European Community. In 1986 the expiration of the law banning political activity by some 500 minor politicians of the precoup era served to highlight the anomalous situation of a self-proclaimed democ- racy that continued to deny the right of political participation to more than 200 major political figures, including former prime ministers and cabinet members. Ozal persuaded Presi- dent Evren and the other senior military officers who sup- ported the ban that the issue should be put to a referendum. The vote took place in September 1987, with a large majority of voters approving repeal. Demirel and Ecevit almost immedi- ately assumed leadership of the parties they had controlled from behind the scenes, respectively the True Path Party and the Democratic Left Party (Demokratik Sol Partisi — DSP), and began campaigning for the National Assembly elections sched- uled for November. The 1987 National Assembly elections were held under the most democratic conditions since the 1980 coup. In contrast to its actions during the 1983 election, the government pro- scribed no political parties or individual candidates on party lists. From the perspective of the individual parties, the only drawback was the requirement that each must win at least 10 percent of the national vote in order to obtain a seat in the assembly. Parties competing in the elections included the Dem- ocratic Left Party, the Motherland Party, the Nationalist Labor Party (Milliyetci (^alisma Partisi — MQP), the SHP, the True Path Party, and the Welfare Party (see Political Parties, this ch.). However, only three parties exceeded the 10 percent threshold to qualify for assembly seats. Ozal's Motherland Party upheld its dominance in parliament by winning 36 percent of the national vote — slightly less than the 40 percent it had won in 1983 — and more than 60 percent of the assembly seats — 292 out of a total of 450. Inonu's SHP, a 1985 merger of Sodep and the Populist Party (the latter had won the second highest num- ber of seats in 1983), ranked second with ninety-nine seats. Demirel' s True Path Party, which had not been allowed to par- ticipate in the 1983 elections, ranked third with fifty-nine seats. The four years following the 1987 elections witnessed the political comeback of Demirel, who had been prime minister at the time of the 1980 military coup. Following the takeover by the armed forces, he and other members of his government had been arrested. His Justice Party and all other parties subse- 258 Government and Politics quently were forcibly dissolved. During Demirel's eleven-year exclusion from politics, his former protege, Ozal, emerged as the country's most prominent civilian politician. Because Ozal had been a rising star in the Justice Party prior to the coup and had been chosen to take charge of the government's economic reform program, Demirel resented Ozal's initial cooperation with the military and his later establishment of the Motherland Party, which competed directly with the True Path Party for the allegiance of former Justice Party supporters. Consequently, once the ban on his political activities was lifted, Demirel cam- paigned tirelessly against Ozal and the Motherland Party. Demirel's persistent criticism of Ozal's policies probably was an important factor in the major electoral setback suffered by the Motherland Party in the March 1989 municipal council elec- tions. The Motherland Party's share of the popular vote fell to 22 percent — compared with 26 percent for Demirel's True Path Party — and it lost control of several municipal councils, including those in the country's three largest cities: Istanbul, Ankara, and Izmir. Whatever satisfaction Demirel may have derived from his party's electoral edge over the Motherland Party, the True Path Party nevertheless did not receive the larg- est plurality of ballots. That distinction went to the SHP, which obtained 28 percent of the total vote (see fig. 13). Encouraged by the results of the municipal council elec- tions, Demirel devoted the next two-and-one-half years to building up his party for the National Assembly elections. His goal was for the True Path Party to win a majority of seats, a vic- tory that would enable him to reclaim the post of prime minis- ter from which he had been ousted so unceremoniously in 1980. Ozal may have provided unintentional support for Demirel's efforts when he decided at the end of 1989 to be a candidate for president to replace General Evren, whose seven- year term was expiring. Because Ozal's Motherland Party still controlled a majority of seats in the assembly, his nomination was approved, albeit on the third ballot. However, in accor- dance with the constitution, Ozal had to sever his political ties to the Motherland Party upon becoming president. Because he had been so closely identified with the party and because none of its other leaders, including Yildirim Akbulut, who succeeded Ozal as prime minister in November 1989, had achieved national prominence, Ozal's departure tended to weaken the Motherland Party politically. 259 Turkey: A Country Study Province boundary ® National capital DID Motherland Party & Republican People's Party m True Path Party Nationalist Action Party □ Welfare Party Social Democratic Populist Party □ Independent 100 200 Kilometers 100 200 Miles Figure 13. Provincial Elections, 1989 and 1994 The decline — at least temporarily — of the Motherland Party was demonstrated in the October 1991 National Assembly elec- tions. The party received only 24 percent of the total vote and won only 115 seats. In comparison to four years earlier, these 260 Government and Politics results represented a severe defeat. However, the Motherland Party remained a serious competitor in the political arena, fall- ing only from first to second place in terms of overall parlia- mentary representation. Whereas the True Path Party emerged from the elections with the largest number of votes and the greatest number of assembly seats, its overall performance — 27 percent of the total vote and 178 assembly seats — was less impressive than Demirel had hoped and insufficient to give the party the 226 seats needed for parliamentary control. For Demirel to become prime minister, it would be necessary for the True Path Party to form a coalition with the Motherland Party — a very unrealistic prospect — or at least one of the three other parties that had obtained 10 percent or more of the total vote and thus qualified for representation in the assembly The three parties were the SHP, eighty-eight seats; the Welfare Party, sixty-two seats; and the Democratic Left Party, seven seats. In November 1991, Demirel announced a DYP-SHP coali- tion government, with himself as prime minister and SHP leader Inonii as deputy prime minister. Thus, eleven years after being overthrown by the military, Demirel returned as head of government. More significantly, in May 1993 the National Assembly elected Demirel president of the republic following the unexpected death of Ozal. The Welfare Party and other parties also perceived the Motherland Party's weakness and shared Demirel's hope of benefiting from it. The Welfare Party built steady support in middle- and lower-class urban neighborhoods by focusing on widespread dissatisfaction with government policies and attrib- uting official abuses of authority to the failure of leaders to adhere to traditional religious values. It had received 10 per- cent of the total vote in the 1989 municipal council elections and won control of several small town councils. In the October 1991 National Assembly elections, the party obtained 16.9 per- cent of the total vote and won sixty-two seats. Its base in the assembly provided the Welfare Party with a strong platform from which to criticize the DYP-SHP coalition government, which Welfare Party leaders accused of being as insensitive on issues of social injustice and civil rights abuses as its Mother- land predecessor. In the March 1994 municipal elections, the Welfare Party demonstrated its ability to draw some of the sup- port base of the DYP, whose share of the total vote fell to 22 percent. In contrast, the Welfare Party won 19 percent of the total vote — placing it a very close third after the DYP and the 261 Turkey: A Country Study Motherland Party. Its mayoralty candidates won in both Ankara and Istanbul, the country's two most secular cities, as well as in scores of other cities and towns. Political Parties Prior to 1950, the Republic of Turkey was essentially a one- party state ruled by the Republican People's Party, which had been created by Ataturk to implement the Six Arrows of Kemal- ism. Although there had been abortive experiments with "loyal opposition" parties in the mid-1920s and in 1930, it was not until 1946 that the CHP permitted political parties to form and contest elections, albeit in a politically controlled environment. The Democrat Party was founded in 1946 by CHP members who were dissatisfied with the authoritarian style of the CHP but who otherwise supported the party's Kemalist principles. The DP emphasized the need to end various restrictions on personal freedom so that Turkey could become a democracy. Reform of laws governing political parties and electoral activi- ties — measures that would enable the DP to compete on an equal basis with the CHP — were enacted prior to the 1950 par- liamentary elections. Consequently, those elections were the first free ones since the founding of the republic in 1923. The DP won a large majority of seats in the assembly and thus took over the government from the CHP. The DP retained control of the government throughout the 1950s, a period during which it enacted legislation that restricted news media freedom and various civil liberties. As the DP steadily became less tolerant of dissent, the CHP gradu- ally moved in the opposite direction, abandoning its authori- tarian stance and becoming an advocate of civil rights. The DP's efforts to suppress opposition to its policies provoked a political crisis that culminated in a May 1960 military coup. The DP subsequently was dissolved, but the Justice Party, which was established in 1961, was widely perceived as its successor and attracted most of its supporters. In the 1961 parliamentary elections that led to the restoration of civilian government, the Justice Party won the second largest number of seats and thus established itself as the principal competitor of the CHP, which had won a plurality of seats. In the subsequent nineteen years, the rivalry between the Justice Party and the CHP remained a significant feature of Turkish politics. Although both parties proclaimed their loyalty to Kemalist ideals, they evolved distinct ideological positions. Suleyman Demirel, who became leader 262 Government and Politics of the Justice Party in 1964, favored economic policies that ben- efited private entrepreneurs and industrialists. In contrast, Biilent Ecevit, who became leader of the CHP in 1965, believed in a form of democratic socialism that included government intervention aimed at regulating private business and protect- ing workers and consumers. The views of these two men and the positions of their respective parties became increasingly polarized after 1972. The inability of either the Justice Party or the CHP to win parliamentary majorities and the refusal of both Demirel and Ecevit to cooperate politically necessitated the formation of numerous coalition and minority-party governments. These governments proved ineffective at devising policies to cope with Turkey's economic and social problems, which became steadily more serious throughout the 1970s. Various groups on the extreme right and the extreme left formed illegal political organizations that resorted to violence in pursuit of their objec- tives, which for certain groups included the overthrow of the government. The apparent inability of governments — whether dominated by the Justice Party or by the CHP — to control increasing terrorism in urban areas contributed to a general sense of insecurity and crisis and served as the catalyst for the 1980 coup. Blaming politicians for the country's political impasse, the military sought to end partisan politics by dissolv- ing the old parties and banning all activity by the politicians deemed responsible for the crisis. Although the formation of new parties was authorized in 1983, none was allowed to use the name of any of the banned parties from the precoup past. Nevertheless, most of Turkey's existing parties in early 1995 were transparent continuations of earlier parties. True Path Party In January 1995, the True Path Party (Dogru Yol Partisi — DYP) was the senior partner in Turkey's coalition government. It was a continuation of the Justice Party, and its leader from 1987 until 1993 was Demirel. Because Demirel was barred from political activity prior to late 1987, his close associate, Husamet- tin Cindoruk, became the party's titular chair when the True Path Party was established in 1983. However, Demirel was the driving force behind the party, raising money and campaigning on its behalf despite being banned from political action. Demirel promoted economic policies similar to those he had advocated as leader of the Justice Party, updated, however, to 263 Turkey: A Country Study reflect changing economic conditions resulting from interna- tional political developments between 1989 and 1991. The True Path Party's rise from political pariah to ruling party was gradual. In 1983 the military government prohibited the party's participation in the parliamentary elections, effec- tively shutting it out of the legal political process. However, a gain of thirty-five seats in the National Assembly resulted in 1986 when the Nationalist Democracy Party dissolved itself and most of its deputies joined the True Path Party. Subsequently the party won fifty-nine seats in the 1987 parliamentary elec- tions, and Demirel returned to the National Assembly as a dep- uty for the first time since the military coup. The party's performance four years later was even more impressive: the True Path Party tripled its representation to 178 seats and emerged from the 1991 elections with a plurality in the assem- bly. Demirel, who had served three times as prime minister before the 1980 coup and twice had been deposed by the mili- tary, succeeded in forming his fourth government by negotiat- ing a coalition agreement with the SHP. When the Demirel government assumed office in Novem- ber 1991, it faced several political and economic challenges. Two important political issues eluding resolution were the increasing militancy of Kurdish demands for civil rights and the growing stridency of the confrontation between religious and secular elements of society. Although the True Path Party had no sympathy for Kurdish aspirations, its SHP partners tended to support cultural freedom for the Kurds and had a relatively strong political base in the Kurdish provinces. How- ever, the SHP's ability to influence overall government policy on the Kurdish issue was limited because the military had assumed de facto decision-making authority for matters per- taining to southeastern Turkey and expected that civilian poli- ticians would accept this role. There was also no consensus among either True Path Party or SHP leaders on how to handle Islamist aspirations. Whereas some True Path Party members believed it was possible to accommodate Islamist concerns, mil- itant secularists opposed any concessions to those whom they termed "Islamic fundamentalists." After President Ozal suffered a fatal heart attack in April 1993, Demirel decided he wanted to be president. In accor- dance with the constitution, which mandated that the presi- dent be nonpartisan, Demirel resigned as the True Path Party's secretary general in May, after the National Assembly had 264 Government and Politics elected him president. In June 1993, the party's deputies in the assembly chose as their new leader Tansu (filler (b. 1946), the first woman to head a Turkish political party, (filler, who had done graduate studies in economics in the United States, put together a new DYP-SHP coalition government that was approved by the assembly in July 1993, enabling her to become Turkey's first female prime minister. Social Democratic Populist Party In early 1995, the junior partner in the (filler government was the Social Democratic Populist Party, known by the Turkish acronym SHP, for Sosyal Demokrat Halkci Parti. The SHP was one of several parties formed since 1983 that presented itself as an heir to the CHP. In fact, the SHP leader, Erdal Inonii, was the son of Ismet Inonii, a close associate of Atatiirk and a cofounder of the CHP. The SHP had been created in 1985 when Inonti's Sodep (disqualified by the military from partici- pating in the 1983 parliamentary elections) merged with Nec- det Calp's Populist Party, which had been allowed to take part in the 1983 elections and had won the second largest number of assembly seats. The decision to join the True Path Party in a coalition gov- ernment brought to the fore the internal divisions within the SHP. Civil rights activists, both Turkish and Kurdish, opposed the SHP's participation in the government because they associ- ated Demirel with government abuses of human rights during the late 1970s and doubted his willingness to terminate martial law in the Kurdish provinces. Consequently eighteen SHP dep- uties resigned from the party and, led by Ahmet Turk, estab- lished the People's Labor Party (Halkin Emek Partisi — HEP) in 1990 as a separate group in the National Assembly, although they agreed to continue voting with the SHP on certain issues. Because the HEP emphasized civil rights issues, its primary appeal was among Kurds, and a majority of the party's execu- tives were Kurdish. The alliance with the HEP enabled the SHP to broaden its support base — the urban working-class neigh- borhoods of western and northeastern Turkey — to include the Kurdish areas of the southeast. Meanwhile the security situa- tion in the southeast deteriorated as guerrillas affiliated with the PKK intensified attacks on government sites and personnel as part of a proclaimed effort to create a separate Kurdish state. Many Turkish leaders, both civilian and military, tended not to distinguish between the HEP, which was committed to work- 265 Turkey: A Country Study ing for civil rights within the political process, and the PKK, which aimed to overthrow the political system through armed struggle. When the military initiated proceedings against HEP founders in 1992 for allegedly promoting "separatist propa- ganda," the HEP deputies accused the SHP of not actively pro- tecting them from official persecution. The Constitutional Court outlawed the HEP in 1993 and its successor, the Democ- racy Party (Demokrasi Partisi — DEP), the following year. These developments, plus the arrest of DEP deputies in the National Assembly in March and June 1994, adversely affected the SHP's image, especially among its Kurdish supporters. Consequently the SHP did very poorly in the 1994 municipal council elec- tions — virtually all SHP incumbents in the cities and towns of southeastern Turkey lost. It remained unclear in early 1995 whether the SHP could regain the confidence of its Kurdish base. A failure to do so would diminish the SHP's chances in the 1996 parliamentary elections to maintain its status as the third largest party in the National Assembly. Motherland Party In early 1995, the Motherland Party (Anavatan Partisi — ANAP) was the main parliamentary opposition party, after hav- ing served as the governing party from 1983 to 1991. Turgut Ozal founded the Motherland Party in May 1983, and his per- sonality and energy were instrumental to the party's subse- quent success. Even after Ozal officially resigned as party leader in 1989 to become president, his influence — and that of his wife and brothers — continued in Motherland Party affairs. For example, Ozal handpicked his successor as party leader, Yildirim Akbulut. However, after Akbulut proved ineffective, both as party chair and as prime minister, Ozal pressured him to resign in June 1991. In anticipation of the forthcoming par- liamentary elections, Ozal approved the younger and more dynamic Mesut Yilmaz as Akbulut's successor. Yilmaz cam- paigned energetically, used his position as prime minister to woo voters with incentives such as wage increases for public-sec- tor employees, and performed well against other political lead- ers in Turkey's first-ever televised political debate. However, the Motherland Party's total share of the national vote in the Octo- ber 1991 balloting fell by 12 percent compared to 1987, and the party won sixty-three fewer assembly seats than its rival, the True Path Party. 266 Government and Politics The Motherland Party's policies and constituency were simi- lar to those of the True Path Party, but the intense personal rivalry between Demirel and Ozal had precluded political cooperation between the two parties prior to Ozal's death in 1993. The president's death represented both a major loss and a potential opportunity for the Motherland Party. The party's cohesion had depended on the force of Ozal's personality, and in early 1995 it was unclear whether Yilmaz would succeed in transforming the Motherland Party into an effective organiza- tion based on a coherent political program and ideology. In addition, because the party's past electoral strength had derived from Ozal's own popular appeal, it was not evident what long-term impact his death would have. Despite Yilmaz's relative youth and limited political experience, he appeared to be the party's chief asset, and even before Ozal's death he had been trying to chart a course independent of the party's influ- ential founder. Nevertheless, many members were dissatisfied with Yilmaz's leadership; in late 1992 and early 1993, more than fifteen Motherland Party deputies, citing differences with Yilmaz, resigned from the party in a move that reduced its over- all strength in the National Assembly to fewer than 100 seats. More than fifty former deputies, including five founding mem- bers of the party, also resigned to demonstrate their opposition to Yilmaz. Yilmaz now faced the challenge of developing a new party identity that would appeal to a broader constituency; otherwise the Motherland Party would expend all its energies competing with the ideologically similar True Path Party. Welfare Party The Welfare Party (Refah Partisi — RP), which had received only 7 percent of the total vote in the 1987 parliamentary elec- tions and thus had not qualified for assembly seats, was the main electoral surprise in the 1991 balloting. Nearly 17 percent of the electorate voted for the Welfare Party, enabling it to win sixty-two seats in the National Assembly. The Welfare Party was widely considered an Islamic party. Its leader, Necmettin Erba- kan, had been identified with Islamic political activism since the early 1970s. He was the founder in 1972 of the National Sal- vation Party (Milli Selamet Partisi — MSP), which became the third largest party in parliament in 1973. The MSP openly sup- ported a religious political agenda calling for the restoration of traditional "morals and virtues" and a reduction of economic ties to the Christian countries of Western Europe. In 1974 the 267 Turkey: A Country Study MSP gained a measure of political legitimacy by participating in a CHP-led coalition government. In fact, Turgut Ozal briefly was a member of the MSP in the 1970s and was at one time an unsuccessful candidate on its parliamentary list. Following the 1980 coup, the military not only dissolved the MSP, along with other political parties, but also prosecuted Erbakan and other MSP leaders for violating a law forbidding the use of religion for political purposes. When new political parties were authorized in 1983, Erbakan founded the Welfare Party on a platform stressing themes similar to those espoused by the defunct MSP. The ruling generals — and most civilians — perceived the Welfare Party as a continuation of the MSP. It was therefore disqualified from participation in the 1983 parlia- mentary elections. However, the party did sponsor candidates in the 1984 municipal elections and since then has steadily expanded its support base. The Welfare Party's strength is in middle- and lower-class urban neighborhoods and in the Kurdish areas of the south- east. This strength was first demonstrated during the municipal elections of 1989, when the party's candidates for mayor won in five large cities and 100 towns. The 1991 parliamentary elec- tions provided further evidence of the Welfare Party's growing popularity and its ability to consolidate an electoral base. Inspired by the party's achievements in 1991, Welfare Party activists, including a new generation of university students, campaigned tirelessly to recruit new supporters. As a result of these efforts, the Welfare Party's share of the total vote increased to 19 percent in the municipal elections of March 1994. The symbolic importance of the 1994 balloting because of its religious implications, probably exceeded the actual sig- nificance of the party's turnout. Tayyip Erdogan, the Welfare Party's candidate for mayor of Istanbul, and Melih Gokchek, its mayoral candidate for Ankara, both won. In addition, Welfare Party candidates for mayor won in twenty-seven other cities and in 400 towns, including almost all of the predominantly Kurd- ish municipalities in the southeast. The Welfare Party's electoral appeal stems from the popu- larity of its call for a return to traditional values — widely inter- preted as meaning Islamic morals and behavior. Its slogans are sufficiently vague with respect to specific policies to attract diverse support. Thus, self-identified Welfare Party loyalists range from professionals who dress in expensive Western fash- ions and interpret Islam liberally to individuals, especially 268 Government and Politics women, who adopt a contemporary version of traditional Islamic dress and give Islam a fundamentalist interpretation. Whereas the Welfare Party has adopted certain well-defined positions, such as opposition to Turkey's goal of full member- ship in the European Union, its adherents tend to hold diver- gent views on most economic and political issues. However, they share a common interest in religious practices such as daily prayers, fasting during the Islamic holy month of Rama- zan (Ramadan in Arabic), avoiding behavior harmful to others, and reading the Kuran (Quran in Arabic). Furthermore, the Welfare Party's emphasis on common religious bonds tends to bring together, rather than to divide, Turkish-speaking and Kurdish-speaking Muslims and has impressed secular Kurds who have become disillusioned with other political parties. Democratic Left Party The Democratic Left Party, known by the Turkish acronym DSP (for Demokratik Sol Partisi), was the smallest parliamen- tary party in January 1995. Because the party received almost 11 percent of the vote in the 1991 elections, DSP leader Biilent Ecevit and six other party officials took seats in the National Assembly. Ecevit considered the DSP the legitimate successor to the CHP, which he headed prior to the 1980 coup. When the DSP was founded in November 1985 — with Ecevit's wife serving as chair because he remained barred from political activity — Ecevit made known his low opinion of the SHP, which also pre- sented itself as the heir to the CHP, and its leader, Erdal Inonu. Ecevit's personal animosity toward Inonu prevented DSP-SHP cooperation, even though the parties had similar programs and appealed to the same constituency. In both 1987 and 1991, Ecevit spurned efforts by Inonu and other SHP leaders to per- suade him to join an electoral alliance. Ecevit condemned the SHP's participation in the Demirel and (filler governments as evidence that the party had abandoned social-democratic prin- ciples and betrayed the working class. Other Parties Several small parties existed in early 1995. Two post-1991 splinters from parliamentary parties included Unity and Peace (Birlik ve Baris), whose members left the Welfare Party in 1992, and the Freedom and Labor Party (OZEP), formed from a breakaway faction of the SHP in 1992. The Nationalist Labor Party (Milliyetci £alisma Partisi — MQP), founded in 1985 by 269 Turkey: A Country Study the controversial nationalist of the 1970s, Alparslan Turkes, espoused pan-Turkism in foreign policy and cooperated with the Welfare Party in domestic politics. Deniz Baykel, a politi- cian disillusioned by the partisan sniping between the SHP and the True Path Party, announced the reactivation of the CHP in September 1992 and called on its former members to rejoin. Thirteen SHP deputies joined the new CHP, providing it with an immediate base in the National Assembly. The former Dem- ocrat Party, banned following the 1960 coup, also was reacti- vated in 1992. It consisted of politicians who supported the economic policies of the Motherland Party and the True Path Party but distrusted both Ozal and Demirel. In addition to the legal parties, several illegal political orga- nizations operated clandestinely in Turkey in 1995. These par- ties were considered illegal either because they never had registered as required by law or because they had been pro- scribed by judicial authorities. Many of these parties advocated armed struggle, although some were nonviolent. The illegal parties fell into three categories, which reflected the inter- twined security and ideological concerns of the Turkish mili- tary since 1980: separatist parties, a term used to describe all Kurdish groups; communist parties, a term used to describe all organizations espousing various versions of Marxism; and irtica (religious reaction) parties, a term used to describe all groups pushing for the establishment of an Islamic government in Turkey. The most important of the illegal parties was the Kurd- istan Workers' Party (Partiya Karkere Kurdistan — PKK), which in 1984 had initiated a steadily escalating armed struggle against the government. By mid-1994 at least 12,000 persons were estimated to have been killed in southeastern Turkey, where the government maintained at least 160,000 troops in combat readiness against as many as 15,000 guerrillas. With the exception of the Revolutionary Left Party (Devrimci Sol — Dev Sol), the illegal communist and Islamic groups were not well organized; they functioned in small cells that carried out mainly isolated but sensational acts of terrorism in various cit- ies. One of the more notorious actions was the January 1993 car bomb assassination of the nationally prominent journalist Ugur Memcu, for which an extreme Islamist group claimed responsibility (see Internal Security Concerns, ch. 5). Political Interest Groups The decades following World War II saw a proliferation of 270 Government and Politics interest groups that evolved into increasingly active and politi- cally conscious associations. The growth of these groups was part of a general trend toward a more politicized and pluralis- tic society. This trend resulted primarily from factors such as the advent of multiparty politics, economic development and the accompanying expansion of opportunity, and improve- ments in communications (see Mass Media, this ch.). Increas- ing urbanization, rising literacy rates, rapid industrial expansion, and the exposure of hundreds of thousands of Turkish guest workers — most from villages and lower-class urban areas — to new ideas and customs in Western Europe also contributed to the politicization of the populace. As a conse- quence, a growing number of voluntary associations sprang up to promote specific interests, either on their own, through rep- resentatives in parliament, or through the cabinet and senior bureaucrats. These associations enabled various social groups to exercise a degree of influence over political matters. The activities of groups such as labor unions, business associations, student organizations, a journalists' association, and religious and cultural associations promoted public awareness of impor- tant issues and contributed to a relatively strong civil society. The autonomy of civic groups vis-a-vis the state has been a persistent political problem since 1960. During periods of mili- tary rule and martial law, the independence of such groups often was circumscribed (see Crisis in Turkish Democracy, ch. 1). Following the military takeover in September 1980, for example, strict limits were placed on the political activities of civic associations; some of these restrictions remained in force in early 1995. For example, the 1982 constitution, like that of 1961, affirms the right of individuals to form associations but also stipulates that the exercise of this right must not violate the "indivisible integrity of the state." Furthermore, associa- tions are prohibited from discriminating on the basis of lan- guage, race, or religion, or from trying to promote one social class or group over others. Civic associations also are forbidden to pursue political aims, engage in political activities, receive support from or give support to political parties, or take joint action with labor unions or professional organizations. In addi- tion, legislation enacted in 1983 prohibits teachers, high school students, civil servants, and soldiers from forming asso- ciations, and bans officials of professional organizations from participating actively in politics. 271 Turkey: A Country Study Military By dint of the influence it has exerted on politics since the early days of the Turkish republic, the military constitutes the country's most important interest group. Ataturk and his prin- cipal allies all were career officers during the final years of the Ottoman Empire. Although Ataturk subsequently endeavored to separate the military from political affairs, he nevertheless considered the army to be the "intelligentsia of the Turkish nation" and "the guardian of its ideals." By the time of Ataturk's death in 1938, the military had internalized a view of itself as a national elite responsible for protecting the Six Arrows of Kemalism. Prior to 1960, the military worked behind the scenes to ensure that the country adhered to the guidelines of the Kemalist principles. However, in 1960 senior officers were so alarmed by government policies they perceived as deviating from Kemalism that they intervened directly in the political process by overthrowing the elected government and setting up a military regime. The military saw its mission as putting the country back on the correct path of Kemalism. Believing by October 1961 that this goal had been achieved, the officers returned to the barracks, whence they exercised oversight of civilian politicians. The 1960 coup demonstrated the military's special status as an interest group autonomous — if it chose to be — from the government. On two subsequent occasions, in 1971 and 1980, the military again intervened to remove a government it per- ceived as violating Kemalist principles. The 1980 coup resulted in a longer transition period to civilian government and the imposition of more extensive restrictions on political rights than had the earlier interventions. At the start of 1995, some fourteen years after the coup, senior officers in the armed ser- vices still expected the civilian president and Council of Minis- ters to heed their advice on matters they considered pertinent to national security. For instance, the military defines many domestic law-and-order issues as falling within the realm of national security and thus both formulates and implements certain policies that the government is expected to approve. Universities College teachers and students have acted as a pressure group in Turkey since the late 1950s, when they initiated dem- onstrations against university teaching methods, curricula, and administrative practices that they alleged resulted in an inade- 272 View of Ankara, showing the National Assembly building, and view of the interior of the National Assembly Courtesy Turkish Information Office 273 Turkey: A Country Study quate education. The violent repression of student demonstra- tions in the spring of 1960 was one of the factors that prompted that year's military coup. In 1960 both teachers and students generally were held in high public esteem because the universi- ties were viewed as the centers where the future Kemalist elite was being trained. During the 1960s and 1970s, however, the universities became the loci of ideological conflicts among a multitude of political groups espousing diverse political, eco- nomic, and religious ideas. As students became progressively more radicalized and violent, armed clashes among rival stu- dent groups and between students and police increased in fre- quency and magnitude. By 1980 the military regarded the universities as a source of threats to Kemalist principles. One of the aims of the military government that assumed power in 1980 was to regain state control over the universities. The regime created a Council of Higher Education, which was intended to provide a less autonomous, more uniform system of central administration. The regime purged ideologically sus- pect professors from the faculties of all universities and issued a law prohibiting teachers from joining political parties. Student associations lost their autonomy, and students charged with participating in illegal organizations became subject to expul- sion. A cautious revival of campus political activity began in the 1990s, mainly around foreign policy issues. However, as of early 1995 the government's possession of the means and will to pun- ish campus activists appeared to be intimidating most faculty and students. Labor The legalization of unions under the Trade Union Law of 1947 paved the way for the slow but steady growth of a labor movement that evolved parallel to multiparty politics. The principal goal of unions as defined in the 1947 law was to seek the betterment of members' social and economic status. Unions were denied the right to strike or to engage in political activity, either on their own or as vehicles of political parties. In spite of these limitations, labor unions gradually acquired polit- ical influence. The Confederation of Turkish Trade Unions (Tiirkiye Isci Sendikalari Konfederasyonu — Turk-Is) was founded in 1952 at government instigation to serve as an inde- pendent umbrella group. Under the tutelage of Turk-Is, labor evolved into a well-organized interest group; the organization also functioned as an agency through which the government 274 Government and Politics could restrain workers' wage demands (see Human Resources and Trade Unions, ch. 3). The labor movement expanded in the liberalized political climate of the 1960s, especially after a union law enacted in 1963 legalized strikes, lockouts, and col- lective bargaining. However, unions were forbidden to give "material aid" to political parties. Political parties also were barred from giving money to unions or forming separate labor organizations. The labor movement did not escape the politicization and polarization that characterized the 1960s and 1970s. Workers' dissatisfaction with Turk-Is as the representative of their inter- ests led to the founding in 1967 of the Confederation of Revo- lutionary Workers' Trade Unions of Turkey (Turkiye Devrimci Isci Sendikalan Konfederasyonu — DISK). DISK leaders were militants who had been expelled from Turk-Is after supporting a glass factory strike opposed by the Turk-Is bureaucracy. Both Turk-Is and the government tried to suppress DISK, whose independence was perceived as a threat. However, a spontane- ous, two-day, pro-DISK demonstration by thousands of laborers in Istanbul — the first mass political action by Turkish work- ers — forced the government in June 1970 to back away from a bill to abolish DISK. For the next ten years, DISK remained an independent organization promoting the rights of workers and supporting their job actions, including one major general strike in 1977 that led to the temporary abolition of the mili- tary-run State Security Courts. By 1980 about 500,000 workers belonged to unions affiliated with DISK. Following the 1980 coup, the military regime banned inde- pendent union activity, suspended DISK, and arrested hun- dreds of its activists, including all its top officials. The government prosecuted DISK leaders, as well as more than 1,000 other trade unionists arrested in 1980, in a series of trials that did not end until December 1986. The secretary general of DISK and more than 250 other defendants received jail sen- tences of up to ten years. Meanwhile, the more complaisant Turk-Is, which had not been outlawed after the coup, worked with the military government and its successors to depoliticize workers. As the government-approved labor union confedera- tion, Turk-Is benefited from new laws pertaining to unions. For example, the 1982 constitution permits unions but prohibits them from engaging in political activity, thus effectively deny- ing them the right to petition political representatives. As in the days prior to 1967, unions must depend upon Turk-Is to 275 Turkey: A Country Study mediate between them and the government. A law issued in May 1983 restricts the establishment of new trade unions and places constraints on the right to strike by banning politically motivated strikes, general strikes, solidarity strikes, and any strike considered a threat to society or national well-being. The government's restrictions on union activity tended to demoralize workers, who generally remained passive for more than five years after the 1980 coup. However, beginning in 1986 unions experienced a resurgence. In February several thousand workers angered by pension cutbacks held a rally — labor's first such demonstration since the 1980 coup — to pro- test high living costs, low wages, high unemployment, and restrictions on union organizing and collective bargaining. A subsequent rally in June drew an estimated 50,000 demonstra- tors. Since 1986 workers have conducted numerous rallies, small strikes, work slowdowns, and other manifestations of dis- satisfaction. By the early 1990s, an average of 120,000 workers per year were involved in strike activity. Turk-Is has mediated these incidents by bailing detained workers out of prison, nego- tiating compromise wage increase packages, and encouraging cooperative labor-management relations. Business The Turkish Trade Association (Turkiye Odalar Birligi — TOB) has represented the interests of merchants, industrial- ists, and commodity brokers since 1952. In the 1960s and 1970s, new associations representing the interests of private industry challenged TOB's position as the authoritative repre- sentative of business in Turkey. Subsequently the organization came to be identified primarily with small and medium-sized firms. The Union of Chambers of Industry was founded in 1967 as a coalition within TOB by industrialists seeking to reor- ganize the confederation. The Union of Chambers of Industry was unable to acquire independent status but achieved improved coordination of industrialists' demands. By setting up study groups, the union was able to pool research on devel- opment projects. In addition, the union organized regional Chambers of Industry within TOB. Business interests also were served by employers' associa- tions that dealt primarily with labor-management relations and were united under the aegis of the Turkish Confederation of Employers' Unions (Turkiye Isveren Sendikalan Konfederas- yonu — TISK). This confederation was established in 1961, 276 Government and Politics largely in response to the development of trade unions, and was considered the most militant of employers' associations. By the end of 1980, TISK claimed 106 affiliated groups with a total membership of 9,183 employers. Although membership in TISK was open to employers in both the private and public sec- tors, it was primarily an organization of private-sector employ- ers. When the military regime took power in 1980, labor union activities were suspended, but TISK was allowed to continue functioning. Employers supported the subsequent restrictive labor legislation, which appeared to be in accord with TISK proposals. Another representative of business interests, the Turkish Industrialists' and Businessmen's Association (Turk Sanayicileri ve Is Adamlari Dernegi — TUSIAD), was founded by the leaders of some of Turkey's largest business and industrial enterprises soon after the March 1971 military coup. Its aim was to improve the image of business and to stress its concern with social issues. At the same time, TUSIAD favored granting greater control of investment capital to the large industrialists at the expense of the smaller merchant and banking interests usually supported by TOB. TUSIAD's leaders also were con- cerned with the widening economic inequalities between regions and social classes and opposed TISK's extreme antila- bor policies, which they perceived as jeopardizing Turkey's chances of entering the European Union. Religious Interests Turkey officially has been a secular state since 1924. Ataturk viewed attachment to religion as an impediment to moderniza- tion and imposed rigorous restrictions on the practice of Islam (see Secularist Reforms, ch. 2). Until the late 1940s, the separa- tion of mosque and state was rigidly enforced by the authoritar- ian, one-party government. However, secularism remained an elite ideology, whereas Islam, the nominal religion of 98 per- cent of the population, continued to be a strong influence on most of the people, especially in rural areas and lower-class urban neighborhoods. The advent of competitive politics in 1950 enabled religion to reacquire a respected public status. Initially the Democrat Party, then most other parties, found it politically expedient to appeal to religious sentiments in elec- tion campaigns. As the government gradually became more tol- erant of religious expression, both public observance of religious festivals and mosque construction increased. In addi- 277 Turkey: A Country Study tion, there was a resurgence of voluntary religious associations, including the tarikatlar (sing., tarikat — see Glossary). Prior to 1970, however, religion was not a political issue. The formation of the MSP in 1972 as Turkey's first republi- can party to espouse openly Islamic principles inaugurated the politicization of the religious issue (see Retreat from Secular- ism, ch. 2). The MSP attracted a following by providing an Islamic defense of traditional values that were eroding as a con- sequence of the economic and social changes the country had begun to experience in the late 1960s. In effect, religion became a vehicle for expressing popular discontent. The inability of the major political parties to agree on policies to counteract this discontent tended to enhance the influence of minor parties such as the MSP. Indeed, in 1974 the main expo- nent of Kemalist secularism, the CHP, invited the MSP, by then the third largest party in parliament, to join it in a coalition government. Its participation in the government provided the MSP, and the Islamic movement more broadly, with an aura of political legitimacy. Subsequently, the MSP sponsored an Islam- ist youth movement that during the late 1970s engaged other militant youth groups — both socialists on the left and secular nationalists on the right — in armed street battles. In the mosques, numerous voluntary associations were formed to undertake religious studies, devotional prayers, charitable projects, social services, and the publication of journals. Even the minority Shia (see Glossary) Muslims organized their own separate groups (see The Alevi, ch. 2). The 1980 coup only temporarily interrupted the trend toward increased religious observance. Initially, the military regime arrested Erbakan and other MSP leaders and put them on trial for politically exploiting religion in violation of Turkish law. However, the senior officers, although committed to secu- larism, wanted to use religion as a counter to socialist and Marxist ideologies and thus refrained from interfering with the tarikatlar and other voluntary religious associations. Further- more, the generals approved an article in the 1982 constitution mandating compulsory religious instruction in all schools. When political parties were allowed to form in 1983, Ozal's Motherland Party welcomed a large group of former MSP members, who probably were attracted to the party because Ozal and some of his relatives had belonged to the MSP in the 1970s. One of Ozal's brothers, Korkut Ozal, held an important 278 Government and Politics position in the Naksibendi tarikat, the oldest and largest orga- nized religious order in Turkey. The military regime was preoccupied with eliminating the threat from "communists," a term freely applied to anyone with socialist ideas. Thousands of persons lost jobs in state offices, schools, and enterprises because they were perceived as "left- ists," and leftist organizations virtually disappeared. Religiously motivated persons assumed many of the vacated positions, especially in education, and Islamic groups filled the political vacuum created by the state's successful assault on the left. At the same time, the policies of neither the military regime nor its civilian successors effectively addressed the economic and social problems that continued to fuel popular discontent. Without competition from the left, the religious orders and the religiously oriented Welfare Party enjoyed almost a monop- oly on the mobilization of discontent. One tarikat, the boldly political Fethullahci, actually tried to recruit cadets in the mili- tary academies. By 1986 the increasingly vociferous and mili- tant activities of religious groups had forced on the defensive the concept of secularism itself — a bedrock of Kemalist princi- ples for sixty years. In 1987 the military had become persuaded that what it called "Islamic fundamentalism" was a potentially serious threat to its vision of Kemalism. In January 1987, President Evren publicly denounced Islamic fundamentalism as being as dangerous as communism. Initially, the secular political elite, with the exception of the SHP, was not persuaded by his argu- ments. Ozal, then prime minister, seemed to support the Islamic wing of his party, which was pushing for the repeal of the remaining laws restricting religious practices. The True Path Party characterized the trend toward religious observance as a healthy development and stressed freedom of practice. However, as clandestine religious groups began to carry out attacks on noted secularists in the late 1980s, True Path Party leaders became concerned, and then alarmed, by the influence of Islamism (sometimes seen as fundamentalism). The Welfare Party disassociated itself from violent attacks by both organized and unorganized religious fanatics, but such attacks increased in both frequency and severity in the 1990s. The most sensational attack occurred in July 1993, when a mob leaving Friday congregational prayers in the central Anatolian city of Sivas firebombed a hotel where Turkey's internationally renowned author, self-proclaimed atheist Aziz Nesin, and doz- 279 Turkey: A Country Study ens of other writers were staying while attending a cultural festi- val. Although Nesin escaped harm, thirty-seven persons w r ere killed and 100 injured in that incident. Several weeks before the attack, Nesin's newspaper, Aydinlik, had published trans- lated excerpts of British author Salman Rushdie's controversial 1988 novel, The Satanic Verses, which many Muslim religious leaders had condemned as blasphemous. Following publica- tion of the excerpts, the newspaper's offices in Istanbul and other cities were attacked by groups of Islamic militants. Turkey's religious revival has foreign policy implications because the tarikatlar tend to link with religious groups in other Muslim countries. Saudi Arabia, for example, has been an important source of the extensive financial support that has enabled the tarikatlar to proselytize and to operate charitable programs that enhance their political influence. Turkish politi- cal leaders also fear the influence of neighboring Iran, where an Islamic government replaced the secular regime in 1979, and since 1987 have tended to blame incidents of religious vio- lence on Iranian agents. However, Turkey's religious activists are Sunni (see Glossary) Muslims who tend to display suspicion and prejudice toward Shia Muslims — who make up more than 90 percent of the Iranian population — and there has been scant evidence to support the existence of significant ties between the Turkish Sunni and Iran. Minorities At least 15 percent of Turkey's population consists of ethnic and religious minorities. The Kurds are the minority group with the greatest impact on national politics. Since the 1930s, Kurds have resisted government efforts to assimilate them forc- ibly, including an official ban on speaking or writing Kurdish. Since 1984 Kurdish resistance to Turkification has encom- passed both a peaceful political struggle to obtain basic civil rights for Kurds within Turkey and a violent armed struggle to obtain a separate Kurdish state. The leaders of the nonviolent struggle have worked within the political system for the recog- nition of Kurdish cultural rights, including the right to speak Kurdish in public and to read, write, and publish in Kurdish. Prior to 1991, these Kurds operated within the national politi- cal parties, in particular the SHP, the party most sympathetic to their goal of full equality for all citizens of Turkey. President Ozal's 1991 call for a more liberal policy toward Kurds and for the repeal of the ban on speaking Kurdish raised the hopes of 280 Government and Politics Kurdish politicians. Following the parliamentary elections of October 1991, several Kurdish deputies, including Hatip Dicle, Feridun Yazar, and Leyla Zayna, formed the HEP, a party with the explicit goal of campaigning within the National Assembly for laws guaranteeing equal rights for the Kurds. Turkey's other leaders were not as willing as Ozal to recog- nize Kurdish distinctiveness, and only two months after his death in April 1993, the Constitutional Court issued its deci- sion declaring the HEP illegal. In anticipation of this outcome, the Kurdish deputies had resigned from the HEP only days before and formed a new organization, the Democracy Party (Demokrasi Partisi — DEP). The DEP's objective was similar to that of its predecessor: to promote civil rights for all citizens of Turkey. When the DEP was banned in June 1994, Kurdish dep- uties formed the new People's Democracy Party (Halkin Demokrasi Partisi — HADEP). The PKK initiated armed struggle against the state in 1984 with attacks on gendarmerie posts in the southeast. The PKK's leader, Abdullah Ocalan, had formed the group in the late 1970s while a student in Ankara. Prior to the 1980 coup, Ocalan fled to Lebanon, via Syria, where he continued to main- tain his headquarters in 1994. Until October 1992, Ocalan's brother, Osman, had supervised PKK training camps in the mountains separating northern Iraq from Turkey's Hakkari and Mardin provinces. It was from these camps that PKK guer- rillas launched their raids into Turkey. The main characteristic of PKK attacks was the use of indiscriminate violence, and PKK guerrillas did not hesitate to kill Kurds whom they considered collaborators. Targeted in particular were the government's paid militia, known as village guards, and schoolteachers accused of promoting forced assimilation. The extreme vio- lence of the PKK's methods enabled the government to portray the PKK as a terrorist organization and to justify its own poli- cies, which included the destruction of about 850 border vil- lages and the forced removal of their populations to western Turkey. In March 1993, the PKK dropped its declared objective of creating an independent state of Kurdistan in the southeastern provinces that had Kurdish majorities. Its new goal was to resolve the Kurdish problem within a democratic and federal system. The loss of PKK guerrilla camps in northern Iraq in October 1992, following defeat in a major confrontation with Iraqi Kurdish forces supported by Turkish military interven- 281 Turkey: A Country Study tion, probably influenced this tactical change. At the same time, Ocalan announced a unilateral, albeit temporary, cease- fire in the PKK's war with Turkish security forces. The latter decision may also have reflected the influence of Kurdish civil- ian leaders, who had been urging an end to the violence in order to test Ozal's commitment to equal rights. Whether there were realistic prospects in the spring of 1993 for a political solution to the conflict in southeast Turkey may never be known. Ozal suffered a fatal heart attack in April, and his suc- cessor, Demirel, did not appear inclined to challenge the mili- tary, whose position continued to be that elimination of the PKK was the appropriate way to pacify the region. Fighting between security forces and PKK guerrillas, estimated to num- ber as many as 15,000, resumed by June 1993. In early 1995, Turkey's other minorities — Arabs, Armenians, other Caucasian peoples, Circassians, Georgians, Greeks, and Jews — tended toward political quiescence. Arabs, who are con- centrated in the southeast to the west of the Kurds and north of the border with Syria, had demonstrated over language and religious issues in the 1980s. Because most of Turkey's Arabs belong to Islam's Alawi branch, whose adherents also include the leading politicians of Syria, Ankara's often tense relations with Syria tend to be further complicated. The Armenian issue also adds tension to foreign affairs. The 60,000 Armenians estimated to be living in Turkey in the mid- 1990s had refrained from attracting any political attention to their community. However, along with Armenians residing in Lebanon, France, Iran, and the United States, the Republic of Armenia, which borders Turkey's easternmost province of Kars, has embarrassed Turkey with highly publicized annual commemorations of the Armenian genocide of 1915-16 — which the Turkish government denies ever occurred (see World War I, ch. 1). The Turkish government also condemns as harmful to overall relations the periodic efforts by the United States Congress and the parliaments of European states to pass resolutions condemning the mass killings. Various clandestine Armenian groups — of which the most prominent is the Arme- nian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia (ASALA) — have claimed responsibility for assassinations of Turkish diplo- matic personnel stationed in the Middle East and Europe. Such assassinations have continued to occur in the 1990s. Uni- dentified Turkish government officials frequently have leaked reports to the news media accusing Armenia, Lebanon, and 282 Government and Politics Syria of allowing Armenian terrorists to receive training and support within their borders. Mass Media The Turkish news media consist of a state-operated radio and television broadcasting system and privately owned press and broadcasting operations. Newspapers are not subject to prior censorship, but a 1983 press law restricts them from reporting information deemed to fall within the sphere of national security and prohibits the publication of papers that promote "separatism." Violations of these restrictions result in the closing down of newspapers and the prosecution of jour- nalists. Except for official press releases, most reports on mili- tary operations in southeastern Turkey and almost all accounts of public speeches calling for Kurdish cultural rights prompt state prosecutors to come before security courts calling for judicial investigations of possible press law violations. Amnesty International has documented the detention of scores of jour- nalists who wrote independent articles about conditions in the southeast during 1991-92; in some instances, journalists were injured during interrogations or held for prolonged periods without access to attorneys. Twenty-eight journalists were tried and sentenced to prison in the first six months of 1993 alone. Many of them worked for the Istanbul daily Ozgur Gundem, which has regularly featured stories on conditions in the Kurd- ish areas and has carried interviews with both PKK guerrillas and Turkish soldiers. In an apparent attempt to halt publica- tion of such articles, the government arrested the newspaper's editor in chief, Davut Karadag, in July 1993 and charged him with spreading separatist propaganda. Subsequently, editors at Medya Gunesi, Aydinlik, and other newspapers were detained on similar charges. The publication of materials thought to offend public mor- als is also grounds for suspending a periodical or confiscating a book. The Censor's Board on Obscene Publications has responsibility for reviewing potentially offensive material and deciding on appropriate action. The weekly Aktuel frequently questions the value of, and need for, such a board in a democ- racy, using biting satire to deliver its message. In 1993 the edi- tor of the weekly and one of its freelance columnists were arrested and charged with insulting the board. 283 Turkey: A Country Study Newspapers and Periodicals In 1994 there were more than thirty daily newspapers in Turkey. The mass-circulation dailies are based in Istanbul and are distributed nationally. These include the country's largest newspaper, Hitrriyet (Freedom), which has a circulation of more than 850,000, and three other papers, each with daily cir- culations ranging from 200,000 to 300,000: Giinaydin (Good Morning), Tercuman (Interpreter), and Milliyet (Nationality). A smaller paper, Cumhuriyet (Republic), is influential because it is read widely by the country's economic and political elite. In all, more than a dozen dailies are published in Istanbul. Nine dai- lies are published in Ankara and three in Izmir. Other major cities, including Adana, Bursa, Diyarbakir, Gaziantep, Konya, and Mersin, have at least one local daily newspaper. In addition to the newspapers, twenty weeklies and a variety of biweekly, monthly, bimonthly, and quarterly journals also are published. The main news agency in Turkey is the official Anadolu Ajansi (Anatolian Agency), founded by Atatiirk in 1920. Its pri- mary function is to issue news bulletins and printed informa- tion within the country and for distribution abroad. As do most newspapers, Turkish radio and television depend on the agency as a primary source of domestic news. In 1994 it had regional offices in Turkey's major cities as well as correspon- dents throughout the country. It also had foreign correspon- dents in all major world cities. In addition to the Anatolian Agency, several private agencies serve the press. Radio and Television The government of Turkey began radio broadcasting in 1927. Atatiirk and his colleagues perceived radio as a means to promote modernization and nationalism and thus created a Bureau of the Press Directorate to oversee programming and ensure that it served national goals. In 1964 the government established the Turkish Radio and Television Corporation (Tiirkiye Radyo Televizyon Kurumu — TRT) to expand radio facilities and develop public television. Subsequently, the trans- mission power of radio stations greatly increased, as did the number of licensed receivers. (The government required pur- chase of a license for ownership of radios, and later of televi- sions.) By 1994 almost the entire nation had radio coverage, with thirty-six transmitters beaming a total power of 5,500 kilo- watts to an estimated 10 million receivers. TRT also broadcasts 284 Government and Politics programs abroad in Turkish and in several foreign languages, including Arabic, Bulgarian, Greek, and Persian. Television developed more slowly than radio, mainly because the government considered it a luxury. Television broadcasting began through a technical-assistance agreement between Turkey and the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany). With the aid of the equipment and technical per- sonnel provided under this agreement, TRT inaugurated the country's first public television station in Ankara in 1968. Grad- ually new stations were opened in Istanbul, Izmir, and other cit- ies. Investment in television facilities accelerated after 1972, and during the following decade television replaced radio as the country's most important mass medium. By 1994 the esti- mated number of television sets — 10 million — equaled the number of radio receivers. TRT had a constitutionally mandated monopoly on radio and television broadcasting prior to 1993. It financed its opera- tions through limited allocations it received from the govern- ment's general budget and income derived from radio and television license fees. TRT news presentations and documen- taries tended to avoid controversy; television viewers often criti- cized the programs as dull. Dissatisfaction with public television prompted proposals beginning in the late 1980s to amend the constitution to permit private, commercial broad- casting. Opposition to private broadcasting came from the mil- itary and other groups that feared loss of government control over programming. It was not until 1993 that the National Assembly approved legislation to authorize private radio and television in tandem with public broadcasting. Even before their legalization, however, private stations had begun to broadcast programs, many of which disturbed officials in the national security bureaucracy. For example, in the summer of 1993 the State Security Court opened an investigation into a public affairs program of a private Istanbul channel, charging that the program had spread separatist propaganda by includ- ing Kurdish guests. Foreign Relations Turkey began reevaluating its foreign policy in 1991, when the United States-led war against Iraq and the collapse of the Soviet Union totally upset patterns of international relations that had been relatively consistent for more than forty years. Both of these developments intimately affected Turkey because 285 Turkey: A Country Study the former Soviet Union was its neighbor to the north and east, and Iraq its neighbor to the south. Political instability has plagued both these regions since 1991, causing some Turkish national security analysts to fear possible negative conse- quences for their own country. However, other Turks believe that the international changes since 1991 offer their country a unique opportunity to reassert its historical role as a bridge between two regions in which it has had only a marginal pres- ence since 1918. Dissolution of the Soviet Union Since the end of World War II, Turkey had regarded the Soviet Union, the superpower with which it shared a 590-kilo- meter frontier, as its principal enemy. Fear of Soviet intentions was powerful enough to persuade Turkish leaders to join the United States-European collective defense agreement, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), in 1952. Partici- pation in NATO made Turkey a partisan on the side of the West in the Cold War that dominated international politics for more than forty years. Turkish suspicions of the Soviet Union gradually eased during the era of detente that began in the 1960s, paving the way for several bilateral economic coopera- tion agreements in the 1970s. However, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 revived Turkish concerns about Soviet expansionism and led to a cooling of relations that lasted more than five years. Beginning in the mid-1980s, Turkish fears again eased. Ankara and Moscow concluded a number of agree- ments, including plans for a pipeline to carry natural gas from Soviet gas fields to Turkey. Economic and diplomatic ties between the two countries were being expanded when the Soviet Union dissolved into fifteen independent nations. For Turkey the practical consequence of the Soviet Union's demise was the replacement of one large, powerful, and gener- ally predictable neighbor with five smaller near neighbors char- acterized by domestic instability and troubling foreign policies. Like most states, Turkey perceives Russia as the principal inher- itor of Soviet power and influence. Turkish officials likewise share in the widespread uncertainty over Russia's role in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), formed at the end of 1991, and thus try to avoid policies that might antago- nize a traditional adversary. Diplomatic contacts with Russia and the CIS have focused on the renegotiation of numerous Soviet-era economic and technical cooperation agreements 286 Government and Politics that were in force when the Soviet Union was dissolved. Turkey also has initiated multilateral discussions with the five states that now border the Black Sea — Russia, Georgia, Ukraine, Bul- garia, and Romania — on an economic cooperation project originally proposed before the demise of the Soviet Union. The inaugural meetings of the new group called for ambitious plans to increase trade among member states, encourage labor mobility, and establish a development bank. In Transcaucasia and Central Asia, regions where Turkey is most keen to project its influence, Ankara has tended to defer to Moscow whenever such a course seems prudent. Turkey's efforts to make its presence felt in nearby Transcaucasia have been limited not so much by Russia as by the political realities that emerged in Transcaucasia itself after December 1991. All three new countries in the region — Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia — share land borders with Turkey; thus political and economic leaders view them as natural partners for trade and development projects. Both President Ozal's Motherland Party and Prime Minister Demirel's True Path Party embraced the idea of expanding ties with Azerbaijan, an oil-producing coun- try whose people speak a Turkic language closely related to Anatolian Turkish. Almost all the major parties have expressed reservations about an independent Armenia, probably on account of the historical bitterness between Armenians and Turks. In the mid- 1990s, the revival of Ottoman-era animosities seemed inevita- ble because Armenia and Azerbaijan had become independent while fighting an undeclared war over the Azerbaijani province of Nagorno-Karabakh, whose ethnic Armenian majority has been trying to secede. Turkey adopted an officially neutral position in the conflict, although its sympathies lie with Azer- baijan. Popular opinion against Armenia became especially intense in 1992 and 1993, when military successes by Armenian forces caused tens of thousands of Azerbaijani refugees to enter Turkey. Turkey responded by applying temporary eco- nomic pressure on Armenia, such as closing the transborder road to traffic bringing goods into the landlocked country and cutting Turkish electrical power to Armenian towns. However, Turkey's membership in NATO and the Conference on Secu- rity and Cooperation in Europe (from January 1995, the Orga- nization for Security and Cooperation in Europe), its concerns about overall regional stability — adjacent Georgia was engulfed in its own civil war in 1993 — and fears of unpredictable Iranian 287 Turkey: A Country Study and Russian reactions all combined to restrain Turkey from providing direct military assistance to Azerbaijan. Disappointment over the inadequacy of Turkish support was one of the factors that prompted the 1993 coup against Azer- baijan's staunchly pro-Turkish government. This unexpected political change in Baku represented a major blow to Turkish policy. The new regime in Azerbaijan was not only cool toward Turkey but also determined to cultivate friendlier relations with Iran and Russia. These developments provoked opposi- tion deputies in Turkey's National Assembly to accuse the (filler government of having "lost" Azerbaijan. As of late Janu- ary 1995, Ankara's political influence in Baku still was limited, although Turkey's overall cultural influence in Azerbaijan seemed strong. Turkey's policy in Central Asia has proved more successful than its Transcaucasian policy. As with Azerbaijan, a feeling of pan-Turkic solidarity has prompted Turkish interest in expand- ing ties with the countries of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmen- istan, and Uzbekistan. In April 1992, in his first year as prime minister, Demirel traveled to the region to promote Turkey as a political and developmental model for the Central Asian states. He explicitly represented Turkey not only as a successful exam- ple of what an independent Turkic country could achieve but also as a more appropriate model than the Islamic alternative offered by Iran, which he perceived as Turkey's main rival for influence in the region. Subsequently, Turkey concluded numerous cultural, economic, and technical aid agreements with the Central Asian states, including non-Turkic Tajikistan. Turkey also sponsored full membership for the Central Asian countries and Azerbaijan in the Economic Cooperation Orga- nization, a regional trade pact whose original members were Iran, Pakistan, and Turkey. In practice, however, Turkey lacks adequate economic resources to play the pivotal role in Central Asia to which it aspires. Because Iran also has insufficient capi- tal for aid to and investment in the region, the anticipated rivalry between Iran and Turkey had failed by the mid-1990s to develop into a serious contest. By the time President Ozal fol- lowed Demirel's trip with his own tour of the region in April 1993, Turkey recognized, albeit reluctantly, that Russia, rather than Turkey or Iran, had emerged as the dominant political force in Central Asia, and that this situation would prevail indefinitely. Nevertheless, the new countries have professed friendship toward Turkey and welcomed its overtures. In 288 Government and Politics response, Turkey has reoriented its policies to focus on strengthening bilateral cultural ties and encouraging Turkish private entrepreneurs to invest in the region. As of early 1995, Turkey enjoyed close diplomatic relations with the four Turkic republics of Central Asia and good relations with Persian- speaking Tajikistan. Closely related to the dissolution of the Soviet Union was the collapse of the communist regimes in Eastern Europe. This development had positive consequences in terms of Turkey's relations with Bulgaria, which borders the Turkish province of Thrace. Relations between Turkey and Bulgaria had been badly strained between 1985 and 1989 as a result of Bulgaria's campaign of forcibly assimilating its Turkish minority, esti- mated at 900,000 and comprising approximately 10 percent of the country's total population. Efforts by Bulgaria's ethnic Turks to protest government policies requiring them to change their Turkish and Muslim names to Bulgarian and Christian ones, end all Islamic teaching and practices, and stop speaking Turkish in public had led to increasingly severe repression. This repression culminated in the summer of 1989 with a mass exodus of an estimated 320,000 Turkish Bulgarians, who fled across the border into Turkey during a seven-week period in July and August. The exodus overwhelmed Turkey's refugee facilities and provoked an international crisis as well as an internal crisis within Bulgaria that contributed to the fall of the communist government. Subsequently, Bulgaria's new demo- cratic government repealed the controversial assimilation decrees and invited those who had fled to return home. Rela- tions between Turkey and Bulgaria steadily improved during the early 1990s, and the two countries have concluded several bilateral trade and technical assistance agreements. A similar spirit of cooperation was evident in the agreements signed with other East European countries, in particular Hungary and Romania. In contrast to the generally positive evolution of relations with Bulgaria, the international politics surrounding the disin- tegration of Yugoslavia proved frustrating for Turkish diplo- macy. The plight of the Muslim population of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the civil war that followed Bosnia's 1992 declaration of independence aroused popular sympathy in Turkey and support for interventionist policies to help the Bos- nian Muslims. Although the government supported the United Nations (UN) peacekeeping force in Bosnia and an auxiliary 289 Turkey: A Country Study NATO military role, Ankara criticized these efforts as inade- quate. In the mid-1990s, Turkey favored firmer measures against Bosnian Serbs and the government of Serbia, which Turkey, like other countries, had accused of providing military aid and other assistance to the Bosnian Serbs. However, as of early 1995, Turkey was not prepared to take unilateral steps in Bosnia that might antagonize its NATO partners. The Middle East Turkey shares borders with three major Middle Eastern countries: Iran, Iraq, and Syria. Turkey ruled much of the region during the Ottoman Empire, but between 1945 and 1990 Turkish leaders consciously avoided involvement in vari- ous Middle Eastern conflicts. President Ozal broke with that tradition in 1990 when he sided with the United States-led coa- lition confronting Iraq following its invasion and annexation of Kuwait. To comply with the economic sanctions that the UN imposed on Iraq, Ozal closed down the two pipelines used to transport Iraqi oil through Turkey to the Mediterranean Sea. Although Turkey did not formally join the military coalition that fought against Iraq, it deployed about 150,000 troops along its border with Iraq, which caused Baghdad to divert an equivalent number of forces from the south to the north of the country. Furthermore, Turkey authorized United States air- craft to use the military air base at Incirlik for raids over Iraq. A likely motive for Turkish support of the war against Iraq was a desire to strengthen ties with the United States and other NATO allies at a time of considerable uncertainty — at least in Turkey — about post-Cold War strategic relations. The Persian Gulf War's main consequence for Turkey was the internationalization of the Kurdish issue. Following Iraq's defeat by the United States-led coalition at the end of February 1991, Iraq's Kurdish minority, which constituted approximately 15 percent of the .approximately 19 million population, rebelled against the government of Saddam Husayn. Govern- ment forces repressed the rebellion within three weeks, precip- itating a mass exodus of almost the entire Kurdish population of northern Iraq toward the Iranian and Turkish borders. Unable to deal with the refugee flood, Turkey closed its bor- ders in April after more than 400,000 Kurds had fled into Hakkari and Mardin provinces. Turkish soldiers prevented about 500,000 more Kurdish refugees on the Iraqi side of the border from crossing over to Turkey, forcing them to remain in 290 Government and Politics makeshift camps; an additional 1 million other Kurds fled into Iran. The humanitarian crisis and the international publicity surrounding it posed a major dilemma for Turkey, which was reluctant to absorb hundreds of thousands of Kurdish refu- gees. Furthermore, Turkey opposed the creation of permanent refugee camps, believing such camps would become breeding grounds for militant nationalism, as had happened in the Pal- estinian refugee camps established during the war that fol- lowed Israel's creation in 1948. Turkey's preferred solution to the Kurdish refugee crisis has been for the Kurds to return to their homes in Iraq with guar- antees for their safety within a political environment that would encourage their integration into a united Iraq. Negotiations with Britain, France, and the United States produced an agree- ment in June 1991 to establish an interim protected zone in northern Iraq in which all Iraqi military activities would be pro- hibited. Turkey would permit its allies to use the Incirlik Air Base for armed reconnaissance flights over the protected zone. The interim period originally was intended to last for six months but could be extended for an additional six months at the discretion of the National Assembly. Although the agree- ment created a de facto safe haven in Iraq's three northern provinces and prompted a majority of the Kurdish refugees to return home, it did not resolve the political problem between the refugees and the Iraqi government. On the contrary, Bagh- dad responded by imposing a blockade on the north, effec- tively making the Kurds economically dependent on Iran and Turkey. The Western powers saw Iraq's attitude as justifying prolongation of the safe-haven agreement; as of January 1995, it was still in force. Turkey has opposed the creation of an autonomous Kurdish government in northern Iraq. However, Iraq's intransigence toward the UN after the Persian Gulf War and the determina- tion of the United States to limit its involvement in the safe- haven zone to air patrols made the formation of a local admin- istration inevitable. Turkey reluctantly acquiesced after Iraqi Kurdish leaders reassured Ankara that an autonomous govern- ment would not pursue independence for the Kurds but would cooperate with all Iraqi opposition groups to create a demo- cratic alternative to Saddam Husayn's regime. Following elec- tions for a representative regional assembly in May 1992, an autonomous government claiming to operate in keeping with the Iraqi constitution was established at Irbil. Turkey has 291 Turkey: A Country Study accepted this government as the de facto authority in northern Iraq, but has not recognized it as a de jure provincial govern- ment. Turkey has made its continued cooperation with this autonomous government contingent on the Kurds' support of Iraq's territorial integrity and their assistance in controlling PKK camps in northern Iraq. The Kurdish issue also assumed an important role in Tur- key's relations with both Iran and Syria beginning in 1991. Ankara was concerned that Damascus and Tehran might exploit the Kurdish issue to put pressure on Turkey to compro- mise on other issues over which there were deep disagree- ments. For example, although Turkey had enjoyed relatively close political and diplomatic relations with Iran for more than fifty years following the establishment of the Republic of Tur- key in 1923, these ties were strained after 1979 when the Ira- nian Revolution brought to power an Islamic theocratic regime that frequently cites secular governments such as Turkey's as an evil that Muslims should resist. Although bilateral trade remained important to both countries throughout the 1980s and early 1990s, their economic ties have not prevented the regular eruption of tension. One source of intermittent fric- tion has been the presence in Turkey of thousands of Iranians who fled their country during the 1980s because they opposed the religious government, preferred not to live under its puri- tanical legal codes, or wanted to evade military service during the Iran-Iraq War (1980-88). Tehran has periodically protested that Ankara allows "terrorists" (i.e., members of various Iranian opposition groups) to reside in Turkey. Turkish security offi- cials in turn suspect that Iranian diplomats in Turkey have been involved in assassinations of Iranian opposition leaders and also have assisted some of the militant Turkish Islamists who began resorting to violence in the late 1980s. With respect to international concerns, Turkey resents Iran's criticism of its membership in NATO, distrusts Iran's alliance with Syria and its cooperation with Armenia, and perceives Iran as a competi- tor for influence in Azerbaijan and Central Asia. Above all, Turkish leaders believe that Iran supports the PKK and even provides sanctuary and bases for it in the area of northwest Iran that borders Kars, Agri, Van, and Hakkari provinces. Turkish suspicions of Iranian support for the PKK probably originated in 1987, when Iran strongly protested Turkey's bombing of Iraqi Kurdish villages that Ankara claimed were bases for PKK guerrillas. At the time Iran condemned this vio- 292 Government and Politics lation of Iraqi sovereignty, Iran and Iraq were at war, with Ira- nian forces occupying parts of southern Iraq. Iran's protest may have been prompted by the fact that the area Turkey bombed was controlled by an Iraqi Kurdish opposition group to which Iran was allied. This group not only helped Iran by fighting against Saddam Husayn's regime but also cooperated with Iran to suppress Iranian Kurdish opposition. From Turkey's per- spective, however, this same Kurdish group was too friendly toward the PKK. This complex intertwining of domestic and international Kurdish politics continued to cause misunderstanding between Turkey and Iran for more than five years. However, beginning in 1992, Turkish and Iranian views on the Kurdish issue gradu- ally converged as Iranian Kurdish opposition groups initiated operations in Iran from bases in territory controlled by the Kurdish autonomous authority in northern Iraq. Iran not only ceased protesting Turkish actions in Iraq, but it even followed Turkey's example in bombing opposition bases in Iraq. During 1993 Iran also responded favorably to Turkish proposals per- taining to security cooperation in the region along their com- mon border and joined Turkey in affirming opposition to an independent Kurdish state being carved out of Iraq. Syria joined Iran and Turkey in declaring support for the territorial integrity of Iraq, and representatives of the three states met periodically after 1991 to discuss mutual concerns about developments in northern Iraq. Nevertheless, Turkey has had serious reservations about Syria's motives; some Turk- ish officials believe that if an appropriate opportunity pre- sented itself, Syria would use the Kurdish issue to create a Kurdish state in parts of both Iraq and Turkey. Such pessimistic views stem from Syria's long support of the PKK. Turks believe that Syria permits the PKK to maintain a training base in Leba- non — where Syrian troops have been stationed since 1976 — and allows PKK leaders to live freely in Damascus. Tensions between Turkey and Syria actually had been accumulating long before the eruption of the PKK "dispute" in 1984. Like Iraq, Syria was an Ottoman province until 1918. Subsequently, it was governed by France as a League of Nations mandate. In 1939 France detached Hatay (formerly Alexandretta) province from Syria and ceded it to Turkey, an action bitterly opposed by Arab nationalists. Syria thus became independent in 1946 with an irredentist claim against Turkey. The Arab-Israeli conflict soon developed as another source of Syrian antagonism toward Tur- 293 Turkey: A Country Study key, which extended diplomatic recognition to Israel in 1948. Syria's staunch Arab nationalists also condemned Turkey's par- ticipation in NATO and other Western defense arrangements during the 1950s and 1960s. Turkey's adoption in 1974 of a more evenhanded policy toward the Arab-Israeli conflict failed to impress Syria. Much to Turkey's disappointment, Syria supported the Greeks in the conflict between the Greek and Turkish communities on the island of Cyprus. By the mid-1970s, Turkey was convinced that Syria was facilitating Armenian terrorist operations against Turkish diplomats abroad. Given the coolness and mutual sus- picions that have characterized their relations, neither Syria nor Turkey was prepared to be sensitive to the other's interests. One reflection of this attitude was Turkey's decision to proceed with plans for a major dam project on the Euphrates River, apparently without adequate consultation with Syria. The Euphrates rises in the mountains of northern Anatolia, and Syria's territory is bisected by the river before it enters Iraq on its way to the Persian Gulf. Upon completion of the project, Turkey demonstrated the way control of the flow of water to downstream users in Syria could be used for political purposes, provoking a minicrisis in already tense relations. Thus the dam became yet another source of tension between the two coun- tries. Turkey's relations with other Arab countries, including Iraq prior to 1990, have been more positive than those with Syria. In early 1995, trade seemed to be the most important aspect of overall relations. Ankara had hoped that its support of the United States-led coalition in the Persian Gulf War would pro- duce economic rewards. In fact, some Turkish business inter- ests won contracts for construction projects in the Persian Gulf region, albeit not to the extent anticipated. Turkey's regional exports prior to 1990 had gone primarily to Iraq and second- arily to Iran. The loss of the Iraqi market because of Turkish compliance with sanctions initially represented a severe blow to export-dependent businesses and probably contributed to an economic recession in 1991. Beginning in 1992, however, Tur- key gradually increased the level of its exports — particularly processed food and manufactured goods — to Kuwait and other Persian Gulf states. Although the prospects for expanding trade with Egypt and Israel appear limited because Turkey and these countries export similar products that compete in inter- national markets, Turkey, nevertheless, has consolidated its 294 Government and Politics political ties to both countries. Since 1992, for example, Israeli and Turkish investors have undertaken several joint-venture development projects in Central Asia. Turkey also imports most of its oil from Middle Eastern countries, particularly Libya. European Union Since 1963, when it was accepted as an associate member of the European Community (EC), Turkey has striven for admis- sion as a full member of that body, now called the European Union (EU — see Glossary), the association of fifteen West European nations that comprises^ the world's wealthiest and most successful trading bloc. The Ozal government, which had formulated its economic policies with the goal of meeting cer- tain EC objections to a perceived lack of competitiveness in Turkish industry, formally applied for full membership in 1987. Much to Turkey's disappointment, the decision was deferred until 1993 — or later — on grounds that the EC could not consider new members until after the implementation of tighter political integration scheduled for the end of 1992. The unexpected end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union actually delayed integration by one year, prima- rily to allow time for the EU to adjust to West Germany's absorption of East Germany. The new Demirel government, which strongly supported Ozal's goal of joining the EC, was dis- appointed in 1992 when the EC agreed to consider member- ship applications from Austria, Finland, Norway, and Sweden without making a decision on Turkey's long-standing applica- tion. By then it seemed obvious that the EC was reluctant to act on Turkey's application. In fact, most EC members objected to full Turkish membership for a variety of economic, social, and political reasons. The principal economic objections to Turkish membership center on the relative underdevelopment of Turkey's economy compared to the economies of EC/EU members and Turkey's high rate of population growth. The latter issue is perceived as a potentially serious problem because of free labor movement among EU members and the fact that Turkey's already large population is expected to surpass that of Germany — the most populous EU member — by 2010. Closely related to the con- cern about there being too many Turkish workers for too few jobs is the social problem of integrating those workers into European culture. Throughout Western Europe, the early 295 Turkey: A Country Study 1990s witnessed a rise in anti-immigrant feeling directed prima- rily against Muslim workers from North Africa and Turkey. For the most part, EU governments have not developed policies to combat this resurgence of prejudice. The political obstacles to EU membership concern Turkey's domestic and foreign policies. Because the European body prides itself on being an association of democracies, the 1980 military coup — in a country enjoying associate status — was a severe shock. The harshness of repression under the military regime further disturbed the EC — many EG leaders knew per- sonally the former Turkish leaders whom the military put on trial for treason. The EC responded by freezing relations with Turkey and suspending economic aid. A related body, the Council of Europe, also expelled Turkey from its parliamen- tary assembly. The restoration of civilian rule gradually helped to improve Turkey's image. In 1985 Germany's prime minister signaled the EC's readiness to resume dialogue with Turkey by accepting an invitation to visit Ankara. The following year, the EC restored economic aid and permitted Turkey to reoccupy its seats in European deliberative councils. Nevertheless, fre- quent veiled threats by Turkey's senior military officers of future interventions if politicians "misbehaved" did not inspire confidence in Europe that democracy had taken permanent root in Turkey. As late as 1995, some Europeans remained apprehensive about the possibility of another military coup, a concern that was shared by various Turkish politicians. EU members have also expressed reservations about Tur- key's human rights record. Amnesty International and Helsinki Watch, two human rights monitoring organizations supported by the EU, have reported the persistence of practices such as arbitrary arrests, disappearances, extrajudicial killings, torture in prisons, and censorship. The Turkish Human Rights Associa- tion, itself subject to harassment and intimidation tactics, has prepared detailed chronologies and lists of human rights abuses, including the destruction of entire villages without due process, and has circulated these reports widely in Europe. The documented reports of human rights abuses, like the coup rumors, sustained questions about Turkey's qualifications to join a collective body of countries that have striven to achieve uniform standards for protecting citizen rights. In terms of foreign policy, the main obstacle to EU member- ship remains the unresolved issues between Turkey and EU member Greece. The most serious issue between the two coun- 296 Government and Politics tries is their dispute over the island of Cyprus, which dates back to 1974. At that time, Turkish troops occupied the northeast- ern part of the island to protect the Turkish minority (20 per- cent of the population), which felt threatened by the Greek majority's proposals for unification with Greece. Years of nego- tiations have failed to resolve a stalemate based on the de facto partition of Cyprus into a Turkish Cypriot north and a Greek Cypriot south, a division that continues to be enforced by a Turkish force estimated at 25,000 troops in early 1995 (see Conflict and Diplomacy: Cyprus and Beyond, ch. 1). Following the November 1983 declaration of independence of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus — a government recognized only by Turkey in early 1995 — Greece persuaded fellow EU members that progress on settling the dispute over Cyprus should be a prerequisite to accepting Turkey as a full member. Despite Ankara's position that such an obvious politi- cal condition was not appropriate for an economic association, once the EC agreed in 1990 to consider an application for membership from Cyprus, diplomatic efforts aimed at convinc- ing individual EC members to veto the condition became futile. Since 1990 Turkey has supported UN-mediated talks between Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot leaders that are aimed at devising procedures for the island's reunification. As of January 1995, these intermittent discussions had made little progress, and the prospects for a resolution of the Cyprus prob- lem appeared dim. Equally as serious as the Cyprus issue is Turkey's dispute with Greece over territorial rights and interests in the Aegean Sea. Although both Greece and Turkey are de jure allies in NATO, their conflicting claims brought them to the brink of war in 1986 and 1987. A fundamental source of contention is exploration rights to minerals, primarily oil, beneath the Aegean Sea. International law recognizes the right of a country to explore the mineral wealth on its own continental shelf. Greece and Turkey, however, have been unable to agree on what constitutes the Aegean continental shelf. Turkey defines the Aegean shelf as a natural prolongation of the Anatolian coast, whereas Greece claims that every one of the more than 2,000 of its islands in the Aegean has its own shelf. The issue is complicated further by Greece's claim to the territorial waters surrounding its islands. Turkey rejected Greece's attempts to extend its six-nautical-mile territorial claim around each island to twelve nautical miles on grounds that such a move would 297 Turkey: A Country Study enable Greece to control 71 percent, rather than 43 percent, of the Aegean. Thus, it would be impossible for Turkish ships to reach the Mediterranean Sea without crossing Greek waters. The issue of the right to control the airspace over the Aegean appears similarly intractable. Greece, which was granted control of air and sea operations over the entire Aegean region by various NATO agreements, closed the Aegean air corridors during the 1974 Cyprus crisis and only reopened them early in 1980 as part of the compromise arrangement for Greek reintegration into NATO. Disputes over the median line dividing the Aegean into approximately equal sectors of responsibility remain unresolved. In addition, Turkey refuses to recognize the ten-mile territorial air limit decreed by Greece in 1931; this line extends from the coast of Greece's mainland as well as from its islands. These unresolved issues contribute to the tensions over Cyprus and mineral exploration rights in the Aegean Sea. Prime Minister Ozal recognized the potential of Greece to block Turkish admission to the EC even before his government formally submitted its application. Thus, early in 1987 he attempted to defuse tensions by initiating a meeting with his Greek counterpart in Switzerland — the first meeting between Greek and Turkish heads of government in ten years. Their dis- cussions resolved an immediate crisis over oil drilling in the Aegean and established channels for further diplomatic discus- sions. In June 1988, Ozal accepted an unprecedented invita- tion to visit Athens, the first state visit by a Turkish leader in thirty-six years. Although Ozal's initiatives did much to clear the political atmosphere, leaders in both countries remain unable to overcome their mutual suspicions. Thus, no progress has been achieved in resolving outstanding differences, although both countries are showing more restraint in their rhetoric and actions. Beginning in 1989, dramatic political developments in Eastern Europe and the Middle East caused Turkey and Greece to focus their attention beyond the Aegean Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. The United States In early 1995, Turkey's most important international rela- tionship was with the United States. Turkey's association with the United States began in 1947 when the United States Con- gress designated Turkey, under the provisions of the Truman Doctrine, as the recipient of special economic and military 298 Prime Minister Tansu Qiller with President William J. Clinton at the White House in late 1994 Courtesy The White House assistance intended to help it resist threats from the Soviet Union (see Politics and Foreign Relations in the 1960s, ch. 1). A mutual interest in containing Soviet expansion provided the foundation of United States-Turkish relations for the next forty years. In support of overall United States Cold War strategy, Turkey contributed personnel to the UN forces in the Korean War (1950-53), joined NATO in 1952, became a founding member of the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) collec- tive defense pact established in 1955, and endorsed the princi- ples of the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, Turkey generally cooperated with other United States allies in the Middle East (Iran, Israel, and Jordan) to contain the influence of those countries (Egypt, Iraq, and Syria) regarded as Soviet clients. The general tendency for relationships between nations to experience strain in the wake of domestic and international political changes has proved to be the rule for Turkey and the United States. The most difficult period in their relationship followed Turkey's invasion of northern Cyprus in 1974. In response to the military intervention, the United States halted arms supplies to Turkey. Ankara retaliated by suspending 299 Turkey: A Country Study United States military operations at all Turkish installations that were not clearly connected with NATO missions. The Cyprus issue affected United States-Turkish relations for sev- eral years. Even after the United States Congress lifted the arms embargo in 1978, two years passed before bilateral defense cooperation and military assistance were restored to their 1974 level. During the 1980s, relations between Turkey and the United States gradually recovered the closeness of earlier years. Although Ankara resented continued attempts by the United States Congress to restrict military assistance to Turkey because of Cyprus and to introduce congressional resolutions con- demning the 1915-16 massacre of Armenians, the Ozal govern- ment generally perceived the administrations of President Ronald Reagan and President George H.W. Bush as sympa- thetic to Turkish interests. For example, Washington demon- strated its support of Ozal's market-oriented economic policies and efforts to open the Turkish economy to international trade by pushing for acceptance of an International Monetary Fund (IMF — see Glossary) program to provide economic assistance to Turkey. Furthermore, the United States, unlike European countries, did not persistently and publicly criticize Turkey over allegations of human rights violations. Also, the United States did not pressure Ozal on the Kurdish problem, another issue that seemed to preoccupy the Europeans. By 1989 the United States had recovered a generally positive image among the Turkish political elite. The end of the Cold War forced Turkish leaders to reassess their country's international position. The disappearance of the Soviet threat and the perception of being excluded from Europe have created a sense of vulnerability with respect to Turkey's position in the fast-changing global political environ- ment. Ozal believed Turkey's future security depended on the continuation of a strong relationship with the United States. For that reason, he supported the United States position dur- ing the Persian Gulf War, although Turkey's economic ties to Iraq were extensive and their disruption hurt the country. After the war, he continued to support major United States ini- tiatives in the region, including the creation of a no-fly zone over northern Iraq, the Arab-Israeli peace process, and expanded ties with the Central Asian members of the CIS. Ozal's pro-United States policy was not accepted by all Turks. United States use of Turkish military installations during the 300 Government and Politics bombing of Iraq in 1991 led to antiwar demonstrations in sev- eral cities, and sporadic attacks on United States facilities con- tinued in 1992 and 1993. Nevertheless, among Turkey's political elite a consensus had emerged by January 1995 that Turkey's security depended on remaining a strategic ally of the United States. For that reason, both the Demirel and (filler gov- ernments undertook efforts to cultivate relations with the administrations of presidents George H.W. Bush and William J. Clinton. * * * George S. Harris analyzes Turkey's governmental frame- work, political dynamics, and foreign policy from both histori- cal and contemporary perspectives in Turkey: Coping with Crisis. Frank Tachau describes the tension among authoritarianism, democracy, and economic development in Turkey: The Politics of Authority, Democracy, and Development. Insight into the break- down of Turkish democracy and the framing of a new constitu- tion is provided in Clement H. Dodd's The Crisis of Turkish Democracy and in Lucille W. Pevsner's Turkey's Political Crisis. Religion and religious movements in contemporary Turkey are examined in Religion and Social Change in Modern Turkey, by Serif A. Mardin, and in a volume edited by Richard Tapper, Islam in Modern Turkey: Religion, Politics, and Literature in a Secu- lar State. Information on patterns of political participation through specialized associations can be obtained from Robert Bianchi's detailed study, Interest Groups and Political Development in Turkey. David Barchard examines aspects of Turkey's foreign policy in Turkey and the West. The complicated relationship between Turkey and Greece and it simplications for the United States are examined in Theodore A. Couloumbis's The United States, Greece, and Turkey and Monteagle Stearns's Entangled Allies: United States Policy Toward Greece, Turkey, and Cyprus. (For further information and complete citations, see Bibliography.) 301 Chapter 5. National Security The Rumeli Hisar or castle guards the Bosporus and Istanbul THE ARMED FORCES have figured prominently in Turkish national life for centuries. Under Ottoman rule, the govern- ment and the military establishment were virtually indistin- guishable. After World War I, the army commander, Mustafa Kemal, later called Atatiirk (meaning Father Turk), evicted the occupying forces of the victorious Allies from Anatolia and for- mulated the principles underlying the modern Turkish state. On three occasions since then, the military leadership has intervened to protect the nation's democratic framework. The third interlude of military rule, which lasted from 1980 to 1983, was welcomed by many Turkish citizens because it ended the terrorism of the 1970s. The military's actions, however, also limited the democratic process. A member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) since 1952, Turkey long had the vital mission of anchoring the alliance's southern flank against the military power of the Warsaw Pact and the Soviet Union. Turkish armed forces defended the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits and Tur- key's northeastern border with the Soviet Union in the Trans- caucasus region. Vessels of the Soviet Union's Black Sea fleet had to transit the Turkish-controlled straits to enter the Medi- terranean. The disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991 fundamen- tally changed Turkey's security environment. Fear of Soviet aggression no longer looms over the nation, yet Turkey remains at the center of a region seething with political and economic discord. The stability of Turkey's borders is threat- ened by turbulence among the newly independent republics of the Caucasus and by hostile states in the Middle East. Turkey's concern over the fortunes of the Turkic states of Central Asia could bring it into conflict with Russia or Iran. Turkey is an advocate of the interests of Muslim peoples in the Balkans, but its modest military role as part of the United Nations (UN) Protection Force in Bosnia has generated controversy because of memories of the Ottoman Empire's long involvement there. The Turkish government has taken sweeping measures to restructure and modernize the armed forces to deal with the new conditions, in which Soviet military might has been super- seded by a multiplicity of threats near Turkey's eastern and southern borders. The new strategy emphasizes the ability to 305 Turkey: A Country Study perform a variety of missions, move forces rapidly from one region to another, and mount firepower sufficient to meet any foreseeable threat. Undergoing the most radical reorganiza- tion have been the land forces, which were reduced from about 525,000 troops in 1990 to about 393,000 in 1994. For added flexibility, the army has adopted a brigade structure in place of the previous divisional pattern. The army's stocks of tanks and armored vehicles have been enlarged and improved; self-pro- pelled howitzers and multiple rocket launchers also have been added. Troop-carrying helicopters will ensure greater mobility. An expanded Turkish defense industry has played a major role in the modernization of the armed forces. Under joint- venture programs with United States manufacturers, combat aircraft, armored vehicles, rocket systems, and tank upgrades have been supplied. Submarines and other vessels have been produced in cooperation with the German shipbuilding indus- try. The centerpiece of the modernization effort has been the United States-Turkey F-16 coproduction project, which is expected to add 240 high-performance fighter aircraft to the Turkish inventory during the 1990s. Turkey and the United States developed many defense links and common goals after United States military and economic assistance began in 1947 in response to the threat of Soviet expansion. For instance, Turkey has permitted the United States to use forward bases and intelligence installations on Turkish territory. During the Cold War, these installations were of vital importance in monitoring military activity and weapons testing by the Soviet Union. Following the end of the Persian Gulf War in 1991, Turkish bases enabled the United States and coalition forces to conduct Operation Provide Comfort, an effort to supply humanitarian relief to Kurds in northern Iraq and enforce a "no-fly zone" in the area against Iraqi aircraft. Overshadowing all external threats to Turkish security is the Kurdish insurgency, which began in 1984 in the southeastern region of the country. This movement, which involves only a small minority of Turkey's Kurdish population, is led by the extremist Kurdistan Workers' Party (Partiya Karkere Kurdis- tan — PKK). The conflict became particularly violent beginning in 1992. Some 4,000 Kurds and government security personnel were killed in 1993 alone, many of them noncombatants. The activities of the PKK complicate Turkey's relations with Syria, Iraq, and Iran, where the PKK insurgents have maintained sup- ply and training bases. By early 1995, the Turkish government 306 National Security had deployed nearly 200,000 soldiers and police to the region, and had adopted a policy of forcibly evacuating and often burning Kurdish villages believed to be aiding the insurgents. These measures apparently dampened the insurgency, but at the cost of alienating large numbers of Kurds not involved in the separatist movement. Historical Role of the Armed Forces The professional armed forces of Turkey trace their origins back more than five centuries, to a permanent body of men recruited to form the nucleus of the much larger armies mobi- lized to conduct annual campaigns against selected objectives. A unique feature of the Ottoman military organization was the janissary army, whose members were conscripted as youths from among the empire's non-Muslim subjects in the Balkans, converted to Islam, and given military training. Gradually acquiring high status, prominence, and privilege, the janissar- ies ultimately constituted a reactionary palace guard resistant to reforms and of little military value to the reigning sultan. Military conquest permitted the spread of the Ottoman Empire through the Middle East, North Africa, the Balkans, and most of Eastern Europe. The sequence of Ottoman victo- ries was finally halted and a gradual military eclipse ensued after the failure of the siege of Vienna in 1683 (see Koprvilu Era, ch. 1). Vast territories were relinquished as a result of a century of setbacks in battles with the European powers. The need to modernize a military system engaged in a los- ing struggle to maintain Ottoman control over the Mediterra- nean littoral and the Middle East was recognized by the first of the reforming sultans, Selim III (r. 1789-1807). He introduced French instructors to train the soldiers of a new volunteer army organized along the lines of contemporary European armed forces. However, his efforts were successfully resisted by the jan- issaries, who concluded that reform foreshadowed an end to their traditional privileges. Rising up in 1807, the janissaries precipitated the sultan's abdication and the dismantling of the new army. Mahmud II (r. 1808-39) eventually became strong enough to challenge the power of the traditional military caste. He reinstituted the reformed army and, in 1826, crushed the janissaries with a massive artillery barrage aimed at their bar- racks. The internal decay of the Ottoman Empire during the late nineteenth century was accompanied by growing disaffection 307 Turkey: A Country Study and turmoil among younger military officers and civil servants. Coming together as the Committee of Union and Progress (better known as the Young Turks), and operating as secret cells within military units, the dissidents instigated a series of upheavals and mutinies within the military that culminated in the revolution of 1908 and the fall of Sultan Abdul Hamid II (see The Young Turks, ch. 1). Divided between nationalist and liberal factions, the Young Turk officers could not prevent for- eign powers from seizing portions of the empire's Balkan hold- ings. After the empire's defeat at the hands of Bulgaria, Greece, Italy, and Serbia in the Balkan Wars of 1912-13, a military dic- tatorship emerged, under the nominal control of the sultan. Motivated by their fear of Russia, the nationalist officers made the fateful error of joining the Central Powers in World War I. Initially, the Turkish army was successful, stubbornly resisting the landing of British and Australian forces at Gallipoli in 1915 and forcing their withdrawal the following year. But operations against Russia went badly, and tsarist forces advanced onto Turkish soil. In Mesopotamia and Palestine, British and Arab units also prevailed against the Turks (see World War I, ch. 1). A new contingent of Young Turks led by the war hero Ataturk resisted the postwar occupation of most of Turkey by Greek, French, Italian, and British forces. A series of defeats were administered to the Greek troops, resulting in their with- drawal in 1922. The Turks subsequently forced the occupying Allies to accede to a peace treaty recognizing the present bor- ders of Turkey and enabling the proclamation in 1923 of the Republic of Turkey, with Ataturk as its president (see War of Independence, ch. 1). Ataturk envisioned Turkey as a modern, secular democracy in which the army would distance itself from the civil functions of government. The army nevertheless preserved the right to intervene as the ultimate guardian of the state if the political system became deadlocked or Ataturk's reforms were endan- gered. Although active-duty officers were forbidden to engage in politics, the interests of the military did not go unrepre- sented. Until 1950 many influential leadership posts and at least 20 percent of the seats in the Grand National Assembly were held by individuals with military backgrounds. For nearly thirty years, the nation was governed by two military heroes of the War of Independence — first Ataturk and then, after his death in 1938, Ismet Inonu — and a single political party in which retired senior officers were heavily represented. 308 National Security The Armed Forces and Society The armed forces traditionally have enjoyed a distinguished position in Turkish national life. Soldiers receive widespread respect as symbols of Turkish national identity and as legatees of the country's long martial traditions. A leading Turkish jour- nalist has written that "the army is always praised, never criti- cized, and, in an emergency, it is seen as the nation's savior." Over the centuries, the army has been perceived as a civilizing and humanizing factor in society. In the modern era, it is con- sidered the embodiment of the enlightened, progressive forces that inspired the revolution of 1908 against Ottoman rule and later prevented the nation's dismemberment by driving out the occupying armies after World War I. The army also has received credit for rescuing the nation from the turmoil and violence of the late 1970s. Turks recognize that a career in the armed forces provides the opportunity for a quality education at no cost, followed by a lifetime of secure and respected employment. Although some members of the middle and upper classes hold the view that the specialized education and isolated life of the officer pro- duce individuals inflexibly committed to a set of values remote from the real world, such criticism is rarely expressed openly. In any event, a career in the armed forces has become less of a lifetime commitment than in the past. Because of the superior technical education it provides, military service is often seen as an avenue to a successful civilian career. Because of the large number of applicants for places in the military high schools and service academies, the standards for officer candidates remain high. In the course of their military education, students learn the values of Kemalism (the precepts of Ataturk) and are taught to take pride in the role of the mili- tary in protecting the democratic state against the extremes of left and right and the appeal of radical Islamism. Officers tend to develop an outlook that is nationalistic and hierarchical. In the early 1960s, a minority of junior officers had left-wing sym- pathies, but strict background checks, together with the emphasis on cohesiveness and discipline, are believed subse- quently to have produced an officer corps immune to radical- ism. The military maintains intense vigilance against the infiltration of leftist thought, as well as against Islamic activism (also seen as fundamentalism). The officer corps enjoys certain privileges, but the military makes efforts to keep these from becoming conspicuous 309 Turkey: A Country Study enough to provoke civilian criticism. Officers consider clubs, attractive housing, vacation resorts, and sports facilities as nec- essary to compensate for the modest pay and other disadvan- tages of career military service. Officers are also expected to meet high standards of personal probity. Most individuals entering the service academies are drawn from the lower-middle and middle classes. The results of one survey showed that about 40 percent of army and air force cadets and 55 percent of naval cadets were sons of military ser- vice members, gendarmes, or civil servants, in particular teach- ers. This suggests, one analyst has noted, a perpetuation of the sense of kinship with the spirit of Ataturk and the revolution of 1908. Less than 10 percent of those entering the army and air force academies in the earlyl980s were from rural families; naval cadets with an agricultural background were almost unknown. Geographically, central Anatolia and areas adjacent to the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara were overrepre- sented, whereas southeastern Turkey was most underrepre- sented, supplying only 1 to 2 percent of cadets (see fig. 1). Resistance to assimilation by Kurdish- and Arabic-speaking minorities in the southeast and strict political screening may account for the limited recruitment from this area to the offi- cer corps. In contrast to officer candidates, enlisted personnel, espe- cially conscripts, are preponderantly from peasant households. At least 80 to 85 percent are ethnically Turkish, and the vast majority are Sunni (see Glossary) Muslims. Once rare, efforts to evade the draft or obtain unjustified deferments apparently are becoming more common (see Conditions of Service, this ch.). Nevertheless, for a young soldier facing doubtful employ- ment prospects, active duty means a nutritious diet, access to medical care, and perhaps an opportunity to further one's edu- cation and acquire a useful job skill. Military service offers an interlude from the unvarying pace of village life and is a source of pride, linking one to the warrior tradition of Turkish society. Politics and the Military Since the founding of the Turkish Republic in 1923, six of the nation's nine presidents have had armed forces back- grounds. Until 1950 Ataturk and his successor and closest mili- tary associate, Inonii, ruled what was an essentially a one-party political system with a strong martial flavor. Ataturk encour- aged the military to abjure politics, but the armed forces inter- 310 National Security vened on three occasions — in 1960, 1971, and 1980. Although they did so under different circumstances in each case, their justification was their sworn duty to uphold national unity and the democratic order. The military regime of 1980-83 was the longest lasting, and represented the armed forces' most serious effort to transform traditional political behavior. The changes the regime intro- duced were intended to break what had become a cycle of decennial military interventions. The constitution introduced by the coup leaders in 1982, which forbade political activism in the universities and trade unions, abolished pre-existing par- ties, and banned political activity by pre-1980 party leaders, was the centerpiece of the military's efforts to curtail the factional- ism and polarization that had stalemated the previous civilian government (see Political Developments since the 1980 Coup, ch. 4). The leader of the 1980-83 junta, General Kenan Evren, remained as president after the return of civilian government, but the generals disavowed any desire for a continuing political role for the military. The public failed to respond to Evren's appeal to vote for the party favored by the generals, the Nation- alist Democracy Party (Milliyetci Demokrasi Partisi — MDP). A new grouping of retired officers and other leading citizens, the MDP had the same interests and goals as the military regime. Although disappointed by the party's lack of success, military leaders established good working relations with the victorious Motherland Party (Anavatan Partisi — ANAP) of Turgut Ozal. By promptly relinquishing control over public life, the military preserved its reputation as the ultimate protector of Turkish democratic institutions. On two occasions, Ozal prevailed when differences arose with the armed forces. In 1987, as prime minister, he overrode the military's choice of an army commander as the new chief of the General Staff, reportedly out of dissatisfaction with the con- duct of the campaign against the Kurdish insurgency. In 1990, after Ozal became president, the chief of staff resigned as a result of undisclosed disagreements assumed to have sprung from Ozal's activist stance against Iraq's takeover of Kuwait but did not make a public issue of his difference with Ozal. Imbued with the concept that its mission is to safeguard Atatiirk's heritage, the military establishment has often shown its impatience with political bickering and compromises that appear to slight Kemalist objectives. Civilian politicians indif- 311 Turkey: A Country Study ferent to those goals or embracing other ideologies are viewed with suspicion or even as subversive. Much of the military edu- cation system is concerned with instilling the Kemalist spirit through study of the 1919-22 War of Independence, the con- cept of patriotism as embodied by Ataturk, and the values and principles of Kemalism, particularly the "Six Arrows" of secular- ism, republicanism, populism, etatism (see Glossary), reform- ism, and nationalism, as guidance for the future of the Turkish state. A democratic system is fully accepted as the best form of government by the professional military. However, young career officers are indoctrinated with the view that the proper working of democracy demands discipline, organization, con- structiveness, unity of purpose, and rejection of self-interest. Thus, the military has little tolerance of politicians whom it perceives as putting personal ambition before the good of the state or of political parties or groups acting in ways it considers to be dictated by a struggle for power and economic advantage. From a career point of view, it is said to be unwise for an offi- cer to express opinions that can be construed as liberal or otherwise unorthodox. The armed forces have shown particu- lar sensitivity to the threat of radical Islamism to military order. In 1991 the general staff disclosed that in the preceding decade 357 officers and seventy-one noncommissioned officers (NCOs) had been dismissed on charges of involvement in extreme leftist or separatist (presumably Kurdish) activities. During the same period, thirty-seven officers and 188 NCOs were discharged for involvement in extreme rightist or Islamist activities. External Security Concerns Throughout the Cold War, Turkey's security situation was shaped by the country's vulnerability to Soviet military strength. It was obliged to contend with the threat of twenty divisions of Soviet land forces close to the common border of more than 500 kilometers in the Transcaucasus region of northern Turkey. Turkey's heavily populated areas were within easy range of Soviet fighter aircraft and bombers; Soviet naval vessels and submarines were well positioned to dominate the Black Sea. Turkish suspicion of Soviet motives had historical roots in the efforts of imperial Russia to extend its influence beyond the Black Sea to the eastern Mediterranean and the Middle 312 Soldiers, armored unit, and mobile antiaircraft passing in review, Republic Day parade ( October 29) Courtesy Embassy of Turkey, Washington 313 Turkey: A Country Study East. The Soviet naval presence in the Mediterranean was linked tactically and logistically to the Soviet Black Sea fleet. Transit of the Turkish-controlled Bosporus was essential to the projection of Soviet naval power in the Mediterranean. For Turkey, perhaps the most important consequence of the 1991 breakup of the Soviet Union was that it no longer shares a border with Russia and that the risk of conflict with the Rus- sians has greatly receded. The appearance of several newly independent nations at Turkey's borders, however, has resulted in a less settled security environment because Turkey now feels a greater potential threat from other powers in the area such as Greece, Syria, and Iraq. Although buffered by other new nations in the Black Sea and Caucasus regions, Russia remains a compelling presence in the minds of Turkish military planners. With Moscow increas- ingly willing to intervene in conflicts near Turkey's borders, concern has grown that a resurgent Russian nationalism might seek pretexts to gain control of former republics of the Soviet Union. Russia has repositioned to its southern flank some of the ground weapons withdrawn from Central Europe under the terms of the Conventional Forces in Europe (CFE) Treaty of 1990. Although the treaty placed a ceiling on the number of tanks, armored vehicles, and artillery pieces that could be rede- ployed to the North Caucasus Military District, the Russians have exceeded this limit, citing concerns over instability in their border regions. Close to Turkey's northeastern border, three former repub- lics of the Soviet Union — Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan — are beset by dissidence and fighting. Turkey has historical, cul- tural, religious, and linguistic ties with Azerbaijan and sup- ported Azerbaijan in its war with Armenia. From the Turkish perspective, Armenia committed aggression against Azerbaijan by seizing the Nagorno-Karabakh region, which is inhabited mostly by ethnic Armenians. Russia issued veiled warnings against Turkish involvement in the Armenian situation, which could pit Turkey against Russia. Turkey has ruled out the use of force, wary of a wider conflict between Christians and Muslims in the region. Middle Eastern Conflicts Despite its location, Turkey generally has been successful in pursuing a policy of noninterference and noninvolvement in Middle Eastern conflicts. For instance, Turkey refrained from 314 National Security supporting either belligerent in the Iran-Iraq War of 1980-88. Although both sides violated Turkish airspace, Turkey took no defensive action and sought to mediate an end to hostilities. In the first days after Iraq's occupation of Kuwait in August 1990, the Turkish government tried to preserve its traditional neutral stance in what it perceived as an inter-Arab dispute. Ankara was quickly obliged to depart from this position, how- ever, in light of the strong reaction in the UN against the inva- sion. Turkey responded to the UN Security Council's call for an embargo against Iraq by closing the Kirkuk-Yurmurtalik oil pipeline linking the two countries and halting trade with Iraq. These measures were crucial to the economic campaign against Saddam Husayn but imposed severe economic hard- ship on Turkey. The direct cost to its balance of payments was estimated at US$2 billion to US$2.5 billion annually. This bur- den was eased somewhat by aid from the United States and the Persian Gulf countries. Firm opposition in parliament and the cabinet prevented President Ozal from offering a Turkish con- tingent for the coalition forces in the Persian Gulf. However, some 150,000 Turkish troops were deployed near the south- eastern border with Iraq, tying down eight or nine Iraqi divi- sions. Turkey requested and received a defensive deployment of NATO air forces in the area to discourage attack by the Iraqi air force, which could easily outmatch the fighter aircraft and antiaircraft defenses that Turkey could muster. A total of forty German, Italian, and Belgian aircraft were dispatched to Tur- key. In addition, United States and Dutch Patriot missile batter- ies were deployed against a possible Iraqi missile attack. When the coalition air strikes on Iraq were launched in Jan- uary 1991, ninety-six United States aircraft and several British bombers operated from the United States air base at Incirlik, refueling at Batman, a base about 150 kilometers from the Iraqi border. Sorties continued from Incirlik until the cease- fire on February 28, 1991, without provoking retaliation from Saddam Husayn. The major consequence of the Persian Gulf War from the standpoint of Turkish security was the uprising of the Kurds in northern Iraq and the exodus of Kurds toward Turkish terri- tory to escape Saddam Husayn's brutal suppression of the rebellion. Turkey was decidedly reluctant to accept the Kurds as refugees, considering them a potential destabilizing factor in its struggle with domestic Kurdish dissidents. As an alternative, Turkey supported the UN-approved Operation Provide Com- 315 Turkey: A Country Study fort, which distributed relief and set up a safe haven in north- ern Iraq whose security was guaranteed by a coalition force of 2,000 soldiers from five countries. Incirlik served as the base for a rapid deployment of air forces to enforce a no-fly zone in the region. The Iraqi government's loss of control over Iraqi Kurdistan and elections in the area in May 1992 produced what was in effect an autonomous Kurdish government. Although Turkey permitted the lifeline to the Iraqi Kurdish enclave to originate on its territory, the Turks feared what they saw as the emerging outlines of an independent Kurdish state in Iraq. For this rea- son, Turkey resisted any international action that could lead to Iraq's dismemberment and thus endanger the regional status quo. Syria Several disputes make relations between Syria and Turkey uneasy. However, Syria's limited military potential and the alignment of Syrian forces on the Israeli front preclude any immediate threat along the 900-kilometer border between Tur- key and Syria. Syria has never abandoned its claim to the Turkish province of Hatay, which includes the city of Iskenderun. France, the mandatory power over Syria from 1920 to 1941, ceded the area to Turkey in 1939 after a disputed plebiscite, in violation of its League of Nations mandate. Tensions with Syria are compounded by Turkey's control over distribution of the waters of the Euphrates River. Turkey's huge Southeast Anatolian Project, with its dams and hydroelec- tric plants, threatens to deplete Syria's water resources. In addi- tion, Syria has a history of permitting hostile political movements — Armenian, Marxist, and Kurdish — to conduct anti-Turkish operations from Syrian-controlled territory in Lebanon's Bekaa Valley. To a considerable degree, the issues of access to water and Syria's support for the Kurdish insurgency are linked. To the extent that Turkey attempts to accommodate Syria on water sharing, Syria limits its backing of the Kurds. In December 1993, the Syrian government took into custody the Kurdish rebel leader, Abdullah Ocalan, in what was seen as an attempt to strengthen Syria's hand in water negotiations. Iran Frictions with the Tehran government stem largely from 316 National Security competing philosophies — the secularism at the root of the Turkish system and the Shia (see Glossary) orientation of Iran. The Turkish government has refrained from accusing Iran of direct responsibility for incidents of Islamist terrorism. How- ever, the Turkish minister of interior declared in 1993 that the perpetrators of a series of murders of well-known secularist fig- ures had been trained in Iran and helped by the staff of the Ira- nian Cultural Center in Ankara. Turkey considers such attacks a threat to national security because the government and laws of the modern Turkish state are so closely identified with its secular tradition. Another source of potential tension is Turkey's support of Azerbaijan in its conflict with Armenia. Tehran fears that a nationalistic Azerbaijan friendly to Turkey could encourage unrest in northern Iran, which has a considerable Azerbaijani population. Turkey estimates that about 800 Kurdish guerrillas are based in Iranian territory. Tehran has denied supporting them, and in December 1993 the two countries announced that an agreement had been reached to prevent the guerrillas from using Iran as a sanctuary. The Balkans As the principal successor state to the Ottoman Empire, which controlled the Balkans for centuries until its defeat in the Balkan Wars of 1912-13, Turkey retains a keen interest in the fate of the Muslims of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM — the name under which independent Macedonia was recognized by the United Nations in 1993), and Albania. Turkey opposed the dissolution of Yugoslavia, fearing the resulting instability could create broader regional conflict. With the outbreak of war in Bosnia in 1992 and Serbian human rights violations, Turkey advocated Western military measures to contain the Serbs. It pressed for an end to the UN arms embargo to enable Bosnian Muslims to defend themselves more effectively against Serbian attack. Tur- key contributed ships to the NATO naval force blockading Ser- bia and Montenegro and dispatched a squadron of eighteen F- 16 aircraft to Italy to help enforce the no-fly zone over Bosnia. Unilateral Turkish military aid to Bosnia was impractical because of the interposition of Greek and Bulgarian territory in between. A Turkish offer of troops to the UN Protection Force in Bosnia was at first rejected by the UN Security Council because of Ankara's strong sympathies for the Bosnian Muslims 317 Turkey: A Country Study and memories of the Ottoman role in the Balkans. In April 1994, however, after experiencing difficulties in obtaining force commitments, the UN accepted a Turkish deployment of about 1,500 soldiers in spite of objections by the Bosnian Serbs, Serbia, Greece, and Bulgaria. Albania also is receiving attention from Turkey. Once Alba- nia ended its long isolation as a Stalinist state, Turkey proposed military cooperation accords that included officer training. The possibility of Serbian action against FYROM, whose inde- pendence Turkey recognized, and against Kosovo, a Serbian province largely populated by Albanians, is a concern of both Albania and Turkey. It seems unlikely, however, that Turkish military help will be forthcoming if the conflict in former Yugo- slavia widens to Kosovo and FYROM. Mutual distrust has long characterized Turkey's relations with Bulgaria, which, like Greece, has a short but strategically significant border with Turkish Thrace, the European region of Turkey. A major cause of friction was the Balkanization pro- gram instituted by the communist government of Bulgaria, which caused a mass migration of Bulgarian Turks to Turkey in the spring of 1989. After the communists fell in late 1989, Tur- key moved to improve its security ties to Bulgaria's new govern- ment. A series of agreements were reached on formal notification of military movements, exchanges of military visits, and the establishment of a military security zone extending sixty to eighty kilometers on each side of the common border. Talks were also held in 1993 on cooperating in the production of military equipment, and the two countries conducted a joint military exercise with Romania. Greece and Cyprus In their first foreign combat operations since the Korean War, Turkish troops intervened in Cyprus in 1974 with the pro- fessed aim of protecting the Turkish minority population after a Greek-inspired coup brought a threat of union of the island with Greece. Against determined resistance by the lightly armed Greek Cypriot National Guard, the Turkish troops occu- pied the northern third of the island. The Turkish intervention force, which consisted of about 40,000 soldiers and 200 tanks, subsequently was reduced to a garrison of 30,000 troops. It greatly outnumbers the contingent of Greek national forces on the island, which is supplemented by the Greek Cypriot 318 National Security National Guard. Air reinforcement of the Turkish troops can be effected, if necessary, within hours. Ankara does not consider Cyprus one of its most pressing security issues because of Turkey's military superiority over Greece and the more serious strategic problems posed in the east. Nevertheless, the unresolved dispute over Cyprus compli- cates Turkish participation in NATO and remains an obstacle to NATO's effectiveness in the region. In addition, the question of the rights of 120,000 Muslims of Turkish ancestry in Grecian Thrace arouses Turkish sympathies, contributing to long-stand- ing distrust between Greece and Turkey. Other differences between the two NATO members contrib- ute to contention. Greece, basing its claim on the Convention on the Law of the Sea passed by the UN in November 1994, which extends territorial waters from six to twelve nautical miles, seeks to claim this limit around each of the more than 2,000 Greek islands in the Aegean Sea. Such a claim, if imple- mented, would give Greece about 70 percent of the Aegean Sea. Greece also claims a ten-nautical-mile airspace around each island. Turkish military aircraft and ships do not respect these claims. In addition, Turkey claims an Exclusive Economic Zone that is disputed by Greece. Turkey maintains the Aegean Army, a force separate from its NATO-committed troops, ostensibly to defend the south- western coastal areas. The force is a response to Greece's milita- rization of its islands close to the Turkish coast, which Turkey asserts violates the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne that set Turkey's present borders. The Aegean Army is considered a largely sym- bolic force; most of the troops assigned to it are kept in train- ing status. Turkey's Participation in NATO Turkey's decision to seek Western assistance after being con- fronted by Soviet territorial demands at the conclusion of World War II and its subsequent participation in NATO's col- lective defense system have been the principal factors influenc- ing the country's modern military evolution. In 1950 Turkey demonstrated its gratitude for the military aid received from the United States when it sent a brigade of 4,500 troops to serve under the UN command in Korea. The brigade became known for its valor on the battlefield after suffering propor- tionately the highest casualty rates of any UN element engaged in the fighting. 319 Turkey: A Country Study Turkey's admission to NATO, effective in February 1952, was preceded by extensive study and debate of the strategy of extending the alliance's southern flank to include the eastern Mediterranean. Changes were needed in the wording of the treaty to expand its territorial reach to include Turkey. The admission of Turkey gave NATO a much longer land frontier with the Warsaw Pact (see Glossary), as well as a treaty interest in Turkey's Black Sea coast and the straits through which the Soviet Union had access to the Mediterranean. At the same time, Turkey brought to the alliance its second largest body of military manpower after that of the United States, in addition to access to sites for forward deployment and intelligence gath- ering. Under the provisions of the alliance, most of the Turkish armed forces are committed to NATO command in the event of hostilities. Turkish land, sea, and air units then come under the Commander in Chief Allied Forces Southern Europe (AFSOUTH), with headquarters in Naples. The largest of NATO's four military regions, AFSOUTH encompasses Italy, Greece, Turkey, the Black Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea (including the Adriatic Sea, the Aegean Sea, the Ionian Sea, and the Tyrrhenian Sea). AFSOUTH develops joint contin- gency plans and conducts training exercises of assigned units. One of the five principal subordinate commands under AFSOUTH, the Allied Land Forces Southeastern Europe (LANDSOUTHEAST) is headquartered at Izmir under a Turk- ish lieutenant general, with a United States general officer as deputy. About 90 percent of Turkish land forces are committed to this command. The two other commands with Turkish forces assigned to them are Allied Air Forces Southern Europe (AIRSOUTH), under a United States general officer, and Allied Naval Forces Southern Europe (NAVSOUTH), under command of an Italian vice admiral. Both commands have headquarters in the Naples area. Still under dispute is the mat- ter of establishing LANDSOUTHCENT in Larissa, Greece. Ini- tially, Turkey agreed and Greece objected, but in early 1995 Turkey objected unless a Turkish general were to command the center. Important air, naval, and intelligence-gathering facilities are made available on Turkish soil to United States combat aircraft and to units of the United States Sixth Fleet committed to NATO (see Military Cooperation with the United States, this ch.). A detachment of NATO's Airborne Early Warning Force 320 National Security was installed at the Konya Air Base in southwestern Turkey in 1983, using NATO-owned Airborne Warning and Control Sys- tem (AWACS) aircraft to provide low-level radar coverage and regional air and sea surveillance. In the mid-1990s, Turkey allocated a mechanized infantry division consisting of one mechanized brigade and one armored brigade, as well as one combat engineering company, to the Allied Command Europe Rapid Reaction Force formed as part of NATO's restructuring. One commando brigade was earmarked for the southern multinational division, along with brigades from Italy and Greece. These forces remain under national command at their home bases until released to NATO. Despite rapid changes in the European security environ- ment that have replaced the NATO-Warsaw Pact confrontation with a less definable set of missions for the alliance, Turkey remains a strong partisan of the NATO linkage. Turkish partic- ipation gives the country a voice in major strategic decisions by Western democracies and a framework for multilateral cooper- ation in matters critical to its own security. Nevertheless, with NATO strategy based on the management of multidimensional threats rather than deterrence of the now-defunct Soviet Union, and with the admission of former members of the War- saw Pact into a partnership relation with NATO, the impor- tance of Turkey to European security has become less obvious. From a Turkish perspective, the protection of Turkey's eastern borders demands a continued high level of NATO involve- ment. In the shifting European security order, however, Tur- key's geostrategic position could become a liability, potentially exposing the alliance to military action in an area where its commitments are ill defined. Armed Forces Composed of elements of regular cadre and conscripts, the armed forces in 1994 had an active-duty strength estimated by The Military Balance, 1994-1995 at 503,800 officers and enlisted personnel. Of this total, some 93,600 were regulars in career assignments; the remaining 410,200 were draftees. The staffing level already had been reduced by 6 percent from that in 1990 as a consequence of forces reorganization. Article 117 of the constitution stipulates that the president of the republic is the commander in chief of the armed forces. Responsibility for ensuring security and military preparedness 321 Turkey: A Country Study is delegated to the prime minister and the Council of Ministers (the cabinet), who are appointed by the president but are sub- ject to a legislative vote of confidence. Article 118 of the consti- tution prescribes that the National Security Council (NSC — see Glossary) shall submit its views to the Council of Ministers on pending decisions and shall coordinate the formulation, estab- lishment, and implementation of the state's national security policy. A joint body of the chief civilian and military officials concerned with national defense and internal security, the NSC meets twice monthly. Its meetings are chaired by the pres- ident or, in his or her absence, by the prime minister (see fig. 14). In the view of one Turkish observer, the NSC has not been particularly successful as a forum for the armed forces and the government to debate and agree on security policies. At the meetings, the military speaks with a single voice, having worked out differences beforehand. Such unanimity is not conducive to an open dialogue, yet the military is disappointed when it fails to elicit concrete responses from the civilian leadership. Civilians sometimes have found the military insensitive to the government's problems in dealing with the bureaucracy, parlia- ment, and the public when facing difficult decisions. The constitution designates the chief of the General Staff as the commander of the armed forces. In wartime that officer also exercises the duties of commander in chief on behalf of the president. The chief of the General Staff is appointed by the president upon nomination by the Council of Ministers and is responsible to the prime minister in the exercise of his duties. In early 1995, the chief of the General Staff was General Ismail Hakki Karadayi, who was appointed in August 1994. The extensive authority of the Turkish chief of the General Staff contrasts strikingly with that of his counterparts in most NATO countries. He holds one of the highest positions in the govern- ment after the prime minister and is chosen strictly on the basis of seniority. As of 1994, the chief of the General Staff had always been an army officer, although an air force or naval offi- cer might also be selected. By law the chief of the General Staff determines the princi- ples and policies of major programs concerned with opera- tions, training, intelligence, and logistics. His views must be sought with respect to the military implications of proposed international treaties. He has the final say in the allocation of the military budget among programs and service branches. 322 National Security The General Staff, a prestigious body that implements the decisions and guidance of the chief of the General Staff, in effect constitutes a joint headquarters with authority over the commanders of the service branches. It thus differs materially from the United States Joint Chiefs of Staff, who act as the immediate military staff of the secretary of defense, subject to the latter's authority and direction, and whose chair functions as presiding officer and spokesperson for the service com- manders. The Turkish General Staff headquarters is adminis- tered by the deputy chief of the General Staff, who is responsible for preparing directives representing orders ema- nating from the General Staff, and for assuring their proper implementation. The General Staff organization follows the same pattern as the United States system in most respects. Its departments are J-l (personnel, including appointments and promotions), J-2 (internal and foreign intelligence), J-3 (operations, training, organization, war planning, and exercises), J-4 (logistics), J-5 (strategic-military policies, threat planning, targeting, budget allocations, and military agreements), J— 6 (communications and electronics), andJ-7 (studies of military history and strat- egy) . The Turkish representative to NATO and the Turkish mil- itary representative to the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) are both attached to the office of the deputy chief of the General Staff. A separate body, the Supreme Military Council, consists of eighteen members, including the prime minister as chair, the chief of the General Staff as vice chair, the minister of national defense, the three service commanders, and other command- ers of four-star rank. All promotions and other appointments to higher military positions are decided in this council, as are many internal policy matters affecting the military services. In practice, the chief of the General Staff initiates the appoint- ments of service chiefs after consulting the civilian leadership and promotions to general rank after consulting the respective service chiefs. The Ministry of National Defense executes defense policies and programs determined by the chief of the General Staff with respect to conscription, procurement of weapons and equipment, logistical needs, and other services such as health care, construction, infrastructure, and finances and auditing. The ministry compiles, coordinates, and steers the annual bud- get request through the National Assembly. The ministry is 323 Turkey: A Country Study 324 National Security responsible for negotiating with other countries for military assistance and arms supplies but is not involved in discussions concerning the allocation of foreign aid among the service branches. The Ministry of National Defense reflects lesser civil- ian influence than its United States counterpart; many ministry staff officers are military officers, and the undersecretary of national defense is a general on active duty. Defense Spending The high cost of maintaining a credible military establish- ment in an age of rapidly changing technology has required heavy expenditures by the Ministry of National Defense in rela- tion to other demands on the government's revenue. As a result, the Turkish government has allocated funds to defense in disproportion to widely acknowledged needs for social and economic development. In the decade between 1981 and 1991, defense was the largest category in the national budget, averag- ing in most years close to 20 percent of total government expenditures and 4 to 5 percent of the country's gross domes- tic product (GDP — see Glossary). The next largest budget cate- gory — education — commanded little more than half of the resources earmarked for defense. Until the mid-1970s, the military budget covered only the domestic cost of maintaining the large armed forces establish- ment; most equipment costs and much of the expense of train- ing military specialists were borne by the United States. A sharp increase in defense spending by Turkey itself was necessitated by the 1974 intervention in Cyprus. The immediate cost of the Cyprus operation, estimated at between US$350 million and US$700 million, was overshadowed by the burden of compen- sating for the embargo on military assistance imposed by the United States until 1978. The Defense Industry Support Fund, which is separate from the regular defense budget, finances a US$15 billion military modernization program with earmarked taxes and assess- ments. The modernization fund is supplemented by a so-called Gulf Fund of grants from Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, and the United States to compensate Turkey for the cost of maintaining the embargo against Iraq and the lost income from the closing of the Kirkuk-Yumurtalik oil pipeline. By 1993 the Gulf Fund had accumulated more than US$4.8 bil- lion (see Domestic Arms Industry, this ch.). 325 Turkey: A Country Study According to NATO estimates, personnel expenditures con- stituted almost exactly 50 percent of total defense expenditures in 1993. Equipment expenditures made up 25 percent of the total, infrastructure expenditures 3.2 percent, and other oper- ating expenses the remaining 21.6 percent. The share of the budget going to personnel was lower than in most NATO coun- tries, although higher than in the United States (38.6 percent in 1993). Low-paid conscripts who make up the bulk of the armed forces accounted for only 11 percent of overall person- nel costs. Equipment purchases absorbed 9.2 percent of defense out- lays from 1980 to 1984 and 18.2 percent from 1985 to 1989. Such expenditures rose to 25.6 percent in 1993 because Turkey was obliged to assume an increasing share of the cost of new armaments, munitions, and supplies. United States and German aid has been indispensable to Turkey's efforts to introduce advanced weapons systems. United States assistance has enabled Turkey to continue its modernization program in spite of the weakness of the Turkish lira (for value of the lira — see Glossary). The aid reached a high level during the Persian Gulf crisis, but tapered off with the end of the Cold War, its basis shifting from grants to con- cessionary loans. The Military Balance, 1994-1995 has estimated the Turkish defense budget at US$4.1 billion in 1992, US$4.5 billion in 1993, and US$4.6 billion in 1994. Based on the NATO defini- tion of military spending, the 1992 budget was US$6.1 billion, the 1993 budget US$7.1 billion, and the 1994 budget US$7.3 billion. Separate data published by the United States Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (ACDA) depict moderate real growth in Turkey's actual defense spending during most of the 1980s, from US$3.19 billion in 1981 to US$4.13 billion in 1989 (both expressed in constant 1991 dollars). Expenditures rose sharply to US$5.2 billion in 1990 and US$5.7 billion in 1991, largely as a result of the Persian Gulf War. The shrinkage of the armed forces was expected eventually to produce econo- mies, but the initial effect was an increase in the defense bud- get to acquire and support more advanced weapons. The country's economic sacrifice in building a strong defense establishment has been greater than that of its more affluent NATO partners. In 1991 Turkey's military expendi- tures were 5.4 percent of gross national product (GNP — see Glossary); this was roughly the same proportion as a decade 326 National Security earlier, although defense spending had dropped to as low as 3.9 percent of GNP in 1988. Military spending constituted 20.3 percent of total central government expenditures in 1990 and 17.9 percent in 1991 by ACDA's calculations. The budget of the Ministry of National Defense, which excludes some defense- related costs, was 10.4 percent of the entire budget in 1993 and was scheduled to fall to 9.4 percent in 1994. Within NATO only the United States expended a larger percentage of government outlays on defense, and only Greece spent as high a share of GNP on defense. However, Turkey's defense expenditures per capita, amounting to US$97 annually, were the lowest among NATO countries. Sources and Quality of Personnel As expressed in Article 72 of the constitution, "National ser- vice is the right and duty of every Turk. The manner in which this service shall be performed, or considered as performed, either in the armed forces or in the public service, shall be reg- ulated by law." The required period of active-duty service has been scaled back periodically, from two years to eighteen months and, in 1992, to fifteen months. Male citizens who pass a physical examination are called up during their twentieth year, but induction can be deferred until completion of an edu- cation program. University and college graduates may fulfill their military obligation as reserve officers with an eighteen-month period of active service following some previous preparation at their edu- cation institution. Four months of the service period consist of cadet training, followed by fourteen months of service in the branch to which the individual is appointed. With the dwin- dling need for reserve officers, complete professionalization of the officer corps is contemplated. Most university graduates would serve as conscripts in the regular army, but their active duty would be limited to nine months. An exception would be made for graduates of technical universities who could be called up for longer periods of specialized service. Reserve officers seem not to be held in high esteem in the services, being regarded as less dependable than regulars, lack- ing in motivation, and inadequately trained. Regulars are reluc- tant to accept reservists as equals in personal and social relations. Reservists, on the other hand, tend to look down on regulars as narrowly educated. 327 Turkey: A Country Study After completing four months of basic training, conscripts are sent to their assigned units for more training and unit exer- cises. Recruits who have graduated from senior high school are eligible to serve as sergeants after NCO training. Promising but less educated recruits can become corporals after a two-week training course. In 1993 a program was introduced to increase the number of career NCOs. The intent was to enlist 100,000 regulars as privates and corporals in the course of the first year. As inducements, the maximum age of enlistment was raised from thirty to thirty-five, and new financial and social benefits were introduced. The period of active service is an important educational experience for many young men. In addition to mastering weapons, they learn personal hygiene, table manners, and the basics of social conduct. They receive a wholesome diet and, in most cases, better medical and dental care than they will have at any other time in their lives. Literacy classes were formerly an important feature of military training, but by the 1980s fewer than 5 percent of recruits needed to be taught to read and write. Many conscripts are taught useful skills, such as truck driving and machinery repair. The army's training of technicians and artisans may rival the contribution of civilian technical second- ary schools, which produce only about 100,000 graduates a year. Draft evasion apparently had become a serious problem by the mid-1990s, perhaps because of young men's reluctance to risk their lives against Kurdish insurgents. In December 1993, the chief of staff said that 30 percent of all men of draft age had deferred their service (in many cases in order to complete higher education), 22 percent were evading conscription, and 7 percent were medically unfit. The total of those who had avoided conscription came to about 250,000 but, as the chief of staff pointed out, the armed forces did not have facilities to induct all these men even if they were available. Desertions were also said to have increased, although military leaders were unwilling to confirm this fact. After completing their active-duty obligation, conscripts are subject to recall in periods of national emergency until age forty-six if physically fit and not otherwise exempted. In prac- tice, it is only for a few years after discharge that conscripts are considered part of the reserve system with specific unit assign- ments. In 1994 the number in this category was reported to be 328 Infantry exercises in Kocaeli Province Courtesy Embassy of Turkey, Washington about 952,300 (831,700 in the army, 55,600 in the navy, and 65,000 in the air force). Turkey has always had an ample supply of personnel to meet its military needs. In 1994 roughly 3 million men were between the ages of eighteen and twenty-two. The annual call-up for all branches totaled about 300,000 but was likely to shrink rapidly with the reduction of the army complement and the effort to enlist more regulars. Nevertheless, in January 1994 all dis- charges were frozen for three months to ensure that the army had enough trained soldiers for operations against the Kurdish guerrillas. Military discipline is strict. Turkish officers are taught to believe that softness is a sign of weakness, which soldiers will quickly take advantage of. Discipline is considered necessary to ensure quality performance and to prevent the slackness that officers feel pervades the civilian labor force. Corporal punish- ment is strictly prohibited under the Law of the Armed Ser- vices. Yet beatings and slappings, although not common, appear to be accepted forms of punishment. NCOs and some- times second lieutenants are those most likely to employ corpo- ral punishment for acts considered disruptive of discipline. The alternative is to institute legal proceedings for minor 329 Turkey: A Country Study offenses. Such proceedings can be delayed so long that they have little deterrent effect; they may also be perceived as reflecting poorly on the effectiveness of the officer involved. Major offenses, such as theft, desertion, or prohibited ideologi- cal activities, are normally the subject of courts-martial. From the squad level up, soldiers engage in daily training exercises. The armed forces hold a number of combined exer- cises and participate in several NATO exercises each year. Nev- ertheless, in the mid-1990s Turkish observers felt that the quality of training still suffered from shortcomings. They noted, for example, that training often has a theoretical qual- ity, traceable in part to the need to conserve ammunition, vehi- cles, and aircraft. Since 1955, when the government opened certain military specialties to women, moderate numbers have volunteered for active duty. Recruitment of women was suspended for a time but was resumed in the early 1980s when some female univer- sity graduates were again taken in as pharmacists, doctors, den- tists, and administrative or communications specialists. No women were accepted in the enlisted ranks or for assignments that could expose them to combat or hazardous duty. In 1992 access to military service was increased when 154 women were allowed to enter the service academies, half of them as army cadets. Education and Training The sole source of regular commissioned officers is the army academy at Harbiye, near Istanbul; the naval academy at Tuzla, on the Sea of Marmara near Istanbul; and the air force academy at Istanbul. Cadets who complete officer training receive commissions as second lieutenants or naval ensigns. The three services also operate five military high schools, from which half or more of the cadets are recruited. The selection process is highly selective, based on school grades, especially in the sciences, an oral interview in which appearance and demeanor are appraised, graded fitness tests, and a confiden- tial investigation of the political background of the applicant and his or her family. The military high schools have superior facilities, and classes are as little as one-third the size of those in civilian high schools. Scholastic performance is closely monitored. A sum- mer camp is devoted to sports and military instruction. 330 Armed forces personnel engaged in landing exercise Courtesy Embassy of Turkey, Washington The selection process for the military academies is even more rigorous than for the military high schools. Only about one in seven applicants is successful. A further weeding out occurs after an initial one-month adaptation course. The acad- emies offer the opportunity of a free higher education under conditions of instruction that cannot be matched at civilian universities. Classroom and laboratory equipment is much superior, and sports facilities are unequaled elsewhere. Candidates for the academies must be high-school gradu- ates under twenty years of age and must have studied the sci- ences and a foreign language. Candidates must also score well in the regular university entrance examinations. An academy appointment is not offered until test scores are available. Appli- cants who score high enough for a place at a leading university often shift to a civilian career path. Each of the service acade- 331 Turkey: A Country Study mies must accept at least one cadet from each of Turkey's sev- enty-six provinces. Founded on Prussian principles of military education, the service academies since the 1950s have been strongly influ- enced by the United States approach to officer training. The emphasis of the curriculum has been modified from time to time, often to ensure an acceptable ideological outlook among students. Since the late 1970s, the curriculum has been 56 per- cent military, including sports, and 44 percent academic. The political and economic areas have been strengthened and man- agerial training added. Foreign languages are stressed; some classes are taught in English. It is estimated that 20 percent of the curriculum is devoted, directly or indirectly, to study of the principles and reforms of Ataturk. Much attention is given to appearance, social polish, and a proper public deportment. Available books and periodicals have an orthodox outlook; left- wing and religious publications are forbidden. To limit expo- sure of cadets to political theories inconsistent with the Ataturk model, the academies permit conservative guest lecturers only. Many cadets are expelled for ideological reasons, primarily if they are suspected of leftist sympathies, given that graduates of Islamic high schools are not admitted in the first place. The role played by the army academy in the 1960 coup and in the abortive coup of 1962 led to the expulsion of 1,400 cadets, as a result of which there were no army graduating classes in 1963 and 1964. The most prestigious training assignment for career officers is to one of the staff academies, which usually occurs after about six years of service, at the rank of captain or the equiva- lent. There are separate land, air, and naval staff academies, but they share a location in an Istanbul suburb. The staff acad- emies constitute a self-sufficient town with modern accommo- dations for all officers, day care for the children of officers whose spouses have jobs, and complete sports facilities. Only 120 to 130 officers are accepted into the staff acade- mies each year for the two-year program. About 60 percent of the curriculum is devoted to military subjects — the principles of war, strategy, and weapons technology — and the remainder to administrative and management skills and general cultural subjects at a postgraduate level. An officer completing the course is credited with an extra three years of seniority, receives a higher salary, progresses faster, and is more likely to be 332 National Security offered a coveted foreign posting. About 75 percent of those reaching the rank of general are staff officers. Within ten years of commissioning, staff officers who have attained the rank of major or lieutenant colonel or their equiv- alents are expected to attend the Armed Forces Academy. This academy has a program twice a year for about seventy-five staff officers in subjects such as joint operations, campaign plan- ning, strategy, global conflict, and new concepts and doctrines. A five-month course is presented once a year at the National Security Academy to twenty civilians and ten officers, usually colonels and sometimes brigadier generals or the equivalent. The civilians typically include high-level civil servants, ambassa- dors, provincial governors, and subgovernors. Presented in seminar form, the program deals with international political, economic, and military trends, joint planning, and national security problems. Like the staff academies, the Armed Forces Academy and the National Security Academy are located out- side Istanbul. Conditions of Service The average military academy graduate serves at least ten years in the three lowest officer grades in a combination of training and field assignments as a platoon or company com- mander. The pace of promotion is usually fairly steady through the rank of colonel or its equivalent, assuming satisfactory per- formance reports graded by three superior officers. A particu- larly high rating can advance a promotion by a year. In normal times, an army officer can expect at least two "eastern" assign- ments, once while a lieutenant or captain and once between the ranks of major and colonel or their equivalents. A post in eastern Turkey is considered undesirable because of its isola- tion, the severe weather, and the lack of medical and education facilities for families. Since the early 1990s, a much larger part of the army has been deployed in the east to deal with the Kur- dish insurgency. Personal influence has little effect on where people in the military are posted. Most career officers can expect to retire with the rank of colonel or the equivalent. With the number of generals and admirals ranging between 280 and 300, only forty-eight of the hundreds of colonels and navy captains are promoted to flag rank each year. People being considered for general officer rank are subjected to a minute review of their entire service record. General officers must not be involved in political activi- 333 Turkey: A Country Study ties and must show discretion and conservatism in social and domestic life. Treated with great deference in civilian society, general officers are entitled to full-time use of an official car and chauffeur, as well as the services of an adjutant and several orderlies. Protocol activities take up much of a general officer's time. A general serving as a field commander exercises author- ity and responsibility comparable to those of a provincial gover- nor. Except during periods of high inflation, the net salary of career officers is slightly more than the pay of civil servants of comparable standing, although the difference narrows at higher ranks. The living standards of career officers clearly sur- pass those of other government workers when special benefits are included. Quarters are provided for more than 70 percent of permanent military personnel. Rents, deducted directly from salaries, may be no more than one-eighth of equivalent civilian rents. Security and the maintenance of grounds and buildings, duties assigned to enlisted personnel, are of high quality. Salaries of noncareer soldiers are very low and during the first half of the 1990s were eroded by inflation. As of January 1994, the monthly wage of a private was TL37,000, then equiva- lent to only US$2.25. A corporal earned TL57,000 and a ser- geant, TL75,000. Pensions for families of soldiers who had died in service were minimal; compensation for the widow of a pri- vate came to about US$37 a month. Military hospitals provide medical care to all active-duty and retired officers and enlisted personnel and their families. Reservists are eligible on a space-available basis. The quality of treatment and personnel at military hospitals is at least as good as at university hospitals, and superior to what is available in general hospitals. There are officers' clubs in about forty of the provinces, most with excellent facilities for leisure and recreation, as well as temporary accommodations for officers and their families. The clubs are heavily patronized by retired officers as well. Prices are far lower than in comparable commercial establish- ments. NCO clubs traditionally were much more modest, but a program was initiated in the mid-1980s to bring them up to officers' club standards. Twenty-five rest camps enable service members and their families to enjoy two-week holidays at a fraction of the cost of commercial resorts. Accommodations 334 National Security are awarded on a point system ensuring an opening at least every four years. An unusual feature of the national defense establishment is the existence of a semiautonomous foundation known as the Army Mutual Aid Association (Ordu Yardimlasma Kurumu — OYAK), which is essentially a military social security organiza- tion. Career officers and warrant officers contribute 10 percent of their basic salaries to the association's fund. Reserve officers contribute 5 percent. OYAK's business activities, which include holdings in eight major companies, have an annual turnover of US$5 billion, and are tax exempt. Participants may obtain housing loans from OYAK and may purchase homes built by OYAK's own construction companies at prices well below com- mercial rates. Upon retirement, OYAK makes a lump sum pay- ment to career (but not reserve) officers, based on the members' investment plus accrued interest and dividends. OYAK also operates post exchanges selling items at 15 percent below prices at civilian outlets and offering durable consumer goods on highly favorable credit terms. Army The army (officially referred to as the Turkish Land Forces) is by far the largest of the three service components. During 1992 the army introduced a sweeping reorganization, shifting from a predominantly divisional and regimental structure to one based on corps and brigades. The personnel strength of the army was reduced in 1994 to about 393,000 (including about 345,000 conscripts). Major equipment acquisitions have enabled the army to upgrade firepower and mobility while enhancing command and control. Until the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact in 1990, the army had a static defense mission of countering Soviet and Warsaw Pact forces in the Caucasus and any possible attack on Thrace. When the General Staff attempted to shift 120,000 troops to the frontier with Iraq in 1990, they discovered that there were serious deficiencies in the army's ability to respond to crises that could erupt suddenly in distant regions. The army was even less prepared for a situation requiring the deployment and logistical support of forces in operations beyond Turkey's borders. Prior to the army reorganization, the principal tactical units consisted of sixteen infantry divisions and one armored divi- sion, plus twenty-three independent brigades, of which six were 335 Turkey: A Country Study armored and four mechanized. Under the reorganization, all divisions except three were dismantled. The existing nine corps were retained, with brigades directly responsible to the corps commands. The brigades were reconfigured as seventeen mechanized infantry brigades, fourteen armored brigades, nine infantry brigades, and four commando brigades. Each armored brigade consisted in late 1994 of six battalions: two armored, two mechanized, and two artillery. The mechanized brigades consisted of one armored battalion, two mechanized battalions, and one artillery battalion, plus a reconnaissance squadron. The infantry brigades consisted of four infantry bat- talions and one artillery battalion. Each commando brigade consisted of three commando battalions and one artillery bat- talion. The Military Balance, 1994-1995 also lists a Presidential Guard regiment, an infantry regiment, five border defense reg- iments, and twenty-six border defense battalions. The fate of these independent units under the reorganization remained unclear in early 1995. General Hikmet Bayar, the commander of Turkish land forces in early 1995, operated from headquarters in Ankara. The capital is also the home of the Ankara garrison and of the training and logistics commands. The country is divided into four military sectors on the basis of strategic conditions of ter- rain, logistics, communications, and the potential external threat. The sectors are assigned to four field armies, the first three of which would come under NATO command in the event of a NATO reinforced alert (see fig. 15). The First Army, with headquarters in Istanbul, is widely deployed in the European part of Turkey known historically as Thrace, with responsibility for the defense of that province, the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits, and the Kocaeli Peninsula. The Second Army, headquartered at Malatya, is deployed in southeastern Anatolia with a defensive mission facing Syria, Iraq, and Iran. The Third Army, with headquarters at Erzincan, is deployed throughout the rugged mountains and deep valleys of eastern Anatolia, covering the borders with Georgia and Armenia and the historical invasion routes from the east. Dur- ing the buildup preceding the Persian Gulf War, the Second Army was deployed along the Iraqi border along with some units from the Third Army. Under the new structure, most of the armored, mechanized, and commando brigades are 336 National Security located in the central region with the mission of rapidly rein- forcing brigades in each theater as required. The Aegean Army (sometimes called the Fourth Army) was organized in the mid-1970s in response to tensions with Greece in the Aegean Sea. Headquartered in Izmir, it is responsible for the vast area facing the Aegean coast from the Dardanelles in the north to the southernmost Greek offshore islands. Turkish commanders describe the Aegean Army as composed simply of training elements from which the major army units are sup- plied. They presumably would have the mission of defending the Aegean coast and keeping lines of communication open in the Aegean district in an emergency, although their capability for this mission seems highly limited. The Turkish corps on Cyprus is within the Aegean Army command structure. Known as the Cyprus Turkish Peace Force, it is said in The Military Bal- ance, 1994-1995 to consist of 30,000 troops, equipped with 235 M-48 tanks, 107 armored personnel carriers (APCs), and numerous pieces of towed and self-propelled artillery. In late 1994, in addition to 1,500 troops who served with the United Nations Protection Force in Bosnia, a contingent of about 300 Turkish soldiers had participated in the UN opera- tion in Somalia. The overall commander of the UN force in Somalia in 1993 was Turkish general Cevik Bir. Accompanying the reorganization of the land forces was a significant upgrading of weapons systems, armor, and trans- port. Under the NATO harmonization program adopted under the CFE Treaty, considerable equipment subject to removal from the central front was passed on to other NATO armies, notably those of Greece and Turkey. Turkey's share included more than 1,000 United States M-60 and German Leopard main battle tanks and some 700 armored combat vehi- cles, as well as self-propelled howitzers and United States Cobra attack helicopters. Under the CFE Treaty, NATO and Soviet Union/Warsaw Pact countries also were to reduce the size of their conven- tional forces. Russia has sought to change this commitment on the grounds that it needs forces for "police" actions and to assist former member states of the Soviet Union, such as Arme- nia, where Russian troops are stationed. Turkey has endeav- ored to prevent Russia's backing out on its commitment because, among other reasons, Turkey shares a border with Armenia. 337 Turkey: A Country Study 338 National Security In addition to the arms received as a result of the CFE Treaty, Turkey's arsenal of more than 3,000 M-48 tanks was being upgraded with advanced fire controls. By 1994 deliveries had begun of armored infantry fighting vehicles, large num- bers of which were to be supplied under a Turkey/United States coproduction program. Procurement of a multiple- launch rocket system was proceeding under a similar program (see table 13, Appendix A). Turkey acquired 300 Russian BTR-60 APCs for use in the struggle against the Kurds because weapons of NATO origin were not approved for this purpose. In spite of the fact that the engines and transmissions of the BTR-60s had to be replaced after brief use, Ankara announced in 1994 that it had acquired 110 BTR-80s. These APCs were assigned to the gendarmerie, who were actively engaged in the war against the Kurds (see Police System, this ch.). More effective employment of commando and infantry units would become possible with the United States UH-1H Iroquois (of which Turkey had ninety-six in 1994) and other modern troop-lift helicopters entering the army aviation inven- tory. The addition of missile-armed Cobra AH-1 (Bell 209) assault helicopters and five Super Cobras promised by the United States was expected to improve antitank capabilities. Air Force The Turkish air force is the youngest of the three branches of the armed services. Founded in 1911, it saw action in the Balkan Wars and World War I, as well as the War of Indepen- dence. The first Turkish pilots were trained in France. The air force has a high priority in Turkey's strategic planning because control of the air would be indispensable for successful defense against a ground attack by well-equipped forces. Moreover, reinforcement and supply of Turkish ground forces by Turkey's NATO allies would not be feasible without control of the air. The air force role in interdicting an invasion force would be to provide close support of ground troops in tactical defensive actions and to airlift troops and supplies. Upon declaration of a NATO reinforced alert, the Turkish air force would be commit- ted to action as part of NATO's Sixth Allied Tactical Air Force (SIXATAF) headquartered at Izmir. In late 1994, the air force was staffed by about 56,800 offic- ers and enlisted personnel. It is organized around two basic combat elements operating east and west of the thirty-fifth 339 Turkey: A Country Study meridian of longitude. The First Tactical Air Force has its head- quarters at Eskisehir Air Base in western Turkey. It defends the Turkish straits and provides air cover in the First Army's area of operations. The Second Tactical Air Force, commanded from its headquarters at Diyarbakir in eastern Turkey, is charged with defending the Third Army and part of the Second Army. Separate air training and logistics commands with their own aircraft squadrons are headquartered at Ankara. The air trans- port units are assigned directly to specific air force commands. Air force headquarters is located at Ankara; the air force com- mander in 1994 was General Halis Burhan. The air force in late 1994 was organized tactically into four- teen fighter-ground attack squadrons, six fighter squadrons, four transport squadrons, two reconnaissance squadrons, one antisubmarine warfare squadron, and three training squad- rons. The fighter-ground attack squadrons and three of the four transport squadrons are assigned to NATO. There are eight surface-to-air missile (SAM) squadrons. In 1994 six of the SAM squadrons were equipped with 128 obsolete United States Nike-Hercules missiles; the remaining two were supplied with twenty-four Rapier SAMs of British manufacture. Many Turkish bases and large cities are within range of Russian, Chinese, and North Korean missile systems possessed by Syria and Iran. Iraq supposedly has relinquished its longer-range missiles but still may have some Scud-Bs from North Korea. Turkish officers acknowledge their limited ability to defend against these threats. In the mid-1990s, Turkey was phasing in advanced F-16 fighter aircraft produced domestically under a cooperative pro- gram with the General Dynamics and General Electric corpora- tions. An initial shipment of 160 aircraft was to be supplemented with a second package of eighty aircraft. The F— 16s were to replace a combat fleet of obsolete F-5s and F-104s; the force also included somewhat more up-to-date F-4Es (see table 14, Appendix A) . In 1994 the air force's fixed-wing transport squadrons con- sisted of United States-manufactured C-130E Hercules and German C-160D Transall medium transports and CN-235 light transports. Fifty-two CN-235s coproduced with a Spanish manufacturer have replaced the United States-manufactured C-47s for troop-transport and cargo missions. Upon completion of the four-year air force academy pro- gram, air force pilots are trained for two to two-and-a-half years 340 National Security on a variety of United States propeller and jet training aircraft. The Italian SF-260 coproduced in Turkey is being introduced as an advanced combat trainer. Nonflying officers are trained by the Air Technical Schools Command. NCOs are also trained in twelve- to eighteen-month programs in administrative and technical skills at specialized institutions of this command. Upgrading of the air force flight inventory is expected to include acquisition from the United States of two surplus KC- 135A tanker aircraft — scaled back from seven for financial rea- sons — that would permit air refueling and thus dramatically increase the range of fighter aircraft. The air force also hopes to receive airborne early warning aircraft and airborne com- mand and control aircraft. The planned transfer of fifty surplus United States A-10 attack aircraft for close support of ground troops was canceled because Turkey's tight foreign-exchange situation did not permit acquisition of the needed recondition- ing and support equipment. Ankara considers the acquisition of United States Patriot missiles essential to reducing Turkey's vulnerability to conventional air and missile attack, but in early 1995 such an acquisition did not appear imminent. Navy Numbering 54,000 individuals in late 1994, nearly 70 per- cent conscripts, the navy is responsible for defending the coun- try against seaborne attack in time of war, for safeguarding the Turkish straits at all times, and for patrol and coastal protection along the extensive coastline that borders about two-thirds of the nation. The navy has an assigned NATO role in which it is responsible to the alliance's commander of NAVSOUTH in Naples. The commander of Turkish naval forces serves concur- rently as commander, North-East Mediterranean (COME- DNOREAST), under NAVSOUTH. The Turkish navy shares in NAVSOUTH's mission of protecting a line of communications through the Mediterranean and the Black Sea and conducting antisubmarine operations in the event of a general war. Turkish strategists feel that the creation of new countries in the Black Sea area, following the end of the Cold War, has imposed new missions on the navy. They point out that, whereas there were previously four littoral states on the Black Sea, since the breakup of the Soviet Union there are seven — Bulgaria, Georgia, Moldova, Romania, Russia, Turkey, and Ukraine. Russia retains the major share of the former Soviet Black Sea fleet, but Ukraine claims a number of vessels and 341 Turkey: A Country Study base facilities. Because Turkey considers the Central Asian republics likely to make heavy use of the Black Sea for foreign trade, the maintenance of open sea-lanes is expected to become more important. Turkey foresees a greater flow of oil from the Caucasus, Central Asia, and Russia via pipelines to ter- minals at Iskenderun in the eastern Mediterranean, imposing additional requirements on the navy to ensure the safety of ports and sea-lanes in an increasingly strategic area. The navy has three operational commands: the Northern Sea Area Command, based at Istanbul; the Fleet Command at Golciik; and the Southern Sea Area Command at Izmir. The Fleet Command, the largest of the naval components, consists of specialized elements: the war fleet, the submarine fleet, the mine fleet, and the landing units. The zonal commands are the Black Sea (headquartered at Eregli), the Aegean (headquar- tered at Izmir), two straits commands (headquartered at Istan- bul and Qanakkale), and the Mediterranean (headquartered at Mersin). The commander in chief of the Turkish navy in early 1995 was Admiral Vural Bayazit. The Naval Training Command is based at Karamursel on the southern coast of the Sea of Marmara. The naval academy near Istanbul is colocated with the Naval Lyceum, a four-year secondary school. Graduates of the lyceum and other high schools who are accepted as midshipmen at the naval academy are promoted to subensign after the four-year program, and then are assigned to sea duty for two probationary years before being commissioned in the regular navy. Entrance to the lyceum is highly competitive; only a small percentage of appli- cants pass the qualifying examinations. The Petty Officers School at Istanbul receives applicants at age twelve for four years of secondary and naval preparatory instruction. Graduates are then admitted as petty officer candi- dates and, after four years of specialist training, are designated career petty officers at the entry grade. Conscripts assigned to the navy receive about four months of basic training and are then assigned to sea or shore duties for the balance of their required service. The navy's inventory of ships is well maintained, and its officers and crews are considered to possess high levels of pro- fessionalism and readiness. Turkey participates in NATO exer- cises in its region and frequently takes part in national exercises of other NATO members. Its relations with other Black Sea naval powers are good. Mutual high-level naval visits 342 F-16 aircraft used by Turkish Air Force Turkish naval vessel on patrol Courtesy Embassy of Turkey, Washington have been exchanged with Russia, and negotiations have been opened on agreements to prevent incidents on and over the high seas with both Russia and Ukraine. Turkey conducted joint mine and search-and-rescue exercises with Bulgaria in 1993. The main categories of Turkish fighting ships are destroy- ers, frigates, submarines, and fast-attack craft (see table 15, Appendix A). Most of the older ships are of United States ori- gin. More modern units have been supplied by Germany or constructed in Turkish shipyards with German technical assis- tance and components. The largest vessels are United States destroyers, most of them launched at the close of World War II. They are considered obsolete and incapable of operating with 343 Turkey: A Country Study other NATO ships in battle-group formations. One of the destroyers, the Muavenet, was hit by two Sea Sparrow surface-to- surface missiles (SSMs) launched accidentally by a United States warship during exercises in 1992. The Turkish captain and four other personnel were killed and a number injured. The destroyer subsequently was scrapped. In 1993 and 1994, eight newer Knox-class frigates were transferred to Turkey by the United States. In 1994 four MEKO-200 class frigates of German design were in the inventory, and an additional four modernized MEKO-200 frigates are to be delivered between 1995 and 1998. Construction is split, with the first four frigates having been built in Germany and four being built at the naval ship- yard at Golcuk, with German equipment packages. The vessels are armed with five-inch guns, Harpoon SSMs, and Sea Spar- row SAMs. The submarine force consisted originally of United States World War II-era diesel-powered attack vessels of the Guppy class. Seven of these were still listed in 1994, but their utility was doubtful. Since 1975 Turkey has been acquiring German 20- class (type-1200) submarines, quiet-running craft smaller than the Guppies but suitable for defending the approaches to the straits as well as Turkey's coastal waters. The first three of the six vessels were built in Germany and the next three were built at Golcuk. Four additional 209-class submarines of the more advanced type-1400, armed with sub-Harpoon SSMs, are to be added between 1994 and 1998. The sixteen missile-armed fast-attack craft in the Turkish fleet in 1994 were a mixture of older and newer technologies. The most up-to-date units were eight Dogan-class vessels equipped with Harpoon SSMs. They were built in Turkey along the lines of the German Lurssen 57. Two more fast-attack craft of the Yildiz class are to be delivered in 1995. These high-speed vessels would be especially effective against ships attempting to transit the confined waters in and around the Turkish straits. The amphibious force of sixty-six vessels in the inventory at the end of 1994 would be sufficient to land Turkish infantry and tanks in individual operations or in conjunction with other NATO assault forces. The inventory of twenty-nine minelayers and minesweepers would have the task of implementing a NATO decision to seal off the Black Sea. Turkish officers are considered to be highly qualified in such operations, but in the 344 National Security mid-1990s minesweepers and minelayers were due for modern- ization. In 1994 the naval air arm included fourteen Italian-built Agusta-Bell AB-204 and AB-212 antisubmarine helicopters, which could be flown off frigate flight decks. United States- manufactured Grumman S-2E Tracker aircraft, flown by air force personnel and used for land-based antisubmarine and marine reconnaissance, were due to be replaced. The marine contingent of some 3,000 officers and troops was organized as a brigade of three infantry battalions and one artillery battal- ion, plus support units. Uniforms, Ranks, and Insignia Uniforms worn in Turkey's three military services are simi- lar in design to those worn by United States military personnel and by troops of other NATO countries. The army winter ser- vice dress uniform is a shade of olive drab; a khaki shirt and trousers are worn in summer. Troops wear a field-gray shirt and trousers for winter field duty, and a camouflaged battle-fatigue uniform during the summer. The navy wears a black uniform in winter and a white one in summer. The air force uniforms are the same shade of blue worn by the United States and Brit- ish air forces. Army and air force officers wear their rank insignia on shoulder straps. Generals are identified by a red lapel patch; their rank is denoted by a shoulder device combining a wreath with star and crescent and superimposed crossed sabers, plus one to four gold stars. Field-grade officers have one to three gold stars with a wreath and star and crescent. Company-grade officers wear one to three gold stars on plain shoulder straps (see fig. 16). A red backing to an army officer's wreath indicates general's rank. Among officers at lower grades, the backing's color indi- cates service corps; for example, green for infantry, dark blue for artillery, black for armor, and light blue for signals. The same wreath device forms part of the badge on the peaked cap. Variations in the cap's peak and chin strap decorations provide further indications of rank. The air force's method of display- ing rank is virtually the same as the army's. Naval officers' ranks are indicated by gold stripes around the lower sleeves of their jackets (the upper stripe looped as in the British navy), on shoulder boards, and on the chin straps of visored caps. 345 Turkey: A Country Study 346 National Security 347 Turkey: A Country Study NCO ranks are denoted by arm chevrons (see fig. 17). Insig- nia of the army and air force are almost identical in design, resembling those of the United States Air Force, with a star and crescent rather than a star at the center. Enlisted personnel wear tabs colored to indicate service corps on their lapels and service caps. Military Cooperation with the United States During the postwar era, Turkey's foremost ally has been the United States. Because of Turkey's strategic location in the Middle East, its proximity to the Soviet Union's military instal- lations and test sites, and its control of the Black Sea straits, mil- itary ties with the United States were a crucial factor in the East-West confrontation. The alliance originated soon after the end of World War II, when Soviet dictator Josef V. Stalin made a series of demands on Turkey that the Turkish government and the Western powers interpreted as a possible prelude to military action. The begrudging withdrawal of Soviet occupa- tion forces from northern Iran in May 1946 and communist guerrilla warfare in Greece heightened fears of a Soviet drive into the Middle East. The United States responded with procla- mation of the Truman Doctrine in March 1947. Both Greece and Turkey were provided with aid to resist the Soviet threat. Because of concerns over extending a United States military commitment to the Middle East, the United States initially was not convinced that Turkey's admission to NATO should be approved. Turkish troops' noteworthy participation in the Korean War changed this view; Turkey entered NATO in 1952. In accordance with bilateral defense arrangements under NATO auspices, the United States has developed and main- tained several major military installations on Turkish bases. Of particular significance are several electronic intelligence posts considered vital for monitoring Russian weapons and Moscow's compliance with strategic arms limitation agreements. A long- range radar system has been established at Pirinclik, near Diyarbakir, to monitor Russian missile testing. At Belbasi, near Ankara, nuclear testing can be monitored by means of seismic data collection. No United States combat forces are based in Turkey, but ele- ments of two United States Air Force fighter squadrons based in Italy are rotated periodically to Incirlik — the West's farthest forward-based tactical combat aircraft in the eastern Mediterra- nean. £igli, a Turkish air base north of Izmir, is used by United 348 National Security States Air Force units in connection with NATO exercises. Three bases in eastern Turkey — at Erzurum, Batman, and Mus — were upgraded following a 1982 agreement to make them available for forward deployment of United States tactical aircraft under conditions of a NATO alert. Aircraft operating from them could cover the entire Turkish-Iranian-Transcauca- sian border region without aerial refueling. A Defense Cooperation Agreement (DCA), first negotiated in 1969 and renewed numerous times, consolidated various bilateral accords governing the United States military presence in Turkey. As a result of its 1988 renegotiation, the agreement is now known as the Defense and Economic Cooperation Agreement (DECA) . Under the DECA, the number of United States personnel, including dependents, in Turkey — which had reached a peak of 25,000 in 1968 — was reduced to 16,000 in 1970 and 9,000 by 1980. In 1991 the total was slightly above 10,000. Since that year, nearly all of the communications and naval facilities have been closed. In late 1994, United States personnel remained only at the air stations at Incirlik, Ankara, and Qigli, the intelligence posts at Pirinclik and Belbasi, and a communications station at Karatas, near Incirlik. The number of United States personnel had been reduced to about 4,000. It is common practice to refer to installations staffed by United States personnel — even those solely connected with the NATO mission — as 'American." Turkey has never waived its sovereignty over them; they have Turkish commanders and are officially regarded as joint-use facilities. Even so, Turkish sensi- tivity about their control and the conspicuous United States presence have at times provoked incidents and disputes. Extremist political factions tend to exploit these issues for their own purposes. Turkey regarded the arms embargo imposed by the United States Congress after the Cyprus invasion of 1974 as a serious affront. Put into effect in 1975, the embargo was opposed by the executive branch of the United States government, which considered it an obstruction in the quest for an equitable set- tlement of the Cyprus situation. Turkey retaliated by abrogat- ing the 1969 DCA and suspending operations of United States- used installations not clearly linked to the NATO mission. The intelligence collection sites were closed down, and the United States Navy was denied use of its loran (long-range) navigation station in Turkey. The embargo ended in 1978 when Congress repealed its earlier restrictions, although the president of the 349 Turkey: A Country Study United States was required to make periodic certifications that Turkey was contributing to efforts to settle the Cyprus issue. Turkish public opinion has been sensitive to suggestions that United States rapid deployment forces or other units might make use of facilities on Turkish territory for non-NATO purposes. The only Muslim country in NATO, Turkey is deter- mined to avoid giving open support to controversial or unpop- ular actions by the United States in the Middle East. The Turkish government did not permit use of the bases for United States operations during the Arab-Israeli wars of 1967 and 1973 and allowed only nonmilitary supplies to be shipped via Turkey to the United States-led multinational contingent in Lebanon in 1983. Repeated attempts by members of Congress to pass resolu- tions commemorating the Ottoman government's massacre of Armenians during World War I have prompted strong reac- tions by the Turkish government. For instance, in 1989, after such a resolution was approved in the Senate Judiciary Com- mittee, Turkey prohibited some United States training flights, reduced port calls, and halted military construction. Military assistance has been an intrinsic feature of the defense relationship between Turkey and the United States. Turkey's limited economic resources, juxtaposed against its heavy NATO obligation to contain Soviet power in the eastern Mediterranean, made such support indispensable until the Soviet threat receded in the late 1980s. Between 1950 and 1991, the United States provided military assistance valued at US$9.4 billion, of which about US$6.1 billion was in grant form and US$3.3 billion was on a concessional loan basis. At the insistence of Congress, the appropriation of military funds for Greece and Turkey has for many years been on a seven-to-ten ratio. The Turkish government regards the aid for- mula as inequitable given that Turkey has a population about six times that of Greece, has correspondingly heavier NATO commitments, and is host to many NATO and United States military facilities. In 1994 the United States Congress held back 10 percent of the funds appropriated for Turkey until the Department of State could verify improvement of Turkey's human rights record and progress on confidence-building measures in Cyprus. Turkey considered this interference in its internal affairs and made no effort to have the funds restored. Turkey nevertheless has been the third largest recipient of United States military aid, after Israel and Egypt. Despite the 350 National Security end of the Soviet threat, Turkey's military needs during the Persian Gulf crisis resulted in a rise in the level of grant aid to US$500 million in fiscal year (FY— see Glossary) 1991. Although the administrations of presidents George H.W. Bush and William J. Clinton sought to maintain a similar level in sub- sequent years, citing heavy United States reliance on Turkish air bases for support of the Iraqi Kurds in Provide Comfort II. Congress approved only US$450 million in FY 1993 and shifted the financing from grants to loans. In FY 1994, a move in Con- gress to charge interest at market rather than concessional rates was barely deflected. Such a change would have been a blow to Turkey, which was already saddled with heavy foreign debts. Ultimately, US$405 millon in low-interest loans was approved. The Department of Defense also provides training to about 160 Turkish officers each year. These include students at the United States Army Command and General Staff Col- lege, as well as individuals assigned to technical schools and those receiving specialized training in management, language instruction, medical logistics, and air-traffic control. Domestic Arms Industry Since the mid-1980s, Turkey has been engaged in a wide- ranging program to develop a modern defense industry based on cooperation with firms in other countries. Previously, Tur- key's economic and industrial capacity was insufficient to pro- duce weapons as sophisticated as those of Western Europe. In the early years of the republic, the government sponsored a number of arms factories intended primarily to supply basic infantry weapons and ammunition. After World War II, Tur- key's efforts to bring its military establishment up to modern standards depended almost totally on military assistance and credits from its NATO partners. After the imposition of the lim- ited embargo by the United States in 1975, Turkey launched a series of projects to reduce its dependence on imports of major military items. Initial results took the form of a broader range of domestically produced light weapons and artillery and the development of an electronics industry oriented toward battle- field communications and the requirements of military air- craft. In 1985 new legislation centralized efforts to launch an up- to-date arms industry under a new agency — the Defense Indus- try Development and Support Administration (later the Minis- try of National Defense Undersecretariat for Defense Indus- 351 Turkey: A Country Study tries, known as SSM) with its own source of capital, the Defense Industry Support Fund. The fund does not depend on national defense budget appropriations but receives earmarked reve- nues directly — 10 percent of taxes on fuel, 5 percent of individ- ual and corporate income taxes, and taxes on alcohol and tobacco. Most of the major projects encouraged by SSM have been international joint ventures and coproduction enter- prises. In most cases, the foreign partner must agree to an off- set provision, that is, a commitment to purchase some part of the resulting production, or components or other goods manu- factured in Turkey. The Turkish defense industry employs about 50,000 individ- uals at 110 firms, many of them state owned. About 1,000 addi- tional firms participate in defense business as subcontractors. The largest producer of weaponry in Turkey, with about 12,000 employees, is Makina ve Kimya Endiistrisi Kurumu (MKEK), controlled by the Ministry of Industry and Trade. MKEK meets the requirements of the Turkish armed forces for light arms (including the M-3 and MG-3 rifles and a machine gun of Ger- man design), ammunition, and explosives. It also produces antiaircraft and antitank guns. In 1988 rocket and missile production was shifted from MKEK to a new company, Roket Sanayii (ROKETSAN). ROKETSAN has the largest share in the production of the pro- pulsion system and rocket assembly for the four-country Euro- pean consortium manufacturing the Stinger SAM. The company also plans to produce multi-launch rocket systems (MLRS) in partnership with a United States firm, the LTV Cor- poration. A consortium formed by a United States firm, FMC Corporation, and a Turkish firm, Nurol, is projected to pro- duce 1,700 APCs and armored fighting vehicles by 1997. Turkish arms manufacturers' most ambitious undertaking has been a consortium with United States firms to produce F- 16 fighter aircraft. Under this arrangement, airframes for the F-16s are produced in a factory at Miirted Air Base near Ankara by TUSAS (Turk Ucak Sanayi Sirketi) Aerospace Indus- tries, with 51 percent ownership by Turkish interests, 42 per- cent by General Dynamics, and 7 percent by General Electric. The engine plant near Eskisehir is a joint venture with General Electric. The project, whose total cost is projected at US$4.2 billion, is expected to result in the delivery of 240 F-16C/Ds to the Turkish air force between the late 1980s and the late 1990s. 352 National Security Additional funds were pledged to the Turkish Defense Fund (TDF) after the Persian Gulf War by the United States, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates, to be paid over a five-year period. Under an October 1994 agreement, Turkey requested that the TDF, which thus far amounted to some US$1.8 billion, be transferred to Turkey. Most of the TDF funds are to be used to cover the cost of eighty F-16 aircraft, of which forty were agreed upon in March 1992 and forty more in February 1994. Through offset arrangements, F-16 compo- nents and engines produced in Turkey are exported to the United States. Egypt ordered forty-six F-16s to be delivered between 1993 and 1995. Communications equipment and electronic warfare systems for the Turkish military are produced by ASELSAN Military Electronics Industries, a state-owned company whose dominant shareholder is OYAK. ASELSAN manufactures under license a United States-designed family of manpack and vehicular battle- field radios and voice scramblers. It supplies the inertial naviga- tion systems and fire control for the TUSAS F-16 project and produces components for the Stinger missile program. In addition to its coproduction role in the F-16 project, TUSAS has contracted with Agusta, the Italian aircraft manu- facturer, to produce forty SF-260 trainers at the Miirted plant. A contract with Construcciones Aeronauticas, S.A. (CASA) of Spain calls for joint production of fifty-two CN-235 light trans- port aircraft. A US$1.1 billion agreement was concluded in 1992 with Sikorsky covering direct procurement of forty-five Black Hawk helicopters, with an additional fifty helicopters to be coproduced in Turkey by 1999. Much of Turkey's indigenous naval construction has been carried out with cooperation from German shipbuilders. Four frigates of the MEKO-200 class were being built in 1995 at the main naval shipyard at Golcuk where three submarines of the 209-class (type-1200) had been built; four type-1400 subma- rines are scheduled to be commissioned between 1994 and 1998. Dogan-class fast-attack boats armed with Harpoon mis- siles have been produced in Turkish yards, as well as destroyer escorts, patrol boats, landing craft, and auxiliary craft. In 1993 private shipyards were invited to bid on construction of mine- sweepers and patrol boats. The effort to create a modern defense industry on a narrow technological base was risky for Turkish defense planners. However, it appears to have been successful in enabling Turkey 353 Turkey: A Country Study to rely on domestic sources to meet an increasing portion of its advanced equipment needs. The results have included reduc- tions in costs and in the demand for foreign exchange, as well as the opening of foreign markets, mainly through offset provi- sions. As of the mid-1990s, the anticipated development of a Middle Eastern market for finished products did not appear to have occurred, based on available arms export data. A broader goal was to set new standards for quality and productivity in Turkish industry generally and thus increase the country's competitiveness through the lead established by the defense industry. Internal Security Concerns Since the late 1960s, Turkey has been plagued by recurrent political violence. Radical groups responsible for terrorism have included movements of both leftist and rightist orienta- tion, as well as ethnic and religious extremists. By far the most serious source of violence since the mid-1980s has been the Kurdish separatist insurgency, which by the mid-1990s had nearly assumed the character of a civil war in the southeastern area of the country bordering Syria and Iraq. During the 1970s, various political groups — particularly ones on the left — used violence in the hope that civil disorder and the consequent suppression by the state might lead to rev- olution. In the months preceding the assumption of power by Turkey's generals in September 1980, the toll of political kill- ings rose to more than twenty a day. The government's repres- sion of political activism and the detention of an estimated 30,000 persons suspected of terrorism were accompanied by arrests of union members, university students, and journalists. The stern measures of the military commanders were vehe- mently criticized by Turkish intellectuals and foreign observ- ers; however, the measures did reduce the violence. Even after civilian rule was restored in 1983, the continua- tion of martial law in certain areas, the expansion of police powers, and legal constraints on political movements damp- ened politically inspired violence. Terrorist incidents contin- ued to occur in urban areas, but these were for the most part individually targeted bombings and assassinations, including attacks on United States installations and personnel. The num- ber of such incidents peaked at seventy-five in 1991, most of them attributed to leftist protests against Turkey's strategic role in the international coalition against Iraq. Nevertheless, the 354 National Security preoccupying security issue for the Turkish government con- tinued to be the mounting separatist insurgency of the Kurdis- tan Workers' Party (Partiya Karkere Kurdistan — PKK). The uprising of Kurds in northern Iraq after the Persian Gulf War focused attention on the condition of Kurds in general; the PKK used the occasion to intensify its military operations in the Kurdish region of southeastern Turkey. Kurdish Separatists The Kurdish national movement dates back at least to 1925, when Atatiirk ruthlessly suppressed a revolt against the new Turkish republic motivated by the regime's renunciation of Muslim religious practices. Uprisings in the 1930s and 1940s prompted by opposition to the modernizing and centralizing reforms of the Turkish government in Ankara also were put down by the Turkish army. Kurdish opposition to the govern- ment's emphasis on linguistic homogeneity was spurred in the 1960s and 1970s by agitation in neighboring Iran and Iraq on behalf of an autonomous Kurdistan, to include Kurds from Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Syria. The majority of Kurds, however, continued to participate in Turkish political parties and to assimilate into Turkish society. The best known and most radical of the Kurdish move- ments, the PKK, which does not represent the majority of Kurds, seeks to establish an independent Marxist state in south- eastern Turkey where the Kurdish population predominates. Beginning in 1984, a resurgence of Kurdish attacks attributed to the PKK necessitated the deployment of Turkish army units and elite police forces. Fighting in the mountain terrain favored the insurgents, who could intimidate local Kurdish families and ambush regular troops. The violence has mounted since 1991, with PKK guerrillas from camps in Syria, Iran, and Iraq, as well as from inside Turkey itself, attacking Turkish mili- tary and police outposts and targeting civilian community lead- ers and teachers. In 1993 PKK gunmen sought military targets outside the southeastern region; they also conducted coordi- nated attacks in many West European cities, particularly in Ger- many where more than 1 million Kurds live, against Turkish diplomatic installations and Turkish businesses, often operated by Kurds. Such attacks on commercial firms can be seen as efforts at intimidation to gain contributions to PKK fundrais- ing. 355 Turkey: A Country Study Increased numbers of security forces were mobilized in 1994 against the Kurds in a government campaign of mounting intensity. One government strategy has been the forced evacua- tion and in a number of instances burning some 850 Kurdish villages to prevent them from harboring PKK insurgents. Although militarily successful, the evacuations have caused great hardship to the villagers. The government has been accused of harassment, destruc- tion of villages, and the slaying of Kurds believed to be sympa- thetic to the PKK. Its tactics have resulted in hundreds of civilian casualties and turned thousands into refugees, who have crowded into major Turkish cities. The insurgents, in turn, have targeted villages known to be sympathetic to the gov- ernment, murdering state officials, teachers, government col- laborators, and paramilitary village guards. In an especially cruel incident in May 1993 that ended a two-month cease-fire announced by the PKK, a PKK unit executed thirty unarmed military recruits after ambushing several buses. As of early 1994, about 160,000 Turkish troops and gen- darmerie had been mobilized for operations against the PKK. Some 40,000 civilians formed a village guard of progovern- ment Kurds. A new mobile security force of about 10,000 troops was undergoing special training in antiguerrilla opera- tions. The United States Department of State estimated that there were 10,000 to 15,000 full-time PKK guerrillas, 5,000 to 6,000 of whom were in Turkey and the others in Iran, Iraq, and Syria. There were thought to be an additional 60,000 to 75,000 part-time guerrillas. The number of deaths since the war's outbreak in 1984 had risen beyond 12,000 by 1994. According to official figures, more than 1,500 PKK guerrillas were killed and 7,600 captured during the first eleven months of 1993. During the same period, the number of government security personnel killed came to 676. Civilian deaths totaled 1,249, more than double the 1992 total. The PKK cause was not helped by the Kurds of Iraq, who depended on Turkey to keep their enclave protected from the forces of Iraqi president Saddam Husayn. In October 1992, Iraqi Kurds and the Turkish army carried out a joint offensive against PKK bases in Iraqi Kurdistan, forcing the surrender of more than 1,000 PKK fighters. Turkey also enlisted Syria's cooperation in closing the PKK base in the Bekaa Valley of Leb- anon. The government's flexibility in seeking a negotiated 356 National Security solution to the conflict was limited by the growing anger of the Turkish public over PKK terrorism and the killing of troops in the southeast and by the military's uncompromising anti-Kurd- ish stance. Terrorism of the Left Marxists and other groups of the extreme left have never been more than marginal factors in national politics, even dur- ing those periods when they were permitted to function as legal parties. Just before the military crackdown in 1980, four of the seven Marxist-oriented parties legally recognized at the time contested local elections but were able to gather a total of only 1 percent of the national vote. During the 1970s, the leftist movement turned increasingly to violence and terrorism; at the same time, left-wing ideologies became popular in the uni- versities and among alienated and often unemployed urban youth. In 1987 the leaders of the banned Turkish Workers' Party and of the Turkish Communist Party returned from exile to form a new Turkish United Communist Party. Both politicians were arrested and charged under the provision of the penal code that specifically outlawed communist organizations and the dissemination of Marxist-Leninist theories. After being decriminalized in 1991, the Turkish United Communist Party was again proscribed after the Constitutional Court upheld a ban on the grounds that it had violated Article 14 of the consti- tution, which prohibits "establishing the hegemony of one social class over another." The most active of the left-wing terrorist groups is the Revo- lutionary Left Party (Devrimci Sol — Dev Sol). Virulently anti- American and anti-NATO, Dev Sol was responsible for most of the attacks against United States targets and other political vio- lence during the Persian Gulf War. In one incident, two United States civilians working for a United States defense contractor were killed. The Turkish government reacted vigorously, con- ducting raids against Dev Sol safe houses and enacting new antiterrorist legislation. Dev Sol is believed to have several hun- dred members, including several dozen armed militants. Because of police raids and internal factionalism, attacks by Dev Sol have been less numerous since 1991. Sympathizers among the foreign Turkish population in Western Europe have helped fund the organization; training support is believed to come from radical Palestinians in Lebanon. 357 Turkey: A Country Study The Turkish Workers' and Peasants' Liberation Army and the Marxist-Leninist Armed Propaganda Unit committed numerous acts of terrorism in the 1970s and early 1980s, including bank robberies and bombings of businesses, courts, and key government offices. Members of the latter group were sentenced in 1984 after convictions for eighty-seven killings, including the murders of five United States servicemen in 1979. Since 1990, however, the other extremist groups of the left have been overshadowed by Dev Sol. Armenian Terrorism The primary objective of Armenian terrorists during the 1970s and 1980s was to inflict revenge for the massacres of Armenians during World War I. Armenians regard these kill- ings as systematic genocide, but Turks claim they were the unfortunate outgrowth of deportations intended to prevent Armenians from assisting the invading Russian armies. Terror- ist groups also demanded that Turkey admit its guilt for crimes committed against Armenians and provide reparations in the form of money and territory for an Armenian homeland. Most of the violence by Armenian terrorists has been inflicted on Turkish agencies and representatives outside Tur- key. The best known of these groups, the Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia (ASALA), apparently was formed in 1975 among leftist Armenians living in Beirut, Leba- non, with the help of sympathetic Palestinians. In reaction, rightists from the Armenian community in Lebanon formed the Justice Commandos of the Armenian Genocide (JCAG). A number of other groups claimed responsibility for terrorist acts, but ASALA and JCAG were judged to be the two main groups. It was not clear whether lawful Armenian political blocs in Lebanon sponsored these terrorist units, but they did not openly condone the terrorist acts of their offshoots. Among the Armenian diaspora, numbering more than 6 million worldwide, probably fewer than 1,000 persons belong to terrorist factions. Members generally are young, recent immigrants to their countries of residence, or reside in places such as Lebanon where political violence is common. Assassina- tion and bombing are the principal techniques used by the two main terrorist organizations. However, JCAG has limited its attacks to Turkish embassy officials in the United States, Can- ada, and Western Europe, refraining from indiscriminate vio- lence to avoid alienating Western public opinion. Since 1983 358 National Security responsibility for most of the attacks has been claimed by a group called the Armenian Revolutionary Army, possibly a cover name for JCAG. ASALA has carried out a number of bombings of ticket offices and airport counters of United States airlines in West- ern Europe. Following the bombing of a Turkish airline counter at Orly Airport in Paris in 1983, which resulted in sev- eral deaths and injuries, a split developed within ASALA over the rationale of indiscriminate terrorism in advancing the Armenian cause. An offshoot, the ASALA Revolutionary Move- ment (ASALA-RM), regarded indiscriminate terrorism as coun- terproductive, while ASALA-Militant (ASALA-M) continued to favor unrestricted violence against both Turkish and "imperial- ist" targets. After the split, the ASALA membership appeared to become preoccupied with its internal differences and has since been relatively inactive. Islamists A legal, nonviolent Islamic political movement exists in Tur- key. Its main locus is the Welfare Party (Refah Partisi — RP; also seen as Prosperity Party), which obtained the votes of 16.9 per- cent of the electorate in the 1991 general elections and cap- tured 19 percent in the municipal elections of 1994. The Welfare Party also won mayoral contests in Ankara, Istanbul, and twenty-seven other large cities. The party stresses eco- nomic goals; to cast its appeal in religious terms would bring it into conflict with the constitutional ban on the organization of parties on the basis of religion, ethnicity, or political ideas con- sidered authoritarian. Turkey's political system is more open than those of most Middle Eastern states, and to a large extent it has been able to accommodate Muslim political expression while marginalizing its radical elements. Nevertheless, radical Muslim groups are considered a threat to the secular political establishment. Although a link with the Iranian government has not been proven, Iranian mullahs are believed to give support and encouragement to extremist Muslims. Radical Islamic activism — sometimes described as funda- mentalism — has been the source of some terrorism, in particu- lar the murders of journalists, politicians, and academics who were outspoken defenders of Turkish secularism. Several Islamic groups have claimed responsibility for these deaths, among them the Islamic Movement Organization, about which 359 Turkey: A Country Study little is known. Another obscure group, composed of local Islamists linked to the Iranian government, has targeted exter- nal enemies of Iran. One of the worst incidents of religious vio- lence occurred in the city of Sivas in 1993 when religious fanatics set fire to a hotel where a well-known author and trans- lator of Salman Rushdie's The Satanic Verses was staying. The author escaped, but thirty-seven people perished and 100 were injured. Anxious to avoid unnecessary tension in relations with Iran, Turkish officials have avoided placing blame directly on the Tehran government for sponsoring terrorist activity. Evi- dence, however, has been presented to Iran implicating extremists within the revolutionary power structure, if not the Iranian government itself. Since 1991 a shadowy group known as Hizballah-Contra has sprung up in Kurdish areas, carrying out a campaign of assassi- nation and terrorism against the PKK and its sympathizers. The organization is not connected to Hizballah (Party of God, also known as Islamic Jihad), a Shia terrorist movement dedicated to establishing an Iranian-style government in Lebanon. Although the Turkish government denies any link to Hizbal- lah-Contra, the group's hit squads are believed to be tolerated by the police and gendarmerie, along with other Kurdish groups violently hostile to the PKK. The leadership of Turkey's armed forces is highly sensitive to the possibility of soldiers becoming exposed to extremist Islamic influences. Orders issued in 1991 instructed troops to avoid "illegal, destructive, separatist trends, either from the right or left, which threaten the military's discipline." Com- manders were urged to be especially careful with regard to staff members living outside military compounds in large cities where they could come into contact with Islamist groups. They were ordered to take stern measures — in some cases, expul- sion — against officers and NCOs who adopted strong religious views, who refrained from certain social activities on religious grounds, or whose spouses wore Islamic garb. Police System The principal agencies devoted to internal security and law enforcement are the National Police and the gendarmerie, both headquartered in Ankara and both administered by the Ministry of Interior. Broadly, the National Police handles police functions (including traffic control) in the cities and towns, and the gendarmerie serves principally as a rural con- 360 National Security stabulary. In times of crisis, the prime minister can direct the chief of the General Staff to assist the police and gendarmerie in maintaining internal security. The gendarmerie is regarded as a military security force; during wartime or in areas placed under martial law, it functions under the army. National Police The territorial organization of the National Police corre- sponds roughly to Turkey's administrative subdivisions (see Provincial and Local Government, ch. 4). Below the general directorate are police directorates in all of the country's sev- enty-six provinces and police posts (district commands) in most of the administrative districts. Despite their wide territo- rial distribution, a very large proportion of the police are clus- tered in the major cities. No reliable data are available on the size of the police force, whose members are believed to num- ber more than 50,000. Regardless of its size, the force does not appear large enough to keep up with the need generated by Turkey's urban growth and ordinary crime and traffic prob- lems. The laws establishing the organization of police at the pro- vincial and local levels distinguish three categories of func- tions: administrative, judicial, and political. In this context, the administrative police perform the usual functions relating to the safety of persons and property: enforcement of laws and regulations, prevention of smuggling and apprehension of smugglers, quelling of public disorder, fingerprinting and pho- tographing, public licensing, controlling traffic and inspecting motor vehicles, apprehending thieves and military deserters, locating missing persons, and keeping track of foreigners resid- ing or traveling in Turkey. Film censorship is also considered an administrative responsibility. In some cases, municipalities provide all or part of the funding for administrative police functions in their localities. The judicial police work closely with the administrators of justice. Attached to the offices of public prosecutors, the judi- cial police assist in investigating crimes, issue arrest warrants, and help prosecutors assemble evidence for trials. The political police combat activities considered subversive and deal with those groups whose actions or plans are identified as contrary to the security of the republic. To carry out the police's broad and sometimes overlapping functions, specialized squads focusing on such problems as 361 Turkey: A Country Study smuggling and the narcotics trade are located in the larger commands. At the other end of the scale, the police employ unskilled auxiliaries in many towns and in some neighbor- hoods of larger communities. These are selected local men, not armed, who are engaged to prevent local theft and to give the alarm in case of emergency. Police ranks range from constable through sergeant, lieu- tenant, captain, superintendent second and first class, and sev- eral grades of police chief. A commissioner of police commands each of the seventy-six provincial directorates of police. Provincial directorates are divided into district police commands headed by superintendents. In earlier years, an entrant to the lowest police grade was expected to have completed junior high school. But police authorities recognized that the low education level of the force contributed to violations of legal rights and mistreatment of prisoners. Thus, recent recruits have been required to have completed secondary school. Training consists of a six-month basic course at one of five police schools. Candidates for higher rank are sent to a police college (equivalent to a senior high school offering university preparation) and then to the Police Institute at Ankara, from which students graduate as sergeants after a three-year course. The performance of the Turkish police has been the subject of persistent criticism for violations of fundamental human rights. These problems, which have received growing interna- tional and domestic attention, involve torture during question- ing, incommunicado detention, politically motivated disappearances, "mystery killings," and excessive use of force. Successive governments have repeatedly promised to curb abuses by the security forces, but little if any improvement has been recorded (see Individual Rights, this ch.). Gendarmerie Primarily a rural police force, the gendarmerie maintains public order outside the municipal boundaries of cities and provincial towns and guards Turkey's land borders against ille- gal entry and smuggling. It has jurisdiction over 90 percent of the territory of Turkey and 50 percent of the population. The gendarmerie's recruits are supplied through the military con- scription system, and its officers and NCOs are transferred from the army. New career junior officers are obtained by quo- tas from the graduating classes of the Turkish army academy. 362 Policeman directing traffic, Istanbul Courtesy Hermine Dreyfus s In late 1994, the gendarmerie's headquarters in Ankara was commanded by Aydin liter, a four-star general. Subordinate to the commanding general's chief of staff, a two-star general, are typical military staff sections for personnel, intelligence, opera- tions, and logistics, as well as the headquarters commandant. The major operational category consists of the internal security units, divided into stationary forces and mobile infantry bri- gades. These forces may be supplemented by air units and com- mando units equipped with Russian APCs and towed artillery weapons. In 1994 Turkey announced the purchase of nineteen Russian helicopters to assist in operations against the PKK. Elite fighting formations that distinguished themselves in Cyprus in 1974, the commando units execute many of the operations against the PKK in the southeast. The gendarmerie also includes headquarters and border forces, administrative control and logistical support units, and training staff. The total number of gendarmes was estimated at 70,000 active members and 50,000 reserves in late 1994. They are organized into thirteen regional commands encompassing the seventy-six provinces. In each province, the principal gendarm- erie commander, a colonel or lieutenant colonel, advises the governor on matters of security and maintains direct charge of 363 Turkey: A Country Study the district gendarmerie commands, usually headed by cap- tains. Below the district commanders are commanders of the administrative subdistricts, each of whom controls the fixed posts in his area. There are some 3,600 posts, exclusive of bor- der posts, usually located at intervals along the main roads and staffed by a sergeant and six or more gendarmes. To foster detachment from local groups and their interests and quarrels, gendarmes are usually assigned away from their home areas. The administrative functions of the gendarmerie corre- spond roughly to those of the National Police but include such distinctive requirements as enforcing hunting and fishing laws, fighting forest fires, and patrolling borders. The gendarmes' judicial tasks include guarding prisons and assisting in investi- gations and preparations for trial. They also have military duties: serving as adjuncts to the army in emergencies, enforc- ing conscription, apprehending military deserters, and work- ing in military courts. Gendarmerie officers are chosen from cadets during the second year of training at the military academy, an aptitude for law being a prime factor in the selection. After completing their academy training, officers attend the infantry school for six months and the commando school for four months. Fur- ther professional training follows at the Gendarmerie Schools Command. NCOs are selected by examination from army per- sonnel who have already served at least one year. They are then trained at the Gendarmerie Schools Command for five months. Basic military training is given to conscripts by the Gendarmerie Schools Command, followed by specialized train- ing in various areas. Writing in the late 1980s, the noted political journalist Meh- met Ali Birand commented that the gendarmerie had had an unfavorable reputation since its founding in 1839 and its later reorganization on the pattern of the French gendarmerie. It began as the agent of brute force for the government, putting down civil conflicts, pursuing criminals, and collecting taxes. From the early days of the republic, the gendarmerie was the only body available to subdue unrest, enforce the principles of Atatiirk, suppress opposition, and collect levies. The gendarmerie has relatively few officers and NCOs; the main burden of the service falls on ordinary conscripts who predominate in the force of 70,000. The conscripts are poorly trained in matters of law and regulations and in the manner of enforcing them, contributing to the harsh image of the gen- 364 National Security darmerie. As Birand notes, in contrast to Turkish gendarmerie operations, operations of the French, Belgian, and Italian gen- darmeries are carried out primarily by officers and NCOs, pri- vates being assigned sentry duty and other tasks that will not bring them into contact with the public. The commander of the gendarmerie said in 1993 that efforts were being made to tailor the personnel structure to enable the force to perform its missions more effectively. Spe- cialized sergeants were being recruited instead of conscripts. No longer standardized, unit training was being tailored to conditions in various regions and particular types of missions. New equipment had been introduced to improve air transpor- tation and surface movement, and to provide mobile com- mand, control, communications, and intelligence capabilities. Formed in 1982 as the maritime wing of the gendarmerie, the coast guard is now separate but also reports to the Ministry of Interior. With a personnel strength of about 1,100, the coast guard is responsible for maintaining the security of the coast and territorial waters, for conducting missions to protect its Exclusive Economic Zone in the Aegean — the boundaries of which are under dispute with Greece — for search-and-air-res- cue operations, and for protecting the marine environment. The coast guard is organized into four area commands: the Black Sea, the Sea of Marmara and adjacent straits, the Aegean Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea. Surface patrols are carried out by fifty-two patrol vessels and smaller craft. The most effec- tive of these are fourteen search-and-rescue vessels of 220 tons, all built within recent years in Turkish shipyards. Smaller 150- ton and 70-ton patrol boats of German origin were nearing obsolescence in the mid-1990s. An ambitious construction plan foresaw a major strengthening of the service with eight new ves- sels of 350 to 400 tons and forty-eight ships of 180 to 300 tons. A number of helicopters and aircraft were to be acquired to expand a small maritime air unit of three United States-manu- factured OH-58 (Jet Ranger) helicopters. Intelligence Services Intelligence gathering is the primary responsibility of the National Intelligence Organization (Milli Istihbarat Teskilati — MIT), which combines the functions of internal and external intelligence agencies. In 1993 a career diplomat, Sonmez Kok- sal, was named undersecretary in charge of MIT, the first civil- ian to head the organization. Each branch of the military has 365 Turkey: A Country Study its own intelligence arm, as do the National Police and the gen- darmerie. Military intelligence activities in martial law areas aim to prevent seditious activities against the state. Intelligence personnel also engage in electronic eavesdropping and rely on reports of overseas military attaches and exchange information with foreign intelligence services. Military and civil intelligence requirements are formulated by the National Intelligence Coordination Committee. This committee includes members of the staff of the National Secu- rity Council, to which it is directly responsible. Nevertheless, a lack of coordination among the intelligence services is said to be a weakness that hampers MIT effectiveness. MIT has no police powers; it is authorized only to gather intelligence and conduct counterintelligence abroad and to uncover communist, extreme right-wing, and separatist — that is, Kurdish and Armenian — groups internally. The MIT chief reports to the prime minister but was in the past considered close to the military. MIT has been charged with failing to notify the government when it became aware of past plots, if not actual complicity in military coup attempts. The organiza- tion functions under strict discipline and secrecy. Housing and headquarters offices for its personnel are colocated in a com- pound in Ankara. Kurdish groups in Western Europe have charged the Turk- ish intelligence service with fomenting dissension and unrest among their various factions. Although these claims have not been verified, it seems likely that infiltration of the Kurdish sep- aratist movement is a high priority for MIT. Members of the agency are also suspected of having acted as agents provoca- teurs in leftist organizations during the 1970s. Dev Sol is believed to have been infiltrated by intelligence agents, as raids on its establishments in the early 1990s seemed to demonstrate. Crime and Punishment The Turkish court system and judicial procedures are based on European models adopted after the establishment of the republic. For example, the system of criminal justice that replaced the Islamic justice system of the Ottoman Empire derives from the Italian penal code, and civil law follows the Swiss model (see Secularist Reforms, ch. 2). Crimes are defined as either felonies or misdemeanors, the latter including minor infractions such as traffic violations. Fel- 366 National Security onies include premeditated homicide, theft, arson, armed rob- bery, embezzlement of state property, perjury, and rape. Punishments for felonies fall into the categories of strict imprisonment, ordinary imprisonment, and heavy fines. Under the Criminal Code of 1926, as amended, certain crimes against the state and premeditated murder were punished with the death penalty. In practice, executions were suspended in 1984. More than 1,000 death sentences were pending when blanket commutations were granted in 1986, and capital punishment ended formally with passage of the Anti-Terror Law of 1991. Strict imprisonment entails labor for between one year and life and, for a recidivist, could begin with a period of solitary con- finement. Ordinary imprisonment can range up to twenty years and also requires labor. In serious cases, convictions may disqualify a person from holding public office and from prac- ticing a profession or trade. Withdrawal of the right to vote and payment of damages or restitution also may result from convic- tion for a felony. In 1986 the Execution of Sentences Act halved the time for prisoners then serving jail sentences. Life sentences were reduced to twenty years and death sentences commuted to thirty-year terms. Procedures in Criminal Law When the police (or gendarmerie) believe that a person has committed a crime, the suspect is taken to the nearest police station for registration and interrogation. A police magistrate informs the suspect of the charges and questions the suspect and any witnesses to determine whether a prima facie case exists. A warrant of arrest is issued when detention of the accused is indicated. In principle, individuals can be detained pending trial only when there is a strong presumption that they have committed the offense with which they are charged and when there is reason to believe that they intend to escape, to destroy traces of the crime, to induce accomplices or witnesses to make false statements, or to evade the obligation to testify. Important changes in the treatment of suspects occurred in 1992 with the introduction of the Criminal Trials Procedure Law. This law affirms the right of common criminal suspects to immediate access to legal counsel and the right to meet with an attorney at any time. Permissible prearraignment detention was shortened to twenty-four hours for common individual crimes and to four days for common crimes involving conspir- 367 Turkey: A Country Study acy. The practical effect of the new law has been improved attorney access for those charged with common crimes. The 1991 Anti-Terror Law nullified the "thought crimes" articles of the penal code. However, it introduced a broad and ambiguous definition of terrorism, enabling the government to use the law not only to combat alleged terrorism but also to impose sentences of two to five years on ordinary citizens for written and oral propaganda, meetings, and demonstrations aimed at "damaging the indivisible unity of the state." Persons detained for individual crimes under the Anti-Ter- ror Law must be brought before a judge within forty-eight hours. Anyone charged with crimes of a collective political or conspiratorial nature may be detained for up to fifteen days and up to thirty days in the ten southeastern provinces under a state of emergency in early 1995. The law does not guarantee access to counsel in such cases, leaving this decision to prosecu- tors, who routinely deny access. Cases involving minor offenses are tried by a justice of the peace, a single judge who has limited penal and civil jurisdic- tion. Somewhat more serious offenses are tried by courts of first instance, with a single judge. Central criminal courts that have a president and two judges deal with crimes punishable by more than five years' imprisonment. Three-judge commercial courts also exist. Ordinary defendants have the right to a public trial and must be provided with free counsel if they are indigent. How- ever, the constitution does provide for closed trials in the inter- est of "public morality and public security." There is no jury system; all cases are decided by a judge or panel of judges. The constitution requires that judges be independent of the execu- tive in the discharge of their duties, and, in practice, judges are not subject to government interference. Defense lawyers have access to the prosecutor's files after arraignment and prior to the trial. Release may be granted after arraignment upon pay- ment of bail or presentation of an appropriate guarantee. Eight state security courts, each composed of five mem- bers — two civilian judges, one military judge, and two prosecu- tors — may try defendants accused of terrorism, drug smuggling, membership in illegal organizations, or espousing and disseminating prohibited ideas. The state security courts mainly handle cases under the Anti-Terror Law. As of the end of 1993, a total of 3,792 persons had been detained under the law, and 811 persons were serving sentences under its provi- 368 National Security sions. In addition to the longer prearraignment detention the law permits, the state security courts can hold closed hearings and may admit testimony gathered during police interrogation in the absence of counsel. Verdicts of the courts may be appealed to a special State Security Court of Appeals. Martial law courts established after the 1980 coup continue to function in those provinces under martial law. Military courts hear cases involving infractions of military law by mem- bers of the armed forces. A separate military court appeals sys- tem applies. In late 1993, two television journalists received two-month sentences from a military court for presenting a program on military deserters and draft evaders in the first known case of civilians tried in a military court while Turkey was under civilian rule. Incidence of Crime The incidence of ordinary crime is considered low in com- parison to rates in other Middle Eastern and some West Euro- pean countries. As in many other countries with even better data-gathering capabilities, the statistics on criminal acts may be unreliable. The penal registry maintained by the Ministry of Justice offers only a partial indication of the actual extent of crime. Moreover, in much of rural Turkey acts formally consid- ered police matters may be addressed in the local community without coming to the attention of the gendarmerie. Official statistics indicate a doubling of prison admissions between 1984 and 1991. This increase was due almost entirely to a rapid rise in the number of persons jailed "according to special laws," meaning presumably those convicted of terrorism or illegal political activity. In numerous categories of ordinary crime, the number of prison admissions actually fell from 1984 to 1991. Nevertheless, it is generally believed that the incidence of ordinary crime has been growing because of the economic, social, and cultural stresses associated with relatively rapid urbanization and the weakening of traditional social controls among urban immigrants. According to the Statistical Yearbook of Turkey, 1993, the num- ber of convicts entering prisons in 1991 was 53,912, and the number discharged was 72,885. In most years, the number of admissions and discharges is nearly equal; the higher rate of discharges in 1991 was probably a result of the release of those convicted under political clauses of the penal code repealed that year. Among the most common felonies resulting in incar- 369 Turkey: A Country Study ceration in 1991 were crimes against property (8,360), crimes against individuals (5,879), and crimes against "public decency and family order" (2,681). The numbers of persons admitted to prison bore little relation to the number of cases brought before the various criminal courts. According to official statis- tics, more than 52,000 new cases were brought before the cen- tral criminal courts, 632,000 before the criminal courts of first instance, and 493,000 before the justices of the peace. The number entering prisons under special laws rose rap- idly, from 7,514 in 1985 to 32,645 in 1991. Although Turkish sources offer no explanation of the increase, the period corre- sponds to the spiraling Kurdish dissidence and the strict laws then in effect dealing with "thought crimes." Narcotics Trafficking Turkey plays a major role in the narcotics trade, primarily as a natural route for the movement of hashish from Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Iran to destinations in Europe. The disinte- gration of the Soviet Union has resulted in a loss of control over drug production in Central Asia and Afghanistan. Unrest in Azerbaijan and Georgia facilitates smuggling from the Cau- casus area. Turkish police maintain that the PKK is heavily involved in the heroin trade. The use of air and sea routes for narcotics transshipment through Turkey has grown as the con- flict in former Yugoslavia has disrupted the traditional over- land routes through the Balkans. Turkey is an important processing point for morphine base and heroin base imported into the country. Also, the Turks tra- ditionally have grown the opium poppy for medicinal pur- poses. The government effectively controls the cultivation and production of opiates, paying high prices for the crop and care- fully monitoring growing areas. Local drug consumption and abuse are considered minor problems, although there are some indications that heroin and cocaine use is increasing among the more affluent segments of the population. Nationwide there are more than 1,000 narcotics law enforcement officers. The principal law enforcement agencies concerned with narcotics are the National Police and the gen- darmerie. Turkish customs agencies have lacked a professional cadre of narcotics interdiction agents, but in the mid-1990s were working toward creating such a body with United States training assistance. The coast guard has also begun playing a larger role in interdiction. In spite of Turkey's efforts, it is 370 National Security believed that little of the heroin passing through the country is seized because of insufficient staff to screen cargoes ade- quately, particularly at the key transfer point of Istanbul. There is no evidence of widespread corruption among senior officials engaged in drug law enforcement. In some cases, however, drug investigations have been compromised by corruption at lower levels of the criminal justice system, as well as within the judicial system once traffickers have been appre- hended. Because Turkey has no legislation prohibiting money laundering, it is almost impossible to track inflows of drug prof- its. However, the Turkish government has indicated its inten- tion to introduce laws to deal with this practice. Data on seizures of heroin and hashish show an upward trend in the five-year period between 1989 and 1993. Hashish seizures increased from 6.9 tons in 1989 to 28.7 tons in 1993. However, a major factor was a single seizure of more than 2.7 tons of morphine base and 13.5 tons of hashish aboard a Turk- ish merchant ship in January 1993. Individual Rights Under the martial-law regime established after the 1980 coup, Turkey's citizens suffered a serious curtailment of nor- mal civil rights. Starting in 1983, when parliamentary elections were held, the government gradually lifted restraints on indi- vidual liberties and progressively withdrew martial law from major cities and provinces. Restrictions on the press were removed in 1985, making it permissible to publish all views except those banned by the penal code. The 1987 state of emergency declared in ten southeastern provinces where the government faced terrorist violence allowed the civilian gover- nor to exercise certain powers verging on martial law, includ- ing warrantless searches and restrictions on the press. Although progress has been made in reducing human rights abuses since the military government period, mistreat- ment by the police in the form of beatings and torture has remained a seemingly intractable problem. Reports of illegal practices, in some cases extrajudicial killings, deaths in custody, and disappearances, have become more widespread since 1992, when violence resulting from the Kurdish insurgency reached unprecedented levels. The Turkish government has renewed previous pledges to end the use of torture by the secu- rity forces, but little has been achieved in curbing the excesses of the police and military. 371 Turkey: A Country Study The widespread evidence of torture and severe ill-treatment of detainees has been condemned by numerous international groups, such as the Council of Europe's Committee for the Pre- vention of Torture and the United Nations Committee on Tor- ture. Within Turkey, illegal police activities have been monitored by the Human Rights Association since that organi- zation received official approval in 1987. The association subse- quently attracted a membership of about 20,000 and opened branches in fifty of the provincial capitals. The companion Human Rights Foundation of Turkey, established in 1990, operates torture-rehabilitation centers in Ankara, Izmir, and Istanbul, and serves as a clearinghouse for human rights infor- mation. Besides enduring government-imposed restrictions, the Human Rights Association has seen nine people associated with the organization slain. The group's leadership has charged that nearly half of its offices have been forced to close because of police pressure. The Human Rights Foundation has claimed that govern- ment security forces were responsible for ninety-one extrajudi- cial killings during the first nine months of 1993, and that security forces were implicated in many of the 291 "mystery kill- ings" during the same period. Perhaps twenty persons died in official custody, some allegedly as a result of torture. Other kill- ings occurred during raids on terrorist safe houses, or when deadly force was used against unarmed civilians participating in peaceful demonstrations. Turkish human rights advocates believe that most persons charged with political crimes undergo torture, usually while in incommunicado detention in the hands of the police or gen- darmerie before being brought before a court. About half of the ordinary criminal suspects are thought to undergo torture while under police interrogation. In the event that law enforce- ment officers are charged in torture cases, the sentences imposed are generally light or the cases drag on for years. The constitution guarantees inviolability of the domicile and privacy of communications except upon issuance of a judi- cial warrant. However, in the southeastern provinces that are under state of emergency the governor may authorize warrant- less search. In these areas, security personnel at roadblocks reg- ularly search travelers and vehicles in an effort to apprehend smugglers and terrorists. University students and faculty members may not be mem- bers of political parties or become involved in political activi- 372 National Security ties. Youth branches of political parties are forbidden, and the university rector must grant permission for a student to join any association. Political activity by trade unions is also banned. Thus, unions may neither endorse candidates nor make contri- butions to their campaigns; they are, however, able to make known their opposition to or support of political parties and government policies. Collective bargaining and strikes are strictly regulated. Unions must have government permission to hold meetings and rallies but are permitted to organize work- places freely and to engage in collective bargaining (see Human Resources and Trade Unions, ch. 3; Political Interest Groups, ch. 4). In March 1994, seven Kurdish legislators were arrested on the parliament grounds. Indictments were prepared against them for writings and speeches deemed supportive of Kurdish separatism. The incident aroused considerable controversy both domestically and internationally; all seven assembly mem- bers were given long prison terms in late 1994. Freedom of conscience and religious belief is guaranteed by the constitution, as is private dissemination of religious ideas. However, religious activity is strictly supervised in accordance with the principles of secularism and separation of church and state. No political party advocating a theocracy or government founded on religious principles is permitted. The operation of churches, monasteries, synagogues, and schools must be approved by the state. Armenian and Greek churches are care- fully monitored, and prosecutors have brought charges of pros- elytism against Islamists and evangelical Christian groups deemed to have political overtones. Courts have not been sym- pathetic to such charges, but the police have acted against some evangelical Christians by refusing to renew their resi- dence permits and expelling them. Penal System The civil penal system is administered by the General Direc- torate of Prisons and Houses of Detention in the Ministry of Justice. There is a prison or jail in almost every town and at least one in every district. The older penal institutions include most of the town and district jails and the larger provincial pris- ons in use since Ottoman times. These are gradually being sup- plemented by newer "penitentiary labor establishments" whose distinguishing feature is the availability of equipment for labor. Prison labor is compulsory for all in old and new prisons. Pris- 373 Turkey: A Country Study oners are allowed to send up to one-half of their prison earn- ings to a dependent; part is withheld for rations, and the remainder goes to the prisoner upon discharge. Prisons were previously known to be overcrowded, but the apparent reduc- tion in jail sentences for common crimes and the commutation of longer sentences may have mitigated the problem. According to official data, the number of convicts in prisons declined from more than 46,000 in 1984 to 10,656 in 1991. The drop in the prison population took place mainly between 1986 and 1991, when mass releases occurred. When the large num- ber sentenced to prison is compared with the small prison pop- ulation at any one time, it appears that many convicts serve sentences of only a few months. Persons classified as political prisoners or terrorists are apparently regarded separately because more than 32,000 were incarcerated in 1991 under the "special laws" category. By and large, Turks accept the Muslim view that crime is a willful act and thus regard penalties as punishment for the act and as a means to deter similar acts, not as instruments of reha- bilitation or reeducation. There has been a trend among some specialists and Turkish officials to view criminal acts as the product of social conditions and therefore to emphasize reha- bilitation, but this view has had only limited influence on penal practice. Whereas torture of both political and ordinary prisoners by security forces is a deep-rooted problem, much of it occurs prior to court hearings. Incidents arising from mistreatment in prisons have been decreasing in recent years. However, in two cases mentioned in 1992 by the international human rights group Amnesty International, large numbers of prisoners were beaten, some seriously, for protesting against prison disciplin- ary measures. After widespread hunger strikes in 1989, the minister of jus- tice introduced a number of reforms to improve prison condi- tions, including an end to corporal punishment, bread-and- water diets, and solitary confinement in unlighted cells. The government, however, continued to be faced with domestic and international criticism and subsequently announced a prison reform bill in 1993. At the end of 1994, parliament had not enacted promised prison reforms. * * * 374 National Security Discussion in this chapter of the size, organization, and armaments of the Turkish armed forces is based in part on The Military Balance, 1994-1995, published by the International Institute for Strategic Studies in London, and on Jane's Fighting Ships, 1994-95 Additional material can be found in the section on Turkey by Mark Stenhouse in Jane's NATO Handbook, 1991— 92. An authoritative statement by Turkish chief of staff General Dogan Giires on the new strategy and restructuring of the armed forces is contained in the June 1993 issue of the Journal of the Royal United Services Institute for Defence Studies. Graham E. Fuller and other authors address Turkey's changed geostrate- gic situation following the collapse of the Soviet Union in Tur- key's New Geopolitics: From the Balkans to Western China. Turkish military leaders analyze the missions and capabilities of the individual service branches in a series of articles in a special 1993 issue of NATO's Sixteen Nations called "Defence of Turkey." A book by a noted Turkish journalist, Mehmet Ali Birand, Shirts of Steel: An Anatomy of the Turkish Armed Forces, provides previously unfamiliar details on the military education system, military traditions and institutions, and the perspectives and aspirations of career officers. Discussion of Turkey's human rights record can be found in publications by Amnesty International and in the annual Coun- try Reports on Human Rights Practices published by the United States Department of State. (For further information and com- plete citations, see Bibliography.) 375 Appendix A Table 1 Metric Conversion Coefficients and Factors 2 The House of Osman: Sultans of the Ottoman Empire, 1281-1922 3 Presidents and Prime Ministers, 1920-95 4 Population by Age-Group, 1980, 1990, and 2000 5 Economically Active Population by Sector, Selected Years, 1970-93 6 Summary of Consolidated Budget, 1988-93 7 Production of Major Agricultural Commodities, 1987-92 8 Energy Production, 1988-92 9 Exports by Commodity, 1987-92 10 Imports by Commodity, 1987-92 11 Major Trading Partners, 1988-95 12 Summary of Balance of Payments, Selected Years, 1985-93 13 Major Army Equipment, 1994 14 Major Air Force Equipment, 1994 15 Major Naval Equipment, 1994 377 Appendix A Table 1. Metric Conversion Coefficients and Factors When you know Multiply by To find Millimeters 0.04 inches Centimeters 0.39 inches Meters 3.3 feet Kilometers 0.62 miles Hectares 2.47 acres 0.39 square miles Cubic meters H ''■ 35.3 cubic feet Liters 0.26 gallons Kilograms 2.2 pounds Metric tons 0.98 long tons 1.1 short tons 2,204.0 pounds Degrees Celsius (Centigrade) 1.8 degrees Fahrenheit and add 32 379 Turkey: A Country Study Table 2. The House of Osman: Sultans of the Ottoman Empire, 1281-1922 Name Lineage Reigned Osman I Son of the gad 1281-1324 1 Ertugrul Orhan Son of Osman 1324-60 MuradI Son of Orhan 1360^89 Bayezid I 2 Son of MuradI 1389-1402 Suleyman 2 Son of Bayezid I 1402-11 Musa 2 Son of Bayezid I 1411-13 Mehmetl 2 Son of Bayezid I 1413-21 Muradll Son of Mehmetl 1421-44, 1446-51 Mehmet II Son of Murad II 1444-46, 1451-81 Bayezid II Son of Mehmet II 1481-1512 Selim I Son of Bayezid II 1512-20 Suleyman I 3 Son of Selim I 1520-66 Selim II Son of Suleyman I 1566-74 Murad in Son of Selim II 1574-95 Mehmet III Son of Murad III 1595-1603 Ahmet I Son of Mehmet III 1603-17 Mustafa I Son of Ahmet I 1617-18 Osman II Son of Ahmet I 1618-22 Mustafa I Son of Ahmet I 1622-23 Murad IV Nephew of Mustafa I 1623^0 Ibrahim Brother of Murad IV 1640-48 Mehmet IV Son of Ibrahim 1648-S7 Suleyman II 4 Son of Ibrahim 1687-91 Ahmet II Son of Ibrahim 1691-95 Mustafa II Son of Mehmet IV 1695-1703 Ahmet ID Son of Mehmet IV 1703-30 Mahmud I Son of Mustafa II 1730-54 Osman III Son of Mustafa II 1754-57 Mustafa in Son of Ahmet HI 1757-74 Abdul Hamid I Brother of Mustafa HI 1774-89 Selim in Nephew of Abdul 1789-1807 Hamid I Mustafa IV Cousin of Selim HI 1807-08 Mahmud II Brother of Mustafa IV 1808-39 Abdulmecid I Son of Mahmud II 1839-61 Abdulaziz Son of Mahmud II 1861-76 Murad V Son of Abdulmecid I 1876 Abdul Hamid U Son of Abdulmecid I 1876-1909 Mehmet V Son of Abdulmecid I 1909-18 380 Appendix A Table 2. The House of Osman: Sultans of the Ottoman Empire, 1281-1922 Name Lineage Reigned MehmetVI Son of Abdulmecid I 1918-22 5 Date of beginning of reign is approximate. The period 1403—13, during which the sons of Bayezid I contested succession to the sultanate, is cited as an interregnum by many sources. Other sources date the beginning of the reign of Mehmet I from 1403. Suleyman II in some sources. Suleyman III in some sources. Sultanate abolished 1922; Abdulmecid II (brother of Mehmet VI) remained as caliph 1922-24. Table 3. Presidents and Prime Ministers, 1920-95 President Prime Minister Period in Office Ataturk 1 May 1920-January 1921 Fevzi Cakmak 1 January 1921-July 1922 Rauf Orbay 1 July 1922-August 1923 Fethi Okyar 1 August-October 1923 A M*i rk ALdLUl IS. (1923-38) Tsmpf Tnonfi ffHP\ 2 Nnvpmhpr 1 Q9^— Nnvpmher 1 Q94 Fethi Okyar (Progressive Republican Party) November 1924-March 1925 Ismet Inonu (CHP) March 1925-October 1937 Ismet Inonu (1938-50) Celal Bayar (CHP) October 1937-January 1939 Refik Saydam (CHP) January 1939-July 1942 Sukru Saracoglu (CHP) July 1942-August 1946 Recep Peker (CHP) August 1946^September 1947 Hasan Saka (CHP) September 1947-January 1949 Semsettin Giinaltay (CHP) January 1949-May 1950 Celal Bayar (1950-60) Adnan Menderes (DP) 3 May 1950-May 1960 Cemal Gursel (1960-66) Cemal Gursel 4 May 1960-November 1961 Ismet Inonu (CHP) November 1961-February 1965 Suat Hayri Urgiiplu (Independent) February-October 1965 Suleyman Demirel (AP) 5 October 1965-March 1971 Cevdet Sunay (1966-73) Nihat Erim (Independent) March 1971-April 1972 Ferit Melen 6 (NRP) 7 April 1972 Suat Hayri Urgiiplu (Independent) April-May 1972 Ferit Melen (NRP) May 1972-April 1973 Nairn Talu (Independent) April 1973-January 1974 381 Turkey: A Country Study Table 3. Presidents and Prime Ministers, 1920-95 President Prime Minister Period in Office Fahri Koruturk (1973-80) Kenan Evren (1980-89) Turgut Ozal (1989-93) Suleyman Demirel 1993- Bulent Ecevit (CHP) Sadi Irmak (Independent) Suleyman Demirel (AP) Bulent Ecevit (CHP) Suleyman Demirel (AP) Bulent Ulusu (appointed) Turgut Ozal (ANAP) 9 Ali Bozer 6 (ANAP) Yildirim Akbulut (ANAP) Mesut Yilmaz (ANAP) Suleyman Demirel (DYP) 10 Erdal Inonii 11 Tansu Ciller (DYP) January-November 1974 November 1974-March 1975 March 1975-January 1978 January 1978-October 1979 October 1979-September 1980 September 1980-December 1983 December 1983-October 1989 October-November 1989 November 1989-June 1991 June-November 1991 November 1991-May 1993 May-June 1993 June 1993- 1 President of the Grand National Assembly. 2 CHP — Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi (Republican People's Party). 3 DP — Demokrat Partisi (Democrat Party). 4 Interim government under Committee of National Unity. 5 AP— Adalet Partisi (Justice Party). 6 Acting prime minister. 7 NRP — National Reliance Party. 8 Evren functioned as head of the National Security Council, or de facto chief of state, from September 1980 to November 1982. 9 ANAP— Anavatan Partisi (Motherland Party). DYP— Dogru Yol Partisi (True Path Party) . Caretaker prime minister. 382 Appendix A Table 4. Population by Age-Group, 1980, 1990, and 2000 (in percentages) Age-Group 1980 1990 2000 0-14 39.2 34.8 31.8 15-64 56.1 61.2 62.6 Over 65 4.7 4.2 5.6 TOTAL 2 100.0 100.0 100.0 Projected. Figures may not add to totals because of rounding. Source: Based on information from The Dorling Kindersley World Reference Atlas, New York, 1994, 546 Table 5. Economically Active Population by Sector, Selected Years, 1970-93 (in thousands of workers over age fifteen) Sector 1970 1980 1990 1993 Agriculture, fishing, and forestry 8,237 8,353 8,723 8,397 665 895 973 1,141 Manufacturing 1,343 2,057 2,553 2,693 156 188 202 131 Trade and hotels 886 1,429 2,093 2,338 Transportation and communications 417 612 808 898 Other, including services 1,330 2,168 3,012 3,104 13,034 15,702 18,364 18,702 Unemployment 871 1,376 1,590 1,530 Unemployment rate (in percentages) 6.3 8.1 8.0 7.6 CrVTLIAN LABOR FORCE 13,905 17,078 19,954 20,232 Source: Based on information from Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD Economic Surveys: Turkey, 1995, Paris, 1995, 9. 383 Turkey: A Country Study Table 6. Summary of Consolidated Budget, 1988-93 (in billions of Turkish lira) 1 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 Revenues Tax revenues 14,232 25,550 45,399 78,643 141,602 264,273 Non-tax reve- 3,355 5,819 11,174 18,104 32,622 87,119 nues Total reve- 17,587 31,369 56,573 96,747 174,224 351,392 nues Expenditures Current expen- ditures 7,460 16,660 33,452 60,403 114,221 204,829 Investments 3,564 5,818 10,055 17,146 29,239 53,161 Transfers to SEEs 2 1,025 1,223 1,265 12,191 8,145 25,850 Interest pay- 4,998 8,259 13,966 24,073 40,298 116,470 ments Other transfers 4,420 6,911 9,789 16,450 29,755 89,939 Total expendi- tures 21,447 38,871 68,527 130,263 221.658 485,249 Budget bal- -3,860 -7,502 -11,954 -33,516 -47,434 -133,857 ance Deferred minus advanced pay- ments -81 -639 ^00 90 -12,005 7,754 Cash balance -3,941 -8,141 -12,354 -33,426 -59,439 -126,103 Long-term bor- rowing (net) 2,609 5,578 7,983 4,200 19,446 51,197 Short-term bor- rowing (net) 1,064 1,452 2,263 23,509 41,372 75,251 Other (including errors and omis- sions) 268 1,111 2,108 5,717 -1,379 -345 For value of the Turkish lira — see Glossary. 2 SEEs — State Economic Enterprises. Source: Based on information from Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Developmnent, OECD Economic Surveys: Turkey, 1995, Paris, 1995, 105. 384 Appendix A Table 7. Production of Major Agricultural Commodities, 1987-92 (in thousands of tons) Commodity 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 Cereals Wheat 18,932 20,500 Barley 6,900 7,500 Corn 2,600 2,000 Rye 385 280 Oats 325 276 Rice 165 158 Total cereals . . . 29,307 30,714 Industrial crops Sugar beets .... 12,717 11,534 Cotton (lint) . . . 537 657 Tobacco 177 212 Total industrial crops 13,431 12,403 Oilseeds Sunflower seed 1,100 1,150 Cottonseed 859 1,051 Sesame seed 43 45 Total oilseeds . . 2,002 2,246 Vegetables, fruits, and nuts Potatoes 4,300 4,350 Grapes 3,300 3,350 Oranges 700 740 Olives 600 1,100 Lemons 340 360 Hazelnuts (in shell) 280 353 Raisins 105 129 Dried figs 45 50 Olive oil 100 90 Total vegetables, fruits, and nuts 9,770 10,522 16,200 20,000 20,400 19,318 4,500 7,300 7,800 6,900 2,000 2,100 2,100 2,100 191 240 250 225 216 270 255 250 181 230 200 215 23,288 30,140 31,005 29,008 10,929 13,986 15,097 14,800 565 655 539 605 270 288 243 320 11,764 14,929 15,879 15,725 1,250 860 800 950 1 ,401 1 ,o 1 5 37 39 43 34 2,191 2,601 2,244 2,557 4,080 4,300 4,600 4,500 3,430 3,500 3,600 3,460 740 739 835 824 500 1,100 640 750 335 357 429 420 456 375 315 520 138 135 130 120 50 45 45 35 72 110 96 n.a. 9,801 10,661 10,690 10,629 n.a. — not available. Source: Based on information from Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Profile: Turkey, 1994-95, London, 1994, 24. 385 Turkey: A Country Study Table 8. Energy Production, 1988-92 (in thousands of tons unless otherwise indicated) 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 Total coal (including 11,530 12,940 12,550 11,880 12,210 Crude petroleum 2,564 2,876 3,720 4,537 4,584 Main petroleum products .... 19,265 17,789 18,563 18,409 18,811 Electricity (in thousands of 48 52 58 58 67 Source: Based on information from Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Profile: Turkey, 1994-1995, London, 1994, 28; and Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Energy Balances of OECD Countries, 1991-1992, Paris, 1994, 170. Table 9. Exports by Commodity, 1987-92 (in millions of United States dollars) 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 Agricultural products 266 441 315 342 287 419 Hazelnuts 391 359 266 456 366 291 Other fruits and vegetables 409 508 523 612 721 692 Cotton 20 141 160 191 193 46 Tobacco 314 266 480 419 564 309 Other industral crops and forestry products 97 289 53 57 284 268 Live animals and sea prod- ucts 356 337 330 272 268 178 Total agricultural products 1,853 2,341 2,127 2,349 2,683 2,203 Mineral products 272 377 413 331 286 265 Processed and manufactured products Processed agricultural products 954 885 918 940 1,212 1,337 Textiles and clothing . . . 2,707 3,201 3,505 4,060 4,328 5,268 386 Appendix A Table 9. Exports by Commodity, 1987-92 (in millions of United States dollars) 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 Hides and leather 722 514 604 747 620 568 Chemicals 527 734 774 616 464 491 Petroleum products .... 232 331 254 287 277 231 Glass and ceramics 205 233 258 329 359 395 Iron and steel 852 1,458 1,349 1,612 1,452 1,558 Metal products and machinery 788 383 219 230 265 398 Electrical equipment and products 293 294 234 438 533 591 Other 785 911 972 1.020 1,119 1.410 Total processed and manufactured products 8,065 8,944 9,087 10,279 10,629 12,247 TOTAL 10,190 11,662 11,627 12,959 13,598 14,715 Source: Based on information from Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD Economic Surveys: Turkey, 1995, Paris, 1995, 96; and Econo- mist Intelligence Unit, Country Profile: Turkey, 1994-95, London, 1994, 43. 387 Turkey: A Country Study Table 1 0. Imports by Commodity, 1 98 7- 92 (in millions of United States dollars) 1 Commodity 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 Agricultural products and livestock 782 499 1,041 1,323 813 1,184 Ivlineral products Oil Crude oil 2,711 2,434 2 456 3,817 2 794 2 894 Oil products 245 343 522 805 962 865 Total oil 2,956 2,777 2,980 4,622 3,756 3,759 Other 444 427 448 172 198 161 Total mineral products 3,400 3,204 3,426 4,794 3,954 3,920 Processed and manufac- tured products Processed agricultural products 720 738 843 1,162 989 935 Manufactured products Chemicals 1,685 1,781 1,710 2,451 2,463 2,624 Rubber and plastics . . 488 525 485 807 848 986 Iron and steel 1,537 1,655 2,217 1,932 2,009 2,118 Non ferrous metals . . 418 412 421 537 452 426 Electrical appliances . 940 1,075 1,028 1,580 1,877 1,762 Motor vehicles 540 690 790 1,590 1,540 2,221 Other machinery .... 974 635 370 585 342 61 Other industrial prod- ucts 2,799 3,121 3.461 5,541 5,760 6,635 Total manufac- tured prod- ucts 9,381 9.894 10.482 15,023 15,291 16.833 Total processed and manufac- tured prod- ucts 10,101 10,632 11,325 16,185 16,280 17,768 TOTAL 14,283 14,335 15,792 22,302 21,047 22,872 1 C.I.F. — Cost, insurance, and freight. Source: Based on information from Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD Economic Surveys: Turkey, 1995, Paris, 1995, 97; and Econo- mist Intelligence Unit, Country Profile: Turkey, 1994-95, London, 1994, 44. 388 Appendix A Table 11. Major Trading Partners, 1988-95 Country 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 EXPORTS OECD countries 1 EU countries 2 Britain France Germany Italy Other Total EU Japan Switzerland United States Other OECD Total OECD Central and East European countries Middle East and North Africa Iran Iraq Other Total Middle East and North Africa Other TOTAL EXPORTS IMPORTS OECD countries EU countries Britain France Germany Italy Other Total EU Japan Switzerland United States Other OECD Total OECD Central and East European coutnries 576 616 744 676 796 835 499 595 111 lot 689 809 in ill 2,178 2,196 3,076 3,413 3,660 3,654 955 978 1,106 972 943 750 920 1,047 1,241 1.292 1,393 1.283 5,128 5,432 6,904 7,042 7,601 7,293 209 233 239 226 162 158 265 174 293 246 223 216 761 971 968 913 865 986 374 391 417 430 496 420 6,737 7,201 8,821 8,857 9,346 9,072 520 923 829 1,053 1,217 1,670 546 561 495 487 455 290 986 445 215 122 212 160 1,924 1,798 1,742 2.085 2.096 2.293 3,456 2,804 2,452 2,694 2,763 2,743 949 699 855 989 1,388 1,863 11,662 11,627 12,957 13,593 14,715 15,349 739 728 1,014 1,166 1,187 1,546 829 745 1,340 1,227 1,351 1,952 2,067 2,225 3,523 3,232 3,754 4,533 1,006 1,071 1,727 1,845 1,919 2,558 1,267 1,307 1.750 1,753 1,838 2,361 5,908 6,076 9,354 9,223 10,049 12,950 555 530 1,120 1,092 1,113 1,621 344 412 537 489 688 651 1,520 2,094 2,282 2,255 2,601 3,351 924 822 958 1,013 972 1.402 9,251 9,934 14,251 14,072 15,423 19,975 857 1,124 1,947 1,875 2,094 3,253 389 Turkey: A Country Study Table 11. Major Trading Partners, 1988-95 Country 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 Middle East and North Africa Iran 660 233 492 91 365 667 Iraq 1,441 1,650 1,047 1 Other 740 947 2,120 2.890 2.872 2,573 Total Middle East and North Africa 2,841 2,830 3,659 2,981 3,238 3,240 Other 1,391 1.902 2.445 2.119 2.116 2.961 TOTAL IMPORTS 14,340 15,790 22,302 21,047 22,871 29,429 OECD — Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. 2 EU — European Union. Source: Based on information from Organisation for Economic Co-opearation and Development, OECD Economic Surveys: Turkey, 1995, Paris, 1995, 99. Table 12. Summary of Balance of Payments, Selected Years, 1985-93 (in millions of United States dollars) 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 Exports (f.o.b.) 1 8,255 10,322 11,780 13,667 15,610 Imports (f.o.b.) -11,230 -13,551 15,999 21.007 29,772 Trade balance -2,975 -3,229 ^,219 -7,340 -14,162 Services 22 33 1,622 2,499 4,014 Private transfers (net) 1,762 2,066 3,135 2,854 3,085 Official transfers (net) 222 324 423 2.245 73 Current account balance .... -969 ^806 961 258 -6,990 Private long-term capital (net) 856 1,388 2,456 1,562 6,839 Official long-term capital (net) -594 453 -1,092 -939 -930 Capital account balance 262 1.841 1.364 623 5.909 Balance of payments -707 1,035 2,325 881 1,081 Change in reserves -361 137 2,471 -1,197 308 f.o.b. — free on board. Source: Based on information from Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD Economic Surveys: Turkey, 1995, Paris, 1995, 100. 390 Appendix A Table 13. Major Army Equipment, 1994 Type and Description Country of Origin In Inventory Tanks Leopard Germany 397 M^8 United States 3,004 M-60 -do- 932 Armored vehicles Infantry fighting vehicles Turkey/United States 65 Armored personnel carriers M-113 United States 2,815 IAPC United States/Turkey 125 BTR60 Russia 300 AWC Turkey 345 Self-propelled guns and howitzers 105mm: M-52A1 and M-108 United States 389 155mm: M-44 -do- 168 175mm: M-107 -do- 36 203mm: M-55 and M-l 10 -do- 228 Towed artillery 105mm: M-101A1 and others -do- 640 150mm: Skoda Czechoslovakia 161 155mm: M-114A1 and M-59 United States 613 203mm: M-l 15 -do- 162 Mortars 107mm: M-30, some self-propelled -do- 1,265 120mm: various United States/Germany/ 578 France 81mm: various, including self-propelled . . -do- 3,175 Multiple rocket launchers 227mm: MLRS United States/Turkey 12 107mm United States 23 Antitank guided weapons Milan France 392 Cobra Germany 186 TOW self-propelled United States 365 Helicopters Cobra AH-1W/P -do- 38 S-70A Sikorsky United States 8 AB-204 Agusta Bell Italy 14 AB-205 Agusta Bell -do- 64 AB-212 Agusta Bell -do- 2 UH-1H Iroquois United States 96 Source: Based on information from The Military Balance, 1994-1995, London, 1994, 66- 67 391 Turkey: A Country Study Table 14. Major Air Force Equipment, 1994 Type and Description Country of Origin In Inventory Fighter-bombers and fighter-ground attack F-16C/D United States/Turkey 138 F-5A/B United States 195 F-4E -do- 152 F-104G Various NATO 24 Reconnaissance (armed) RF-5A United States 20 RF-4E -do- 26 Transports C-130E Hercules -do- 13 C-160D Transall Germany 19 CN-235 Spain/Turkey 52 Helicopters UH-1H Blackhawk utility United States 21 Surface-to-air missile launchers Nike-Hercules -do- 128 Rapier Britain 24 Source: Based on information from The Military Balance, 1994-1995, London, 1994, 68. 392 Appendix A Table 15. Major Naval Equipment, 1994 Type and Description Country of Origin In Inventory Destroyers Gearing-class United States 8 Carpenter-class -do- 2 Sumner-class -do- 1 Frigates MEKO-200 with Sub Harpoon SSM Germany 4 MEKO-200 Turkey 4 (on order) Berk-class -do- 2 Koln-class Germany 2 Knox-class with Sub Harpoon SSM United States 8 Submarines Guppy-class -do- 7 Type-209/1200 Germany/Turkey 6 Type-209/1400 Turkey 2 Tang-class United States 2 Fast-attack craft Dogan-class (Lurssen 57) with Harpoon SSM Germany/Turkey 8 Kartal-class (Jaguar) with Penguin SSM Germany 8 Yildiz-class Turkey 2 (on order) Patrol craft Coastal and inshore United States/Germany/ 29 Turkey Minelayers United States/Denmark 3 Minesweepers United States/France/ 26 Canada Amphibious Landing ships, tank United States/Turkey 7 Landing craft, tank Turkey 35 Landing craft, utility -do- 2 Landing craft, mechanized -do- 22 Naval Aviation Agusta-Bell AB-212 ASW shipborne helicopters Italy 14 Grumman ST-2E Tracker ASW search United States 14 Source: Based on information from Jane's Fighting Ships, 1994-95, London, 1994, 704- 22. 393 Appendix B Selected Political Parties and Labor Organizations ANAP — Anavatan Partisi (Motherland Party) . Founded in May 1983 under the leadership of Turgut Ozal. The ruling party following the 1983 election, the center-right ANAP included mostly former members of the pre-1980 AP (Adalet Partisi) (q.v.) . AP — Adalet Partisi (Justice Party). Established in 1961, one of the two major parties prior to the September 1980 coup, led by Suleyman Demirel. Following its dissolution by the National Security Council, many of its members subse- quently joined the ANAP (q.v.) or the DYP (q.v.) Birlik ve Baris (Unity and Peace). Splinter from RP (q.v.) in 1992. BTP — Buyuk Turkiye Partisi (Grand Turkey Party) . Founded in May 1983 and banned the same month for having connec- tions with the dissolved AP (q.v.). Its supporters then formed the center-right DYP (q.v.). CHP — Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi (Republican People's Party). Founded in the 1920s and led by Ataturk until his death in 1938. Headed by Biilent Ecevit in the 1970s, it was one of the major parties prior to the 1980 coup. A majority of its deputies ultimately regrouped in the left-of-center SHP (q.v.); others joined the DSP (q.v.). Party reactivated by Deniz Baykal in 1992. In 1995 the SHP dissolved itself, and many members joined the CHP. CNU — Committee of National Unity. Composed of thirty-eight officers who executed the May 1960 coup; the CNU gov- erned the country until a constituent assembly was formed in January 1961. Demokratik Partisi (Democratic Party) — Formed in 1971 by former AP (q.v.) members who disapproved of Suleyman Demirel's leadership; merged with the AP shortly before the 1980 coup. Not a successor to the DP (q.v.). DEP — Demokrasi Partisi (Democracy Party). Pro-Kurd party formed in 1993 on demise of the HEP (q.v.), proscribed by Constitutional Court in June 1994. Dev Sol — Devrimci Sol (Revolutionary Left Party) . A radical movement espousing Marxist ideology and advocating vio- 395 Turkey: A Country Study lent tactics against state institutions. DISK — Turkiye Devrimci Isci Sendikalari Konfederasyonu (Confederation of Revolutionary Workers' Trade Unions of Turkey). Federation of trade unions second in impor- tance only to Turk-Is (q.v.) before 1980. Banned after 1980, DISK was less influential in the mid-1990s than some of the other labor organizations. DP — Demokrat Partisi (Democrat Party). Founded in 1946, the party secured power in the 1950 election. It was over- thrown and declared illegal by the armed forces in 1960. Should not be confused with the Demokratik Partisi (q.v.). Party reactivated in 1992. DSP — Demokratik Sol Partisi (Democratic Left Party). Founded in November 1985 by Rahsan Ecevit, wife of former CHP {q.v.) leader Biilent Ecevit, who had been banned from political activity. The party advocated a more radical variety of democratic socialism than the SHP (q.v.). DYP — Dogru Yol Partisi (True Path Party). Founded in June 1983 after the dissolution of the BTP (q.v.). The center- right party was considered to be the successor to the banned AP (q.v.). Former AP leader Suleyman Demirel was its leader before becoming president. Head in 1995 was Prime Minister Tansu (filler. HADEP — Halkin Demokrasi Partisi (People's Democracy Party). Formed in June 1994 as pro-Kurd party. Hak-Is — Turkiye Hak Isci Sendikalari Konfederasyonu (Con- federation of Turkish Just Workers' Unions). Pro-Islamist union. HDP — Hur Demokrat Partisi (Free Democratic Party). A short- lived right-wing party founded in 1983 by former members of the MDP (q.v.) under the leadership of Mehmet Yazar. The HDP was disbanded the same year. HEP — Halkin Emek Partisi (People's Labor Party). Formed in late 1991 to promote full equality of Kurds and Turks within Turkey. Outlawed in 1993. HP — Halkci Partisi (Populist Party). Founded in May 1983, it was one of the three parties allowed to compete in the 1983 general election. It merged with Sodep (q.v.) in November 1985 to form the SHP (q.v.). MQF — Milliyetci £alisma Partisi (Nationalist Labor Party). Founded in July 1983 and originally named the Conserva- tive Party, it changed its name in November 1985 to MQF. The conservative nationalist party is considered to be the 396 Appendix B successor to the MHP (q.v.). In 1993 the party reassumed the name of the Nationalist Action Party (MHP). MDP — Milliyetci Demokrasi Partisi (Nationalist Democracy Party). Founded in May 1983 under the leadership of General Turgut Sunalp, the party never gained popular support and was dissolved in April 1986. MHP — Milliyetci Hareket Partisi (Nationalist Action Party). A militant, nationalist party led by Alparslan Turkes. It was associated with the pre-1980 violence and was banned fol- lowing the coup. The M^P (q.v.) was considered to be its successor prior to changing its name to MHP in 1993. MISK — Turkiye Milliyetci Isci Sendikalari Konfederasyonu (Confederation of Turkish Nationalist Workers' Unions). Government-sponsored federation of labor unions. MSP — Milli Selamet Partisi (National Salvation Party). Founded in 1972 and dissolved in 1980, this conservative, religiously oriented party served in various government coalitions prior to the 1980 coup. Many of its members subsequently supported the RP (q.v.). OZEP — Freedom and Labor Party. Splinter from SHP (q.v.) formed in 1992. PKK — Partiya Karkere Kurdistan (Kurdistan Workers' Party). Founded in late 1960s. Initiated armed insurrection on behalf of an independent Kurdistan in 1984; fighting con- tinued through 1995. RP — Refah Partisi (Welfare Party; also seen as Prosperity Party). A religious party based on Islamic principles; suc- cessor to the MSP (q.v.). SHP — Sosyal Demokrat Halkci Parti (Social Democratic Popu- list Party). Formed in November 1985 by the merger of two left-of-center parties, Sodep (q.v.) and the HP (q.v.). Dissolved itself in mid-1995, and many members joined the CHP (q.v.). Sodep — Sosyal Demokrat Parti (Social Democratic Party). Founded in July 1983, it had the support of the moderate left that had backed the pre-coup CHP (q.v.). Merged with the HP (q.v.) in 1985 to form the SHP (q.v.). TISK — Turkiye Isveren Sendikalari Konfederasyonu (Turkish Confederation of Employers' Associations). A confedera- tion of employers' associations, concerned primarily with labor-management relations. TOB — Turkiye Odalar Birligi (Turkish Trade Association). Organization that has represented the interests of mer- 397 Turkey: A Country Study chants and industrialists since the early 1950s. In later years, it has been identified primarily with small and medium-sized firms. Turk-Is — Turkiye Isci Sendikalan Konfederasyonu (Confedera- tion of Turkish Trade Unions). The largest and most influ- ential of the union federations. Turkish Communist Party — -Joined TWP (q.v.) in 1987 to form Turkish United Communist Party. 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"Between Sentiment and Self-interest: Turkey's Policy Toward Azerbaijan and the Central Asian States," Mid- dle East Journal, 47, No. 4, Autumn 1993, 593-610. Sezer, Duygu Bazoglu. "Europe's Eastern Bastion — New Vistas for Turkey," NATO's Sixteen Nations [Brussels], 38, February 1993, 10-15. Stenhouse, Mark. "Turkey." Pages 313-19 in Bruce George, ed., Jane's NATO Handbook, 1991-92. Coulsdon, United King- dom: Jane's Information Group, 1991. Teimourian, Hazhir. "Turkey — The Challenge of the Kurdistan Workers' P 'arty," Jane's Intelligence Review [Coulsdon, United Kingdom], 5, No. 1, January 1993, 29-32. Turkey. Prime Ministry. State Institute of Statistics. Statistical Yearbook of Turkey, 1993. Ankara: 1993. "Turkey." Pages 856-900 in The Middle East and North Africa, 1994. London: Europa, 1993. United States. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency. World Military Expenditures and Arms Transfers, 1991-1993. Washing- ton: GPO, 1994. United States. Department of Defense. Terrorist Group Profiles. Washington: GPO, 1988. United States. Department of State. Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1992. (Report submitted to United States Congress, 103d, 1st Session, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, and House of Representatives, Committee on For- eign Affairs.) Washington: GPO, 1993. United States. Department of State. Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1993. (Report submitted to United States Congress, 103d, 2d Session, House of Representatives, Com- mittee on Foreign Affairs, and Senate, Committee on For- eign Relations.) Washington: GPO, 1994. United States. Department of State. International Narcotics Con- trol Strategy Report. Washington: GPO, 1994. United States. Department of State. Patterns of Global Terrorism, 1992. Washington: 1993. United States. Department of State. Patterns of Global Terrorism, 1993. Washington: 1994. 422 Bibliography United States. Department of State and the Defense Security Assistance Agency. Congressional Presentation for Security Assis- tance, Fiscal Year 1994. Washington: 1993. Wyllie, James. "Turkey — Adapting to New Strategic Realities," Jane' s Intelligence Review [Coulsdon, United Kingdom], 4, No. 10, October 1992, 450-51. Wyllie, James. "Turkey's Eastern Crisis ," Jane's Intelligence Review [Coulsdon, United Kingdom], 5, No. 11, November 1993, 506-507. (Various issues of the following publications also were used in the preparation of this chapter: Economist [London]; For- eign Broadcast Information Service, West Europe Report; Jane's Defence Weekly [London] ; Keesing's Record of World Events [Lon- don], New York Times; and Washington Post.) 423 Glossary Alevi — (Alawi in Arabic), a heterodox Shia (q.v.) Islamic sect that has many followers in Turkey. barrels per day — Production of crude oil and petroleum prod- ucts is frequently measured in barrels per day, often abbre- viated bpd or bd. A barrel is a volume measure of forty-two United States gallons. Conversion of barrels to tons depends on the density of the specific product. About 7.3 barrels of average crude oil weigh one ton. Heavy crude weighs about seven barrels per ton. Light products, such as gasoline and kerosene, average close to eight barrels per ton. capitulations — Special agreements between the Ottoman Empire and various foreign governments giving those gov- ernments and their citizens and subjects specific exemp- tions from the laws of the empire. Common Agricultural Policy — Agricultural support system of the EU (q.v.), under which farmers' incomes are main- tained through a system of target prices for agricultural commodities. etatism — Often considered as state socialism. In Turkish use, it involves state control of some industries and public ser- vices. European Community (EC) — See European Union (EU). European Currency Unit (ECU) — Instituted in 1979, the ECU is the unit of account of the EU (q.v.). The value of the ECU is determined by the value of a basket that includes the currencies of all EU member states. In establishing the value of the basket, each member's currency receives a share that reflects the relative strength and importance of the member's economy. In 1995 one ECU was equivalent to about one United States dollar. European Union (EU) — Until November 1993, the EU was known as the European Community (EC). The EU com- prises three communities: the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), the European Economic Community (EEC), and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). Each community is a legally distinct body, but since 1967 they have shared common governing institu- tions. The EU forms more than a framework for free trade 425 Turkey: A Country Study and economic cooperation: the signatories to the treaties governing the communities have agreed in principle to integrate their economies and ultimately to form a politi- cal union. Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Neth- erlands, and the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) were charter members of the EU; Britain, Den- mark, and Ireland joined on January 1, 1973; Greece became a member on January 1, 1981; Portugal and Spain entered on January 1, 1986; and Austria, Finland, and Swe- den became members on January 1, 1995. fiscal year — Calendar year since 1983. gecekondus — Literally, "built overnight"; term used for shantyl- ike squatter housing erected on outskirts of large cities. Ottoman custom dictated that once a structure was built, it could not be destroyed. gross domestic product (GDP) — A value measure of the flow of domestic goods and services produced by an economy over a period of time, such as a year. Only output values of goods for final consumption and intermediate production are assumed to be included in the final prices. GDP is sometimes aggregated and shown at market prices, mean- ing that indirect taxes and subsidies are included; when these indirect taxes and subsidies have been eliminated, the result is GDP at factor cost. The word gross indicates that deductions for depreciation of physical assets have not been made. See also gross national product. gross national product (GNP) — The gross domestic product (q.v.) plus net income or loss stemming from transactions with foreign countries including income received from abroad by residents and subtracting payments remitted abroad to nonresidents. GNP is the broadest measurement of the output of goods and services by an economy. It can be calculated at market prices, which include indirect taxes and subsidies. Because indirect taxes and subsidies are only transfer payments, GNP is often calculated at fac- tor cost by removing indirect taxes and subsidies. imam — A word used in several senses. In general use and lower- cased, it means the leader of congregational prayers; as such it implies no ordination or special spiritual powers beyond sufficient education to carry out this function. Imam is also used figuratively by many Sunni (q.v.) Mus- lims to mean the leader of the Islamic community. Among Shia (q.v.) the word takes on many complex and contro- 426 Glossary versial meanings; in general, however, it indicates that par- ticular descendant of the House of Ali who is believed to have been God's designated repository of the spiritual authority inherent in that line. The identity of this individ- ual and the means of ascertaining his identity have been major issues causing divisions among Shia. International Monetary Fund (IMF) — Established along with the World Bank (q.v.) in 1945, the IMF is a specialized agency affiliated with the United Nations and is responsi- ble for stabilizing international exchange rates and pay- ments. The main business of the IMF is the provision of loans to its members (including industrialized and devel- oping countries) when they experience balance of pay- ments difficulties. These loans frequently carry conditions that require substantial internal economic adjustments by the recipients, most of which are developing countries. lira — Turkish currency; 1 Turkish lira (TL) = 100 kurus. Value of the lira has fluctuated considerably. In 1989 US$1.00 = TL2,122; in 1991 US$1.00 = TL4,172; in 1993 US$1.00 = TL10,983; in January 1994 US$1.00 = TL 15,196; as of August 31, 1995, US$1.00 = TL47,963. millet — A non-Muslim group or community in the Ottoman Empire organized under its own religious head, who also exercised important civil functions. National Security Council (NSC — Mili Giivenlik Kurulu) — Under both the 1961 and the 1982 constitutions, the NSC comprised military and civilian personnel and was charged with reviewing national security policy. The generals who took control of Turkey's government in 1980 also consti- tuted themselves as a National Security Council (Milli Giivenlik Konseyi); this body was abolished following the reestablishment of civilian government after the 1983 elec- tion. The former members of the 1980-83 NSC, except for President Evren, subsequently formed the Presidential Council, whose function was to advise the president. The Presidential Council was dissolved in 1989. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) — In 1995 mem- bership composed of Belgium, Britain, Canada, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Turkey, and United States. Shia (from Shiat Ali, the Party of Ali) — A member of the smaller of the two great divisions of Islam. The Shia origi- nated in a dispute over who should be the legitimate suc- 427 Turkey: A Country Study cessor to the Prophet; a majority of early Muslims accepted the tradition of community consensus to choose the leader, but a minority supported the claim of Ali, the Prophet's cousin, to inherit the mantle of leadership. Over time, theological differences emerged between the Shia and Sunni (q.v.). The Alevi (q.v.), Ismaili, Twelve Imam Shia, and Zayidi all are distinct Shia sects. Sublime Porte (or Porte) — Ottoman Empire palace entrance that provided access to the chief minister, who represented the government and the sultan. Term came to mean the Ottoman government. Sunni — (from Arabic sunna, tradition or precedent) — A fol- lower of the larger of the two primary denominations of Islam. tarikat (pi., tarikatlar) — A Sufi order or lodge, usually headed by a teacher or master known as a seyh, in which devotees undertake a path of instruction toward spiritual perfec- tion. Warsaw Treaty Organization — Formal name for Warsaw Pact. Political-military alliance founded by the Soviet Union in 1955 as a counterweight to the North Atlantic Treaty Orga- nization (q.v.). Albania, an original member, stopped par- ticipating in Warsaw Pact activities in 1962 and withdrew in 1968. Members in 1991 included Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union. Before it was formally dissolved in April 1991, the Warsaw Pact served as the Soviet Union's primary mecha- nism for keeping political and military control over East- ern Europe. World Bank — Informal name used to designate a group of four affiliated international institutions: the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), the Interna- tional Development Association (IDA), the International Finance Corporation (IFC), and the Multilateral Invest- ment Guarantee Agency (MIGA). The IBRD, established in 1945, has as its primary purpose the provision of loans to developing countries for productive projects. The IDA, a legally separate loan fund but administered by the staff of the IBRD, was set up in 1960 to furnish credits to the poorest developing countries on much easier terms than those of conventional IBRD loans. The IFC, founded in 1956, supplements the activities of the IBRD through loans and assistance designed specifically to encourage the 428 Glossary growth of productive private enterprises in the less devel- oped countries. The MIGA, founded in 1988, insures pri- vate foreign investment in developing countries against various noncommercial risks. The president and certain senior officers of the IBRD hold the same positions in the IFC. The four institutions are owned by the governments of the countries that subscribe their capital. To participate in the World Bank group, member states must first belong to the International Monetary Fund (IMF — q.v.). 429 Index Abbasid dynasty, 109 Abdul Hamid II, 26-27; forced to abdi- cate, 28, 32, 308 Abdiilmecid, 35 Abkaz, 102 abortion, 91,92 Abraham. See Ibrahim Abu Hanifa, 109 acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), 144 Adalet Partisi. See Justice Party administrative commission, 251 Adrianople, 17 adultery, 135 Aegean region, 78, 81; agriculture in, 81; climate of, 81, 84-86; immigrants in, 89; population density in, 87; rainfall in, 81; villages in, 131 Aegean Sea: conflict over, with Greece, 55-56, 66, 236, 297-98, 319, 337, 365 Afghanistan: relations with, 39; Soviet invasion of, 286 AFL-CIO. See American Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial Organi- zations agrarian reform, 176 Agricultural Bank of Turkey (Turkiye Cumhuriyeti Ziraat Bankasi — TCZB), 180,212, 213 agricultural production, 153, 178, 187- 91; cropping patterns, 187-91; and rainfall, 180-81, 187 agricultural products {see also under indi- vidual crops): cash crops, 26, 176; cit- rus fruit, 81, 82, 176; cotton, 82, 83, 180, 182, 189, 206; exports of, 176, 178-79, 187, 220; fruit, 83, 176, 180, 190-91; grain, 82, 83, 97, 182, 187-89; nuts, 81, 190; oilseeds, 190; olives, 81, 176; opium poppies, 83, 190, 370; pulses, 182, 189; sugar beets, 189-90; tobacco, 81, 83, 176, 180, 189; vegeta- bles, 82, 176, 190-91 Agricultural Supply Organization, 180 agriculture, 175-94; in Aegean region, 131; in Anatolian Plateau, 83; in Ara- bian Platform, 84; in Black Sea area, 81, 131; budget for, 251; commercial, 186; development of, 152, 176; employment in, 159, 161; export crops, 178; extension services, 180; government intervention in, 179; growth of, 176; income from, 176; investment in, 176; irrigation in, 82, 83, 180-82; land for, 182, 187; mecha- nization of, 129, 182; in Mediterra- nean region, 82, 131; modernization of, 150, 161, 182; as percentage of gross domestic product, 159, 176; research on, 180; self-sufficiency in, 175; subsidies for, 178, 179-80; subsis- tence, 149 Agn Dagi. See Mount Ararat Agusta aircraft company, 353 Ahmet III, 22 AIDS. See acquired immune deficiency syndrome air force, 339-41; insignia, 345, 348; ranks, 345, 348; reserves, 329; uni- forms, 345 air force academy at Istanbul, 330, 340- 41; selection for, 331-32 airports, 217; state control of, 171 Air Technical Schools Command, 341 AkbankTAS, 212, 213 Akbulut, Yildirim, 259, 266 Aktash, Timotheos Samuel, 122 Aktuel, 283 Albania: military relations with, 318; relations with, 66, 317 Alexander the Great, 9 Algeria: imports from, 202; seized by France, 25 Algiers: conquest of, 21 Ali ibn Abu Tali b, 109, 114 Allied Land Forces Southeastern Europe, 48 Allies: guerrilla warfare against, 33; occu- pation of Turkey by, 32 Alp Arslan. SeeMehmetibn Daud 431 Turkey: A Country Study American Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL- CIO), 165 Amnesty International, 257, 283, 296, 374 Anadolu Ajansi (Anatolian Agency) , 284 ANAP. ^Motherland Party Anatolia: Armenians in, 103; under Byz- antine Empire, 11; formation of, 77; geography of, 75; history of, 3, 6-10; immigrants in, 89; oil fields in, 198; under Ottoman Empire, 21; under Rome, 10; villages in, 129-31; with- drawal of occupying forces from, 34 Anatolia, southeast: infrastructure in, xxxi; Kurdish resistance in, xxxi; pov- erty in, xxxi; terrorism in, xxxv; troops stationed in, 307; villages in, 131-32 Anatolian Plateau, 83-84; agriculture in, 83, 182, 190; climate in, 83-84, 86; population in, 87; rainfall in, 83, 84, 180; Turks in, 96-97 Anavatan Partisi. See Motherland Party Ankara, 76; Kurds in, 235; population of, 88 Ankara University: religious education in, 118-19 Anti-Taurus Mountains, 84; climate in, 86 Anti-Terror Law of 1991, 367, 368 AP. Seejustice Party Arabia: under Ottoman Empire, 21 Arabian Platform, 78, 84 Arabic language, 92 Arab-Israeli conflict, 293, 294, 300 Arab Revolt (1916), 31 Arabs, 101-2, 282; religion of, 100; ties of, with Syrians, 101-2; in villages, 131 Aras River, 84 archaeological research, 3; in Anatolia, 6 Ariburun, Tekin, 49 armed forces, 321-48; attitudes toward, 309; careers in, 309; conscription for, 327; under constitution of 1982, 321- 22; coups d'etat by, 4-5; as guardians of Kemalism, 42; ideology of, 311-12; janissary, 307; missions of, 272, 305-6, 307-8, 311; modernization of, 305, 306, 307; national security under, 272; number of personnel in, 321; offen- sives of, against Kurds, xxxv, xxxvi, 236, 339, 356; origins of, 307; Otto- man, 305, 307; political role of, xxvii, 272, 310-12; professionalization of, 327; reforms of, 22; reserves, 327, 328-29; resources, 229; restructuring of, 305; and society, 309-10; staff acad- emies, 332-33; training, 27, 330-33; uniforms, ranks, and insignia of, 345- 48; women in, 330 Armed Forces Academy, 333 Armenia: annexed, 14; attack on, 34-35; borders with, 76; economic ties with, 229; relations with, 287, 314; revolu- tion in, 27; war of, with Azerbaijan, 66 Armenian Catholic Church, 120, 122 Armenian Orthodox Church, 120, 122, 373 Armenian Revolutionary Army, 359 Armenians, 9, 103-4, 282-83; deporta- tion of, 30, 89, 104, 153; diaspora of, 14, 153; massacre of, 30, 104, 153, 282, 300, 350, 358; in Ottoman bureau- cracy, 20; terrorism by, 358-59; in World War I, 30 Armenian Secret Army for the Libera- tion of Armenia (ASALA), 282, 358, 359 Armistice of Mundanya (1922), 35 army, 335-39; Aegean, 319; deployment of, 237, 336; insignia, 345, 348; mate- riel of, 306, 335; mission of, 335; num- ber of personnel in, 306, 335; organization of, 306, 335-37; ranks, 345, 348; reserves, 329; restructuring of, 335-37; uniforms, 345 army academy at Tuzla, 330; police can- didates in, 362; selection for, 331-32 Army Mutual Aid Association (Ordu Yardimlasma Kurumu — OYAK) , 335 Artvin Province, 102 ASALA. See Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia ASELSAN Military-Electronics Indus- tries, 353 Asian -American Free Labor Institute, 165 assassinations, 270, 282; 292, 354, 360 Assyrian Empire, 7 Atatiirk, Kemal {see a&oKemal, Mustafa), xxv, 31-39; background of, 31-32, 124; goals of, xxvi, 308; in Grand National Assembly, 34; language reform under, 93-95; military career 432 Index of, 30, 31, 34, 308; nationalism of, 4; nationalist movement of, 33; as presi- dent, xxvi, 36-39 Atatiirk administration, xxvi; armed forces under, 272; elite under, xxv; for- eign policy of, 39; social reforms under, xxv, 36-39, 74-75; transporta- tion under, 214 Atatiirk Dam, 68, 181-82, 198; financing for, 203-4 Ataturkism. SaeKemalism Attalid Dynasty, 1 Australia: petroleum concessions in, 201 Austria: in Holy League, 22; Ottoman wars with, 22, 23; territory acquired by, 22, 25, 28; Turkish immigrants in, 90 automobile industry, 208-9, 223 Aydinlik, 283 Azerbaijan: borders with, 76; coup d'etat in, 288; economic ties with, 229; refu- gees from, 287; relations with, xxxv, 202, 236, 287-88, 314; war of, with Armenia, 66 Azov, 22 Bab-i Ali (Sublime Porte), 20 Baghdad Pact members of, 48 balance of payments, 68, 151, 223-26; crises in, xxix, 150, 153, 154, 173, 223- 24; deficit, 58 balance of trade, 220; agriculture and, 178; in Ottoman Empire, 21 Baldwin of Flanders, Count, 15 Balkan Pact, 39 Balkans, 317-18; immigrants from, 89; Ottoman conquest of, 17, 21; relations with, 305; Russian position in, 25 Balkan War, First (1912-13), 28, 32, 308, 317, 339 Balkan War, Second (1913), 28, 32, 308, 317, 339 banking, 151,210-14 banks: commercial, 212; development, 212; foreign, 212, 213; state-owned, 212,213 Bati Raman oil fields, 199 Battle of Kosovo (1389), 17 Battle of Lepanto (1571), 21-22 Battle of Manzikert (1071), 14, 110 Battle of Mohacs, 21 Battle of Navarino (1827), 23 Bayar, Celal, 40; as president, 41; as prime minister, 40 Bayar, Hikmet, 336 BayezidI, 17 Baykal, Deniz, xxxviii, 270 Belgium: Turkish immigrants in, 90 Belgrade: conquered by Ottomans, 20 Bessarabia: ceded to Russia, 25 Bilkent University, 141 Bir, Cevik, 337 Birand, Mehmet Ali, 364 Birlik ve Baris. See Unity and Peace party birth control {see also family planning), 90-91,92 Black Sea: fishing in, 193 Black Sea Economic Cooperation project, 229 Black Sea region, 78-81; oil exploration in, 198; population density in, 87; rainfall in, 86, 180; villages in, 131 Bogazkoy. SeeHattusas Bolshevik Revolution (1917), 31 borders, 76-77; with Iraq, 36, 76; with Soviet Union, 76, 312 border problems: with Syria, 76-77 Bosnia and Herzegovina: under Austrian rule, 25, 28; civil war in, 289-90, 317- 18; immigrants from, 89-90; relations with, 317; United Nations peacekeep- ing forces in, 305, 317, 337 Bosporus, 81 Britain: in Baghdad Pact, 48; in Crimean War, 25; occupation of Egypt by, 25; occupation of Turkey by, 32, 308; rela- tions with, 25; territory acquired by, 33; in World War I, 30 British Petroleum, 198, 201 Buda: conquered, 21 budget deficit, 174, 224; as percentage of gross domestic product, 158, 175 Bulac,Ali, 119 Bulgaria: borders with, 76; conquest of, by Ottomans, 17; economic ties with, 229, 287; in First Balkan War, 28; immigrants from, 89, 289, 318; imports from, 202, 203; independence declared by, 28; military relations with, 318, 343; under Ottoman rule, 25; relations with, 66, 289, 318; union of Rumelia with, 26 Bureau of the Press Directorate, 284 433 Turkey: A Country Study Burhan, Halis, 340 Bursa: population of, 88 Bush, George, 206, 300, 301 business associations, 276-77 Byzantine civilization, 3 Byzantine Empire, 10-11; Armenia annexed by, 14; end of, 19, 110 Byzantium: founded, 9; as Constantine's capital, 10 Caglayangil, Ihsan Sabri: as acting presi- dent, 52-53 caliph, 19, 110 caliphate, 111; abolished, 74, 105, 116 Callaghan, James, 53 Calp, Necdet, 62, 256, 265 capital account, 225 Capital Markets Board, 213 Capital Markets Law (1982), 213 Carter, Jimmy, 56 Catalhuyiik, 6 Catholic Church, Roman. 5ee Roman Catholic Church Caucasus: ceded to Russia, 25; economic ties with, 229, 287; ethnic groups from, 102; under Ottoman Empire, 21; relations with, 201, 287 Cemal Pasha, Ahmet, 28; exile of, 31 cement, 208 Censor's Board on Obscene Publica- tions, 283 censorship, xxix, 234, 257, 361 census: of 1927, 86; of 1965, 120, 121; of 1990, 86, 87, 88 Center for Selection and Placement of Students, 142 CENTO. See Central Treaty Organization Central Asia: construction in, 209; eco- nomic ties with, 229, 287; relations with, 66, 201, 236, 287, 288-89; trade with, 152; Turks in, 96, 97 Central Bank of Turkey, 210-12; quar- terly reporting system in, 212; disputes of, with Ciller, 157-58; role of, 169, 212 Central Planning Organization, 172 Central Treaty Organization (CENTO), 48 CFE. See Conventional Forces in Europe Treaty chemical industry, 208 children: health problems of, 177 CHP. See Republican People's Party Christianity (see also under individual denominations): conversion to, 14 Christians: number of, 120, 121 Ciller, Tansu: disputes of, with Central Bank, 157-58; as prime minister, xxxvi, xxxviii, 6, 68, 235, 247, 265 Ciller administration: cabinet in, 247; economy under, xxxviii-xxxix, 180 Cilician Gates (Giilek Bogazi), 83 Cimmerians, 7 Cindoruk, Husamettin, 263 Circassians, 102, 282 CIS. See Commonwealth of Independent States civic associations: restrictions on, 271 civil code of 1926, 132; divorce under, 134-35; origins of, 248 civil rights, 38, 233, 262 civil service, 252-53; purged, xxix; salary in, 157 Clerides, Glafcos, 54 climate, 84-86, 175; in Aegean region, 81; in Anatolian plateau, 83; precipita- tion, 81, 83, 86, 175, 180-81; tempera- ture, 83, 86 Clinton, William J., 301, 351 CNU. See Committee of National Unity coal, 202; electricity from, 203; imports, 202-3; production, 202 Coast Guard, 365, 370 coastline, 81 Cold War, 312 Committee of National Unity (CNU), 42-44 Committee of Union and Progress ( CUP) . See Young Turks Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS): relations with, 286-87 communications. See telecommunica- tions Confederation of Revolutionary Trade Unions of Turkey (Tiirkiye Devrimci Isci Sendikalari Konfederasyonu — DISK), xxviii, 164, 275; members of, 164, 165, 275; suspended, 275 Confederation of Turkish Just Workers' Unions (Tiirkiye Hak Isci Sendikalari Konfederasyonu — Hak-Is), 164; mem- bers of, 164, 165; political affiliations of, 165 434 Index Confederation of Turkish Nationalist Workers' Unions (Turkiye Milliyetci Isci Sendikalan Konfederasyonu — MISK), 164; members of, 165; political affiliations of, 165 Confederation of Turkish Trade Unions (Turkiye Isci Sendikalan Konfederas- yonu— Turk-Is) , 164-65, 275, 276; founded, 274 Conference on International Organiza- tion (1945), 40 Congress of Berlin (1878), 25 Constantine, 10 Constantinople, 11; capture of, 19, 111 constituent assembly (1961), 43 Constitutional Court, 249; appointment to, 245 constitution of 1876, 26 constitution of 1924, xxvi, 38 constitution of 1961, xxvi, xxviii, 5, 43, 237; economic planning under, 172 constitution of 1982, xxvi, 237-40; amendments to, xxxvii, 64, 240; approved, 62, 236, 237; armed forces under, 321-22; associations under, 271; bill of rights, 238; Council of Min- isters under, 238, 247-48; drafted, xxix, 62, 236, 237; education under, 239, 278; electoral system under, 240- 41; individual rights under, 237, 238, 271; labor unions under, 165-66, 239, 275, 311; language under, 73, 96; political activity under, 311; political parties under, xxix, 237, 240; presi- dent under, xxix, 5, 237, 238, 244-47; prime minister under, xxix, 238, 247; privacy under, 372; religion under, 239, 278; secularism under, 239; uni- versities under, 311 Construcciones Aeronauticas, S.A., 353 construction, 209-10; employment in, 161; in foreign countries, 209 Consultative Assembly, 61, 237; members of, 237 contraception. See birth control; family planning Conventional Forces in Europe (CFE) Treaty (1990), 314,337 Convention on the Law of the Sea, 319 corruption: in government, 64 cotton, 180, 206; production of, 82, 83, 189 Council of Europe, 256, 372; member- ship in, xxxii, xxxvii, 48, 296 Council of Higher Education (Yuksek Ogretim Kurumu— YOK), 141-42, 274; appointment to, 245 Council of Ministers, 142, 238, 242, 247, 248, 322 Council of State, 241, 249-50; appoint- ment to, 245, 249 coup d'etat of 1909, 28, 32, 308 coup d'etat of 1913, 28 coup d'etat of 1960, xxvii, 4-5, 42, 262, 272, 274, 311, 332; economic policies of, xxvii; social reforms under, xxvii coup d'etat of 1971 , xxvii, 272, 31 1 coup d'etat of 1980, xxvii, xxix, 5, 60, 125, 263, 272, 274, 311, 332; civil rights under, 233; economic policies of, xxvii; international reaction to, 61, 296; labor unions under, 165; political parties under, 233, 278; social reforms under, xxvii, 254 Court of Appeals, 241, 249 Court of Cassation. See Court of Appeals Court of Jurisdictional Disputes, 249 courts: administrative, 248, 249-50; appellate, 249; civil, 249; criminal, 249; judicial, 248, 249; military, 248, 250, 257, 369 courts, seriat : closed, 74 court system, 248-49, 366; cases in, 370; defendants in, 368; lawyers in, 368 Crete: rebellion on, 27 crime, 366-74 Crimea: under Ottoman Empire, 21 Crimean Tartars, 97 Crimean War (1854-56), 25 Criminal Code of 1926, 367 criminal justice system (see also courts; judicial system): procedure in, 367-69 Criminal Trials Procedure Law (1992), 367-68 Croatia: ceded to Austria, 22 Croesus, 9 Crusades, 15, 17 Cukur Ova, 82 Cukurova Electrical Company, 203 Cukurova Group, 213 culture: elite, 74, 133; popular, 74, 133 Cumhuriyet, 284 Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi. See Republican People's Party 435 Turkey: A Country Study CUP. See Young Turks currency: convertibility of, 168; decline in, 151; devaluation of, xxx, 58, 68, 153, 154, 156; floating of, xxx, 168; weakness of, 326 current account: deficits, 153, 157, 225; stabilized, 155; surplus, 225, 226 customs: agents, 370; tariffs, 168, 168 Cyprus, 318-19; conflict with Greece over, xxxii, 48, 53-54, 66, 236, 294, 296-97, 318-19; coup d'etat of 1974, 53; immigrants from, 89; invasion of, 299-300, 318-19, 325, 349; partition of, 54 Cyprus Turkish Peace Force, 337 Dalmatia, 22 Dardanelles Strait, 81 Dark Age (Aegean), 9 debt, 151, 153, 157; under Ecevit, 58; under Inonii and Menderes, 43; inter- est payments on, 225; as percentage of gross domestic product, 153, 157; short-term, 225-26 debt restructuring, 58 debt servicing, 225 defense industry, domestic, 306, 351-54 Defense Industry Development and Sup- port Administration, 351-52 Defense Industry Support Fund, 174, 325, 352 defense spending, 229, 325-27; budget, 325, 326; under Demirel, 45; increase in, 159 Demirel, Suleyman: arrested, 61; back- ground of, 44; ban on political activi- ties of, xxix, 258; as deputy, 264; overthrown, xxix; political activities of, xxxiii, 67, 242, 256, 258, 262-63, 263; political comeback of, 258-59; as pres- ident, 5-6, 68, 235, 244, 261, 264-65; as prime minister, xxxiv, 5, 44, 261; resignation of, 49; rivalry of, with Ozal, 259, 267 Demirel administration, 5, 264; economy under, 58-59, 154, 180; human rights under, 265 democracy: conceptions of, 254; transi- tion to, 240, 241-53 Democracy Party (Demokrasi Partisi — DEP), 266, 281 Demokrasi Partisi. See Democracy Party Democratic Left Party (Demokratik Sol Partisi— DSP) , xxxiii, 63, 258, 269; in elections of 1987, 258; in elections of 1991, 66-67 Democratic Party: in elections of 1973, 50; formed, 49 democratization, xxxiii, xxxviii, 40 Democrat Party (Demokrat Parti — DP) (see abo Justice Party), xxvii, 253; con- stituency of, 269; economic planning under, 172; in elections of 1946, 41; in elections of 1950, 4, 41; in elections of 1954, 41; founded, 40, 262; outlawed, 5; platform of, 262, 269, 277; religious education under, 118 Demokrat Parti. See Democrat Party Demokratik Sol Partisi. See Democratic Left Party demonstrations. See political demonstra- tions Denizcilik Bankasi. See Maritime Bank Deniz Nakliyati, 217 Denktas, Rauf, 54 DEP. See Democracy Party dervishes (Mevlevi Sufi brotherhood). See Sufi brotherhoods, Mevlevi Development Bank, 212 Development Plan for 1990-95, 173 Devlet Su Isleri. See General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works Devrimci Sol. See Revolutionary Left Party Dev Sol. See Revolutionary Left Party Dicle, Hatip, 281 Diocletian, 10 DISK. See Confederation of Revolution- ary Trade Unions of Turkey divorce, 134-35; laws of, 132, 134-35 Dogru Yol Partisi. See True Path Party Dogukaradeniz Daglan. See Pontus Mountains Donme people, 102 Dorians, 9; invasion by, of Greece, 7 DP. See Democrat Party dress: secularization of, 36; of women, 120, 137-38 drug trafficking, 362, 370-71; profits for, 371; punishment for, 368 DSL See General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works DSP. See Democratic Left Party 436 Index DYP. SeeTrxxe Path Party earthquakes, 77 eastern highlands, 78, 84 Eastern Question, 23 EC. See European Community Ecevit, Biilent, 55; arrested, 61; ban on political activities of, xxix, 258; politi- cal activities of, xxxiii, 5, 45, 49, 242, 258, 269; as prime minister, 5; resigna- tion of, 52 Ecevit administration, 52 Ecevit, Rahsan, 63 economic austerity plans, xxix, 61, 150, 153, 158, 226; unemployment under, 161 Economic Cooperation Organization, 288 economic crises: in 1970s, 153-54 economic depression, xxviii, 168 economic development, 152-54, 168 economic growth, 152; under develop- ment plans, 173 economic integration, 226-29; with Europe, 227 economic planning (see also under indi- vidual plans) , 149, 150; under constitu- tion of 1961, 172; for development, 150, 172-73; five-year plans, 172-73 economic policy: liberal, 149; under mil- itary rule, xxvii, xxix economic problems: from Persian Gulf War, 149, 151, 152, 156-57, 315 economic protectionism, xxx economic reform: advocated by Welfare Party, xxxii; under military rule, 43; under Ozal, xxx, xxxiii, 150-51, 154- 56, 224 economic stabilization program, 58, 68; under Demirel, 58-59; under Ozal, 61-62 economic ties: with Europe, 151-52 economy, 56-59; under Ciller, xxxviii- xxxix; informal, 150, 159; long-term prospects, 151; under Menderes, 4; of Ottoman Empire, 25-26, 27; under Ozal, xxx; planning of, 38; role of gov- ernment in, 38, 167-75; structure of, 159; in War of Independence, 152; in World War I, 152 Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantino- ple, 122-23 Edict of Milan (313), 11 education (see also schools), 139-43; access to, xxviii; adult, 142; under con- stitution of 1982, 239; equivalency program, 143; expansion of, 159; gov- ernment spending on, 325; middle- school, 140; of middle class, 126; post- secondary, 140-42; preschool, 139; primary, 139-40; religious, 74, 105, 118, 139, 140, 278; secondary, 140; sec- ular, 74; and social advancement, 142; special, 142; stages of, 139; vocational, 140, 143; of women, 139, 161 Egypt: invasion of Syria by, 23; occupied by Britain, 25; under Ottoman Empire, 21, 25; petroleum conces- sions in, 201; relations with, 294; trade with, 294-95, 353 Eisenhower Doctrine (1957), 299 elections: of 1946, 41; of 1950, xxvii, 4, 41; of 1954, 41; of 1961, 43; of 1969, 46; of 1973, 50; of 1977, 51; of 1979, 52; of 1980, 28; of 1983, xxix, 5, 63, 233, 255; of 1984, 257; of 1986, 63, 64; of 1987, xxxiii, 5, 258, 264, 267; of 1989, 64, 259; of 1991, xxxiv, 66-67, 242, 260, 266; of 1994, 261-62, 268 Electoral Law (1983), 241 electoral system, 240-41 electric power: demand for, 197, 203, 204; distribution of, xxxi; generation, 203; imports of, 203; privatization of, 171; in rural areas, 203; sources of, 203 elite, business, 124, 125-26; competition of, with political elite, 124; members of, 125; in villages, 131 elite, military, 254 elite, political, 254; acceptance into, 124; factions in, 125; competition of, with business class, 124; competition of, with Islamic activists, 235; social struc- ture of, 75, 124 elite, professional, 125 elite class, xxxviii; acceptance into, 20; under Atatiirk, xxv; culture of, 74, 133; education of, 74; social structure of, 124-25; in towns, 128; in urban areas, 125, 126; in villages, 131; women, 139 employers' associations, 276-77 437 Turkey: A Country Study employment: in agriculture, 159, 161; in construction, 161; in defense industry, 352; in industry, 127, 161, 196, 352; of lower class, 12V; in manufacturing, 161, 206; in services sector, 162; in state enterprises, 169; in urban areas, 159-61, 162; of women, 138 End of Laissez-Faire, The (Keynes), 168 energy (see also electric power; see also under individual energy sources), 197- 204 Enver Pasha, 28; death of, 31; exile of, 31 Erbakan, Necmettin, xxviii, xxxi, 50, 64, 257, 267; as deputy prime minister, 51; political activities of, 268; prosecuted, 61,268,278 Erdogan, Tayyip, 268 Eregli Iron and Steelworks, 206, 207; privatization of, 172 Erim, Nihat: as prime minister, 49 Erkman, Hayrettin, 60 Ertugrul, 17 Eskisehir: population of, 88 etatism, 4, 38, 153, 168-69; and trade policy, 220 ethnic conflict, xxx-xxxi ethnic groups (see also under individual groups), 95-105; distribution of, xxix, 4; marriage between, 15, 102 Etibank, 204, 205, 208 EU. See European Union Euphrates River, 84 Europe: economic ties with, 151-52, 227; guest workers in, xxviii, 90, 152; immi- grants in, 152; Ottoman relations with, 21, 149; political intervention in Otto- man Empire by, 21; trade with, 226, 227 Europe, Eastern, 66 European Community (EC): Common Agricultural Policy, 227; desire to join, 48, 295; relations with, 256; trade with, 227-28 European Community-Turkey Associa- tion Council, 228 European Recovery Program (Marshall Plan), 48, 182 European Union (EU) , 295-98; in cus- toms union of, xxxvii; desire to join, xxx, xxxi, xxxii-xxxiii, 48, 152, 223, 228, 236, 295-97; exports to, 176, 206; reluctance of, to admit Turkey, 87 Evren, Kenan: coup d'etat by, 5; as presi- dent, xxix, 5, 233, 256, 279, 311 exchange rate, 220; flexible, 154; over- valued, 157 Exclusive Economic Zone, 319, 365 Execution of Sentences Act (1986), 367 Export Credit Bank of Turkey (Tiirkiye Ihracat Kredi Bankasi) , 212 exports (see also under individual prod- ucts): of cement, 208; of chemicals, 208; of crops, 176, 187, 220; decline in, 58, 151, 153; to European Union, 176, 206; of food, 151, 206; growth of, xxxix, 68, 154, 220, 224; of iron and steel, 207; of livestock, 176; of manu- factures, 156; to Middle East, 176, 226, 294; of minerals, 204, 220; as percent- age of gross national product, 220; promotion of, 154; subsidies for, xxx; of textiles, 206; to United States, 176, 206; value of, 220-22 families (see also households): functions of, 129-30; of guest workers, 137; laws affecting, 36, 132 families, extended, 129, 131, 135-37 families, nuclear, 129 family planning: services, 91 farmers: subsistence, 187; taxes on, 175 farming (see also agriculture), 175; crop- ping patterns, 187-91 farms: distribution of, 175, 185-86; expansion of, 182-84; 185; state sup- port for, 170 Federal Republic of Germany. See Ger- many, Federal Republic of Fethullahci tarikat, 279 finance, 159 fishing, 131, 176, 193-94 FMC Corporation, 352 Fodder Industry (Yem Sanayili), 179 food: export of, 151, 206; import of, 177-78; production, 176; self-suffi- ciency in, 151, 175 Ford, Gerald, 56 foreign assistance: from Germany, 326; from Kuwait, 325; from OECD, 224; from Saudi Arabia, 325; from United Arab Emirates, 325; from the United States, 325, 326 foreign borrowing, 225 438 Index foreign currency: reserves, 158 foreign economic relations, 220-29 foreign exchange, 220; shortages of, xxviii, 58, 223 foreign investment, 151, 225; encour- aged, 68; growth of, 155; in mining, 205 foreign policy, xxxii, 235; under Atatiirk, 39; and Kurdish problem, xxxvi-xxxvii foreign relations, 285-301; with Afghani- stan, 39; with Albania, 66, 317; with Armenia, 287, 314; under Atatiirk, 39; with Azerbaijan, xxxv, 202, 236, 287- 88, 314; with Bosnia and Herzegovina, 317; with Britain, 25; with Bulgaria, 66, 289, 318; with Central Asia, 66, 201, 236, 287, 288-89; with Egypt, 294; with Georgia, 287, 314; with Greece, xxxii, 55, 66, 298; with Hungary, 289; with Iran, xxxiii, 39, 201, 292-93, 306, 316-17; with Iraq, xxxiii, 39, 294, 306; with Israel, 294; with Kazakhstan, xxxv, 288; with Kyrgyzstan, xxxv, 288; with Macedonia, 66, 317; with Romania, 289; with Russia, 25, 286; with Soviet Union, 39; with Syria, 282, 292, 293- 94, 306, 316; with Tajikistan, 288; with Turkmenistan, xxxv, 288; with Ukraine, 343; with the United States, 47, 235, 298-301; with Uzbekistan, xxxv, 288 forestry, 131, 176, 193; budget for, 251 Fourteen Points, 32 France: anti-immigrant stance of, 163; in Crimean War, 25; guest workers in, 162, 163; military training by, 339; occupation of Turkey by, 32, 308; Ottoman trade with, 21; territory acquired by, 25, 33; Turkish immi- grants in, 90, 163; withdrawal of, 34; in World War I, 30 Freedom and Labor Party (OZEP) , 269 fruit, 83, 180; citrus, 81 FYROM. See Macedonia, Former Yugo- slav Republic of Gallipoli, battle of, xxv, 30, 308 GAP. See Southeast Anatolia Project gas, natural, 202; imports of, 202; pipe- lines, 202, 286; reserves, 198 GATT. See General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Gaziantep: population of, 88 gazis. amirates of, 15; conquests of, 4, 14, 110; role of, 13, 17 GDP. See gross domestic product gendarmerie, 360, 361, 362-65; deployed against Kurdish insurgents, 339; functions of, 360, 362, 364, 370 Gendarmerie Schools Command, 364 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) , 223 General Directorate of Prisons and Houses of Detention, 373 General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works (Devlet Su Isleri— DSI), 181, 203 General Dynamics, 194, 340, 352 General Electric, 340, 352 General Management for Trade in Tobacco, Tobacco Products, and Alco- holic Spirits (Tutiin Mamulleri, Tuz ve Alkol Isletmeleri Genel Miidurlugu — TEKEL): state control of, 171 General Motors, 209 General Staff, 142, 323; appointment to, 245; chief of, 311, 322,323 geography, 75-86; of Anatolia, 75; loca- tion, 75 geology, 77-78; of Anatolian Plateau, 83 Georgia: borders with, 76; economic ties with, 229, 287; relations with, 287, 314 Georgians, 102, 282; distribution of, 102 geostrategic situation, 201-2 Germany: military training by, 27; Otto- man treaty with, 29; relations of, with Ottomans, 27, 28-29; in World War I, xxv Germany, Federal Republic of (West Germany): emigration to, 101; finan- cial aid from, 326; guest workers in, 90, 162, 163; joint ventures with, 306; Kurdish terrorism in, 355; materiel from, 343, 344, 353, 365; technical assistance from, 285; tourists from, 219; trade with, 222 GNP. See gross national product Gokalp, Ziya, 27, 93 Gokchek, Melih, 268 Gordium, 7 Gortiirk Empire, 13 gossip groups, 130 government, 241-53; corruption in, 64; 439 Turkey: A Country Study economic role of, 167-75; interven- tion in agriculture, 179; population policies of, 90-92; powers of, 238; role of, 237-38 government, local, 250-52; budgets for, 174; revenues, 174-75 government, provincial, 250-52 government budget, 173-75; for defense, 325; for education, 325 Government Employees' Retirement Fund, 144 government securities, 214 government spending, 157; on defense, 325; on infrastructure, 167; reduction in, 155, 158 governors, 250-51 Grand National Assembly, xxvii; under constitution of 1924, 38; convened, 34; dissolved, 254; reforms under, 35 Gray Wolves, 47, 59 Great Depression, 168 Greece: in Balkan Pact, 39; borders with, 76; conflicts with, xxxii, 48, 53-54, 55- 56, 236, 296-98, 337, 365; driven from Turkey, 34-35; economic ties with, 229; in First Balkan War, 28; invasion of, by Dorians, 7; occupation of Tur- key by, 32, 33, 34, 308; Ottoman war with, 27; population exchange with, 76, 89, 103; relations with, xxxii, 55, 66, 298; as security threat, 314; tourists from, 219; United States military assis- tance to, 350 Greek Catholics, 1 23 Greek Cypriot National Guard, 318-19 Greek Orthodox Church, 19, 120, 122, 373 Greeks, 9-10, 103, 282; emigration of, 153; in Ottoman bureaucracy, 20; in population exchange, 76, 89, 103 Greek War of Independence (1821-32), 23 gross domestic product (GDP): growth rate, xxx gross domestic product fractions: agri- culture, 159, 176; budget deficit, 158, 175; current account deficit, 157; debt, 153, 157; defense budget, 325; education budget, 325; industry, 159, 194; mining, 204; services sector, 159 gross national product (GNP): decline in, 155-56; defense spending as per- centage of, 326-27; exports as per- centage of, 220; growth of, 156; minerals as percentage of, 222; taxes as percentage of, 174; textiles as per- centage of, 222; trade as percentage of, 220, 222 guest workers, 162, 271, 296; families of, 137; hostility toward, 162-63, 296; number of, 162, 163; in Persian Gulf states, 90, 163; remittances from, 163, 224-25; in Western Europe, xxviii, 90, 152,162,163 Giilek Bogazi. See Cilician Gates Gunaydm, 284 Giineydogu Anadolu Projesi. See South- east Anatolia Project Giines, Turan, 53, 54 Giirler, Faruk, 49 Gursel, Cemal, 42, 43; death of, 45; as president, 44 HADEP. See People's Democracy Party Hagia Sophia: in Byzantine Empire, 11; under Ottomans, 19; under Turks, 117 Hak-Is. See Confederation of Turkish Just Workers' Unions Halk Bank: state control of, 171 Halkci Partisi. See Populist Party Halkin Demokrasi Partisi. See People's Democracy Party Halkin Emek Partisi. See People's Labor Party Hatay Province: Arabs in, 101; Syria's claims to, 293, 316 Hattusas (Bogazkoy): archaeological research at, 6; burned, 7 Havas airport company, 171, 172 health, 143-44; and malnutrition, 177 health care: availability of, 143; expan- sion of, 159; military, 334 health care professionals: ratio of, to patients, 144; salaries of, 143^14 health facilities, 144 Hearth of Intellectuals, 119 Hellenistic civilization, 3 Helsinki Watch, 296 HEP. See People's Labor Party higher education law (1981), 141 High Gate. 5^Bab-i Ali High Planning Council, 172 Hisarlik, 6 440 Index Hittite Empire, 7 Hittites, 3, 6-7; as proto-Turks, 4 Hisballah-Contra, 360 Holy League: Ottoman war with, 22 Homer, 6 households (see also families): activities of, 130; members of, 130 housing: shortage, 209-10; in urban areas, 209-10 HP. See Populist Party human rights: abuses, xxxii, xxxvii, 61, 152, 228, 236, 256, 265, 296, 300, 371; advocacy groups, 257, 283, 296, 372 Human Rights Association, 296, 372 Human Rights Foundation, 372 Hungary: ceded to Austria, 22; relations with, 289 Hurriyet, 284 Husayn ibn Ali, Sharif, 31 hydroelectric power (see also electric power; energy), 68, 181, 197, 214; electricity from, 203; potential, 198 Hyundai, 209 Iconium. SeeKonya Iliad (Homer), 6 Ilion, 6 Ilium, 6 Iller Bankasi. ^Municipalities Bank liter, Aydin, 363 IMF. See International Monetary Fund immigrants: in Europe, 152 immigration, 88; from Russia, 102 imports, xxviii; of food, 177-78; increase in, xxxix, 154, 220, 224; liberalization of, xxx; of petroleum, 198, 222 import-substitution industrialization , xxviii, xxx, 150, 154, 168, 194; under economic planning, 173; end of, 154 income: from agriculture, 176 income distribution, 150, 177 individual rights, 371-73; under consti- tution of 1982, 237, 238, 271 industrial development, 150, 169-70 industrial growth, 153, 194 industrialization, 97, 125, 176 industrial policy, 196-97 industry, 149, 175, 194-210; in Black Sea area, 81; employment in, 161, 196; encouragement of, 167; expansion of, 271; labor unions in, 163; under Ozal, 196; as percentage of gross domestic product, 159, 194; privatization of, 197 infant mortality, 144 inflation, 158, 224; under economic planning, 173; under Inonii and Men- deres, 43; in 1970s, xxviii, 5, 56, 154; in 1980s, xxx, 61, 68, 151; in 1990s, xxxix, 156, 157, 169 infrastructure: improvement of, 68-69, 194; investment in, 167; transporta- tion, 68 inheritance: laws of, 132 Inonii, Erdal, xxxiv, 63, 67, 256, 265, 269 Inonii, Ismet (see also Ismet Pasha), xxvii, xxxiv, 4, 308; as deputy prime minister, 261; as president, 40; as prime minis- ter, 44 Inonii administration, 5; economy under, 43 Interbank, 213 interest: payments, 155; rates, xxx, 68, 154 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 58, 153; aid from, 300 investment: in agriculture, 176; under development plans, 173; foreign, 173 Iran, 316-17; in Baghdad Pact, 48; bor- ders with, 76, 290; exports to, 151, 152, 192, 226, 227, 294; refugees from, 292; Kurdish bases in, 306, 317, 355; relations with, xxxiii, 39, 201, 292-93, 306, 316-17; as security threat, 280; trade with, 156, 222, 292 Iranian Revolution (1979), 292 Iran-Iraq War (1980-88), 156, 209, 292, 315 Iraq: in Baghdad Pact, 48; border with, 36, 76, 290, 336; British mandate in, 33; embargo on, 149, 151, 152, 156- 57, 192, 315, 325; exports to, 151, 192, 226, 294; instability of, 286; invasion of, xxxvii; Kurdish bases in, 306, 355; Kurdish region, xxxv, xxxvii, 290-91, 351; Kurdish uprising in, 65, 236, 306, 355, 356; pipelines from, 156, 201, 286, 315, 325; refugees from, 234, 236, 290-91; relations with, xxxiii, 39, 294, 306; as security threat, 314; trade with, 156, 222-23, 227 Irmak, Sadi, 51 iron production, 6, 206-7 irrigation, 180-82, 187; in Anatolian Pla- 441 Turkey: A Country Study teau, 83, 180; in Arabian Platform, 84; budget for, 251; in Mediterranean region, 82, 180-81; in southeast Ana- tolia, xxxi, 68 Isbank, 212 Ishmael. See Ismail Iskenderun: industry in, 207; port of, 217 Islam {see also secularism), 106-16, 277; birth control in, 92; conversion to, xxvi, 13, 15, 110; disestablishment of, xxvi, 74, 132; divorce under, 134; as foundation of Ottoman Empire, 111; inheritance under, 185; introduction of, 3; language of, 92; marriage under, 133; open expression of, 45; role of, xxv, xxvi; Turkification of, 117 Islam, Alevi, 116 Islam, Shia, 13 Islam, Sunni, 13; Istanbul as center of, 19; schools of, 109 Islamic calendar, 106, 117 Islamic Movement Organization, 359-60 Islamic political activism, xxv, xxxi, 5, 60, 235, 267, 278, 359 Islamist movement, 45, 105, 151, 235, 264, 279, 359-60; intellectuals in, 119- 20; as security threat, 312, 359; terror- ism by, 317 Ismet Pasha {see also Inonu, Ismet), 35; military actions of, 34 Israel: emigration to, 104; relations with, 294; trade with, 294-95 Istanbul, 75-76; established, 19; etymol- ogy of, 19, 111; Kurds in, 235; popula- tion of, 88; population density in, 87; port of, 217 Istanbul Stock Exchange, 213-14 Italy: Libya seized by, 28; occupation of Turkey by, 32, 308; war with, 32; with- drawal of, 34 Izmir (Smyrna): Kurds in, 235; port of, 217 janissary, 22, 111, 307 Jews, 104-5; emigration of, 104, 153; in Ottoman bureaucracy, 20; population of, 104, 120-21, 123 Jordan: British mandate in, 33 journalists: arrested, xxxvi, 234, 283, 354, 369 judges, 248, 250, 368 judiciary, 238, 248-50 Justice Commandos of the Armenian Genocide (JCAG), 358, 359 Justice Party (Adalet Partisi — AP) (see also Democrat Party, Democratic Party), xxxiv, 43, 49, 51, 62, 253, 256, 262, 263; in elections of 1961, 43; in elections of 1977, 51; founded, 5, 262; in power, 5 Kahramanmaras: political violence in, 59-60 Kahramanmaras Province: martial law in, 60 Kamal, Yashar, xxxvii Karadag, Davut, 283 Karadayi, Ismail Hakki, 322 Karaites, 105 Karakaya Dam, 203 Karaman: population density in, 87 Karamanlis, Constantine, 55 Kastelli Bank: collapse of, 62 Kayseri: population of, 88 Kazakhstan: oil exploration in, 199-201; relations with, xxxv, 288 Kazandjian, Karekin Bedros, 122 Keban Dam, 203, 214 Kemal, Mustafa (see also Atatiirk, Kemal), xxv, 4; military activities of, 305; and Young Turks, 27 Kemalism, xxvi, 4, 37; in armed forces, 309, 312; elements of, 4, 37, 74-75; maintenance of, 42, 45, 60, 62, 254 Keynes, John Maynard, 168 Knights of Saint John, 20 Kocaeli: population density in, 87; port of, 217 Kocbank, 213 Koc Holding Company, 213 Koksal, Sonmez, 365 Konya (Iconium), 14; population of, 88 KonyaAir Base, 321 Konya Ovasi (Konya Basin) , 83; archaeo- logical research at, 6; rainfall in, 86 Kopriilu, Ahmet, 22 Koprulii era, 22-23 Kopriilu family, 22 Kopriilu, Mehmet, 22 Korean War: Turkish troops in, xxxii, 47, 299, 319 442 Index Koruturk, Fahri: as president, 50 Korutiirk administration, 51 Kuran (Quran), 106-7 Kurdish insurgency, 59, 152, 177, 199, 219, 233-34, 234, 280, 293, 300, 306- 7, 355, 371; casualties from, 356; costs of, 229; support for, 316, 317; terror- ism by, 354, 356 Kurdish language, 73; dialects of, 98; prohibition of, 67, 96, 98-100, 280; publications in, 100 Kurdistan, 84; conquest of, 21; Kurds' desire for state of, xxxi, xxxvi, 355 Kurdistan Workers' Party (Partiya Kark- ere Kurdistan— PKK), xxxi, 100, 270, 355, 370; armed forces offensives against, xxxv, xxxvi, 236, 339, 356; banned, 67; foreign support for, 292- 93, 356-57; goals of, 281-82, 355; mili- tary activities of, xxxv, 67-68, 132, 266, 281, 282; terrorism against, 360 Kurds, 9, 98-101, 280-81; under Atatiirk, 355; geographic distribution of, 235; government policy toward, 95, 100, 257; Iraqi, 65, 234, 236, 290, 291-92, 306, 315-16, 351; languages of, 67, 73, 96, 98-100, 101; as non-Turks, 73; under Ozal, 100; as percentage of population, xxx, 73; population of, 98; as refugees, 66, 234, 236, 290, 356; relations of, with Turkey, xxxi; religion of, 73, 109, 115; relocated, 234-35, 281, 356; separatist sentiments of, 59, 67, 98, 280, 293, 355-57; support for, 264; uprisings by, 355; in villages, 132 Kuwait: exports to, 294; financial aid from, 325, 353 Kyrgyzstan: relations with, xxxv, 288 tribution, 185; erosion, 184; owner- ship, 185, 186; redistribution of, 184 land reform, 184, 186 land tenure, 129, 132, 184-87 land use, 182-84 language groups (see also under individual languages) , 95—1 05 language reform (see also Turkish lan- guage) , 73-74, 92-95 Latin Empire of Constantinople, 15 Lausanne Conference (1922), 35 Law for the Encouragement of Industry (1927), 167 Law of Fundamental Organization (Organic Law) (1921), 34 Lawrence, T. E., 31 Lazi language, 95 Laz people, 95, 102 League of Nations, 36, 76 Lebanon: French occupation of, 33 legal system: proposed changes to, 40; secularized, 36 legislation, 242 Le Pen, Jean-Marie, 163 Libya: construction in, 209; exports to, 226; seized by Italy, 28 literacy: campaigns, 142; rate, 93, 139, 271 livestock, 175, 191-92; export of, 176, 191, 192; production, 178, 184, 191, 192; wool from, 191, 206 London Convention of 1832, 23 London Convention of 1840, 25 lower class: occupations of, 127; religion of, 277; in towns, 128; in urban areas, 126 Lydia, 9 Lydians, 7-9 labor movement, 274-76; weakening of, 163-64 labor unions, 127, 128, 162-67, 271; banned, 164, 275; under constitution of 1982, 165-66, 239, 275; laws regu- lating, 274, 275, 276; political activism of, 165, 274-75, 276, 311, 373; and privatization, 171; purged, 61; restric- tions on, 165-66, 354 Ladino, 105 Lake Van, 84 land: arable, 182, 187; area, 75, 182; dis- Macedonia, 26, 28; war in, 26 Macedonia, Former Yugoslav Republic of (FYROM), 66, 317 Mahmud II, 307 Makarios III, Archbishop, 53 Makina ve Kimya Endiistrisi Kurumu (MKEK), 352 Malatya Ovasi: rainfall in, 86 manufacturing, 152, 205-9; decline in, 155-56; under economic planning, 173; employment in, 161, 206; exports, 156; state enterprises in, 150, 443 Turkey: A Country Study 205-6; of textiles, 206 Maritime Bank (Denizcilik Bankasi), 21V Marmara region: immigrants in, 89 Maronites, 123 marriage, 133-35; interethnic, 15, 102, 121, 134; laws of, 132, 133; seculariza- tion of, 36, 133; women in, 136-37, 138 Marshall Plan. See European Recovery Program martial law, 354; courts, 369; imposed, 42, 52, 59, 60, 61, 255; repealed, xxxiii, 257 Marxist-Leninist Armed Propaganda Unit, 358 Mass Housing Fund, 174, 209, 210 materiel: air force, 340, 341, 352; army, 306; domestic, 352; embargo on, 56, 300, 349-50; export of, 353; gendar- merie, 363; from Germany, 343, 344, 353, 365; navy, 342, 343-45, 353, 365; procurement of, 339; spending on, 326; from United States, 343, 344, 345, 365; upgrading of, 337 Mavros, George, 53 mayors, 252; religious, 235, 262, 268 MCP. ^Nationalist Labor Party MDP. See Nationalist Democracy Party Meat and Fish Board, 179 media, 283-85; availability of, xxviii; cen- sored, 234, 262 Mediterranean region, 78, 82; agricul- ture in, 82; climate in, 84-86; popula- tion in, 88; tourism in, 82; villages in, 131 Medya Gunesi, 283 Megara, 9 Mehmetibn Daud, 13-14 Mehmetll, 19 MehmetV, 28 MehmetVI: exiled, 35 Memcu, Ugur: assassination of, 270 men: life expectancy of, 87; relations of, with women, 137-38 Menderes, Adnan, 4, 40; hanged, 43; as prime minister, 41 Menderes administration: economy under, 4, 43; overthrown, 5; religious tolerance under, 4 Mercedes-Benz, 194 merchant marine, 217 Mersin: population of, 88; port of, 217 Mesopotamia: conquest of, 21; under Ottoman Empire, 21, 308 Mevlana (Jalal ad Din Rumi), 114 MHP. ^Nationalist Action Party middle class, 126; in towns, 128; women, 139 Middle East, 290-95, 314-17; construc- tion in, 209; exports to, 176, 191, 192; tourists from, 219, 226; trade with, 222, 226 Midhat Pasha, 26 migration, 88-90; of workers, 163 military: discipline, 329-30; education system, 312; intelligence, 366 military academies: admission to, 310, 331-32; women in, 330 military assistance: from United States, 56, 350-51 military conscription, 327; evasion of, 328 Military Court of Appeals, 250 military officers: backgrounds of, 310; comportment of, 332; noncommis- sioned, 328, 341; outlook of, 309; pay of, 310, 334; privileges of, 309-10, 334-35; purge of, 44; restrictions on, 308, 333-34; retirement of, 333; revolt by, 44 military personnel: backgrounds of, 310, 327-30; desertion by, 328; pay of, 334; training of, 328, 342 military rule: 1960-61, 5, 42; 1980-83, 311 military schools, 309, 330 military staff academies, 332-33 military training: by France, 339; by United States, 351 millet system, 20; abolished, 38; legacy of, 96 Milli Istihbarat Teskilati. See National Intelligence Organization Milli Selamet Partisi. See National Salva- tion Party MilUyet, 284 Milliyetci Calisma Partisi. See Nationalist Labor Party Milliyetci Demokrasi Partisi. See Nation- alist Democracy Party Milliyetci Hareket Partisi. See Nationalist Action Party minerals, 204-5; export of, 204, 220; as percentage of gross national product, 444 Index 222 mining: in Black Sea area, 81; foreign investment in, 205; nationalized, 205; as percentage of gross domestic prod- uct, 204; in private sector, 205; state enterprises for, 204-5 Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, 179 Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, 181 Ministry of Finance, 174 Ministry of Forestry, 179, 193 Ministry of Health and Social Assistance, 143; Family Planning Division, 91 Ministry of Industry and Trade, 352 Ministry of Justice, 369, 373 Ministry of National Defense, 323-25; budget for, 327; Undersecretariat for Defense Industries, 351-52 Ministry of National Education, 117, 140, 142; Directorate of Apprentice- ship and Nonformal Education, 143 Minoan-Mycenean civilization, 9 minorities, 1 20-23 MISK. See Confederation of Turkish Nationalist Workers' Unions MIT. See National Intelligence Organiza- tion MKEK. See Makina ve Kimya Endustrisi Kurumu Mobil Oil, 199, 201 modernism: versus traditionalism, 74 modernization: of agriculture, 150, 161; of armed forces, 305; under Atatiirk, 4, 74-75, 150; of infrastructure, 68-69 Moldavia: under Ottoman Empire, 21 Moldova: economic ties with, 229 Mongols, 15 Montenegro: in First Balkan War, 28 Montreux Convention, 39, 40 Morea: ceded to Venice, 22 mosques: attendance at, 107; construc- tion of, 119, 277 Motherland Party (Anavatan Partisi — ANAP), xxix-xxx, xxxiii, xxxiv, 62, 67, 235, 266-67; in elections of 1983, 63, 233, 241, 311; in elections of 1984, 257; in elections of 1986, 63, 64; in elections of 1987, 5, 241-42, 258; in elections of 1989, 64, 259; in elections of 1991, 66, 242, 260, 266; foreign relations under, 287; problems in, 261; religion under, 278; support for, 118, 261,267 mountains, 78-81, 84 Mount Ararat (Agri Dagi) , 78, 84 MSP. See National Salvation Party Muhammad, 106; successor to, 109 Muhammad Ali (of Egypt), 23, 25 Muhammad ash Shafii, 109 Muhammad ibn Nusayr an Namiri, 110 Municipalities Bank (Iller Bankasi), 212 Muradl, 17 Murted Air Base, 352-53 Muslims {see also Islam) : Ahl-i Haq, 115; definition of, 106, 107; sectarian ten- sions among, 101; as Turks, xxx; Yazidi, 101 Muslims, Alevi, 115-16; adherents of, 73; Arabs as, 100-101; ethnicity of, 96; Kurds as, 100; origins of, 110; as per- centage of population, xxx; Turks as, 100-101, 109 Muslims, Shia (see also Muslims, Alevi), 110; Kurds as, 100; as percentage of population, 115; Twelve Imam, 110, 115 Muslims, Sunni, xxx; as genuine Turks, 73; Kurds as, 100 Muslim courts. See courts, seriat Mustafa II, 22 Naksibendi tarikat, 279 names: under Atatiirk, 36 National Assembly, 241-43; arrests of members of, xxxvi-xxxvii, 234, 243, 254, 266, 373; elections to, 5; mem- bers of, 238,241,242, 243 National Front, 51 National Intelligence Coordination Committee, 366 National Intelligence Organization (Milli Istihbarat Teskilati — MIT) , 365 National Salvation Party, 62 nationalism, 4, 93 Nationalist Action Party (Milliyetci Hareket Partisi — MHP), xxviii, 43, 44, 46, 51, 62, 165; in elections of 1977, 51; organization of, 47; and political violence, 59; support for, 46^17 nationalist congress (1919), 33-34 Nationalist Democracy Party (Milliyetci Demokrasi Partisi — MDP) , xxix, 62; 445 Turkey: A Country Study dissolved, 264; in elections of 1983, 63, 255-56, 311; in elections of 1984, 257 Nationalist Labor Party (Milliyetci Cal- isma Partisi— M£P) , 269-70; in elec- tions of 1987, 258 nationalist movement, 33-34; attack on Armenia by, 34-35 National Pact (1919), 33, 35; approved, 34 National Salvation Party (Milli Selamet Partisi— MSP), xxviii, 49, 51, 118, 165, 267-68; dissolved, 268; in elections of 1973, 50; in elections of 1977, 51; founded, 278; religious activism in, 278 National Security Academy, 333 National Security Council (NSC), xxix, 5, 245-47, 322, 366; appointed, 60; members of, 60, 236-37, 245-47; reforms under, xxix, 5 NATO. See North Atlantic Treaty Organi- zation naval academy, 342 Naval Lyceum, 342 Naval Training Command, 342 navy, 341-45; reserves, 329 Netherlands: guest workers in, 162; Turkish immigrants in, 90 newspapers {see also journalists; media), 283, 284; censored, 283; religious, 119 New Turkey Party, 43-44 Nicholas I (tsar), 23 North Africa: under Ottoman Empire, 21 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): admission to, 320, 348; com- mands, 320; deployment of troops in, 320-21; exercises of, 342; intelligence gathering by, 320, 348; membership in, xxxii, 48, 235, 286, 299, 305, 319- 21; representative to, 323; strategy, 321 NSC. See National Security Council nuclear power, 204 Nurol arms company, 352 Ocalan, Abdullah, 67, 281, 282 OECD. See Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Oguz tribes, 13 oil {see also petroleum): exploration, 198-201; pipelines, 156, 201, 315, 325 oil crisis of 1973, xxviii, 56, 154, 224 Ordu Yardimlasma Kurumu. See Army Mutual Aid Association Organic Law. See Law of Fundamental Organization Organisation for Economic Co-opera- tion and Development (OECD), 56, 174; assistance from, 224; membership in, xxx, xxxii; trade with, 222 Orhan, 17 Osman 1, 17 Osmanli Dynasty. See Ottomans Ottoman Empire, xxv, 3, 17-31, 111; armed forces of, 305; bureaucracy of, 20, 22, 167; conquests of, in Balkans, 17, 20-21; in Crimean War, 25; debt under, 149; decline of, 21, 23, 307-8; dependence of, on West, 149; econ- omy of, 25-26, 27, 149, 167; European intervention in, 21; expansion of, 20- 21, 307; institutions of, 19-20; internal opposition to, 27; Islam as foundation of, 111; origins of, 4; relations of, with Germany, 26-27, 28, 29; tanzimat (reform), 149; transportation under, 214; 29; wars of, 21, 22, 23, 25, 27, 32; in World War I, xxv, 30 Ottoman Land Code, 97 Ottomans, 17, 110 Ottoman Turkish, 20, 92, 167 OYAK. See Army Mutual Aid Association Oyak-Renault automobile manufac- turer, 209 Oymapinar Dam, 214 Ozal, Korkut, 278-79 Ozal, Turgut, xxix, 62; death of, xxxv, 5, 68, 264; goals of, xxx; political activi- ties of, 256, 266, 311; popularity of, 64, 68; as president, 64, 234, 241, 244, 259; as prime minister, 5, 233; rivalry of, with Demirel, 259, 267 Ozal administration, 5; economy under, xxx, 59, 150-51, 154-56, 170, 180, 213, 224; energy under, 197-98; eth- nic groups under, 1 00; industry under, 196; labor under, 127; tourism under, 219 Ozdenoren, Rasim, 119 Ozel, Ismet, 119 OZEP. See Freedom and Labor Party Ozgur Gundem, 283 446 Index Pakistan: in Baghdad Pact, 48; petro- leum concessions in, 201 Palaeologus, Michael, 15 Palestine: British mandate in, 33; under Ottoman Empire, 21, 308 Pamukbank, 213 pan-Turanism, 27 Paris peace talks of 1919, 32 Partiya Karkere Kurdistan. See Kurdistan Workers' Party Paul (apostle), 11 People's Democracy Party (Halkin Demokrasi Partisi— HADEP) , 281 People's Labor Party (Halkin Emek Par- tisi— HEP), 234, 265-66; banned, 266, 281; platform of, 265, 281 Pergamum, 10 Persia, 9; Ottoman wars with, 22, 23 Persian Gulf states: exports to, 191, 294; guest workers in, 163 Persian Gulf War (1990-91), xxxv, 64- 65, 156-57, 235, 285-86, 290, 306; aid for, 351; economic problems caused by, 149, 209, 294, 300, 315, 325; refu- gees from, 290-91, 315-16; spending on, 326 Persian language, 92 Peter the Great (tsar), 22 Petkim. ^Petrochemical Corporation Petrochemical Corporation (Petro- kimya Anonimsirketi — Petkim) ,172, 208 Petrokimya Anonimsirketi. See Petro- chemical Corporation petroleum {see also oil): consumption of, 197, 203; imports of, 198, 222; output, 199; refineries, 201, 201; reserves, 198; subsidies for, 197 Petrol Ofisi, 172, 201 Petty Officers School, 342 Phrygia, 9 Phrygians, 7-9 PKK See Kurdistan Workers' Party Podolia, 22 Poland: in Holy League, 22; Ottoman wars with, 22, 23; recovery of territory by, 22 police, national, 360, 361-62; functions of, 361,370 political activity: banned, 255; restric- tions on, 142, 274, 308, 354, 372-73 political candidates: religious, 105-6 political demonstrations: in 1960, 42 political factionalism, 5 political instability, xxviii-xxix, 5, 263; of former Soviet Union, 286; of Iraq, 286 political interest groups, 270-83; armed forces as, 272, 310-12; labor unions as, 274-75; religious, 277-80; universities as, 272-74 political killings, 354 political parties (see also under individual parties), 40-42, 130, 262-70; abol- ished, 61, 233, 255, 311; under consti- tution of 1982, xxix, 62, 240; illegal, 270, 368; law on, 62, 240; and religion, 277; restrictions on, 240, 254, 274, 372-73 political reform, 125; under Ozal, xxxiii political threats, 229 political violence, 52, 59-60; casualties from, 59-60, 67 politicians: arrested, xxxvi-xxxvii, 234, 243, 254, 266, 373; political activities of, 258; restrictions on, 255 Pontus Mountains (Dogukaradeniz Dag- Ian) , 78, 82, 84 population, 86-92; Alevi Muslims in, xxx; of Armenians, 103, 282; exchange with Greece, 76; of Jews, 104; Kurds in, xxx, 73, 98; in 1990, 86; in 1994, 73, 86; Shia Muslims in, 115; Turks in, 96 population fractions: in rural areas, 88; in Thrace, 75; in urban areas, 88, 125, 126; in villages, 128 population statistics: birth rate, 91, 150; death rate, 87; fertility rate, 91; growth rate, 86-87, 91, 161; infant mortality rate, 144; life expectancy, 87; sex ratio, 87 populism, 4 Populist Party (Halkci Partisi— HP), 62, 256, 265; in elections of 1983, 63; in elections of 1984, 257 ports, 217 Portugal: Ottoman war with, 21 poverty: in southeast Anatolia, xxxi president: under constitution of 1982, xxix, 238, 244-47; powers of, 250 Presidential Council, 240, 247 press (see also journalists; media; newspa- pers), 283; censorship of, 257, 283; restrictions on, 41-42, 262, 371 447 Turkey: A Country Study Prevention of Terrorism Law, xxxvi, xxx- viii prices, 169-70; market, 187; support, 180,187 prime minister: under constitution of 1982, xxix, 238, 247 prisoners, 374; killings of, 372; numbers of, 369, 374; torture of, 257, 362, 371, 372, 374 prison system, 373-74 private sector, 149; encouragement of, 167; in mining, 205 privatization: opposition to, 171; of state enterprises, xxxix, 158, 168-69, 169- 72, 179,197,201 Privatization Fund, 171 Prosperity Party. See Welfare Party provincial assembly, 251 publications: religious, 119 public enterprises. See state enterprises public order, 59-60 Public Participation Administration, 171,179 Public Revenue Sharing Schemes Fund, 174 public sector: labor unions in, 163 purges: of armed forces, xxix; of civil ser- vice, xxix; of officer corps, 44; of labor unions, 61; of universities, xxix Quran. SegKuran radio, 218, 283, 284-85; Islamic, 119 Ragusa (Dubrovnik): under Ottoman Empire, 21 railroads: construction of, 26, 167, 214; maintenance of, 214-15; network, 215; problems with, 215; state control of, 171, 214 Reagan, Ronald, 300 Real Estate Bank (Tiirkiye Emlak Ban- kasi As), 212 Refah Partisi. See Welfare Party reformism, 4, 38 refugees, 88; from Azerbaijan , 287; from Bulgaria, 289, 318; from Iran, 292; from Iraq, 290-91, 315; Kurds as, 66, 234, 236, 290, 356 religion {see also under individual sects) , 105-23, 277; under constitution of 1982, 239; distribution of, in popula- tion, 277; language in, 92, 93; and pol- itics, 278; supervision of, 373; tolerance of, 38, 45, 74, 277 religious associations (tarikatlar) ; 130, 277-80; nationalized, 105 religious minorities, 96 religious tolerance, 45; under Menderes, 4 republicanism, 4, 37 Republican Peasants' Nation Party (see also Nationalist Action Party) , 43, 46 Republican People's Party (Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi— CHP), xxvii, 62, 256, 262, 269; in elections of 1950, 4; in elections of 1954, 41; in elections of 1961, 43; in elections of 1973, 50; in elections of 1977, 51; founded, 38; platform of, 5, 38, 45, 168, 262, 263; in power, 5; revival of, xxxviii Republican Reliance Party (RRP), 50, 51 Republic State Railways (Tiirkiye Cum- huriyeti Devlet Demiryollari Isletmesi Genel Mudurulii — TCDD) , 214 Revolutionary Left Party (Devrimci Sol— DevSol), 270, 357 revolution of 1908, 308 Rhodes: conquest of, 20 rivers, 84, 217 roads, 215; construction of, xxxi; mainte- nance of, 68, 215-17 Roket Sanayii, 352 Roman Catholic Church, 123 Roman Empire, 10-11 Romania: in Balkan Pact, 39; economic ties with, 229, 287; immigrants from, 89; independence of, 25; relations with, 289 RP. Welfare Party RRP. See Republican Reliance Party Rum, Sultanate of, 14-15 Rumelia, 17; Turks in, 96, 97; union of, with Bulgaria, 26 rural areas: electrification of, 203; fami- lies in, 135; family planning in, 91; income in, 177; population in, 88; reli- gion in, 277; unemployment in, 162 Russia (see also Soviet Union): and Bal- kans, 25; Bolshevik Revolution in, 31; construction in, 209; in Crimean War, 25; desire for Black Sea ports, 22-23; economic ties with, 229, 287; immi- 448 Index grants from, 102; military relations with, 23, 343; Ottoman wars with, 22, 23, 25; relations with, 25, 286; as secu- rity threat, 312-14; territory acquired by, 22, 25; in World War I, 30 Russo-Ottoman War (1768-74), 23 Sabanci Holding, 209, 213 Sabbatai Sebi, 102 Saddam Husayn, 315, 356 Samsun area, 81 Saudi Arabia: construction in, 209; exports to, 226; financial aid from, 325, 353; guest workers in, 90, 163 Schliemann, Heinrich, 6 schools {see also education): attendance at, 139, 140, 143; budget for, 251; lycees, 140; middle, 140; military, 309; number of, 140; preschool, 139; pri- mary, 139; religious, xxvi, 38, 117, 118-19, 139, 140, 239; secondary, 140; vocational, 140 Sea of Marmara: fishing in, 193 Second Republic (1961-71), 5, 43 secularism (see also Islam), xxv, xxvi, 4, 38, 116-17, 277; commitment to, 124; under constitution of 1982, 239; insti- tution of, xxvi-xxvii, 36, 74, 105; main- tenance of, 45, 45; opposition to, 105, 1 1 8; retreat from, 117-20 security, internal, 354-60; intelligence gathering for, 365-66 security, national, 248, 312-19; defini- tions of, 272; policy, 322; threats to, 229, 305, 312-14 Seleucid Dynasty, 1 Seleucids, 10 Seleucus Nicator, 10 SelimI, 19, 20-22 Selim III, 307 Seljuk (khan), 13 Serbia: in First Balkan War, 28; indepen- dence of, 25 Serbs: defeated by gazis, 17 serial (sharia, Islamic law), 109, 111; abol- ished, 38, 117, 132; and the family, 36, 132; new codification of, 20 services sector, 149, 210-20; decline in, 155-56; employment in, 162; growth of, 153, 154-55; as percentage of gross domestic product, 159 Seyh Sait rebellion (1925), 117 shantytowns, 126-27, 162, 210; Kurds in, 98 SHAPE. See Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe sharia. Seeseriat Shell Oil, 198, 199, 201 ShiatAli, 110 SHP. See Social Democratic Populist Party SIS. See State Institute of Statistics Six Arrows, xxvi, 4, 37, 38-38, 116, 252, 312 smuggling, 362 Smyrna (Izmir) , 26 Sobieskijan, 22 Social Democratic Party (Sosyal Demokrat Parti— Sodep), 234, 265; organization of, 256 Social Democratic Populist Party (Sosyal Demokrat Halkci Parti — SHP) , xxxiv, xxxviii, 234, 265-66; in elections of 1983, 63; in elections of 1986, 63, 64; in elections of 1987, 258; in elections of 1989, 259; in elections of 1991, 66- 67, 242; support for, 264 Social Insurance Institution, 144 Social Insurance Institution for the Self- Employed, 144 social reform: under Atatiirk, xxv; under military rule, xxvii social structure, 123-32 Sodep. See Social Democratic Party Soil Products Office, 187; state control of, 171 Sosyal Demokrat Halkci Parti. See Social Democratic Populist Party Sosyal Demokrat Parti. See Social Demo- cratic Party South Antalya Project, 220 Southeast Anatolia Project (Giineydogu Anadolu Projesi— GAP) , 68, 181-82, 203, 316; construction in, 209 Soviet Union (see also Russia): collapse of, xxxv, 66, 236, 285, 286-90, 305, 314; immigrants from, 89; imports from, 202, 203; invasion of Afghani- stan by, 286; relations with, 39; as secu- rity threat, 286, 312, 314; trade with, 223; treaties of, with Turkey, 34 Spain: Ottoman war with, 21 Stalin, Josef V., 348 449 Turkey: A Country Study state enterprises, 149, 150, 169-72; bud- get for, 157, 174; investment in, 38; in manufacturing, 150, 205-7; in mining, 204—5; privatization of, xxxix, 158, 168-69, 170, 171, 179, 197, 201; trans- portation, 171, 214 State Highway Administration, 174 State Institute of Statistics (SIS), 86, 159 State Investment Bank, 1 69 State Planning Organization, 172, 174; established, 43 State Security Court, 250, 275, 368-69 State Security Court of Appeals, 369 State Supervisory Council, 245 steel, 206-7 stock market, 213-14 strikes, 275; banned, 61 , 276; in 1979, 52; in 1995, xxxix; restrictions on, 166, 373 structural adjustment program, xxxix student demonstrations, 42; repression of, 274 students: arrested, 354; political activities by, 142, 274, 372-73 Sublime Porte. SeeBab-i Ali subsidies: for agriculture, 178, 179-80; for exports, xxx; reduction in, 68, 154; for state enterprises, 170 suffrage. See voting Sufi brotherhoods, xxvi, 110-15, 130; banned, xxvi, 74, 105, 117; Bektasi, 111, 114, 115; etymology of, 111; Isikcilar, 118; Kadiri, 114, 118; Kurds in, 100; Mevlevi, 74, 105, 114, 118; Naksibendi, 114, 118; Nurcular, 118; organization of, 114; and politics, 118; revival of, 118; role of, xxvi; Safavi, 110-11; Siileymanci, 118; Ticani, 118 Siileyman I (the Magnificent), 20-22 sultan, 19-20; abolished, 35, 116; deposed, 26 Sumerbank, 206 Sunalp, Turgut, 62, 256 Sunay, Cevdet, 44; as president, 45, 49 Sun-Language Theory, 94 sunna, 109 Supreme Board of Supervision, 253 Supreme Council of Judges and Public Prosecutors: appointment to, 245; head of, 248; duties of, 248, 249, 250 Supreme Electoral Council, 241 Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE): representative to, 323 Supreme Military Administrative Court, 250; appointment to, 245 Supreme Military Council, 323 Supreme Planning Council. See High Planning Council Sweden: Turkish immigrants in, 90 Switzerland: Turkish immigrants in, 90 Syria: border problems with, 76-77, 316; borders with, 76, 290; Egypt's invasion of, 23; French occupation of, 33; Kur- dish bases in, 306, 316, 355; under Ottoman Empire, 21; relations with, 282, 292, 293-94, 306, 316; as security threat, 314 Syrian Catholic Church, 120, 122 Syrian Orthodox Church, 120, 122 Tajikistan: relations with, 288 Talat Pasha, Mehmet, 28; exile of, 31 Tamerlane. SeeTimur tarikatlar. See religious associations Tartar language, 97 Taurus Mountains, 78, 82-83, 84 taxes: on farmers, 175; increase in, 158; as percentage of gross national prod- uct, 174; reform of, 154, 175; revenues from, 174 TCDD. See Republic State Railways TCP. See Turkish Communist Party TCZB. See Agricultural Bank of Turkey TEK. See Turkish Electricity Authority TEKEL. See General Management for Trade in Tobacco, Tobacco Products, and Alcoholic Spirits telecommunications, 218; improvements in, 68, 218; privatization of, 171 telephones, 218; installation of, xxxi television, 218, 283, 284-85; Islamic, 119 terrorism, xxviii, 5, 49, 354; Armenian, 358-59; casualties from, xxviii; govern- ment crackdown on, 61; by Gray Wolves, 59; by Kurds, xxxi, xxxv, 219, 354; leftist, 357-58; punishment for, 368 textiles, 206; as percentage of gross national product, 222 Third Republic (1983-), 5, 61 Thrace, 318, 319; annexed by Ottomans, 1 7; civilization of, 3; in First Balkan 450 Index War, 28; natural gas production in, 202; under Ottoman rule, 25; popula- tion in, 75; population density in, 87; size of, 75 THY. See Turkish Airlines Tigris River, 84 Timur (Tamerlane) , 1 7 TISK. See Turkish Confederation of Employers' Unions Titidates III, 14 TOB. Turkish Trade Association tobacco, 81, 83, 180, 189 Tofas automobile manufacturer, 209 topography. See geology torture, 257, 362, 371, 372, 374 tourism, 151, 219-20; income from, 155, 219, 225; increase in, 159; in Mediter- ranean region, 82 tourists, 219; origins of, 219, 226; spend- ing by, 220 towns, 128 Toyota, 209 trade (see also exports; imports), 159, 220-23; balance, 178, 220; with Cen- tral Asia, 152; as conduit for, 227; defi- cit, 150, 154, 157, 168, 224; with Egypt, 294-95, 353; with Europe, 226, 227; with European Community, 227-28; with former Soviet Union, 223; with France, 21; with Germany, 222; with Iran, 156, 222, 292; with Iraq, 156, 222-23, 227; with Israel, 294-95; with Middle East, 222, 226; with Organisa- tion for Economic Co-operation and Development, 222; as percentage of gross national product, 220, 222; with Soviet Union, 223; with the United States, 223 traditionalism: versus modernism, 74 transportation, 151, 214-18; of freight, 215-17; increase in, 159; railroads, 26, 167, 171, 214; shipping, 217; under Ottoman Empire, 21 Transylvania: ceded to Austria, 22; under Ottoman rule, 21 Treaty of Angora (Ankara) (1926), 76- 77 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918), 31, 32 Treaty of Hiinkar Iskelesi (1833) , 23-25 Treaty of Karlowitz (1699), 22 Treaty of Kars (1921), 76 Treaty of Kuchuk-Kaynarja (1774), 23 Treaty of Lausanne (1923), 35-36, 55, 76, 89, 103, 167-68, 308, 319 Treaty of Moscow (1921), 76 Treaty of Paris (1856), 25 Treaty of San Stefano (1877), 25 Treaty of Sevres (1920), 32-33 Tripoli: conquest of, 21 Troy: archaeological research at, 6 TRT. See Turkish Radio-Television Cor- poration True Path Party (Dogru Yol Partisi — DYP), xxxiii-xxxiv, xxxviii, 67, 235, 258, 261, 263-65; in elections of 1983, 63; in elections of 1984, 257; in elec- tions of 1986, 63, 64; in elections of 1987, 5, 258, 264; in elections of 1989, 64, 259; in elections of 1991, 66, 242; in elections of 1994, 261-62; foreign relations under, 287; organization of, 256; platform of, 279 Truman, Harry S, 47 Truman Doctrine, 47-48, 298, 348 Tugrul Bey, 13 Tu-Kiie kingdom, 13 Tunceli: population density in, 87 Tunis: conquest of, 21 Tunisia: seized by France, 25 TUPRAS. See Turkish Petroleum Refiner- ies Corporation Turk, Ahmet, 265 Turk Dil Kurumu. See Turkish Language Society Tiirkes, Alparslan, xxviii, 46, 59, 270; arrested, 61 Turkey: etymology of, 3; partition of, 32- 33 Turkey, Republic of: established, xxv, 3, 4, 36, 308 Turk Hava Yollan. See Turkish Airlines Turk-Is. See Confederation of Turkish Trade Unions Turkish Airlines (Turk Hava Yollan — THY), 217-18; privatization of, 172; state control of, 171 Turkish Cement Corporation, 208 Turkish Coal Company, 202 Turkish Communist Party (TCP), xxviii, 357 Turkish Confederation of Employers' Unions (Tiirkiye Isveren Sendikalan Konfederasyonu— TISK), 276-77 Turkish Defense Fund, 353 451 Turkey: A Country Study Turkish Electricity Authority (Tiirkiye Elektrik Kurumu — TEK) , 203; Nuclear Power Plants Division, 204 Turkish Family Health and Planning Foundation, 91-92 Turkish Industrialists' and Businessmen's Association (Turk Sanayicileri ve Is Adamlan Dernegi— TUSIAD) , 277 Turkish Land Forces. See armed forces; army Turkish language {see also Ottoman Turkish) , xxx; under constitution of 1982, 73; introduction of, 3; reform of, 73-74, 92; spelling of, 92, 93, 94; spoken by Kurds, 101; as vernacular, 27 Turkish Language Society (Turk Dil Kurumu) , 94 Turkish Lignite Company, 202 Turkish people. See Turks Turkish Petroleum Corporation, 199; exploration by, 199-201; state control of, 171 Turkish Petroleum International Corpo- ration, 201 Turkish Petroleum Refineries Corpora- tion (Tiirkiye Petrol Refinerileri As — TUPRAS): privatization of, 172 Turkish Radio-Television Corporation (Tiirkiye Radyo-Televizyon Kurumu — TRT), 218, 284-85 Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, 54, 66, 297 Turkish Trade Association (Tiirkiye Odalar Birligi — TOB) , 276 Turkish United Communist Party, 357 Turkish Workers' and Peasants' Libera- tion Army, 358 Turkish Workers' Party (TWP), 46, 357; platform of, 46 Tiirkiye Cumhuriyeti Devlet Demiryol- lari Isletmesi Genel Miidurulu. See Republic State Railways Tiirkiye Cumhuriyeti Ziraat Bankasi. See Agricultural Bank of Turkey Tiirkiye Devrimci Isci Sendikalan Kon- federasyonu. See Confederation of Revolutionary Trade Unions of Tur- key Tiirkiye Elektrik Kurumu. See Turkish Electricity Authority Tiirkiye Emlak Bankasi As. See Real Estate Bank Tiirkiye Hak Isci Sendikalan Konfederas- yonu. See Confederation of Turkish Just Workers' Union Tiirkiye Ihracat Kredi Bankasi. See Export Credit Bank of Turkey Tiirkiye Isci Sendikalan Konfederas- yonu. See Confederation of Turkish Trade Unions Tiirkiye Isveren Sendikalan Konfederas- yonu. See Turkish Confederation of Employers' Unions Tiirkiye Milliyetci Isci Sendikalan Kon- federasyonu. See Confederation of Turkish Nationalist Workers' Unions Tiirkiye Odalar Birligi. See Turkish Trade Association Tiirkiye Petrol Refinerileri As. ^Turk- ish Petroleum Refineries Corporation Tiirkiye Radyo-Televizyon Kurumu. See Turkish Radio-Television Corporation Turkomans, 97-98 Turkmenistan: relations with, xxxv, 288 Turks, 96-98; ancestors of, 13; conver- sion of, to Islam, xxvi, 110; definition of, xxx, 73, 96; ethnic background of, 4, 96-97; opinion of, in Ottoman Empire, 92; origins of, xxvi, 3, 11-15; religion of, 73, 109, 115 Turks, Seljuk, 13-14; Islam introduced by, 3, 13 Turk Sanayicileri ve Is Adamlan Der- negi. See Turkish Industrialists' and Businessmen's Association Turk Ucak Sanayi Sirketi. SeeTUSAS Aerospace Industries TUSAS (Turk Ucak Sanayi Sirketi) Aero- space Industries, 352 TUSIAD. See Turkish Industrialists' and Businessmen's Association Tutunbank, 213 Tutiin Mamulleri, Tuz ve Alkol Isletme- leri Genel Mudurliigu. See General Management for Trade in Tobacco, Tobacco Products, and Alcoholic Spir- its Tuz Golu, 83 TWP. See Turkish Workers' Party Ukraine: economic ties with, 229, 287; military relations with, 343 452 Index Ulusu, Bulent: as prime minister, 60-61 Umayyad dynasty, 109 underemployment, 159, 162 unemployment, 127, 142, 150, 161; in 1970s, xxviii, 5, 56-58, 154; in 1980s, xxx; in 1990s, 142, 156, 159, 169, 279; in rural areas, 162; in urban areas, 159-61, 162 Unionist Party, 1 24 Union of Chambers of Industry, 276 United Arab Emirates: financial aid from, 325, 353 United Nations, 40, 372; embargo on Iraq, 149, 151, 152, 156-57, 192, 315, 325; peacekeeping forces, 305, 317, 337 United States: aid from, 325, 326, 353; arms embargo by, 56, 300, 349-50; defense and economic cooperation agreement with, 349; exports to, 176, 206, 353; joint ventures with, 306; materiel from, 341, 343, 344, 365; mili- tary assistance from, 56; military coop- eration with, 306, 348-51; military installations of, 300-301, 306, 348-49, 350; military personnel from, 349; mil- itary training by, 351; relations with, 47, 235, 298-301; trade with, 223 Unity and Peace party (Birlik ve Baris), 269 universities, 140-41, 274; admission to, 142; demonstrations in, 272-74; politi- cal interests of, 272-74, 311; purged, xx ix urban areas: class structure in, 125-26; growth of, 126; income in, 177; popu- lation in, 88, 125, 126; unemployment in, 159-61, 162 urbanization, 88, 97, 125, 174, 271 urban life, 125-27 urban migration, 88, 97, 150, 161, 177; in 1970s, xxviii Uzbekistan: relations with, xxxv, 288 wages: adjustments of, 166; decline in, 158; freeze on, 68 Wallachia: under Ottoman Empire, 21 War of Independence (1919-22), xxv, 34-36, 312, 339; economy under, 152 welfare, 144-45; expansion of, 159 Welfare Party (Refah Partisi— RP; also seen as Prosperity Party), xxxi-xxxii, 64, 235, 257, 267-69, 359; activism of, 279; and economic reform, xxxiii; in elections of 1983, 63; in elections of 1987, 258, 267; in elections of 1991, 67; in elections of 1994, 261-62; plat- form of, xxxii, xxxiii, 261, 268, 269 Western influence (see also moderniza- tion), 4 West Germany. See Germany, Federal Republic of WHO. See World Health Organization Wilson, Woodrow, 32 women: in armed forces, 330; under Ataturk, 36; dress of, 120, 137-38; edu- cation of, 139, 161; employment of, 138-39, 161; life expectancy of, 87; marriage of, 136-37, 138; relations of, with men, 137; roles of, 136, 137; suf- frage for, 138; status of, 136, 138-39 workers: under constitution of 1982, 238-39; migration of, 163; pay increases for, 165; restrictions on, 166-67; skilled, 163 workforce, 159-67; in manufacturing, 161, 206; in state enterprises, 169 working class, 139 World Bank: aid from, 143 World Health Organization (WHO), 144 World War I, 28-31, 339; economy under, 152; Germany in, xxv; Ottoman Empire in, xxv, 308 World War II, 40, 153 Xenophon, 9, 98 Venice, 22 Vienna: sieges of, 21, 22, 307 villages, 128-32; electrification of, 203; government of, 251, 252; headman (muhtar) in, 131, 252; relocation of, 132, 234-35,281,356 volcanoes, 77 Yapi ve Kredi Bankasi, 213 Yasar Holding Corporation, 213 Yassiada trials, 43, 44 Yazar, Feridun, 281 Yem Sanayili. See Fodder Industry Yiddish, 105 Yilmaz, Mesut, 266, 267; opposition to, 453 Turkey: A Country Study 267 YOK. See Council of Higher Education Young Ottoman movement, 26 Young Turks, 27-28, 308 Yugoslavia: in Balkan Pact, 39; collapse of, xxxv, 289; immigrants from, 89 Yuksek Ogretim Kurumu. See Council of Higher Education Yuriik Turks, 97 Zayna, Leyla, xxxvii, 281 Ziraat Bank: state control of, 1 71 454 Contributors Steven A. Glazer is Lecturer in the Department of History at George Mason University; he previously served as book review editor of the Middle East Journal Eric Hooglund is the Editor of Critique: Journal for Critical Studies of the Middle East. He has taught courses on the Middle East at several universities and formerly was editor of the Middle East Journal Helen Chapin Metz is Supervisor, Middle East/ Africa/Latin America Unit, Federal Research Division, Library of Con- gress. Fareed Mohamedi is Senior Economist, Petroleum Finance Company, and author of articles on the Middle East and international oil affairs. Jean R. Tartter is a retired Foreign Service Officer who has written extensively on the Middle East and Africa for the Country Studies series. 455 Published Country Studies JjU— DJ Afghanistan 550-98 Albania 550-44 Algeria 550-59 Angola 550-73 Argentina 550-111 Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia 550-169 Australia 550-176 Austria 550-175 Bangladesh 550-112 Belarus and Moldova 550-170 Belgium 550-66 Bolivia 550-20 Brazil 550-168 Bulgaria 550-61 Burma 550-50 Cambodia 550-166 Cameroon 550-159 Chad 550-77 Chile 550-60 China 550-26 Colombia 550-33 Commonwealth Carib bean, Islands of the 550-91 Congo 550-90 Costa Rica 550-69 Cote d'lvoire (Ivory Coast) 550-152 Cuba 550-22 Cyprus 550-158 Czechoslovakia (Area Handbook Series) 550-36 Dominican Republic and Haiti 550-52 Ecuador 550-43 Egypt 550-150 El Salvador 550-28 Ethiopia 550-167 Finland 550-173 Germany, East 550-155 Germany, Fed. Rep. of 550-153 Ghana 550-87 Greece 550-78 Guatemala 550-174 Guinea 550-82 Guyana and Belize 550-151 Honduras 550-165 Hungary 550-21 India 550-154 Indian Ocean 550-39 Indonesia 550-68 Iran 550-31 Iraq 550-25 Israel 550-182 Italy 550-30 Japan 550-34 Jordan 550-56 Kenya 550-81 Korea, North 550^1 Korea, South 550-58 Laos 550-24 Lebanon 550-38 Liberia 457 550-85 Libya 550-184 Singapore 550-17? ~> ju — i / lV/Talawi 550— + Mozambique CCQ -17 JJU— 4- / Syria ccn 3<\ jju— jj Nepal and Bhutan 550— 6? ldilZdilld. ccn Qfi jjU— 55 Nicaragua 550— 53 JJU— J J 1 UdlldllU 550-157 Nigeria 550-89 Tunisia ccn c\a jjU— ^4 Oceania 550 so JJU — ou Tiirlrpv ccr\ ao jjU— 45 Pakistan 550 74 JJU — /*+ T TrronHo UgdllUd ccn a& JJU — t-O ranama 550-97 T TriiPiiav wa ugua y ccr» 1 c*c jjU-Ijo Paraguay 550-71 JJU / 1 VCllCZ,UCld 550-185 Persian Gulf States 550-32 Viemam CCQ /|Q JJU — ■ ^ rci u 550-183 Yemens, The 550 7? Mhl IITXtAITI^C L lillippillCd 550-99 Yugoslavia ccn 16? JJU — 1UZ i Uld.il Q 550-67 Zaire 550-181 Pnrtiioal 550-75 Zambia 550-160 Romania 550-171 Zimbabwe 550-37 Rwanda and Burundi 550-51 Saudi Arabia 550-70 Senegal 550-180 Sierra Leone 458 PIN:004256-000