SB 



THE 

GARDENER'S 
MONTHLY VOLUME. 



THE APPLE; 

ITS CULTURE, USES, AND HISTORY. 



BY GEORGE W. JOHNSON, 

Author of , " The Dictionary of Modern Gardening," " Gardener's 
Almanack, " &c. ; and 



R. ERRINGTON, 




SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO., PATERNOSTER ROW. 

WINCHESTER: 

H. WOOLDRIDGE, HIGH-STREET, 



1847, 




IT* J 



TO BE CONTINUED ANNUALLY. 



On the 1st of January, 1848, will be published, price Is. 



GARDENER'S ALMANAC. 

By GEORGE W. JOHNSON, 



Editor of the Gardener's Almanac, Gardener's Dictionary, &c. 



This very richly illustrated work ought to be in the possession 
not only of every reader of the Gardener's Almanac, but 
of every horticulturist. The woodcuts are numerous, and the 
information relative to Gardening new, abundant and important, 

London: R. Baldwin, 47, Paternoster Row. 




TO THE 




CONTENTS. 



Wall Culture. — Border, 1. Mr. Harrison's first year's 
winter and summer pruning, 2. Second year, 3. Third 
year, 7. Fourth year, 9. Fifth year, 10. Sixth year, 
11. Seventh year, 12. Eighth year, 13. Ninth and 
tenth year, 14. Observations on Mr. Harrison's direc- 
tions, 16. Ripeness of fruit, 18. Gathering, 19. 

Espalier and Fancy Training, 21. Wooden rails, 22. 
Strained wire and hurdle espalier rails, 23. Horizontal 
and arcade trellis, 24. Saddle espalier and pyramidal 
training, 25. Pendulous training, 26. 

Forcing. Structure of house, 28. Border, 29. Tempera- 
ture and pruning, 30. Liquid manure, 31. 

Culture as a Cider Fruit, 31. Preparation of orchard 
sites, 32. Draining, 33. Depth of soil, 34. Under 
crops in the earlier stages, 38. Pruning, 39. Top-dress- 
ing, 41. Renovating old trees, 42. Varieties to be re- 
jected and selected, 43. Raising seedlings, 44. Ameri- 
can blight, 46. 

Diseases, 46. Canker, 47. Wearing out of races, 48. Old 
varieties most liable to canker, 50, 58. Not a local disease, 
51. Symptoms, 54. Analysis of products, 56. Influ- 
ence of pruning and soil, 59. Arises from weakness, 61. 
Why sap becomes saline, 62. Prevention and cure, 63. 
Forsyth's plaster, 67. Russet, 68. Apple Gangrene, 70. 
Moss, 70, Missletoe, 72. 



iv 



CONTENTS. 



Calendar. January, 73. February, 77. March, 78. April 
and May, 79. June, 80. July, 82. August and Sep- 
tember, 83. October and November, 84. December, 85. 

Insects. Figure-of-eight moth, Tinea corticella, Curculio 
vastator, 86. Temasia Wseberana, Coccus and American 
Blight, 87. Blight, 88. Moth, 89. Apple-blossom 
Weevil, 94. Apple or Codlin Moth, 99. Apple-tree 
Mussel Scale, 104. Apple Chermes, 10.8. Apple Bark 
Beetle and Small Bark Beetle, 110. American Blight, 46, 
87, 111. Red Spider, 114. 

Uses. Cider-making, 115. Price and consumption, 121. 
Storing Apples, 123. In sand, 127. In pits, 128. Wet- 
ting the fruit, 128. Drying apples, 130. 



THE APPLE. 



WALL CULTURE. 

The apple tree is rather impatient of restraint either 
on the espalier rail or wall, bnt its disposition to a 
growth too vigorous may be kept within fruitful 
bounds by a due attention to the border and training, 
though the tree, even in proportion to its size, can 
rarely be brought to be so productive as when grown 
as a standard. 

Border. — We have already considered this subject 
fully in the section on "Soil," but as we purpose 
giving an extended detail of Mr. C. Harrison's mode 
of wall-training, we will also strengthen what we have 
already said upon the subject of border-making by 
stating his relative practice. 

Make, he says, the border three feet deep at the 
wall, and two feet six inches at the front, also twelve 
or fourteen broad. The surface of the under stratum 
to have an inclination from the wall to the front of 
the border of twelve- inches. After this is done, a 
drain made to run close to the wall, and in a direction 

B 



2 



with it ; also another to run parallel with it, at the 
front of the border, and so made that all superabun- 
dant water can be carried entirely away from the 
border. The drains are so constructed that the tops 
of them are about three inches higher than the sur- 
face of the following composed substratum. After 
the drains are made, place ail over the surface of the 
under stratum, three inches thick of moderate-sized 
gravel, stones, or brick-bats, broken to a small size ; 
upon this spread about one inch thick of fine gravel 
(or, instead of it, strong road drift) ; the whole is then 
well rolled or beaten firmly together; after this is done, 
about three inches more gravel or small stones is laid, 
which is also beaten or rolled to an even surface, but 
not so as to bind them very close together. (Gard. 
Mag. hi. 1 .) 

First Year. — Winter Pruning, — The tree is headed 
down just before it begins to push ; in doing which, 
the foot is placed upon the soil, and close to the bole, 
in order to prevent it from being drawn up by the force 
which is used in the operation. The cut is made in 
a sloping direction towards the wall, and about half 
an inch above the bud which is selected for the lead- 
ing shoot. The tree is cut down so that seven buds 
remain. 

Summer Pruning. — If all the buds push (which 
will generally be the case), they are all permitted to 
grow until they have attained three inches length, 



3 



when two of them are rubbed off ; those rubbed off 
are the third and fourth buds, counting upwards from 
the origin of the tree. The uppermost shoot is trained 
straight up the wall for a leading stem, and the re- 
maining four horizontally along the wall, two on each 
side the stem of the tree. These shoots are trained 
nine inches apart, for when they are much nearer than 
this they exclude the sun and air from operating upon 
the buds and wood in such a manner as is required 
to keep the tree productive. When the leading up- 
right shoot has attained about fifteen inches in length, 
the end is pinched off so as to leave it about eleven 
inches long. This causes shoots to be produced from 
the upper part of the leader thus stopped, three of 
which are trained in, the uppermost straight up the 
wall, and the others one on each side the stem of the 
leader. This stopping of the leading shoot is not 
performed later than the end of June or early in July, 
for, when it is done much later, those shoots which 
push afterwards in that season do not arrive at a suf- 
ficient degree of maturity to withstand the winter, 
and are frequently destroyed by frost. When it hap- 
pens that a tree has not done well in the early part of 
the season, and the upright shoot is not of a suitable 
length or vigour at the proper period for stopping it, 
it is not to be meddled with afterwards until the win- 
ter pruning of the tree-. 

Second Year. — Winter Pruning. — At the middle or 
b 2 



5 



and red at the ends), such are allowed to remain un- 
touched, as it is on those that fruit are produced. 
The advantage of shortening back the upright shoot 
as much as is directed to be done is, that by it 
branches are certain to be produced at those places 
desired, so that no vacancy occurs. The leading 
upright shoot thus attended to will reach the top of 
a wall twelve feet high in seven years, which is as 
soon as the tree will be able to do, so as to support 
every part sufficiently. The tree is always loosened 
from the wall every winter pruning; the wall is swept 
and washed, also recoloured with paint or coal tar if 
required ; the tree is also anointed with composi- 
tion. Always lay some fresh mulch to the roots of 
the trees at this time. 

Summer Pruning. — When the buds upon that part 
of the leading stem which was produced last have 
pushed, they are all rubbed off to the three uppermost. 
The topmost is trained straight up the wall, as a 
leader to the main stem ; and the two others, one on 
each side. The instructions given for stopping the 
leading shoot in summer, also shortening it back in 
winter pruning, &c, are attended to until the tree 
arrives at a few inches from the top of the wall. The 
side branches are allowed to grow without being 
shortened back at any time, until they have extended 
as far as can be permitted, when they are pruned in 
every winter, by cutting back each leading shoot to 



6 



two buds from where it pushed the previous spriug. 
Any shoots arising from the fore part of the main 
stem are taken clean away. The buds upon the wood 
made last year will this summer generally make fruit- 
ful ones. If. on the contrary (as is sometimes the 
case), shoots are produced instead of fruitful buds, 
they are allowed to grow ten or twelve inches long, 
until the wood attains a little hardness towards the 
bottom of it, when they are cut down to about two 
inches in length, and at the bottom part of what re- 
mains, one or two fruit buds are formed, so as to be 
productive in most cases the- next year, boo in others 
not until the second year. Although such a shoot 
was shortened as directed, yet it —oil generally posh 
a shoot or more the same season from the top part of 
it. After such have grown a suitable length as be- 
fore described i. they are cut bach to about tw=: inches 
from where they pushed. If more than one shoot 
were produced after the first shortening, and a bnd or 
two is well swelled at the origin of the shoot (as be- 
fore described), all the shoots are left, and shortened 
as directed ; but, if no such bud is produced, all the 
shoots are cut clean away excepting one, which is 
: I in shortening as before directed. The latter 
practice will generally be found necessary, and also 
be more advantageous, as a greater portion of sun 
and air is admitted to the buds, which will be consi- 
derably strengthened and forwarded to a mature state. 



7 



If after such treatment fruit buds are not produced 
from the origin of the shoot, nail the shoot to the 
wall parallel with the branch, which is uniformly suc- 
cessful in producing them. 

Third Year. — Winter Pruning. — Such of the buds 
as produced wood shoots the last year, and were 
shortened during summer as described, are now short- 
ened more. It frequently happens that a fruitful 
bud, or in some instances two, will have been formed 
at the lower part of the shoot (fig. 2, a a) ; such 
shoots are now cut off about a quarter of an inch 
above the uppermost of the fruitful buds (b) ; but 
(as is sometimes the case) if there have not been fruit- 
ful buds produced, there will be growing buds, and then 
the shoots are cut down so as to leave one bud (fig. 
2, c). On some occasions the growing buds and fruit- 




Fig. 2. 



ful buds will appear but very indistinctly, and in an 
embryo state ; when this is the case the shoots are 
cut down so as to leave two of those embryo buds (dd). 
There are generally some natural fruit buds which 



8 



did not push to shoots; all such are left entire (e). 
They are of a reddish colour, and are easily distin- 
guished from growing buds, which are considerably 
less, and all of a dark colour. 

Summer Pruning. — This summer the fruitful buds 
are productive. When the fruit has swelled a little, 
a shoot generally proceeds from the stem of the spur 
(which it may now be called), just underneath the 
fruit : such are allowed to grow eight or ten inches 
long, and are then shortened back to two inches, or 
so as to leave three eyes upon each (fig. 3, A a). By 
shortening the shoot strength is thrown into the fruit, 




Fig. 3. 



and, during the summer, two or more fruit buds are 
generally produced at the bottom of the shoot thus 
cnt down (fig. 3, b b), or, otherwise, from the lower 
part of the spur (fig. 3, c). It sometimes occurs 
that, when the tree is very vigorous, some of the buds 
(fig. 3, b b) will push into shoots, or occasionally into 
bloom, during the latter end of summer. If shoots, 



9 



they are allowed to grow, and are then shortened, as 
described for similar shoots ; but when bloom is 
produced, it is immediately cut off close under the 
blossom. The shoots (fig. 2, c) produced after the 
third year's winter pruning are allowed to grow, and 
are then shortened, as already directed for similar 
shoots. (See Second Tea?'' s Summer Priming). The 
shoots which were pruned as directed last winter, and 
had embryo buds (fig. 2, d d) during this summer, 
generally have a fruit bud, and in some cases two, 
formed at their bases. The treatment of all shoots 
produced upon any of the spurs in future is agree- 
ably to the previous instructions given. Always thin 
the fruit, and where two are situated together, take 
one away ; this is to be done when you perceive them 
begin to flesh. 

Fourth Year. — Winter Pruning. — The spurs (fig. 
3, A B) which were productive last summer, and 
upon which a shoot was made and shortened (fig. 3, 
a, spur A), are now regulated in the following manner : 
— If there be two good fruit buds formed upon the 
stem of the spur (fig. 3, d d, spur B), all that part of 
it above such buds is cut away, about a quarter of an 
inch above the uppermost (as at c) ; but if there is 
only one good fruit bud upon the stem, and one 
upon the shoot which was cut in during the summer 
(as at a, spur A), then it is pruned off (as at spur C, 
e e) } so that two buds only remain (as //). When 



10 



there is only one fruit bud upon the stem of the spur 
(as spur J), a), and not fruitful buds at the shoot (b), 
then all the spur is pruned away (as at c). Some- 
times those spurs that bear fruit will not have a shoot 
produced, but instead of it a fruitful bud (as spur E, 
a) ; it is then pruned off just above such bud. 

Summer Pruning. — All shoots are pruned as already- 
directed in the second and third years. 

Fifth Tear. — Winter pruning. — All the spurs are 
allowed to retain three fruitful buds each ; but, as 
there are generally more than is required to keep, 
some of them are thinned away, retaining the best 
buds. The ripest buds are most plump and red at 
the ends. If such buds are situated near to the origin 
of the spur (as fig 4, spur A, a a a 3 ) they are retained 
in preference to similar fruitful buds that are nigher 



the end of the spur (as b b) 3 the spur is then cut off 




Fig. 4. 



11 



(as at c c). AYhen there are no fruitful buds near to 
the origin of the spur, those are left that are farther 
off ; but always take care to preserve the bud situated 
nearest to the branch which supports the spur, whether 
it be a growing or a fruitful one (as spur B, in which 
a is a fruitful bud, and b a growing one). If there 
be a suitable supply of buds upon the old part of the 
spur (as C, c c c), they are retained in preference to 
those buds formed at the bases of shoots which have 
been pruned during summer (a e b) for, when there 
is a proper supply on the old spur, all such shoots are 
cut clean away, with the exception of one that is situ- 
ated near to the origin of the spur (as e), when that 
bud and the two next are only left. 

Summer Pruning is performed as before directed. 

Sixth Year. — Winter Pruning. — In order to con- 
vey a correct idea of the treatment of the spurs in 
future, it will be necessary to point them out by num- 
bers, as 1, 2, and 3. The enumeration will proceed 




Fig. 5. 



12 



from the bole of the tree, along the branch. After 
three spurs are thus numbered, begin again, and pro- 
ceed with No. 1, &c. (agreeably to fig 5). Every spur 
No. I is now cut down to the lowest bud there is 
upon it, whether it be a fruitful bud (as a), or a grow- 
ing bud (as b). Every spur No. 2 to have three fruit 
buds (as c c c), and every spur No. 3 to have four 
fruit buds (as d d d d). "When a spur No. 1 is des- 
titute of either a fruitful or a growing bud towards 
the lower part of it, such a spur is cut down so low 
as only to leave about half an inch remaining (as 
fig. 5, A). There is generally an eye or embryo of 
a bud situated near to the origin of the spur (as a, 
spur A) ; from this a shoot or a fruitful bud is pro- 
duced the ensuing summer, and thus a supply is ob- 
tained for that cut away. 

Summer Pruning. — All shoots are shortened during 
summer, as before directed. Particular care is paid 
to the spurs No. 1, as a shoot or a fruitful bud is 
generally produced nearer to the base of the spur that 
was left at winter pruning, and most commonly at the 
opposite side of the spur to it. Either a shoot or a 
fruitful bud generally pushes from those spurs that 
were cut entirely down (as spur A, fig. 5) ; the shoots 
are cut down, as directed for others. 

Seventh Year. — Winter Pruning. — The spurs No. 
1 now generally have two fruit buds each ; they are 
allowed to retain them (as fig. 6, a a). If, instead of 



13 



a fruitful bud, a shoot pushed (as 5), and a fruitful 
bud was formed at the lower part of it, the shoot is 




then cut off just above it (as at c) ; but, if there is 
not a fruitful bud formed, it is cut down so as to 
leave it an inch long (as at d). The spurs No. 2 
have four fruit buds left upon each (as e e e e) ; the 
spurs No. 3 are now cut down, so that only one fruit- 
ful bud remains (as/). If a fruit bud has been pro- 
duced from the spur (as spur A fig. 5), it is left entire 
(as fig. 6, g) ; but, if a short instead of a fruitful 
bud, it is cut off just above the lowest bud, whether 
a fruitful or a growing bud (as at h, spur B ) . This 
treatment to such spurs cut entirely down, is always 
pursued to similar ones in future. 

Summer Pruning. — This is attended to agreeably 
to the foregoing directions. 

Eighth Tear.— Winter Pruning. — The spurs No. 
1 are allowed to retain three buds each (as fig. 7, a 
a a), and the spurs No. 2 are now cut down (as b) ; 
the spurs No. 3 are regulated as was done to spurs 



14 



Nos. 1 and 2. (See Sixth and Seventh Year's Summer 
Pruning.) 




Fig. 7. 



Ninth Year. — Winter Pruning. — The spurs No. 
1 are allowed to have four fruit buds each (as fig. 8, 
a a a a) ; the spurs No. 1 to have two fruitful buds 
(as h b), and the spurs No. 3 to have three (as c c c). 

Summer Pruning. — Performed as before. 




2 

Fig. 8. 



Tenth Year. — Winter Pruning. — The spurs No. 1 
are now cut down again (as fig. 9, a, a fruitful bud, 
and b } sl growing bud). The spurs No. 2 are pruned 
to three fruit buds (as c c c) 9 and the spurs No. 3 
to four fruit buds (as d d d d) . 

It will be observed that the spurs No. 1 have now 



15 



been cut down twice ; the first time in the sixth year, 
and the second in the tenth. Thus, those spurs cut 




down to a fruitful bud (as fig. 5, a) have borne fruit 
four years ; and those spurs cut entirely down, or to 
a growing bud (as A, b } fig. 5), would have only 
borne fruit three years. In these two cases, always 
leave the spurs with three fruit buds each this winter, 
and cut them down the following winter, unless they 
have grown very vigorously and straggling. 

The system already detailed of cutting down and 
renewing the spurs, is practised with all others as 
here directed. Thus, the next year, the spurs No. 
3 are cut down (as in fig. 6, /) ; and the second year 
from this time, the spurs No. 2 (as fig. 7, b) ; and 
in the fourth year from the present time, the spurs 
No. 1 (as fig. 5, a, and fig. 9, a) require to be cut 
down again. 

Conclusion. — To some the above directions may 
appear tedious and intricate ; but it became necessary 



16 



to enter into minute details, in order to illustrate the 
principle of this system of pruning, which is to obtain 
spurs always at a proper distance from each other, so 
that a suitable portion of sun and air may be admitted 
to them, and so that the spurs may always be kept 
supplied with young healthy wood and fruitful buds. 
(Card. Mag iii. 2.) 

To those who desire to make the apple a pet, and 
have plenty of spare time to attend to the minutiae as 
here detailed, the foregoing will be of immense assist- 
ance. Such a long detail, however, is rather too 
complicated for the many ; and we will shortly add a 
few plain words of advice as to the fundamental prin- 
ciples of wall-training ; principles which, however the 
thing may be carried out, must be steadily kept in 
view. In the first place, then, we would direct atten- 
tion to the construction of the border, on which so 
much depends. When the expense of building walls 
is considered, we think that it is a mistaken economy 
not to take proper means to ensure success to the 
trees planted against them. A good sound and 
slightly adhesive soil must be obtained, but of this 
we spoke fully under the section Orchard Culture. 
In the next place, the border must be thoroughly 
drained. Mr. Harrison's directions on these heads 
are very complete indeed ; the only points in which 
we differ are in the depth of the border, and the in- 
troduction of a drain parallel with, and close to, the 



17 



wall. We think there is little occasion for the latter, 
more especially if a much shallower border is made. 
Mr. H. advises three feet deep at back ; we say two. 
There is no real necessity for all this expensive body 
of soil. It is well known that the solar rays are great 
ameliorators of the soil, and that, somehow or other, 
they conduce to the fructifying principle in fruits. 
Upon what grounds, then, can three feet of soil be 
advocated ? Deep roots have frequently been found 
to induce disease, more especially canker. Besides, 
if the tree be furnished with so much good soil, it 
must, if healthy, rapidly penetrate to the bottom ; 
and one sure consequence will be the production of 
much useless summer spray, and the entailment of 
much extra labour and attention. As to the pruning 
course suggested by Mr. Harrison, it appears very 
good ; indeed, scarcely any other course can be fol- 
lowed. TVe feel much gratified with his remarks on 
summer pruning ; too little attention is given to this 
point, and this is the besetting sin of modern train- 
ing. Expensive walls are built, costly borders pre- 
pared, good trees sought out, and a most scientific 
mode of winter pruning carried out ; and yet the 
trees are barren — and why ? The reasons are obvi- 
ous. It requires much light, as well as a free circu- 
lation of air, to elaborate perfect blossom buds ; and 
at the very period, the -mid die of summer, when this 
process is in full course, one-half the light, and much 

c 



13 



of the free circulation of air, is arrested by a profusion 
of laterals, which are to be reserved for the same 
round of scientific winter pruning. Mr. Harrison 
has very properly recommended the pinching back 
superfluous summer laterals to about three leaves ; 
these will assist in the elaborative process, without 
shading the leaves of the blossom buds. We would 
merely advert to another point, and that is the dis- 
tance at which the leaders should be trained. Mr. 
H. recommends, we find, nine inches ; we think this 
little enough ; if ten or eleven, so much the better. 
It is not the gardener who can cram the most wood 
within a given space who obtains the most fruit ; we 
think generally the reverse. However, we say, let no 
person think of placing them less than nine inches 
apart. 

All the rest of Mr. Harrison's remarks are so 
good, and so evidently the results of an observant 
mind of great experience, that we need say no more 
on this head. 

Ripeness of Fruit. — Having now passed through 
the various modes of cultivating the apple, we may 
offer a few remarks upon the modes of ascertaining 
the fitness of the fruit for gathering, resemng the 
consideration of storing to a future section. Note 
when the fruit begins to drop naturally from the tree, 
or, which is a better criterion to avoid loss by wind- 
falling, to part freely from the stem on being moved. 



19 



Failing in these outward indications of ripeness, the 
gardener has only to cut open a single fruit, and if 
the seeds appear of a black or brownish colour, it is 
fit to gather ; but if they are not coloured, then the 
fruit should be allowed to hang some time longer, be- 
cause, if gathered prematurely, it will very soon after- 
wards shrivel, and never acquire that flavour, or keep 
so well under the most favourable circumstances, as 
when it is suffered to remain on the tree until it is 
thoroughly matured. In no case should fruit be 
shaken from the tree, as we too frequently see it done ; 
on the contrary, it ought to be all hand-picked when 
perfectly dry, and treated with the utmost care, to 
avoid bruising. When transferred from the basket 
in which it is gathered, to the place where it is finally 
to remain, the fruit should, if possible, be arranged 
side by side, with its eye downwards. (Gard. Chron. 
1841, 644.) 

Gathering is a point to which more than ordinary 
importance attaches, for the fruit should be plucked 
exactly at the time when it has arrived at a fit condi- 
tion. This remark applies more particularly to those 
kinds which ripen in early autumn, and do not keep, 
perhaps, more than two or three months; and this can 
only be determined by careful and frequent examination s . 
The too frequent practice of waiting until the fruit 
begins to drop is best avoided, and it is equally bad to 
gather before the fruit becomes properly matured ; in 
c 2 



20 



the former ease the fruit is apt to lose the finest part 
of its flavour, and never keeps in use so long as it 
otherwise would do ; and in the latter, owing to the 
imperfect elaboration of its juices, a due portion of 
saccharine matter is not secreted in the fruit, and con- 
sequently it never attains its proper flavour. In 
gathering the fruit, each should be taken by the hand, 
and gently lifted upwards ; the stalk will then readily 
separate from the branch, without breaking away the 
buds which are always situated near the fruit-stalk of 
each, and which are those that produce blossoms the 
next year. The circumstance that trees, after produc- 
ing large crops, very frequently bear none, or but few, 
the following season, is occasioned as much by the 
careless manner of plucking — by which these buds 
are broken — as it is from exhaustion by reason of 
the excessive crop. (Gard. Journ. 1845, 603.) 

The rules for gathering may be thus epitomized : — 
1 . Gather whilst the fruit requires a slight effort to 
separate them from the spurs. 2. Do not pull them 
off by main force, but bend them back until they 
separate from the branch. 3. Gather them in dry 
weather. 4. Let the gathering-baskets contain no 
more than a peck each, with two handles, a connect- 
ing rope, and an iron pothook. 

Let each basket be lined throughout with sacking, 
and let the fruit of each basket be carried at once 
to the floor covered with sand, and taken out one by 



21 



one, not poured out, as is too usual, into a larger 
basket, and then again from this into a heap ; this 
systematic mode of inflicting small bruises is sure to 
usher in decay. 



ESPALIER AND FANCY TRAINING. 

We consider no garden of any pretensions complete 
without the trained espalier, in some form or other. 
Independently of their use in producing fruit of a 
superior character, when rightly managed, they in- 
duce, perhaps, more towards the interest felt in the 
highly cultivated kitchen garden than any other 
feature. They serve to relieve the eye from the mo- 
notony produced, by gazing continually on the ordi- 
nary vegetables, which alone would give the idea of a 
mere commercial garden. 

About drainage and soil, we need say nothing ; as 
far as the apple is concerned, precisely the same soil 
and the same precautions against excess of moisture 
are requisite here as in wall culture. We might indeed 
say almost the same in regard of pruning, whether 
summer or winter: we will, however, give that a special 
notice briefly, in order to draw attention to its prin- 
ciples. 

Our first business will be with the various modes 



22 



of espalier training in practice. These may be com- 
prised under the following designations. 

1st. The ordinary wood espalier rail. 
2nd. The strained wire espalier rail. 
3rd. The cast-iron espalier rail. 
4th. The horizontal or table trellis. 
5th. The trellised arcade. 
6th. The saddle espalier. 
7th. Pryramidal or conical training. 
8th. Pendulous or down training. 

These, we believe, will comprise all the best modes 
in practice, to which the apple can be subjected. 

The Ordinary Wood Espalier Rail. — This is best 
constructed of larch, or with oak uprights, and a larch 
rail at top. The uprights, whether of oak or larch, 
should be charred and tarred, previously, at the lower 
end. They are placed perpendicularly, at about nine 
or ten inches apart, and of about five feet in height. 
The trees, of course, are trained horizontally, and the 
main leaders should be established in parallel lines, at 
about nine inches apart. The main fabric of the tree 
must be progressively formed precisely in the way re- 
commended by Mr. C. Harrison. The stakes will 
not last many years, neither is it particularly neces- 
sary, as the trees, under good management, will sup- 
port themselves in as short a period. 



23 



The Strained Wire Espalier Rail. — This is one of 
the most economical, most durable, and handsomest 
rails at present in use in this country ; not only for 
training fruit trees, but for a variety of other pur- 
poses, and is by no means sufficiently known. One 
of its greatest merits is its simplicity ; as nothing is 
to be seen but a few plain uprights, and the horizon- 
tal wires. The uprights should be fixed on stones 
however, which should rise about six inches above the 
ground level : this will give the whole a more finished 
appearance. It is stated, on pretty good authority, 
that this fence may be erected for the very small sum 
of two shillings per yard lineal. The same height, 
viz. five feet, may be observed here as in the wooden 
rail, and the trees trained in the same way. 

The Cast-Iron Espalier Bail. — We merely notice 
these rails in due course, to observe that they are 
much more expensive than the former. Where high 
architectural finish is required, they may however 
be employed, as they are capable of more expression 
and embellishment. 

The Horizontal or Table Trellis. — This is a most 
desirable mode of training for the possessors of small 
gardens, where, from the severe limitation of space, 
it is by no means expedient to shut out even a small 
amount. They will, however, from being so very near 



24 



the soil, bring many of the tenderer kinds of fruit to a 
mneh greater degree of perfection than any other 
mode of espalier training. They are a very suitable 
accompaniment of the garden walk, but it is not ex- 
pedient to have a border on the walk side : it is best 
to let them come to the edge of the walk. They 
should be about a foot from the ground, and should 
be formed of parallel bars, like the perpendicular trel- 
lises. They may, of course, be either metallic or of wood; 
and we see no reason why the strained wires before 
described should not be employed in this case. 

The Trellised Arcade. — This mode of training is 
of more recent introduction, and it is very ornamental. 
It will form a very good connecting link, or mode of 
transition, from the kitchen to the flower-garden, or 
to anything of an episodical character. In all such 
cases they should be high enough for head room ; 
seven feet would be required in the centre of the arch. 
They should, if possible, run nearly north and south, 
or at least not quite due east and west \ as, in that 
event, there would be a northern aspect, which would 
certainly not suit the finer sorts of apples ; although 
it might be made available for the Morello cherry, 
for currants, &c. &c. The principles of construction 
will be familiar to any ordinary workman : strong 
uprights to support the fabric, and bars to train are 
placed parallel at nine inches apart. 



25 



The Saddle Espalier. — Little need be said about 
this, for it is merely the trellised arcade, divested of 
the tall uprights. These are extensively employed in 
her Majesty's gardens at Frogmore, and tend to give 
the whole a geometric and highly-finished appearance. 
These would, perhaps, be more eligible for the owners 
of small gardens than any of the other modes ; more 
especially if made in the manner of the strained wire 
rail before described. They may be from three to 
five feet high in the centre, and about five feet wide 
at the base ; the bottom wires coming to within six 
inches of the ground. 

We have now gone through the principal forms of 
espalier training, as applicable to the apple ; and will 
now proceed to say a few words about fancy modes of 
training, without fencing or treillage of any kind. 

Pyramidal or Conical Training. — We are not aware 
that this mode has been applied to the apple to any 
extent, but we can see no reason why it should not, 
where space is very limited, or artistical forms are re- 
quisite, which is sometimes the case in the immediate 
vicinity of buildings. Fine young plants, with strong 
and straight shoots, must be selected for the purpose, 
and they must be headed back, when established, to 
about thirty inches, in order to cause them to develop 
abundance of side shoots. A leader must be selected, 
and trained upward to form the main stem, and this 



26 



must be successively headed back iu like manner, in 
order to get the stem well clothed. The trees, when 
completed, must form a complete pyramid, the bottom 
side branches extending about two to three feet from 
the base of the trunk every way, and tapering pro- 
gressively towards the summit, which may be from 
six to seven feet in height. The ordinary rules of 
thinning to admit light must be practised, together 
with a course of summer stopping : by the latter 
means alone, the strength of the tree may at all times 
be equalised in all its parts. Trees to be thus closely 
pruned, which must of necessity be the case, should 
be severely limited at the root. We are of opinion 
that, wherever such close limitation of the branches is 
enforced, a compost composed of one-half sound 
loam, and the other half broken stones, to intercept 
the too speedy action of the roots, would be very be- 
neficial. This, however, we have not proved, and 
merely throw out the hint for those disposed to expe- 
riment in this way. 

Pendulous or Down Training, — This has been 
practised with much success for the apple, at Crox- 
teth Park, the seat of the Earl of Sefton, as also at 
some other places. We have been in the habit of 
looking over the Croxteth gardens for nineteen years, 
and can therefore speak as to the success of this mode. 
We have, indeed, practised it to a very great extent 



27 



with the New Flemish pears ourselves, for sixteen 
years ; and we must say that it is always attended with 
the best of success, providing due attention be given 
to those preparatory steps, as well as subsequent pro- 
cesses, which become essential. 

In applying this mode to the apple, a strong stemmed 
and clean young tree, of about two or three years from 
the graft, should be selected. When established, it 
should be headed down to the height of four feet 
maximum ; this will cause it to develop four or five 
shoots of a long and straight character. These, then, 
will commence the formation of the future principal 
down branches of the tree. They must be bent down 
by some means before the month of April ; some load 
them with balls of clay ; some tie them down by driving 
a hooked stick in the ground, and attaching them by 
a string. In the course of the succeeding summer, the 
sap being partially intercepted from these pendulous 
shoots, more shoots will be produced from the crown ; 
what are wanted of these must be reserved to undergo 
down training in the next spring ; the rest, of course, 
must be stopped in due time. And thus the tree is 
completed, the downward shoots describing a circle 
at their extremities of some three to four feet from 
the main stem on all sides. 

We have now discussed all the modes at present 
known, as applicable- to the apple ; but it must be 
borne in mind, that no system of deepening soils, or 



28 



high manuring, is compatible with such highly arti- 
ficial modes of culture. 



FORCING. 

About the forcing of the apple comparatively little is 
known of a systematic character ; and we are not 
aware that any structure has hitherto been built spe- 
cially for this purpose. That they can be forced 
there is little doubt ; but we think that in the present 
improved character of the dessert, few persons would 
undergo the trouble and expense of appropriating a 
house to them. However, as some of our readers 
may desire to grow them early in pots or tubs, we 
will endeavour to orFer a little advice as to the proper 
course to pursue. As to structure, we should say 
that a low span-roof house, running north and south, 
with a walk along the two sides, and the middle ap- 
propriated to the dwarf apple trees in tubs, would be 
the most eligible. Those who have not such a struc- 
ture, might keep them in an ordinary pit, sinking for 
head room. There should be two sets of plants, in 
order that choice might freely be made when any be- 
came exhausted. The plants should be what are 
termed "clean maidens," and should be grown from 
pot to pot, and thence to the tub or box in which 



29 



they are finally to remain. The young plants might 
be placed in a twelve-inch pot first, and remain in it 
for a couple of years, and then receive a shift into one 
a little larger ; and in a couple of years longer, they 
would require a roomy box or tub ; after which it 
would be needless to shift them, as they might be 
sustained many years by the application of liquid ma- 
nures, and by top-dressings. The young plant being 
potted, should be headed back to a few buds on each 
shoot, of which there should be at least three ; if four, 
so much the better. A very rich and adhesive loam 
should be chosen, with a great thickness of old turfy 
sward : this should be chopped with a spade into small 
pieces, and what loose soil became disintegrated 
should be utterly rejected, using the lumpy turf alone. 
We do not think that it would be expedient to use 
any farther amount of vegetable matter, the turf 
being so very full ; but we think that some new horse- 
droppings might be added ; and, above all, a liberal 
sprinkling of bone manure of the size of radish seeds, 
and plenty of small charcoal. 

The plants being thus established, taking care above 
all things that they are thoroughly drained, they 
should be plunged above the ground level in some 
light medium, such as half-decomposed leaves, or 
cinder ashes. 

In each season, when the young shoots had grown 
a foot in length, we would stop them by pinching : 



30 



this will hare a tendency to produce blossom spurs, 
and will control the too luxuriant or rapid growth of 
the plant. Those shoots of a subordinate character, 
and not so strong, may be left growing ; and this course 
persisted in, will constantly equalise the distribution 
of the sap, and keep the plants well balanced and 
symmetrical. 

In forcing, a very moderate amount of heat must 
be allowed ; for it is well known that the apple suc- 
ceeds best in temperate climes. If a small amount 
of bottom-heat could be allowed during the earlier 
period of forcing, or until the blossom was set, it 
would no doubt be an advantage ; after which period 
the root would require no extra stimulus, except the 
occasional aid of clear liquid manure. The bottom- 
heat, however, should not be above 70 degrees. The 
atmospheric treatment should much resemble that of 
cherry forcing, keeping up a very free circulation of 
air, with moist floors or others surfaces, and a very 
low night temperature. The forcing might com- 
mence at 50 degs. day heat, and be suffered to ad- 
vance 2 degs. a week until 60 degs. was attained, be- 
yond which it should seldom range, unless by sun 
heat. The night temperature should range from 40 
to 45 degs. at first, advancing in a progressive way to 
55 degs., which, for the most part, should be the 
maximum, except at the latter stages. The growth 
of the young wood would be a tolerably good criterion 



31 



of the mode of forcing : if this become attenuated, 
over-heating might reasonably be suspected. Under 
a proper system of forcing, it would be short-jointed. 
Syringing would be frequently necessary, except at 
the blossoming and ripening periods, when it must be 
entirely withheld. Liberal waterings must be given, 
especially when the fruit is swelling. It is well known 
what prejudicial effects are occasioned by drought at 
that period with the out-door apples. Liquid manure 
should be very frequently used, in a very weak state : 
clarified soot-water, with one ounce of guano to two 
gallons, would be found very eligible. During the 
whole of the process, the pots or tubs should be kept 
plunged, and some provision should be made to pre- 
vent the ingress of the worms. 

The plants, when in a rest state, should receive an 
annual dressing on the wood, in order to keep down 
insects. Some lime-water, with two ounces of soft- 
soap to each gallon, and the addition of six ounces of 
flour of sulphur, would be excellent, brushing it into 
every crevice of the wood. 



CULTIVATION OF THE APPLE AS A 
CIDER FRUIT. 

It is not our intention to offer a thorough detail of 
all the practices which are pursued in the cider coun- 



32 

ties ; the limits of this work (were such at all desir- 
able) would by no means permit such a course. 
Indeed, some of the practices in those districts are 
not such as can by any means be backed by first-rate 
horticulturists of the present day ; having arisen 
through mere expediency, and frequently betraying 
a lamentable ignorance of those first principles which 
it is absolutely necessary to understand in order to 
carry out any art to the perfection of which it is 
capable. 

We will, however, advert occasionally to some of 
those practices, in order to throw additional light on 
the subject. 

The subject will arrange itself under the following 
heads : — 

1st. Preparation of orchard sites. 
2nd. Mode of planting, distance, &c. 
3rd. Under crops in the earlier stages. 
4th. Pruning, top-dressing, renovation of decaying 
trees, &c. &c. 

Preparation of Orchard Sites. — There is, we are 
given to understand, very little attention paid to the 
preparation of soils for orchards. Here is plain proof 
of how much these things are capable of improve- 
ment ; for if it is necessary to carry out a complete sys- 
tem of drainage for the ordinary agricultural crops, it 



33 



is surely equally so for a work which, when completed, 
is expected to endure for so many years ; which is so 
expensive in the outset, and which is capable of yield- 
ing so much profit if crowned with success. 

We understand that, in the Worcester orchards, 
whatever drainage has taken place previously to estab- 
lishing an orchard, is in general what has been carried 
out in the usual course of tillage : on which lands, 
and but seldom on grass or leys, orchards are estab- 
lished. 

The first great matter at the outset, then, is tho- 
rough drainage ; for, although the apple affects a 
sound and rather adhesive loam, such must be on a 
very sound and somewhat dry bottom. A loam of 
this character, three feet in depth, on a dry and per- 
vious bed of gravel, would be perfection itself, as re- 
gards the apple : such, however, can be seldom ob- 
tained. 

About the various modes of thorough draining, we 
can say little here ; but merely add, that no system 
of open surface-gutters should be relied on : such 
may serve a temporary purpose, but in sour or over- 
retentive soils, something more is needed. 

If the substratum is of a cold and barren character, 
means should be taken to prevent the trees forming 
tap-roots, and descending into this infertile medium. 
Any hard and imperishable material will suffice ; and 
the surface of this should rise a few inches above the 

D 



34 



ordinary surface of the substratum. For of what use 
can it be to decoy the roots below this level ? When 
they reach the sides of their prepared holes, they will 
of course be circumscribed like a flower in a garden- 
pot. We have known much ill-success in planting 
occur through this injudicious proceeding. 

We think that land, after a moderate course of tillage, 
is in a fitter state, on the whole, for establishing an 
orchard, than old leys, especially if a thorough system 
of drainage has to be established. For although turf 
is a most desirable thing to imbed the $pple roots in, 
yet the necessary porosity of the soil through raw 
organic matter, in abundance, might in dry periods 
subject the orchard to an inconvenient amount of 
drought ; from which the well-tilled soil would com- 
paratively escape. Soil in this state also furnishes an 
excellent opportunity for thorough drainage, and when 
this is completed, the centres between the lines of 
trees is directly available for either green or white 
crops; for hops, or for laying down to grass, if neces- 
sary. 

Depth of soil is certainly a great essential in apple 
cultivation. It, however, so happens, that some "thin- 
skinned" loamy soils will grow very fine apples, pro- 
viding no stagnation takes place at the root. When 
such is the case, we would advise by all means deepen- 
ing the lines, where the apples are to be planted, at 
the expense of the adjacent ground. In such cases 



i 



35 



the trees would stand upon the crown of a ridge, which 
should extend at least three feet on each side the tree, 
in the earlier stages of growth : this course will leave 
a deepened alley on each side, which, if the soil be 
sound and somewhat adhesive, will prove beneficial. 
This alley should retreat (if we may use the term) at 
frequent intervals, and of course drive away the plough 
or spade in a progressive way. If the orchard became 
very thriving, nearly a foot a year might be added to 
the exterior of the ridge ; at least, after being planted 
about six or seven years. One thing we would insist 
on, and that is, that the three feet originally appro- 
priated to the tree should not be cropped; or, if cropped 
at all, we would limit it to such crops as do not re- 
quire the earth to be stirred above three inches in 
depth. It would be far better to lay it down in grass 
than to disturb the surface-roots any deeper. We are, 
however, informed by good authority, that young 
orchards under the farmer's care generally thrive 
better when kept broken, than in a rest state; at least, 
in the early stages. 

By such a course, the apple might ultimately be 
made to " shake hands," as it is technically termed, 
of green crops all over the field ; and in the end, one 
broad and deep excavation would be left between the 
centre of the rows, all through the orchard, which 
would serve as drainage and for passage. 

With regard to laying the land down in grass be- 
d 2 



36 



tween the trees, or planting on leys, it should be 
borne in mind that, if to be grazed, it is expensive 
and difficult to keep the trees protected from the 
cattle ; and as for mowing continually, it so exhausts 
the soil, that top-dressings of some kind will become 
necessary. Hops or green crops would, therefore, 
seem to be most eligible. 

Before closing with this division of the subject, it 
will be well to repeat, that a sound and somewhat 
greasy loam is the most eligible for the apple. It 
matters little what the shade of colour be ; we would, 
however, prefer it of a bright yellowish brown, or of 
a hazel colour, and, by all means, of a uniform cha- 
racter. It is a well-known fact, according to the 
Hereford cultivators, that the same sorts from a 
lighter soil produce inferior cider to those on stiff 
soils. Pears, on the contrary, for perry purposes, do 
well on the lighter soils, and the perry is found to be 
of superior quality. Hence the finest cider and the 
finest perry are seldom found in the same localities. 

Distance, Mode of Planting, fyc. — No set distance 
is observed in the regular orchard districts ; the 
practice varies much in this respect. In many of the 
Worcester and Hereford orchards they are far too 
close. We should consider fifteen yards at least as 
necessary ; whereas in many orchards they will be 
found as close as sixteen or twenty feet. 

When planted thus close the branches become so 



37 



interwoven, and covered with moss, that the fruit can 
scarcely be seen ; and these are, of course, very small 
and inferior. In the grass grounds of Gloucester- 
shire, and by some superior cultivators on arable land 
in Herefordshire, they may be frequently met with at 
least twenty yards apart. 

The mode of planting appears to be what is com- 
monly termed the quincunx or angular mode : to this 
there need be no objection. As to the mode of plant- 
ing the trees, very little ceremony is observed in 
general ; many are what gardeners would term stuck 
in, rather than planted. 

We would advise some pains to be taken, however ; 
especially if the soil is not first-rate, and perhaps 
stubborn. In the latter case it would be necessary to 
open the holes in the autumn, and to let the exca- 
vated soil become mellowed through a long winter by 
the action of the frost. In addition, we would use a 
little mellow compost round each tree ; such as an 
old manure heap, composed of furrowings and ma- 
nure, which has lain a long time, and has been turned 
and thoroughly blended. "We would also add a little 
mulch on the surface, to protect the roots from 
drought, until the trees are established. The month 
of November is the best time, providing the soil is 
mellow and the land generally in order : when, how- 
ever, this is not the case, the latter end of February 
would be preferable. 



38 



Under Crops in the Earlier Stages, — We before re- 
commended at least fifteen yards distance as very- 
eligible ; we would, however, advise a much wider 
distance between the lines or rows as breathing places, 
being persuaded that such will be found of immense 
utility. They will assist in setting the blossoms, will 
be in some degree corrective of the aptitude to gather 
moss, to which aged trees in confined situations are 
liable, and will moreover produce increased size and 
flavour in the fruit. The ground between will be of 
great service in regard of other matters, whether 
green or white crops. The kind of crop in use in the 
orchard counties, depends in part on the general eco- 
nomy of the farm, of which the orchard forms a part. 
We cannot help thinking, however, that green crops 
in general would be most eligible ; in the earlier 
stages, white or corn crops may be resorted to, but 
the increasing shade of the trees will ultimately render 
such crops too unproductive to be long persisted in. 
We should think that such land might be rendered 
of great service if constantly under green crops, pro- 
viding manure could be spared for the purpose. Thus 
turnips, parsnips, carrots, the drumhead cabbage, the 
mangold wortzel, and potatoes, might alternate in a 
proper way, with perhaps occasionally a two years' 
rest in grass, which should be mowed and not eaten 
by cattle; for surely it would be a most desirable thing 
to exclude them altogether from the orchard. It 



39 



must be admitted that, when under grass, the early 
spring feed is very valuable ; it has been found, how- 
ever, that the trees do not make such rapid pro- 
gress as when cultivation is carried on between the 
rows. In some parts, it is the custom to introduce 
the hop culture, and when this is the case, the hop- 
yard is in general commenced with the orchard ; the 
hops being counted a much better nursery than tillage. 
This is continued until the trees attain an inconvenient 
size. 

Taking, therefore, the exclusion of stock of all 
kinds as a guiding principle, we cannot but think 
that white or grain crops occasionally in the earlier 
stages, sinking finally into a well-planned rotation of 
green crops, with an occasional rest for a couple of 
years under grass, will, on the whole, be found the 
most profitable and convenient. 

Pruning, Top-dressing, Renovation of Decaying 
Trees, fyc. — The trees having been duly planted after 
a due training in the nursery, little pruning is needed 
in their earlier stages ; as much, however, should be 
practised annually, as will cause the tree to form an 
expanding head, in proper form. To accomplish 
this, those trees which do not diverge sufficiently in 
their side branches, should have such pruned back 
for the first two or -three years, taking care to cut to 
an eye placed where the branch is required to diverge 



40 



from, The trees at planting should he primed rather 
close, making a selection of twigs so placed as to form 
the main fabric of the future tree ; and these should 
be shortened in planting to four or five buds each. 
Those trees which, from their own natural habit, be" 
come over-crowded with young sprays, should have a 
slight thinning occasionally in their earlier stages; and 
in doing so, the middle of the tree should be kept 
rather open for a while, in order to admit light to 
solidify and strengthen the surrounding shoots, whilst 
the tree is in course of forming. We should consider 
that a little pruning would be beneficial every two 
years, even after the trees are established ; such, 
however, we fear, would by many be thought trouble- 
some ; yet, when it is considered how light the task 
would be from its frequency, the objections will be 
found to possess little validity. Such pruning would 
be confined to the removal, in due time, of branches 
in thick parts of the tree, thwarting or chafing each 
other ; and to a light thinning of the superfluous 
sprays, in order to give stability to the different parts 
of the tree, and to facilitate the swelling of the fruit, 
which, when choked with competing shoots, can never 
attain to a due amount of perfection. 

When the orchard has come into full bearing, very 
little pruning will be necessary; it will for a few years 
almost prune itself. After a lapse of years, together 
with heavy crops, the trees will become rather languid; 



41 



and at this period we would take extra steps to reno- 
vate and sustain the weakened constitution of the tree. 
Top-dressing now becomes necessary, and although 
not a matter of ordinary practice in the cider districts, 
yet one not the less necessary. Wfe have known many 
a fine old tree sink by degrees unassisted; whilst, for- 
sooth, young trees full of vigour, and from which the 
trouble and expense might well have been spared, 
were revelling in manures. As this is not a common 
practice, we will explain how we think it would be 
rendered practicable. 

The mere shovellings of the fold-yard, or the slutch, 
would be excellent material for this purpose ; such is 
generally rich in urinary matters, which would speedily 
be carried down by the rains to the roots. When the 
trees were to be renovated by such matter, it should 
be laid on several inches in thickness ; and as such 
would require a good deal of manure, as well as labour, 
a few trees might be done each autumn. 

We would pare off the turf from the surface of the 
roots four inches in thickness ; and then lay on the 
manure, replacing the thick turves, in a light way. 
The turves should be cut in small squares of about 
six inches ; this would afford numerous crevices for 
the rain to enter, in order to carry the properties of 
the manure to the roots. 

In this way much valuable assistance might be 
afforded, which we have no doubt would be amply 



42 



repaid in the size of the fruit, together with the re- 
newed constitution of the tree. To carry out, how- 
ever, renovation principles to their utmost, some 
severe pruning would be necessary, as an adjunct to 
the top-dressing. This must consist in removing all 
inferior shoots which shew symptoms of premature 
decay — especially those with decayed points — and in 
encouraging the tree to bear more towards the ex- 
treme points, w r hich in general retain their vigour 
longest in old trees. 

The cutting away of main limbs should be avoided 
as much as possible ; this is in general productive of 
serious consequences to most fruit-trees ; and the late 
T. A. Knight, Esq., of Downton, was much opposed 
to the practice. The authority of such a person may 
well cause us to hesitate before carrying such pruning 
to any extent. 

Concluding Reynarks. — We have said nothing about 
nursery management, as the general princples will be 
found embodied in the former parts of this work. 
Before closing, however, we will endeavour to offer a 
few useful remarks on this head. 

There are but few sorts of either apples or pears 
that extend widely over the cider districts : the sorts 
are for the most part local. Many farmers, after the 
cider or perry has been pressed from the pulp — then 
termed " Must" — lay it in drills in some spare corner 



43 



of the field, and hereby raise hundreds of seedlings ; 

and many of these, if they grow kindly, are planted 

in the orchards, being first trained in the nursery to 

the required height, and their produce tried. If such 

are found worthless, they are of course grafted. As 

to farmers selecting their seeds, we believe that 

scarcely one in a hundred takes that trouble ; there 

can be no doubt, however, that this should ever be 

regarded as one of the fundamental steps to be taken 

in order to perfect an orchard system. 

Many of the old cider apples, which were esteemed 

in former days, are now rejected, being what is termed 

" worn out." Thus the following is a list from an 

excellent judge of orcharding, a friend of ours, in 

Worcestershire, which points to a class of the kind. 

Door i^pple 
Cook ditto 
Peach ditto 



London Pearmain 
Bricklin 
Old Russet 
John Apple 
Red Streak 
Foxwhelp 
Dalby's Kernel 
Lilley's ditto 
Dimmack ditto 
Captain's ditto 
Rushorth Pearmain 
Queen's Favourite 
Broughton's Kernel 
Jones's ditto 



Old sorts, which should 
not be continued : they 
soon canker and decay. 



^ All new and good 
bearers. 



44 



Thus far "Worcestershire ; and similar reports might 
be made of the other counties. This points at once 
to the necessity of improved practices, especially as 
to care in selecting seed from proper kinds ; and espe- 
cially of souud constitution : instead of raising indis- 
criminately from the " Must/*' 

We would advise all who are desirous of improving 
on the old practices, to be particular in their nursery 
management. We would carefully select our seed ac- 
cording to the maxims previously laid down ; we 
would sow it on soil of a fresh character, at least not 
in ground which had previously been occupied in like 
manner ; and at transplanting time, we would sort 
them into three distinct samples. First we would 
pick out all those possessing very stout and short- 
jointed wood, as being likely to produce occasionally 
good fruit without grafting. The second selection 
should include all that look healthy and strong ; and 
the third lot we would entirely reject as being the 
smallest, and thereby, probably, of delicate constitu- 
tion. The latter, however, might be suffered to un- 
dergo another two years' probation in the nursery, if 
thought desirable. 

It should be borne in mind in nursery treatment, 
that, in rearing standards with high stems, it is neces- 
sary to practise what is termed " snagging in" by 
nurserymen, that is, leaving a joint or two on each 
of the side shoots, previous to the full development 



45 



of the head, at pruning time. This is done to give 
strength and thickness to the main stem, and will 
accomplish the matter much better than by total 
stripping. As soon, however, as the head is fairly 
formed, these must be pruned close away to the bole, 
in a neat and workmanlike manner. 

In speaking of distance in. planting, we forgot to 
name one fact, which must at all times influence the 
distance ; that is, the quality and depth of the soil. 
It will be seen at a glance that these have a powerful 
influence on the ultimate size of the tree, as well as 
rapidity of growth. 

As the trees are liable (where cattle are introduced 
to the orchard) to damage of different kinds, much 
precaution is necessary in guarding against it. It is 
a very good plan, adopted in some districts, of wrap- 
ping a straw or hay rope around the stem of the young 
tree ; if these become injured, a smearing of tar would 
soon deter them from meddling farther. Some persons 
make up a nauseous mixture, composed of night-soil, 
lime, cowdung and water ; to which we would by all 
means add a little soft-soap — say three ounces to a 
gallon: this, beat up into a fine paint, may be plastered 
on with a brush. It should ever be borne in mind, 
however, that such mixtures have a tendency to stop 
the pores of the tree ; and if carried beyond a certain 
pitch, in point of adhesiveness, or of producing an 



46 



impervious skin, will become prejudicial to the welfare 
of the tree. 

One great enemy to the orchardist's success remains 
to be noticed, viz., the American blight.* This, if suf- 
fered to establish a footing, will be productive of more 
evils than all the others. The first best maxim, is to 
resist its first attacks, be the trouble ever so great. If, 
however, it unfortunately establishes a footing, we 
know of no better remedy, providing the orchard is 
not too old, than a close pruning in November of all, 
or nearly all, the last year's shoots, and then to apply 
a paint (as before recommended for the attacks of 
animals) composed of urine, soft-soap, and lime ; 
thickened, if necessary, with clay. Two ounces of soft- 
soap to a gallon of urine, thickened with clay and 
lime, will make a powerful mixture, and will, if persisted 
in, prove effective. 



DISEASES. 

Disease is the negation of health ; and as the health 
of a plant is the correct performance of its functions, 
disease may be defined to be an incorrect peformance 
of the functions. Such incorrectness arises from four 
causes — vital energy declining from old age — parasites 
— improper food, either in quality or quantity- — and 

* See section " Insects." 



47 



inauspicious temperature. If these could be all 
avoided, a plant might enjoy a vigorous immortality. 
Such, however, is not the lot of any organized being, 
and in proportion to the debilitating circumstances, 
are the nature, the intensity, and final consequences 
of the disease induced. The apple-tree is liable to 
distempers arising from each of those causes, and its 
distempers, owing to its value as a fruit-bearer, have 
been more watched and discussed than those of any 
other plant. The results from those discussions are 
not very luminous, nor does this afford a subject for 
surprise, vegetable nosology being one of the most 
obscure paths in the whole region of human knowledge. 

Canker is the most common and the very worst 
disease to which the apple is liable. To what cause 
this is attributable is at present uncertain, or whether 
to a combination of causes. "\Ye have always noticed 
one thing, and that is, that severe disrootings or root 
cutting, seems at least to lessen its virulence. From 
this we are led to think, that immature wood, trans- 
ferred from stock to stock, has a strong tendency to 
produce it. It is not improbable, too, that the indivi- 
dual character of the stock has something to do in the 
affair ; for we have an instance under our eyes of a 
fact or two, which rather tend to give such an impres- 
sion. In 1832 we found the Hawthornden cankering 
so badly — not one tree, but all — that we destroyed the 
stock, reserving, however, a healthy graft or two ; 



48 



these we put into what we deemed at the time a 
healthy subject — a Hick's Fancy. Strange to say, 
theHawthornden, which has branched and borne fruit 
in profusion ever since, has never to this day shewn 
a spot of canker, although the tree is growing in pre- 
cisely the same soil, and prepared in the same way as 
the original Hawthorndens were. Now, either the 
stock or the vital action of the leaves of the Hick's 
Fancy has infused new life into the Hawthornden. 

Again, we have generally found trees growing on 
ground of a wet and sour character, or a bad subsoil, 
very liable to this evil ; as also trees on exhausted 
soils. 

As to the question of the wearing-out of races, about 
which there has been so much debate, we know for 
certainty that the apples so much praised for their 
qualities, in books of a century ago, are not the apples 
of to-day ; and we have no doubt that the same dis- 
agreement existed then as to the century previous. 
"Where are all the old Codlings, for instance, or the 
Eussets ? Who would be bold enough to lay down an 
orchard of the old English Codling, or of the old 
Pile's Kusset ? Even the Ribston Pippin, the most 
popular favourite ever produced — even this is fast on 
the wane. There is no proof that apples are any 
better than they were a century ago ; therefore it is 
not the mere love of novelty alone which has led to 
the introduction of so many new sorts. However, be 



49 



the cause what it may, we must consider what may be 
done to avoid or alleviate it. 

We do not think there is much truth in Mr. 
Beaton's theory, which will be found in a preceding 
portion of this work ; viz., that a good stock having 
been found, it would be advisable to procure all our 
stocks by means of cuttings of the roots of such stock. 
In the next place, we advise thorough drainage, and 
the use of fresh loam. These are steps in the right 
direction, for if they have not a tendency towards the 
obliteration of the canker, they will at least conduce 
to the health and permanency of the tree. 

Another point to which we would direct attention, 
is the placing impervious bottoms as interceptors be- 
tween the soil and subsoil ; and avoiding deep soils en- 
riched by manure. In recommendation of this prac- 
tice, we may be permitted to state that we have more 
than a hundred trees which have been thus treated, at 
various periods, within the last twenty years ; and that 
the amount of canker with us is so trifling, that it 
scarcely deserves consideration at all. We make a 
point of thinning out all superfluous shoots every 
winter ; however, by the shallow border or dwarfing 
system, there is not a great amount of labour of this 
kind to perform. Ripening of the wood we conceive 
to be a principle of much importance, even with the 
natives of temperate climes; and, although high and ex- 
citing modes of cultivation may flatter for awhile by 

E 



50 



specious appearances, it is a grave consideration whe- 
ther they do not carry serious evils in their train. 

Quite consonant with our opinion that deficient 
ripeness of the wood of the young apple is a prime 
predisposing cause of the canker, is the experience 
and practice of Mr. Williams, of Pitmanston. 

To preserve the Golden Pippin and other apples 
free from canker, Mr. Williams recommends every 
year pruning away as much of each shoot of young wood 
as is not perfectly ripened, which, he says, will preserve 
the tree as perfectly free from canker as any new 
variety. The best stock for the Golden Pippin he finds 
to be the Siberian Crab, because, as the shoots of this 
crab cease to elongate after the month of August, the 
roots become less active in propelling the upward sap ; 
hence the wood and buds of the grafts are more per- 
fectly ripened in the autumn. {Trans. Hort. Soc. vi. 
art. 64.) 

The late Mr. Knight, no mean authority upon all 
things relative to the apple, observes that the canker 
is always found in those varieties which have been 
long in cultivation, and in these it annually becomes 
more destructive, and evidently arises from the age of 
the variety ; but it often appears to be hereditary. A 
gravelly or wet soil, *a cold preceding summer, or a 
high, exposed situation, adds much to its virulence. 
It is most fatal to young free-growing trees of old 
varieties ; and every gardener must have noticed often 



51 



the strong shoots of these totally destroyed by it, 
when the old trees growing in the same orchard, and 
from which the grafts had been taken, were nearly 
free from the disease. The latter have ceased to grow 
larger, bnt continue to grow well, if not of very old 
kinds of fruits. The young stocks, by affording the 
grafts a preternatural abundance of nourishment, seem, 
in this instance, to have brought on the disease ; and 
Mr. Knight states that he always found that trans- 
planting, or a heavy crop of fruit, which checked the 
growth of the tree, diminished its disposition to canker. 
In middle-aged trees of very old kinds a succession of 
young shoots is annually produced by the vigour of 
the stock, and destroyed again in the succeeding 
winter : the quantity of fruit these produce is, in con- 
sequence, very small. In this disease something more 
than a mere extinction of vegetable life appears to take 
place. The internal bark bears marks of something 
similar to erosion, and this Mr. Knight originally 
believed to be the first seat of the disease ; but sub- 
sequent observation satisfied him that the canker is a 
disease of the wood, and not of the bark, and led him 
to the conclusion that canker is never a primary or 
merely local disease, but arises from the morbid habit 
of the plant, and to be incurable by any topical appli- 
cation. {Knight on the Apple 3 10.) 

This last opinion is very contrary to the opinion of 
the mere empirical gardener; for, whatever may be the 
e 2 



52 



disease under which a plant is suffering, it is too usual 
for him to confine his attention to the part immediately 
affected. It is looked upon as a strictly local derange- 
ment, and the remedies are as erroneously topical. 

To consider that because a bud, a branch, or a root 
is diseased, that the cause of the disorder is to be 
sought for there, is as sensible as to, suppose that 
every local pain endured by the human frame arises 
from a disorganization of that part. On the contrary, 
we know that the diseases of animals arise almost 
universally from the stomach ; and, as Addison re- 
marked, " that physic is generally the substitute for 
temperance or exercise. 53 The functions of the sto- 
mach, by whatever cause deranged, render digestion 
imperfect, and the secretion defective ; the bile is 
superabundant or deficient in quantity, and head-ache 
is the result ; the liver is diseased, and it causes a 
pain the most acute between the shoulders ; the blood 
is ill elaborated, and eruptions are thrown out on the 
surface of the body. With plants it is the same. It 
may be laid down as an axiom, without exception, that 
all vegetable diseases, unpreceded by external injury, 
arise from the ill-prepared state of the sap— a state 
brought about conjointly or separately by the impro- 
per food imbibed, and the deranged digestive power 
of the leaves and other organs. That this is so will 
not appear strange, when we reflect, that from the 
sap all parts of the plant are formed, and are conti- 



53 



nually increased in number and size. The solid sub- 
stance of the wood, and the temporary tender blossoms, 
are alike extracted from that circulating fluid. If the 
constituents for these are wanting, or if improper com- 
ponents are introduced, or if the sap is too watery, dis- 
ease is the necessary consequence. Disease, which in 
youth and manhood usually arises from intemperance 
and over-excitement, visits old age as a consequence of its 
decayed vital powers ; and, "if the silver chord has not 
been loosed," or "the golden bowl broken," by the 
short-sighted indulgence of early years, man gradually 
declines into the grave, as the vital organs cease to per- 
form their office, because the limit of existence natural 
to his species has been attained. Some diseases pecu- 
liar to old age are prematurely induced in the usually 
vigorous period of life by licentious indulgences, in- 
dividual or hereditary. Ossification of the vascular 
system is an example. In the vegetable part of the 
creation, the canker or ulcer, to which our apple, 
pear, elm, and other trees are subject, is a somewhat 
parallel instance. This disease is accompanied by 
different symptoms, according to the species of the 
tree which it infects. In some of those whose true 
sap contains a considerable quantity of free acid, as in 
the genus Pyrus, it is rarely accompanied by any dis- 
charge. To this dry form of the disease it would be 
well to confine the term canker, and to give it the 
scientific name of Gangrcena sicca. In other trees, 



54 



whose sap is characterized by abounding in astringent 
or mucilaginous constituents, it is usually attended 
by a sanious discharge. In such instances, it might 
strictly be designated ulcer, or Gangrcena saniosa. 
This disease has a considerable resemblance to the 
tendency to ossification which appears in most aged 
animals, arising from their marked appetency to se- 
crete the calcareous saline compounds that chiefly 
constitute their skeletons. The consequence is an 
enlargement of the joints, and ossification of the cir- 
culatory vessels and other parts, phenomena very ana- 
lagous to those attending the cankering of trees. As 
in animals, this tendency is general throughout their 
system ; but, as is observed by Mr. Knight, " like 
the mortification in the limbs of elderly people," it 
may be determined as to its point of attack, by the 
irritability of that part of the system. This disease 
commences with an enlargement of the vessels of the 
alburnum of a branch, or of the stem. This swelling 
invariably attends the disease, when it attacks the 
apple tree. In the pear the enlargement is less, yet 
is always present. In the elm and the oak sometimes 
no swelling occurs ; and in the peach we do not recol- 
lect to have seen any. We have never observed the 
disease in the cherry tree, nor in any of the pine tribe. 
The swelling is soon communicated to the wood, 
which, if laid open to view on its first appearance, by 
the removal of the bark, exhibits no marks of disease 



55 



beyond the mere unnatural enlargement. In the 
course of a few years, less in number in proportion 
to the advanced age of the tree, and the unfavourable 
circumstances under which it is vegetating, the swell- 
ins; is greatly increased in size, and the alburnum has 
become extensively dead ; the superincumbent bark 
cracks, rises in discoloured scales, and decays even 
more rapidly than the wood beneath. If the caries 
is upon a moderately-sized branch, the decay soon 
completely encircles it, extending through the whole 
alburnum and bark. The circulation of the sap being 
thus entirely prevented, all the parts above the disease 
of necessity perish. In the apple and the pear the 
disease is accompanied by scarcely any discharge ; but 
in the elm this is very abundant. The only chemists 
who have examined these morbid products are Sir H. 
Davy and Vauquelin ; the former's observations being 
confined to the fact, that he often found carbonate of 
lime on the edges of the canker in apple-trees.* 

Vauquelin has examined the sanies discharged from 
the canker of an elm with much more precision. He 
found this liquor nearly as transparent as water, some- 
times slightly coloured, at other times a blackish 
brown, but always tasting acrid and saline. From 
this liquor a soft matter, insoluble in water, is de- 
posited upon the sides of the ulcer. The bark over 



* Elements of Agric. Chemistry, 2nd ed. p. 246. 



56 



which the transparent sanies news attains the appear- 
ance of chalk. becoming while, triable, crystalline, 
alkaline, ami effervesoem with acids. A n:a.ri.:zer 
exhibits the crystals in :he iris :: rhomboids aid 





Venerable matter . . . 60.5 

Carbonate of potass . . . 34.2 

Carbonate of Hme . . . 5.0 

Carbonate if Marnesia . . 0.3 



100.0 



Van cu elm calculated from the quantity of this 
white matter that was ibumi about the canker of an 
elm. that 5001b. weight if its weed must have been 
destroyed.* There is no dinbt tuat such a discharge 
is deeply injurious to the tree : but the above learned 
chemist appears to have largely erred, tor he caleu- 

* Amiles de CLiziie. ixi. 30. 



57 



lated from a knowledge of the amount of the saline 
constituents in the healthy sap, whereas in its diseased 
state these are much and unnaturally increased. We 
once were of opinion, that this disease does not arise 
from a general diseased state of the tree, but that it 
is brought on by some bruise or injury, exasperated 
by an unhealthy sap consequent to an unfavourable 
soil, situation, and culture ; but more extensive and 
more accurate examinations convince us that the 
disease is in the tree's system; that its juices are 
vitiated ; and that disease will continue to break out 
independent of any external injury, so long as these 
juices continue peccant and unaltered. This conclu- 
sion will be justified, we think, by the preceding facts, 
as well as by those distributed through the following 
pages. 

The disease is not strictly confined to any parti- 
cular period of the tree's age. We have repeatedly 
noticed it in some of our lately introduced varieties 
that have not been grafted more than five or six 
years; and a writer in the Gardener s Magazine, vol. 
5, p. 3, states, that the trees in his orchard, though 
" only of four years' growth, are sadly troubled with 
the canker." Although young trees are liable to 
this disease, yet their old age is the period of existence 
most obnoxious to its attacks. It must be remem- 
bered, that this is not consequently a young tree 
which is lately grafted. If the tree from which the 



58 



scion was taken be an old variety, it is only the mul- 
tiplication of an aged individual. The scion may for 
a few years exhibit signs of increased vigour, owing 
to the extra stimulous of the more abundant supply 
of healthy sap supplied by the stock ; but the vessels 
of the scion will, after the lapse of that period, gra- 
dually become as decrepid as the parent tree. The 
unanimous experience of naturalists agrees in testify- 
ing that every organized creature has its limit of 
existence. In plants it varies from the scanty period 
of a few months, to the long expanse of as many cen- 
turies ; but of all, the days are numbered ; and 
although the gardener's, like the physician's skill, 
may retard the onward pace of death, he will not be 
permanently delayed. In the last periods of life, they 
shew every symptom that accompanies organization in 
its old age, — not only a cessation of growth, but a de- 
cay of former development, a languid circulation, and 
diseased organs. 

The canker, as already observed, attends especially 
the old age of some fruit trees, and of these the apple 
is most remarkably a sufferer. " I do not mean," 
says Mr. Knight, " to assert that there ever was a 
time when an apple tree did not canker on unfavour- 
able soils, or that highly cultivated varieties were not 
more subject to the disease than others, where the 
soil did not suit them. But I assert, from my own 
experience and observation within the last twenty 



59 



years, that this disease becomes progressively more 
fatal to each variety, as the age of that variety, beyond 
a certain period, increases ; that if an old worn-out 
orchard be replanted with fruit trees, the varieties of 
the apple which I have found in the catalogues of the 
middle of the seventeeth century, are unproductive of 
fruit, and in a state of debility and decay. 55 * 

Among the individuals particularly liable to be in- 
fected, are those which have been marked by an ex- 
cessively vigorous growth in their early years. We 
once had one which for the first twelve years of its 
existence was remarkable for the unnatural large size 
and abundance of its annual shoots. It then became 
grievously affected by canker, which at length de- 
stroyed it. 

Trees injudiciously pruned, or growing upon an 
uugenial soil, are more frequently attacked than those 
advancing under contrary circumstances. The oldest 
trees are always the first attacked of those similarly 
cultivated. The Golden Pippin, the oldest existing 
variety of the apple, is more fequently and more seri- 
ously attacked than any other. 

The soil has a very considerable influence in in- 
ducing the disease. If the subsoil be a ferruginous 
gravel, or if it is not well drained, and the soil be 
aluminous, and effective means are not adopted to 

* Some doubts as to the Efficacy of Mr. Forsyth's Plaster 
by T. A. Knight, Esq. P.L.H.S., &c, 1802. 



60 



free it of superabundant moisture — the canker, under 
any one of these circumstances, is almost certain to 
make its appearance amongst the trees they sustain, 
however young and vigorous they were when first 
planted. 

How inductive of this disease is a wet retentive sub- 
soil, if the roots penetrate it, appears from the state- 
ment of Mr. Watts, gardener to R. G. Russell, Esq., 
of Chequer's Court, in Buckinghamshire. A border 
beneath a south wall had a soil three feet and a half 
in depth, apparently of the most fertile staple, twice 
re-made under the direction of the late Mr. Lee, of 
the Vineyard, Hammersmith. In this the trees, 
peaches aud nectarines, flourish for the next three or 
four years after they are planted, but are then rapidly 
destroyed by the canker and gum. The subsoil is a 
stiff sour clay, nearly approaching to a brick earth ; 
and the disease occurs as soon as it is reached by the 
roots of the trees. * 

Mr. Forsyth concluded that the soil is not always 
the source of the disease, because it universally and 
invariably appears at first in the branches, and pro- 
ceeds thence towards the roots of the tree. But this 
is certainly not a conclusion warranted by the pre- 
mises, because the acridity of the sap, whatever may 
be its source, would be likely to injure and corrode, 

* Gardener's Magazine, vi. 617. 



J 



61 



in the first instance, those parts where the vessels are 
the most weak and tender ; now these, past dispute, 
are in the branches. Moreover, we generally see the 
youngest branches the earliest sufferers. 

Pruning has a powerful influence in preventing the 
occurrence of the canker. We remember a standard 
russet apple tree, of not more than twenty years' 
growth, with a redundancy of ill-arranged branches, 
that was excessively attacked by this disease. We 
had two of its three main branches and the laterals of 
that remaining carefully thinned ; all the infected 
parts being at the same time removed. The result 
was total cure. The branches were annually regu- 
lated, and for six years the disease never re-appeared. 
At the end of that time the tree had to be removed, 
as the ground it stood upon was required for another 
purpose. 

All these facts unite in assuring us that the canker 
arises from the tree's weakness, from a deficiency in 
its vital energy, and consequent inability to imbibe 
and elaborate the nourishment necessary to sustain 
its frame in vigour, and much less to supply the 
healthy development of new parts. It matters not 
whether its energy be broken down by an unnatural 
rapidity of growth, by a disproportioned excess of 
branches over the mass of roots, by old age, or by the 
disorganization of the roots in an ungenial soil ; they 
render the tree incapable of extracting sufficient nou- 



62 



rishment from the soil, consequently incapable of de- 
veloping a sufficient foliage/* and therefore unable to 
digest and elaborate even the scanty sap that is sup- 
plied to them. 

The reason of the sap becoming unnaturally saline 
appears to be, that in proportion as the vigour of any 
vegetable declines, it loses the power of selecting by 
its roots the nourishment congenial to its nature. M. 
Saussure found, in his experiments, that the roots of 
plants, growing in saline solutions, absorbed the most 
of those salts that were injurious to them, such as 
sulphate of copper, evidently because the declining 
plant lost the sensitiveness and energy necessary to 
select and to reject. 

M. Saussure also found, that, if the extremities of 
the roots were removed, the plants absorbed all solu- 
tions indiscriminately, f 

An ungenial soil would have a debilitating influence 
upon the roots in a proportionate, though less violent, 
degree than the sulphate of copper, and as these, con- 
sequently, would absorb soluble bodies more freely, 
and without that discrimination so absolutely neces- 
sary for a healthy vegetation, so the other most essen- 
tial organs of nutrition, the leaves of the weakened 

* No symptom of a cankered tree is more invariable than a 
deficiency of leaves. 

f Saussure's Recherches Chimiques sur la Vegetation, 260. 



63 



plant, would promote and accelerate the disease. 
These, reduced in number and size, do not properly 
elaborate the sap ; and we have always found that, 
under such circumstances, these stunted organs exhale 
the aqueous particles of the sap very abundantly, 
whilst their power of absorption is greatly reduced. 
The sap, thus deficient in quantity, and increased in 
acridity, seems to corrode, and affect the vascular 
system of the tree in the manner already described. 

These facts afford us most important guides in at- 
taining the desired objects, the prevention and cure of 
the disease. 

If superluxuriance threaten its introduction, the 
best remedy is for the cultivator to remove one of the 
main roots of the tree, and to be particularly careful 
not to add any fertile addition to the soil within their 
range. On the contrary, it will be well, if the con- 
tinued exuberant growth shews its necessity, for the 
staple of the soil to be reduced in fertility by the ad- 
mixture of one less fertile, or even of drift sand. 

If there be an excess of branches, the saw and the 
pruning knife must be gradually applied. It must be 
only trees of very weak vital powers, such as is the 
Golden Pippin, that will bear the general cutting of 
the annual shoots, as pursued by Mr. Williams. A 
new vigorous variety would exhaust itself, the follow- 
ing year, in the production of fresh wood. Nothing 
beyond a general rule for the pruning can be laid 



i 



64 



down, and it amounts to no more than the direction 
to keep a considerable vacancy between every branch, 
and the branch above or beneath it ; and especially to 
provide, that not even two twigs shall chafe against 
each other. The greater the intensity of light, and 
the freer the circulation of air amongst the foliage of 
the tree, the better the chance for its healthy vegeta- 
tion and ripening. 

If the disease, being in a fruit tree, be a conse- 
quence of old age, it is probably a premature senility, 
induced by injudicious management, for very few of 
our varieties are of an age that insure to them decre- 
pitude. We have never yet known a tree, unless it 
was in the last stage of decay, that could not be re- 
covered by giving it more air and light, by careful 
heading in, pruning, improvement of the soil, and 
cleansing the bark. 

If the soil, by its ungenial character, induces the 
disease, the obvious and only remedy is its ame- 
lioration ; and if the subsoil is the cause of the mis- 
chief, the roots must be prevented striking into it. 
In all cases, it is the best practice to remove the tap- 
root. Many orchardists pave beneath each tree with 
tiles and broken bricks. If the trees are planted 
shallow, as they ought to be, and the surface kept 
duly fertile, there is not much danger of the roots 
striking into the worse pasturage of the subsoil. On 
this point, the experience of Mr. W. Nichol, the gar- 



65 



dener at Newick Place, in Sussex, agrees with our 
own. He says that the canker may be avoided in 
most instances by paying proper attention to the soil 
in which the tree is planted. Canker, he thinks, will 
seldom occur if the surface-soil is good, for in that 
case the roots will never descend into the prejudicial 
subsoil, but spread out their radicles near the surface, 
where they find food most abundant. If this is not 
kept up, the roots descend into the obnoxious substra- 
tum, and the disease assuredly follows.* 

It remains for us to detail the course of treatment 
that we have always found successful in effecting a 
cure in any variety not decrepit from age, if the canker 
has not spread to the roots. 

Having completely headed down, if the canker is 
generally prevalent, or duly thinned the branches, 
entirely removed every small one that is in the least 
degree diseased, and cut away the decayed parts of 
the larger, so as not to leave a single speck of the 
decayed wood, we cover over the surface of each 
wound with a mixture, whilst in a melted state, of 
equal parts tar and resin, applying it with a brush 
immediately after the amputations have been per- 
formed, taking care to select a dry day. We prefer this 
to any composition with a basis of cow-dung and clay, 

* Baxter's Library of Agric. and Hortic. Knowledge, 3rd 
Edit. 22. 

F 



66 



because the latter is always more or less absorbent of 
moisture, and is liable to injury by rain and frost, 
causing alternations of moisture and dryness to the 
wounds, that promote decay rather than their healing > 
by the formation of new wood and bark. The re- 
sinous plaster seldom or never requires renewal. Mr. 
Forsyth, the arch advocate of earthy and alkaline 
plasters, finding that they promoted decay, if applied 
to the wounds of autumn-pruned trees, recommends 
this important act of cultivation to be postponed to 
the spring. If a resinous plaster be employed, it ex- 
cludes the wet, and obviates the objection to autumnal 
pruning. Mr. Forsyth's treatment of the trunks and 
branches of trees, namely, scraping from them all the 
scaly, dry exuviae of the bark, is to be adopted in 
every instance. He recommends them to be brushed 
over with a thin liquid compound of fresh cow-dung, 
soap-suds, and urine ; but we very much prefer a brine 
of common salt. Each acts as a gentle stimulus, 
which is their chief cause of benefit ; and the latter 
is more efficacious in destroying insects, and does not, 
like the other, obstruct the perspiratory vessels of the 
tree. The brine is advantageously rubbed in with a 
scrubbing, or large painter's, brush. Some persons 
recommend a liquid wash, containing, as prominent 
ingredients, quick-lime and wood ashes, which, as the 
disease arises from an over-alkalescent state of the 
sap, cannot but prove injurious, and aggravate the 
disease. 



67 



Mr. Forsyth, formerly gardener at Kensington 
Palace, made a considerable sensation at the close of 
the last, and at the commencement of the present, cen- 
tury, by the wonderful effects produced upon trees, 
as he asserted, by the following composition, used as 
a plaster over the wounds from which the decayed or 
cankered parts had been cut out : — 

One bushel of fresh cowdung. 

Half a bushel of lime rubbish ; that from ceilings of 

rooms is preferable, or powdered chalk. 
Half a bushel of wood ashes. 

One sixteenth of a bushel of sand ; the three last to 
be sifted fine. The whole to be mixed and beaten 
together until they form a fine plaster.* 

Mr. Knight, in a very able and sarcastic pamphlet, 
published in 1802, entitled " Some doubts relative to 
the Efficacy of Mr. Forsyth's Plaster," fully exposed 
the quackery — perhaps falsehood may not be too harsh 
a term — of this horticulturist's statements. 

Mr. Forsyth received a parliamentary grant of 
money for his discovery ; but this, as Mr. Knight 
observes, " affords a much better proof that he was 
paid for an important discovery than that he made 
one." 

" Should the public," continues this distinguished 

* Forsyth's Observations on Fruit Trees, p. 68. 
F 2 



68 



physiologist, " believe that an old dying tree can be 
restored to youth and vigour, merely by being plas- 
tered with lime, cow-dung, and wood ashes, and that 
a piece of such tree may by such means be made im- 
mortal, I think it would be a good speculation for 
some enterprising genius, in imitation of the quack 
doctors of the sixteenth century, to bring forward a 
nostrum to restore and perpetuate youth in the human 
subject. Should such a projector join Mr. Forsyth, 
and the one undertake the animal, and the other the 
vegetable world, under Dr. Anderson's patronage, I 
will venture to predict that the success of each in the 
cures they perform will be equal." 

It has been very ingeniously suggested, that, if a 
destruction of the bark by external violence, and, con- 
sequently, likely to terminate in canker, has occurred, 
it would be a good plan to insert, as in budding, a 
piece of living bark, exactly corresponding to the ex- 
cision, from a less valuable tree. 

In conclusion, we would enforce upon the orchard- 
ist's attention the importance of obtaining his grafts or 
buds from trees not affected by the disease, because, 
apparently, it is hereditary ; and, although after-cul- 
tivation may eradicate the malady, it is always far 
better to avoid the infection than to have to employ a 
remedy. {Johnson 9 s Principles of Gardening, 295.) 

Russet or Brown Scurf. — This imperfection of the 



69 



fruit of the apple tree is a thickening, hardening, and 
discoloration of its skin in a patch or patches, attended 
by a roughness of its skin. A distortion of the fruit 
and a diminution of its pulp or flesh is the conse- 
quence. Similar blotches occur upon the peach, as 
mentioned in our volume on that fruit, p. 176. The 
cause appears also to be the Same in both instances, 
viz. exposure to sudden transitions of temperature. 
Mr. Williams, of Pitmaston, concurs in this opinion. 
He says that the alternating temperature, light, shade, 
dryness and moisture, which occur many times in the 
course of a day, when July and August are showery, 
are the causes of apples becoming bronzed with russet, 
an opinion to which he arrived after lengthened obser- 
vations during many seasons. Continued rain, pre- 
ceded and followed by a cloudy sky, does not seem to 
produce the same effect ; but the sudden intense 
light which commonly succeeds a shower at the time 
when the fruit is wet, injures the skin, and occasions 
small cracks, which, when viewed through a magnify- 
ing glass, resemble the cracked surface called the net- 
work of the melon. If the injury is greater, the sur- 
face turns nearly black in spots or patches. A further 
injury occasions the crack to become deeper, and 
enters the solid flesh of the apple ; but if this happens 
in an early stage of growth, the surface of the crack 
becomes dry and hard; and if the injury is done when 
the fruit is nearly ripe, it rots. These accidental 



70 



injuries of the skin in the early part of the growth of 
the fruit, nature patches up in the way we see ; but 
this new surface is never like the original skin ; it 
allows the aqueous portion of the pulp of the fruit to 
escape more freely by evaporation ; hence there is a 
little shrinking in the part where it happens, and the 
juices become richer by a kind of inspissation. 
(Trans. Hort. Soc. vii. 505.) 

Apple Gangrene. — We have observed a peculiar 
disease affecting the fruit of the apple late in the 
autumn, and early in the winter of 1846, and less fre- 
quently in the autumn of the present year. The in- 
terior pulp becomes brown, but of a flavour more re- 
sembling that of a ripe medlar, rather than of that 
bitterness so striking in a decayed apple. Another 
very marked characteristic of this disease, is the black- 
ness of the outer skin. The smell of the fruit is 
rather vinous when cut, and somewhat resembling 
that of a baked apple. It comes on suddenly, and 
does not appear to be confined to any particular vari- 
ety or district, but seems to have been only observed 
upon the paler and looser-textured kinds. It attacked 
the Cats-head in Norfolk, and the Gravenstein in 
Hampshire. 

Moss, as it is popularly called, is a certain indi- 
cation that the stems and branches on which it pre- 
vails are too freely supplied with moisture, and 



71 



too much shaded. Among the small parasitical and 
cryptogamic plants, constituting the moss on apple 
trees, are the following: — Spiloma melanopum, appears 
in the form of sooty spots. Borrera chrysopthalma, 
orange-coloured and busby. Tortula fallax s in light 
green tufts. Leneodon scinroides, creeping dark 
green tufts. Foaaria hygrometrica, pale green tufts. 
Orthotrickum affine, pale green tufts. Hijpnum lu- 
tescens, yellowish green patches ; besides others still 
more common. 

The procedure which will radically remove mossi- 
ness, is to drain the soil thoroughly, and to thin the 
trees to wider intervals if too close. If the branches 
are also too crowded, they must be gradually pruned 
and reduced in number. 

With regard to local remedies for the immediate 
removal of these parasites, the branches and stems 
should be scraped, and then scrubbed with a strong 
brine made by dissolving common salt in water. It 
should be so strong that an egg will float in the liquor. 

Mr. G. Watson, of Norton Vicarage, near Stockton- 
on-Tees, recommends the use of lime. 

This is a very old remedy, and, in our opinion, a 
very bad one, for the alkaline quality of the lime pro- 
motes canker, and the lime itself clogs the pores of 
the bark. The glaring white colour it imparts to the 
trees is very disagreeable to the eye, and if this be 



72 



diminished by the addition of soot, the pores are still 
more injuriously plastered up. 

Mr. Watson's mode of applying it is the following : 
— A common water-barrel, placed on a wheel-barrow, 
is best suited for the purpose, and it should be filled 
as full of water as a person can conveniently wheel it. 
Put in plenty of quicklime, as water will only take up 
a certain portion ; it cannot be made too strong, but it 
should not be so thick as to prevent its being applied 
with a syringe, having a coarse rose. Mr. Watson 
thinks it is best to wheel it immediately to the trees, 
even when warm, which it will be by the slacking of 
the lime. It will be necessary for one person to keep 
stirring it while another syringes the trees ; by this 
means a portion of the lime is carried with the water, 
and adheres to the trees. (Gard. Chron. 1843, 158.) 

The Missletoe is a parasite, undoubtedly injurious 
to the apple tree, and should never be allowed to grow 
on any valued variety. Many persons, however, like 
to see it on the otherwise leafless branches during 
winter, and it may be induced to grow on them by 
raising a small tongue of the bark early in the spring, 
on the under side of a branch, and inserting between 
the wood and the tongue a seed of the missletoe. 



73 



CALENDAR. 

In drawing up a calendar of culture to run through 
the greater part of the year, we would wish it to be 
understood, as a preface, that whatever remarks are 
here made are intended to apply chiefly to the culture 
of the apple in kitchen gardens ; and although there 
is, of course, an identity of principle, as far as root- 
management is concerned, as also thinning and prun- 
ing, with those under orchard culture, yet we think 
it will be most desirable to give our observations a 
special character, and to make them as far as possible 
apply to the apple under the various artistical modes 
of training now in use. These, it is well known, are 
various, as we have exemplified in the preceding por- 
tion of the volume on the apple ; and although to 
treat the matter at large would require too much 
space for the limits assigned us, yet we hope so to 
simplify the general principles as to enable every 
person, however unpractised, to modify and shape his 
course consistently with the kind and mode of train- 
ing. 

JANUARY. 

Whatever we can recommend for the apple, whe- 
ther with regard to root or top management, in Janu- 
ary, might be nearly as well performed either a month 
earlier or a month later. AVe deem it necessary to 



74 



say thus much, in order to give our readers some 
latitude for these operations, for the leisure period of 
one person is not at all times the same as that of an- 
other. Thus much for monthly arrangement of these 
matters. 

Planting and pruning are now the chief operations, 
providing the weather is open with regard to the 
former. As a general maxim, however, we would 
say plant in the succeeding month, if it has been 
neglected at the best period, which, providing all 
things are properly arranged, we hold to be the early 
part of November. 

Whatever pruning may be necessary should, how- 
ever, proceed without delay ; and this process is by 
no means unimportant. The future form of the tree, 
as well as a fructiferous habit, from the soil upwards, 
are matters of prime consideration to those who aim 
at a dwarfing system, which in modern gardening is 
found to produce more good fruit in less compass 
than the old and irregular mode. The fruit of the 
better table kinds is found to be, moreover, of supe- 
rior quality ; and the matter does not end even here : 
first-rate vegetables may be grown within a few feet 
of trees thus circumstanced ; whilst under the old 
and unsystematic mode of sticking trees in any how, 
and leaving them to themselves, the production of 
both fruit and vegetables was rather precarious, and 
the latter generally of inferior character. 



75 



We will commence with ordinary rough espalier or 
dwarf standard. Young plants, or " maidens/ 5 as 
they are termed in the nurseries, which have been 
recently planted, should be headed rather closely back 
the first season. The main object, indeed, in this 
and the succeeding year, is to establish the future 
form of the tree, which is at this period easily con- 
trolled as to any desired shape. The exterior of such 
tree should of course be formed first, for if strong in- 
terior shoots be allowed to prevail, all efforts to pro- 
duce a proper form will prove abortive. The trees 
for rough espaliers should therefore take what is 
termed by practical men " the punch-bowl shape," or 
the character of what the florist deems good form in 
the tulip. All interior shoots must be entirely re- 
moved at this period ; and what exterior shoots are 
suffered to remain must either stand well as to the 
end in view, or be shortened back, in order to obtain 
more shoots in the next year to take the proper posi- 
tion. If the trees are " maidens," they must be 
pruned back to about four or five buds on each re- 
maining shoot. If they have been planted a year or 
two, there will be plenty of shoots to select from, and 
the young wood may be left upwards of nine inches 
in length : if more is left, the shoots of many kinds 
will not become duly clothed with fruit-bearing 
spurs ; and when these matters receive proper attention 



76 



the tree will be a mass of spurs from within a foot of 
the ground to the extremities of the shoots. 

In down-training from a main stem, a much greater 
length of shoot may be left, providing the main stem 
has been formed to the desired height. Indeed, there 
is no occasion to shorten at all here : the young 
shoots may be turned down their full length at once, 
cutting away all those which are badly placed, and 
any superfluous spray. 

In all other fancy modes of training, the main pur- 
pose and ultimate position of the shoots must be kept 
steadily in view from the first ; remembering that 
bearing fruit is no part of the object in the earlier 
stages, but the establishing a good form ; and it is 
for this latter reason that severe pruning becomes 
necessary. 

The pruning of ordinary standard trees may now 
proceed. This resolves itself into thinning out, and 
the removal of any decaying portions. Care should 
be taken, in thinning the interior of such trees, to 
distinguish between watery shoots and wood clothed 
with spurs. The latter must by no means be re- 
moved, but if it produces an inconvenient amount of 
spray, such may be shortened back to a single eye or 
bud. The blossom buds in the interior of the tree 
will produce fruit in bad springs, when that on the 
exterior and better-placed wood suffers by the frost. 



77 



When standard trees are becoming somewhat ex- 
hausted, a very liberal use of the knife, and some- 
times of the saw, is necessary ; for when they can no 
longer support the whole volume of the top, some 
portion must be removed, in order to strengthen the 
rest. "When such is the case, a strict adherence to 
any particular form must cease, and those limbs alone 
should be reserved which still shew signs of vigour. 

FEBRUARY. 

Planting, which had been suspended on account of 
severe weather, must be resumed towards the middle 
of this month ; we would by no means throw this ope- 
ration into March, if it can be avoided. With plant- 
ing, mulching will become necessary ; and those trees 
which were planted in the autumn, if not mulched, 
should instantly receive a coating. This is a very 
important operation, whether with regard to young 
trees or very old ones. It encourages a rapid action 
of root in newly planted trees, and shields them from 
the vicissitudes of a drying wind, or a scorching sun. 
In old or over-borne trees it is equally of benefit, and 
should be applied early in the autumn, if possible ; at 
which "period, the very slutch of the manure yard 
may, in common with the dung, be spread over the 
roots of such trees six inches in thickness, with much 
benefit. 

Pruning and training operations must now be com- 



78 



pleted as soon as possible, and any renovation of soil 
considered necessary, should at this period have par- 
ticular attention. 

MARCH. 

The American bug or blight is the greatest pest of 
the apple, and is so notorious as to need no descrip- 
tion here. We would merely direct attention to its 
habits, for it will, after appearing dead or dormant, 
shew signs of revival at this period. "We know of no 
better recipe for the extirpation of this pest than a 
thorough brushing by hand of every part of the tree, 
using a mixture which we will shortly describe. Be- 
fore the brushing, however, the young shoots which 
are infested should be removed by pruning, for unless 
this is done, it will be difficult to search every part of 
the tree. The mixture we use, and which we have 
found effectual, is thus made : — Three ounces of soft- 
soap is beat up in as small a quantity of water as 
possible, a quart at least of fresh lime is added to 
this, and three handsful of sulphur. When the 
whole is well mixed, we pour it into one gallon of 
stale urine, and add as much pure clay as when well 
beat up will make a thick paint. This well rubbed 
in, will remain on the trees for twelve months, and 
will destroy the bug wherever brought in contact with 
it. 

When the mixture has become dry on the trees, 



79 



it will assume a whitish colour, aud it will then be rea- 
dily perceived what parts have not taken the mixture. 
A second application will search every crevice, laying 
it on thickly where deep clefts or hollows occur. 

Moss may be removed by a good brushing with 
horse urine. We are informed by a respectable gentle- 
man, that Dr. Darwin, of Shrewsbury, has used it ex- 
tensively, and found it an excellent application, as it 
entirely clears moss, and quite renews the constitu- 
tional vigour of the trees. 

APRIL. 

Little can be done for the apple in this month, ex- 
cepting taking care to complete any previous directions 
which may be in arrears. We would again direct 
attention to mulching newly planted trees, if not 
already done. Towards the end of this month the sun 
will possess much influence on the soil, and, accom- 
panied with drought, will prevent the young trees 
from gaining a good start. The mulching will obviate 
these difficulties. 

MAY. 

The great business in this month is taking care of 
the blossoms, either in the way of protection or in 
picking the caterpillars out of the clusters ; for they 
are sure to come sooner or later : no season is entirely 
free from them. In the early part of the month, 



so 



when the blossoms begin to open, it would be well :; 
devise some protection to valuable kinds of table fruit. 
This is easily accomplished with those under espalier 
training. Mats. or. what is better, coarse canvass or 
bunting, may be hung on the rails in the evening, and 
removed in due time the next morning. This will, 
however, only be necessary when frost threatens. The 
trees, as before observed, should be carefully hand- 
picked in the end of the month ; taking care to crush 
the caterpillar, and to dislodge the clustered leaves, 
If any of the aphides appear, we would advise a good 
syringing with tobacco water : turee-: v 
of strong shag tobacco to a gallon of water. 

JUNE. 

In the course of this month the young spray will 
begin to extend, and now it is that (on the old maxim, 
•''prevention is before cure"") we would recommend 
a careful attention to disbudding in due time, We 
are well aware that this is not commonly practised : 
this is not however from any objection to the prine: 
but tew gardeners can rind time for the operation at 
this busy period. Possessors of little gardens, and 
the amateur, have in general more time to devote to 
] matters, and to such we would specially direct 
our observations on this head. It is not well to dis- 
bu:l or totally remove all shoots which may be con- 
sidered superfluous at this period; such would tend, 



81 



in young or recently planted trees, to paralyze the 
action of the root. The best plan is to use the finger 
and thumb on all such, towards the end of this month, 
when they are about six inches in length : this will 
prevent the energies of the tree from being directed 
into a wrong channel, and tend to fructify the remain- 
ing branches, by admitting an increased amount of 
light. If any of the young trees in course of training 
possess leading young shoots which have taken a 
wrong direction, such may be disbudded altogether, 
providing another young shoot can be selected of some 
strength, and which has a tendency to assist in com- 
pleting the general form of the tree. 

In the early part of June, and indeed until Mid- 
summer, much attention is necessary as to destroying 
caterpillars, and carrying on the picking operations sug- 
gested for May. If any of the trees begin casting 
their fruit, it may be considered indicative of either 
draught or feebleness of constitution ; generally the 
former ; and the best remedy is to give the tree a 
thorough soaking of water, to which some guano or 
other manure should be added. When valuable kinds 
have set too thick, they should receive a light thin- 
ning in the fruit, in the end of June ; this will assist 
the tree much both as to the present crop and its 
future stability. 



G 



82 



JULY. 

A continuation of the same process as recommended 
for June may be carried through the month of July. 
In addition to this, where the trees have made very 
long shoots, the principal ones may have their points 
pinched off, when the shoots have extended over a 
foot in length. This will tend to solidify them, and 
to divert the sap to the inferior parts of the tree, and 
promote fructification by causing the embryo spurs to 
become plump ; throwing more light also through 
the whole tree. This stopping may commence in the 
end of July, and be continued in a progressive way 
all through August, according to the strength of the 
shoots ; and it will be found both to equalise the 
strength, and to increase both the size and flavour of 
the fruit. 

In the beginning of July, training or tying down the 
principal young shoots on espaliers must commence. 
This, too, is a progressive matter, and will require a 
little weekly attention until the middle of August ; by 
which time all principals should be duly placed and 
fastened ; and whatever waste spray remains after 
this period, may be at once cut in to within six inches 
of the main shoots ; such, we mean, as may have es- 
caped the stopping recommended, or have sprung up 
since that operation. 



83 



AUGUST. 

If the early part of August is hot and dry, we 
would strongly suggest the propriety of another 
watering, especially young trees. Trees carrying heavy 
crops also should receive a soaking of liquid manure, 
which, at this period, will work wonders. Little more 
can be done this month except gathering and storing 
some of the very early sorts, such as the Keswick 
Codling and the Manks Codling ; these, with some 
others, will be ready by the end of the month. Some 
also of the table kinds will be fit for use or for gather- 
ing, as the Early Harvest, the Juneatings, the Marga- 
ret, and towards the end the Kerry Pippin, Hughes's 
Golden Pippin, &c. 

SEPTEMBER. 

Gathering and storing away will be carried on con- 
tinuously through this as well as the succeeding 
months. Nothing can be done for the trees at this 
period. A cool room, tolerably dry, is the best for 
apples ; and we like it best a little below the ground 
level. They require much ventilation for a few weeks 
after gathering, especially when a great body of them 
is placed in one room: After the sweating has ceased 
we would give little air, especially to them intended 
for long keeping. 

g 2 



84 



OCTOBER. 

Many of the late kinds will require gathering in 
this month ; indeed, it should be made a point to get 
all housed by the last week, be they of what kind 
they may, for they can receive no benefit after this 
period. Every possible care should be taken over 
the principal kinds, in order to ensure their keeping 
well. 

NOVEMBER. 

The stock and collection should now be well exam- 
ined, to see if any blank exists, or any link in the 
chain of succession is wanting to complete the collec- 
tion. New kinds, or the replacing of old or decayed 
trees, being determined on, some fresh maiden soil 
should be instantly procured, to assist in forming 
what we term stations for them. We have gone so 
much into this part of the subject in the former part 
of this volume on the apple, that farther comment 
here would be superfluous : it may suffice to say that 
we would direct especial attention to the principles 
there inculcated, of taking care that the soil used be 
at least fresh to the apple, and of introducing as 
much sound loam into the mixture as can be obtained. 
After planting according to these directions, let the 
young trees be immediately mulched. The import- 



So 



ance of this part of the process has also been dwelt 
on in previous remarks. 

The fruit-room will now require frequent attention. 
Some ventilation on dry and airy days for a few 
hours, together with a frequent picking of the fruit, 
will now be necessary, in order to prevent the spread 
of destructive fungi. Darkness is well known to 
assist in the preservation of this fruit, therefore every 
fruit-room should have shutters to the windows, both 
to exclude light and injuriously low temperatures. 

Pruning may now commence according to the prin- 
ciples laid down for January : the ample details there 
will supersede the necessity of any repetition here. 

DECEMBER. 

Nothing fresh can be offered in the way of advice 
for this month. In taking leave of the subject, we 
may merely observe that pruning and training may 
henceforth proceed until the whole is completed. 
The American blight should have attention immedi- 
ately ; and it would be well to apply the dressing be- 
fore recommended without delay. 



86 



INSECTS. 

None of our fruits are more liable than the apple to 
the depredations of insects. They assail all its parts 
—blossom, leaves, stem, and root — and they are con- 
fined to no season, for some one or other of them 
may be found at its work of destruction whenever the 
scrutiny takes place. 

So impressed was Mr. Knight with the opinion 
that of all our fruits none suffers more from insects 
than the apple, that he declared his belief that these 
are a more frequent cause of the crops failing than 
frost. The figure-of-eight moth (Episema caruleoce- 
phala), Linne denominates the pest of Pemona, and 
the destroyer of the blossoms of the apple, pear, and 
cherry. He also mentions another (Tinea corticella) 
as inhabiting apple-bearing trees under the bark. 
And Reaumur has given us the history of a species 
common in this country, and producing the same 
effect, often to the destruction of the crop, the cater- 
pillar of which feeds in the centre of our apples, thus 
occasioning them to fall. Even the young grafts are 
frequently destroyed, sometimes many hundreds in 
one night, in the nurseries about London, by the 
Curculio Vast at or of Marsh (Otiorhynchus picipes), 
one of the short-snouted weevils ; and the foundation 
of canker in full-grown trees is often laid by the larvae 



87 



of Temasia Wceberana. The sap, too, is often inju- 
riously drawn off by a minute coccus, of which the 
female has the exact shape of a muscle- shell (C. Ar- 
borum linearis, Geoffr.) y and which Reaumur has ac- 
curately described and figured. But the greatest 
enemy of this tree, and which has been known in this 
country since the year 1787, is the apple-aphis, called 
by some the coccus, and by others the American 
blight. This is a minute insect, covered with a long 
cotton-like wool, transpiring from the pores of its 
body, which takes its station in the chinks and rugo- 
sities of the bark, where it increases abundantly, and 
by constantly drawing off the sap, causes ultimately 
the destruction of the tree. Whence this pest was 
first introduced is not certainly known. Sir Joseph 
Banks traced its origin to a nursery in Sloane Street ; 
and at first he was led to conclude that it had been 
imported with some apple-trees from France. On 
writing, however, to the gardeners in that country, 
he found it to be wholly unknown there. It was 
therefore, if not a native insect, most probably de- 
rived from North America, from whence apple-trees 
had also been imported by the proprietor of that nur- 
sery. Whatever its origin, it spread rapidly. At 
first it was confined to the vicinity of the metropolis, 
where it destroyed' thousands of trees. But it has 
now found its way into other parts of the kingdom, 
particularly into the cider countries ; and in 1810 so 



88 



many perished from it in Gloucestershire, that, if 
some mode of destroying it were not discovered, it 
was feared the making of cider must be abandoned. 
{Kirby and Spence's EntomoL i. 199.) 

Blight. — By this name, most indiscriminately ap- 
plied, common observers intend every ill that invades 
the blossoms and leaves of the apple. If they are 
destroyed by an easterly wind — if they are invaded by 
legions of aphides — or even if caterpillars abound 
upon them — the convenient name of blight is adapted 
to the evil. To such a cloak for ignorance we cannot 
pay regard, but shall strictly confine ourselves to ob- 
servations upon each insect marauder distinctively. 

Previously to proceeding to the task, we will offer 
a few observations upon what is usually termed " the 
blighting influence of the east wind/ 5 In England 
this wind is proverbially cold and dry, qualities which 
render it particularly liable to injure tender leaves and 
blossom, by subjecting them to a rapid ungenial eva- 
poration and reduction of temperature. When so in- 
jured, when thus shrivelled and blasted, the term 
blight may well apply. But when, referring to a very 
different phenomenon, it is said that " the east wind 
has brought the aphides, 55 this requires a very im- 
portant qualification. That such predatory insects 
are usually most abundant when this wind has been 
prevalent, does not admit of dispute; but no one, 



89 



except the most ignorant, will conclude that the wind 
creates them. The truth is that insects propagate 
with rapidity just in proportion as their food is abun- 
dant or deficient. Now the food of the aphis is the 
juice of the young leaves and shoots of the plant, and 
there is no doubt that more young leaves are put 
forth to succeed those which have been injured by 
easterly wind, and that the shoots remain then longer 
juicy and unripened than in seasons when more genial 
weather has prevailed. 



Tponomenta padella. — Small Ermine Moth. — An- 




terior wings ordinarily of a leaden white, with about 
thirty remote minute black spots, disposed somewhat 
regularly in longitudinal rows, but on the hinder 
margin they are more irregular, and tend to a trans- 
verse disposition : cilia livid. Posterior wings lead- 
coloured : cilia rather paler. Extremely variable : 
some examples having the ground of the anterior 
wings white ; others with the costa livid, and the 
inner margin white ; some with a livid or pale lead- 



90 



coloured central cloud ; others, again, entirely of a 
pale or deep lead colour ; and all intermediate shades 
occur : the number of spots also varies. (Stephens' 
Illust. Brit. Lepid., vol. iv. p. 243.) 

The caterpillar {g, rather magnified) of this moth 
is of an ashy white colour, with a brownish head, 
and a number of small black spots, of which the 
largest form a series on each side of the body. It 
has sixteen feet, the three anterior pairs being arti- 
culated, and attached to the three anterior segments. 
The four following pairs are membranaceous, false, 
ventral legs ; and the terminal pair anal, and also 
membranaceous. They are below the middle size, 
and the body is smooth. In regard to the predilec- 
tion of this caterpillar for any particular kind of food, 
only some kinds of apples were affected, which is the 
more remarkable, because its principal food (whence 
its specific name is derived) is the bird cherry, 
although the white thorn is also even more subject to 
its attacks ; whole hedges being sometimes entirely 
defoliated in summer, and covered with webs. 

It is a peculiarity in the history of this insect, that 
it is not only social in the caterpillar state (a), but 
that it retains its sociality during the period of its 
pupation (5), the cocoous being formed within the web 
which had served for the abode of the caterpillars. 
These webs are quitted from time to time, and new 
encampments established at short distances from each 



91 

other ; hence, each brood constructs several webs in 




the course of its caterpillar state ; the reason of which 
is, that the caterpillars do not quit their webs to feed, 
but only eat such leaves as are enclosed in each web. 
The number of inhabitants in a colony varies from one 
hundred to two hundred ; and, hence, the more nume- 
rous the colony, the more frequent is a change of resi- 
dence required. These webs consist of a great number 
of threads not unlike spider webs, arranged somewhat 
irregularly, but'sufficiently loose to enable the inhabi- 
tants to be seen through the covering. The cater- 
pillars eat only the parenchyma of the upper side of 
the leaf ; they also arrange their threads longitudi- 
nally, each, apparently, having a thread of its own* 
along which it moves either backwards or forwards 
without disturbing its neighbours, which, when in re- 
pose, are arranged side by side. 



92 



The manner in which the eggs are deposited, and 
the young caterpillars developed, appears first to have 
been noticed by Mr. Major (Treatis, p. 51) ; but sub- 
sequently, with more precision, by Mr. Lewis (Trans, 
Ent. Soc. i. p. 22). The former writer states that, 
on the 29th of July, he found the parent coating her 
eggs over, which she appeared just to have been de- 
positing, with gummy matter (employing her tail in 
the operation), which, when dry, forms a thin shell 
or scale, about the eighth of an inch in diameter. On 
the 19th of October, on examining the scale, he found 
26 caterpillars existing, which he was persuaded had 
never left their abode, as at that time all the parts 
were completely shut up, and, indeed, the edges of 
the scale were fast cemented to the branch. He thinks 
it probable that they may derive some little support 
from the sap of the branch under the shell or cover- 
ing where they reside ; but it is quite clear that they 
never emerge from their birth-place to obtain food, or 
form any additional residence, till they are influenced 
by the warmth in the following spring. Mr. Lewis 
takes up the observation where it had been left by Mr. 
Major, and states that, about the time that the trees 
are coming into leaf, the caterpillars make their escape; 
but they do not commence spinning webs immediately ; 
they cannot yet eat the epidermis of the leaves, and 
they require some protection from the cold and rain' 
which their tender frames are not yet fitted to endure : 



93 



to effect this they mine into the leaves, eating the 
cellular tissue only, and leaving the epidermis un- 
touched. Having acquired sufficient strength to 
withstand the vicissitudes of the atmosphere, and to 
devour the epidermis of the leaves, they make their 
way out ; and the anxious gardener, who has hitherto 
only observed the browness of the leaves caused by 
the mining, but which is by him attributed to the 
withering blast of an easterly wind, is astonished when 
he perceives myriads of caterpillars swarming on his 
trees, and proceeding with alarming rapidity in their 
devastating course. The fact of their mining suf- 
ficiently explains the reason of their sudden appear- 
ance : it shows how one day not a single caterpillar 
may be visible on the trees, and the next they may 
be swarming with larvae of so large a size as to rebut 
the idea of their having been recently hatched. For 
the destruction of these insects, various plans have 
been recommended. Mr. Major says that nothing 
more is required than the application of strong soap- 
suds forcibly applied with the engine, so as to break 
the web, that the suds may reach the insects. Where 
the trees are not much infested, gather the webs, in- 
cluding the caterpillars, by hand, and destroy them 
in any way most convenient. Care should, however, 
in these cases, be taken to kill, and not merely to 
disturb, the caterpillars. Mr. Lewis suggests the 
picking off and burning of the leaves whilst the cater- 



94 



pillars are in the mining state ; the presence of the 
insects being indicated by the blighted outward ap- 
pearance of the leaf : but prevention is always better 
than cure, and it seems to us easier, as well as more 
advantageous, to destroy the moths as soon as they 
are produced, and before they have had time to de- 
posit their eggs. The generally simultaneous appear- 
ance of the entire brood in the winged state, together 
with the very conspicuous appearance of the moth, 
will render this a matter of great facility. A sheet 
may be laid beneath the branches in the daytime, 
which should then be sharply struck with a stick ; 
when the moths, which at that time are sluggish, will 
fall into the sheet, and may easily be destroyed : and 
the destruction of one moth will thus prevent the 
injuries arising from one, if not several, colonies of 
caterpillars in the following season. (Gard. Mag. 
iii. 435, N.S.) 

The Apple-blossom Weevil (Anthonomus Po- 
rno rum) , — In apple-buds attacked by this pest the 
petals form globes, which assume a rusty colour. On 
opening one, the stamina and germen are found en- 
tirely consumed, the withered petals forming a hollow 
globe (fig. 1), within which lying a brown pupa. 
About the middle of June the apple weevils hatch, 
and on examining the buds a hole is found on one 
side, from whence the beetles escape from their 



95 



tombs (fig. 2). In some seasons the larvse are feed- 
ing the beginning of May, and the beetles have 
hatched by the 25th. These little animals some- 
times occasion great loss to the apple-grower, espe- 
cially in cider countries in backward seasons, when 
vegetation is retarded by cold and wet, which afford 
the beetles a much longer period to perform their 
operations. Like many other insects in their perfect 
state, they live through the winter, secreting them- 
selves in the chinks and under the loose bark of trees, 
beneath stones, clods of earth, &c. In March, when 
the flower-buds are swelling, the beetles emerge from 
their retreats, when the males are seen in sunny 
mornings flying amongst the trees in search of the 
females, who generally are crawling over the branches, 
although they are also furnished with wings. They 
seem to be very earful in selecting proper objects for 
the reception of their eggs, and on finding a suitable 
bud, the female bores a hole with her minute jaws, 
which are placed at the tip of the slender proboscis, 
until she has reached the parts of fructification, and 
turning round she lays an egg in the hole by inserting 
her ovipositor, and then closes it again with her 
mouth, and seems as if she were forcing in the egg ; 
this is rather a tedious operation, and is said to occupy 
three-quarters of an hour ; she then hastens to another 
swelling flower-bud for the same purpose, and is thus 
employed two or three weeks, viz., until the flowers 



96 



begin to expand, when her labours cease ; for, as the 
larvae can neither bear wet nor sunshine, they require 
the protection afforded by the closed petals. The 
eggs are hatching from the beginning to the end of 
April, principally influenced by the variations of the 
season ; if the weather be warm, they are matured in 
five or six days. During this period the bud grows* 
and the petals of their usual rosy colour, but instead 
of expanding, they wither, and eventually turn to a 
rusty brown, and on opening them, in place of the 
germen and stamina, which have been consumed by a 
single maggot, one finds rolling about in this globular 
chamber a pupae, of a deep ferruginous colour, which 
is very sensitive and restless when touched (fig. 4). 
The maggots are curved, fleshy, and whitish, having 
numerous segments and wrinkles, with a few short 
hairs, but no legs ; the head is horny and black, and 
furnished with small jaws (fig, 3). The exact time 
they remain in the pupae state has not been ascer- 
tained, but in about a month from the period when 
the eggs are deposited, the weevils hatch, and eating 
a hole through the dry petals, they disperse over the 
tree, and feed upon the leaves during the remainder 
of the summer. Like most of the Curculionidae when 
approached, the apple-weevils contract their eggs and 
fall down, so that it is difficult to detect and capture 
them in any numbers, except whilst they are pairing, 



97 




The apple-blossoin weevil was named by Linnaeus 
Curculio pomarum, and it has been distinguished by 
later naturalists as the Anthonomus pomorum (fig. 5). 
It is long and pear-shaped, of a reddish-brown colour, 
punctured, and clothed with short, depressed, whitish 
and ochreous hairs ; the rostrum is long, subcylindri- 
cal, curved and sculptured ; towards the apex are 
placed the antennae, which are slender and genicu- 
lated ; the basal joint is very long, slender and cla- 
vate — the second is oblong, the six following are 
more or less globose, and the remaining four form an 
oval-conical club ; the head is subglobose, with two 
very prominent little black eyes ; the thorax is semi- 
ovate, truncated before with three indistinct stripes of 
a paler colour ; the scruted forms a white dot ; the 
eljtra are elongate-ovate, with nine punctured striae 
on each ; beyond the middle is a large piceous lunar 

H 



98 



patch, bearing a pale oblique stripe across the centre, 
forming an angle at the suture ; and towards the apex 
are two ochreous spots ; wings very ample ; legs mo- 
derately long and ferruginous ; anterior thighs stout, 
with a strong tooth beneath — the others are similar, 
but smaller ; the anterior tibiae are cinuated inter- 
nally, and they are all terminated by a claw ; the 
tarsi are 4-jointecl, the third joint being bilobed, the 
fourth furnished with minute claws. The smaller 
figures denote the natural sizes of the animals. 

These beetles will also lay their eggs in the flower- 
buds of pear-trees, and it is on calm days the females 
are occupied in depositing them ; for in windy or 
frosty weather they retire to sheltered situations. In 
genial springs, when the blossoms open in a week or 
ten days, these weevils do little mischief; but in cold, 
clamp seasons, when the buds are three weeks or more 
in expanding, scarcely an apple-blossom sometimes 
escapes. The best mode of destroying them is to 
gather the punctured withered flower-buds and burn 
them, by which means the larva? and pupae will be 
cut off, and the beetles may be collected by beating 
the branches over a net ; but unless this is done as 
soon as they make their appearance, it will not be of 
much service, as the eggs will have been deposited. 
From various statements it seems that the females 
will not readily fly, and, as they crawl up the trees, 
their incursions may be stopped, and the crops saved, 



99 



by winding tarred bandages round the upper portion 
of the trunks. (Gard. Chron. 1844, 555.) 

The Apple or Codling Moth (Carpocapsa po- 
monelld) % — It is only upon the pulpy parts of the 
apple (h, i) that the larva • (k) of the apple moth 
feeds during the greater part of its growth : when, 
however, it has nearly attained its full size, it begins 
to feed on the pips of the apple, which, thus attacked 
in its most vital part, soon falls to the ground. The 
caterpillar, however, has now ceased feeding : it has 
other operations to undergo ; and no sooner is the 
apple fallen to the ground, than it quits the fruit by 
the passage (/) which it had previously gnawed, and 
thus all traces of its steps are lost to the inquirer. A 
hundred apples may be opened, and not more than two 
or three larvae observed within them ; the orifice by 
which they have escaped being open, and not concealed 
by a little mass of brown grains, which is the case 
with those apples from which the larvae has not made 
its escape. These little grains are the excrement of 
the larvae, which are also to be seen in the burrows 
formed by them within the apple, and which are pro- 
truded through the hole previously made in the cir- 
cumference of the fruit, being attached together by 
slender threads spun by the caterpillar. When, 
therefore, the larvae makes its escape, it clears away 
the mass of dry excrementitious matter at the orifice 
h 2 



100 



of the burro w, through which it escapes to the earth. 
Reaumur considers that the attaching of the pellets 




of excrement together, and to the sides of the fruit, 
by means of a thin web, has for its object the removal 
of the annoyance which the larvse would experience 
by these little masses being loose, and striking against 
it every time the apple was shaken by the wind. 

One of these larvae is represented of the natural 
size at a, and highly magnified at 6. It is of a dirty 
white colour, with a brown head, varied with darkish 
brown marks. The body is slightly hairy ; the 
prothorax, or first segment after the head, is whit- 
ish, with minute brown spots ; the other segments 
are of a pale colour, with about eight small tubercles 



101 



on each ; each of the three anterior segments is 
furnished with a pair of legs ; there are also two 
small fleshy tubercles on each of the 6th, 7 th, 8th 
and 9th segments, as well as a pair of feet at the 
extremity of the body. This description was made 
when the larvae had for some time quitted the fruit. 
In its early state, it is of a dirty reddish or flesh co- 
lour. After quitting the fruit, the larvae crept to the 
top of the box in which it was confined, and spun for 
itself a thin but close web, of a darkish-coloured silk 
(c), in which it remained all the winter, and for 
several of the early months of the following year, 
without assuming the chrysalis state. The caterpillar 
wanders about on the ground till it finds the stem of 
a tree, up which it climbs, and hides itself in some 
little crack of the bark. The fall of the apple, the 
exit of the grub, and its wandering to this place of 
safety, usually take place in the night-time. In this 
situation it remains without stirring for a day or two, 
as if to rest itself after the uncommon fatigue of a two 
yards' march ; it then gnaws away the bark a little, 
in order to get in further, out of the way of observa- 
tion, and having made a smooth chamber, big enough 
for its wants, it spins a beautiful little milk-white 
silken case, in which, after a few weeks, it becomes a 
chrysalis ; and in this state it remains through the 
winter, and until the following June, when it is upon 



102 



the wing, and hovering round the young apples on a 
midsummer evening. (Eat. Mag. i., p. 146.) 

Our specimens did not appear in the winged state 
until July, in the following year ; and Reaumur says 
that his specimens assumed the perfect state on the 
15th of August, having heen only a month from the 
time of their quitting the apples. The chrysalis 
(a, magnified, after the escape of the insect,) is of 
a pale brown, with the dorsal surface of the abdominal 
segments armed with two transverse rows of fine teeth, 
like those of the chrysalis of the rose-moth, which 
are employed in extricating itself from the cocoon. 

The moth itself (e, of the natural size ; and /, 
magnified) is a very beautiful insect, about three- 
quarters of an inch in expanse, of which the following 
is the description : — Anterior wings ashy-brown, with 
very numerous, rather obscure, darker, transverse 
streaks, united into a broadish fascia towards the 
base ; on the anul angle is a large blind subocellated 
spot, of which the margins are of a coppery or reddish 
golden colour : posterior wings black, darkish at the 
apex. {Stephens, loc. cit., p. 119.) By whom it is 
-rated that it is not very abundant, but is found in 
gardens within the metropolitan district occasionally, 
m some plenty. About three years previously he 
found several in his garden : and in 1834 it was again 
in plenty. 



103 



Ve were not fortunate enough to observe the deposi- 
tion of the eggs by the female moth, and, anxious to 
obtain the manner in which the larvae commenced its 
attacks upon the fruit, and thereby of gaining an 
idea of the situation in which the eggs are placed, we 
opened a number of young apples at the beginning of 
August, and found the larvse in a young state, in the 
upper part of the fruit, at a small distance from the 
eye (g), its presence being indicated by the dried 
powder in the centre of the eye, the head of the 
larvse being turned towards the heart of the fruit. 
Rusticus, however, states that the moth may be ob- 
served, about the middle of June, hovering around 
the young apples, which by that time are fit for the 
reception of its eggs, which it lays in the eyes, one 
only in each, by introducing its long ovipositor between 
the leaves of the calyx, which form a tent above it 
that effectually shields it from the inclemency of the 
weather, or any other casualty. As soon as the egg 
is hatched, the little grub gnaws a hole in the crown 
of the apple, and soon buries itself in its substance ; 
and it is worthy of remark, that the rind of the apple, 
as if to afford every facility to the destroyer, is thinner 
here than in any other part, and consequently more 
easily pierced. The, apple most commonly attacked 
is the Codling, which ripens in July and August. 

It will be evident, from the preceding detail of the 
habits of this moth, that there are considerable dif- 



104 



ficulties in the way of its extirpation. It is impossi- 
ble, for instance, to be aware of the presence of the 
enemy within the fruit, until the mischief is actually 
completed ; and, in like manner, the destruction of 
the moth, from its small size, and its habit of secret- 
ing itself in crevices of the bark, &c, is equally 
impracticable. The gathering up of the worm-eaten 
apples immediately after their fall, and before the 
enclosed caterpillar has had time to make its escape, 
cannot but be attended with good effect ; care, how- 
ever, must be taken, either by bruising the apples, or 
some other similar proceeding, to destroy the larva, 
which would otherwise very speedily make their escape, 
and so frustrate the pains taken for their destruction. 
It has also been suggested, that, by burning weeds in 
the garden or orchard at the time of the year when 
the insect is ready to deposit its eggs, the moth will be 
effectually driven away. (Gard. Mag. iv. 235, N.S.) 

The Apple-tree Mussel Scale, or Dry 
Scale (Aspidiotus eonchiformis) . — Upon the trunks 
and branches of apple and pear-trees there are found 
two species of scale-insects, the former of which we 
will now describe and figure. They are so small, and 
partake so completely of the substance, colour, and 
character of the bark, that an unpractised eye would 
not suspect they were the production and habitation 
of an insect ; and some allied species attached to the 



105 



ash and other trees have been mistaken, even by 
philosophers, for lichens, &c. 

The little animals sticking to the bark of the apple- 
trees are so similar to mussel-shells, that GeofFroy 
called them " Le Kermes en ecaille de moule," but 
instead of giving them an appropriate scientific name, 
he designated them as the Chermes arborum-linearis. 
Gmelin has in some measure supplied the deficiency, 
by describing them under the name of Coccus con- 
chiformis ; but if he had applied the term of Mytili- 
formis, mussel-shaped, it would have been more signi- 
ficant. These scales do not lie in one direction, as 
others generally do, with their heads downward, for 
some of the apple-tree scales are placed vertically, 
others obliquely, and many have a transverse direction 
(fig. 1) ; and sometimes they are crowded together in 
immense multitudes in every possible position, even 
lying one over another. The scales are hard, dark, 
and shining ; they are exceedingly like a minute mus- 
sel-shell, but rather more elongated; they are slightly 
curved, transversely wrinkled, rounded at the tail, 
and attenuated at the head, which is semi-cylindric, 
less opaque, and of a rusty colour (fig. 2). These 
adhere firmly to the bark, having the margins broad 
beneath and woolly (fig. 3), and when dislodged, the 
space they had covered appears white. Within the 
shell is found a fleshy-green female, occupying part 
of the cavity towards the tapering extremity (fig. 4), 



106 



the hinder space being entirely rilled with white oval 
eggs, amounting sometimes to 50 or more, (fig. 5) ; 
they are rather larger than in most species, and pro- 
duce little white fiat cocci, with two antennae and six 
legs ; they are lively, and nm about for several days, 
but having fixed themselves, then grow, and by degrees 
become very different creatures to what they were im- 
mediately after their birth. 

On opening the scale, and taking out the female, it 
will be found that she is not attached to the shield, 
and that consequently this mussel-scale is not a true 
coccus, but an aspidiotus : it is a fat yellowish green 
maggot, nearly orbicular, very convex, shining, with 
distinct transverse stride, indicating the abdominal 
segment ; a pale brown line visible down the back, 
from the alimentary canal, shining through the thin 
and transparent skin (fig. 6). 

A contributor to the Gardener's Magazine says, 
" A scale of a brown colour, pointed at both ends, 
and less than half the size of a seed of common flax, 
abounds in the north of Cambridgeshire, on the 
branchlets of old apple-trees ; and in unlading the 
trees in autumn of their ruddy riches, here and there 
an apple occurs to whose rind one or more of these 
scales firmly adhere, and where it must have become 
fixed before the apple's growth was finished; as, 
when the scale is removed, a slight depression in the 
rind of the apple is perceptible.' 3 The same scale, it 



107 



is said, is very prevalent in Cheshire on the pear- 
trees, where it is considered to be injurious to the 
fruit, as, by clinging to the rind, it prevents the fruit 
from swelling to its full size. It is asserted that 
peaches, apricots, plums, &c, suffer from the attacks 
of the mussel-scale ; and if young Ribston Pippins 
and some varieties of pears be planted near any other 
apple or pear-tree that already supports these insects, 
they will speedily migrate to them. The same ob- 
server says, " I believe this disease is mostly, if not 
entirely, confined to wall-fruit in the open air, stand- 
ards not affording them sufficient warmth and shelter 
during our winters in Scotland, where they have been 
very abundant and very troublesome. They attach 
themselves to the bark, and by means of their ros- 
trum they soon exhaust a branch so completely of its 
sap that it withers and dies/ 5 Mr. Ingpen recom- 
mends " two or three applications in the spring, at 



108 



intervals of one or two weeks, of strong lime-water 
with a brush, and a dusting of quicklime before the 
branches get dry ; or a washing of soft-soap and 
water, using also the powdered lime," which is per- 
fectly harmless to vegetable life. 

Although it is generally trained trees that are most 
attacked by the mussel-scales, standards are often so 
covered with them that they are completely hide- 
bound. The best plan for getting rid of these scales 
is to scrape the bark with a wooden knife, so as to 
bruise and crush the females without lacerating the 
tree, and immediately to wash over the trunk and 
branches with some gas-tar. If any other season 
should be preferred, the best season for applying it 
will be in May, when the young ones are creeping 
from under the scales, and are easily destroyed ; but 
they are so minute that it will be necessary to use a 
magnifying glass to ascertain when they are hatched 
and in motion. (Gard. Chron. 1843, 735.) 

x\pple C hermes (Psylla mail). — This insect is 
closely allied to the aphis, and is thus described in 
M. Kollar's too-much neglected work on " Insects 
injurious to Gardeners." It usually appears in June. 
In September, the apple chermes pair, and lay their 
eggs : they are white, and pointed at both ends, a 
line and a half long, and the fourth of a line thick, 
and become yellow before the young escape. The 



109 



apple chermes lays its eggs in different places of the 
twigs of an apple-tree ; usually, however, in the fur- 
rows of the knots, and sometimes in a regular man- 
ner. The larvae were scarcely escaped from the egg, 
in the open air, when they hastened to the nearest 
bud, and began to gnaw its scales, because the bud 
was only somewhat swollen; and had not begun to 
sprout. On the second day after their birth they 
cast their first skin, after which they appeared nearly 
of their former shape and colour. The second chang- 
ing of the skin can sometimes be scarcely seen at all, 
because the larva not only puts out a thicker string 
with the tubercle, but also an immense number of 
very fine entangled threads or small hairs, which it 
turns upwards over its back, and with them entirely 
covers its body and head. In sunshine, these strings 
look transparent, as if they were made of glass, and 
become of a greenish variable colour. Under this 
screen the chermes are secured from every attack of 
other insects ; for no ants, mites, or bugs can disturb 
them in their fortification, or consume them as their 
prey. After changing the second skin, the young 
assumed a different colour and form : they now be- 
came light green all over ; the abdomen was much 
broader than the thorax, and, on the side of the 
latter, rudiments of the wings were distinctly seen. 
The third time of changing the skin comes on in 
about eight days, sometimes sooner and sometimes 



110 



later, according to the weather. After this skin the 
wing rudiments very distinctly make their appear- 
ance, and become larger and whiter the nearer the 
insect approaches to the perfect state. The body is 
also of a light green, and the larvae have black eyes 
and blackish antennee. At last the time arrives when 
the insect assumes the perfect state ; when it retires 
to a part of a leaf which it had selected, and after 
having firmly fixed itself there, the back splits open, 
and the beautiful winged chermes appears from the 
nymph. The back of the thorax is of a light green, 
the abdomen is marked with yellow wings, and the 
membraneous wings with strongly-marked veins. 

Apple-bark Beetle (Bostrichus dispar), fortu- 
nately, appears in England very rarely. The female 
of this species bores into the wood of the apple-tree, 
depositing there her eggs, usually, in the month of 
May. Its perforations, in Germany, are so numerous 
and extensive as frequently to destroy the tree. The 
perforations are confined to the alburnum of the wood. 

Small-bark Beetle {Seolytus hcEmorrJious) .— 
This is of still more rare occurrence than the preced- 
ing. It is black, and the ends of the wing-cases red- 
dish ; feet brownish red ; wing-cases furrowed longi- 
tudinally, and distinctly spotted. The insect is very 
small, the largest being no more than three-fourths 



Ill 

of a line in length. The female deposits its eggs in 
furrows made in the inner bark and alburnum. 
Schmidberger saw reason to conclude that this insect 
only attacks sickly trees. It commences its boring ir 
May, and the larvae continue feeding until late in tb 
autumn. 

American Blight (Eriosoma lanigera — Aphis 
lanigerci). — We have glanced at the history of this 
comparatively recent plague of our apple-trees, and 
have but little to add to that narrative. Above all the 
iusects infesting the apple-tree this is the most preju- 
dicial. Some fifteen years since, we purchased a lot 
of Crabstocks from an eminent nurseryman for graft- 
ing on ; up to that period we had not an individual 
of this species in the gardens. The unlucky Crabs 
were infested with it, as indeed were all the apples 
and stocks in the above nursery ; and from them it 
took to the apples of the kitchen-garden, and, in spite 
of numerous dressings, we have never been able to get 
completely rid of it to this day. 

Before proceeding to enumerate the various remedies 
which have been suggested, we will particularize a 
little more fully the phenomena attendant upon the 
appearance of this insect. The cottony matter ap- 
pearing in the cracks and excrescences of apple-tree 
branches in the spring envelopes colonies of this in- 
sect, and which, when crushed, exude a reddish fluid. 



112 



These insects are injurious by piercing the sap vessels 
with their probosces, sucking the juice of the tree, 
and causing wounds which ulcerate and finally destroy 
the branch attacked by corroding through all the sap 
vessels. The excrescences or knobs attendant upon the 
attacks of these insects are really caused by the 
efforts of the tree to repair the injuries. The cottony 
matter is abundant, and, wafted to other trees, proba- 
bly conveys to them infection, by bearing with it the 
eggs or embryo insect. But this is not the exclusive 
mode of diffusing the disease, for although the females 
are usually wingless, yet, like many other insects, 
some are probably produced with wings at the season 
propitious to colonization. The males are uniformly 
winged. In the winter these insects retire under- 
ground, and prey upon the roots of the apple-tree. A 
tree thus ravaged at all seasons will soon be killed, if 
prompt and vigorous remedies are not adopted. The 
affected roots may be bared and left exposed for a few 
days to the cold, and the earth, before returned, be 
saturated with ammoniacal liquor from the gas works. 
In early March the branches should be scraped, and 
scrubbed with the same ammoniacal liquid, or a strong 
brine of common salt ; but whatever liquid is em- 
ployed, the scraping and hard bristles of the brush 
should penetrate every crack in the bark. This treat- 
ment, repeated and persevered in so long as the least 
appearance of the insect is observed, never fails of a 



113 



cure. Linseed^ or rape oil, or spirit of tar, applied to 
the infected part, and repeated a second or third time 
with a brush, are also effective remedies. They suf- 
focate the insects. Strong pyroligneous acid applied 
in the same mode is also said to destroy this as well 
as the scale insect. The Codlin and Juneating are par- 
ticularly liable to be infected ; but we never observed 
it upon any of the russet apples ; and the Crofton 
pippin is also said to be exempted. 

Painting over every patch of this insect with hot 
glue ; dabbing them with a mixture of oil of vitriol and 
water (1 ounce of the first to 7 of the latter) are also 
said to be effectual modes of destroying these pests. 

We were long since perfectly aware that train oil 
would destroy it, but we have little faith in using 
materials which have a tendency to close the pores of 
the tree. We have, therefore, tried various recipes, 
and we think that urine and soft-soap water in com- 
bination are the best. We beat up four ounces of the 
soap to a gallon, and blend this with an equal por- 
tion of urine ; and beat up as much clay into the 
whole as will produce a thick paint ; sometimes we 
add a little sulphur. This mixture is rubbed well 
into every crevice directly the leaves are fallen, and 
wherever it comes in contact with the insect this is de- 
stroyed. The most difficult part of the affair, however, 
is to touch them all, the stems possessing so many cre- 
vices. It is well to add some linie to the mixture ; by this 

i 



114 



means we can readily discern, under a dry state of 
atmosphere, what parts have been missed in the first 
dressing, and apply a second accordingly. 

The Red Spider (Acarus tellarius) is a great 
pest to the apple in dry summers, and on hot soils. 
Water and sulphur are the best remedies. A liberal 
watering of manure- water at the root, and a thorough 
dusting of sulphur on the back of the leaves, will 
soon subdue them. 



USES. 

The apple-tree is cultivated chiefly for its fruit, but 
this is not the only part that is valuable to man. 

The wood of the wild apple is tolerably hard : it 
turns very clean ; and when made into cogs for wheels, 
acquires a polish, and lasts a long time. The bark 
of the apple-tree affords a yellow dye, and the acid 
juice of the crab-apple is called verjuice, forming a 
harsh, austere vinegar. 

The apple-tree, however, is most extensively culti- 
vated for the purpose of converting the juice of its fruit 
into cider. In previous sections we have entered into 
details pointing out the varieties best suited for making 
this truly English liquor, and the mode best suited 
to their cultivation, and it now only remains for us to 



115 



give a slight sketch of its manufacture and of the 
different qualities. 

Cider is manufactured with very rude machinery, 
by the following process. The apples are thrown into 
a circular stone trough, usually about 18 feet in dia- 
meter, called the chase, round which the runner, a 
heavy circular stone, is turned by one or sometimes 
two horses. TYhen the fruit has been ground until 
the rind and the core are so completely reduced that 
a handful of "must," when squeezed, will all pass 
without lumps between the fingers, and the maker 
sees from the white spots that are in it that the pips 
have been broken, a square horse-hair cloth is spread 
under a screw-press, and some of the must is poured 
with pails upon the hair, the edges and corners of 
which are folded inwards so as to prevent its escape. 
Ten or twelve of these hairs are piled and filled one 
upon the other, and then surmounted with a frame of 
thick boards. Upon this the screw is slowly worked 
down by a lever; and with the pressure, a thick brown 
juice exudes from the hairs, leaving within them only 
a dry residue, which, in years when apples are scarce, 
is sometimes mixed with water, ground again, and the 
liquid pressed out as before. This latter product is 
called 1 water cider,' a thin unpalatable liquor, which 
is given to the labourers early in the year. The cider 
is received by a channel in the fra^me of the press upon 
which the hairs stand, emptying into a flat tub called 
i 2 



116 



a 'trm.' From the trin it is poured with buckets or 
c racking cans 5 into casks, placed either out of doors 
or in sheds where there is a free current of air. In 
about three or four days, more or less according to 
the heat of the weather, the liquor usually will fer- 
ment ; the thick heavier parts will subside as a sedi- 
ment at the bottom of the cask, and the lighter become 
bright clear cider. This should then be ' racked' or 
drawn oif into another cask, and the sediment be put 
to strain through linen bags, and what oozes from 
them should be restored. 

It is during the fermentation that the management 
of cider is least understood, and that there is the greatest 
hazard of injury. It is necessary also to know what 
fruit will by itself make good cider, which kinds 
should be ground together, and what proportions 
should be mixed. But it is in the preservation of 
strength and flavour after the cider is ground that the 
principal difficulty consists : slight fermentation will 
leave the liquor thick and unpalatable ; rapid fermen- 
tation will impair both its strength and durability ; 
excessive fermentation will make it sour, harsh, and 
thin. Other things being equal, that cider will pro- 
bably prove the best in which the vinous fermentation 
has proceeded slowly, and has not been confounded 
with the acetous. The remedies used in cases of cider 
not clearing are either yeast or the addition of cider 
in a state of fermentation, isinglass, eggs, or a quart 



117 



of fresh blood stirred up with the liquor ; in which 
last case it is to be racked on the following day. These 
do not always prove effectual. But the common evils 
are excess or rapidity of fermentation ; and if a better 
quality than farm-house or c family drink' is sought, 
cider requires so much care to prevent its being 
spoiled, that the best and most careful makers fre- 
quently have it looked at during each night for some 
weeks after it is made ; and if the bubbling hissing 
noise, the sign of fermentation, becomes frequent or 
too loud, the liquor is immediately racked off into 
another cask : this check often requires to be repeated 
several times ; but although at each racking some 
portion of the strength will be lost, the body, flavour, 
and sweetness will chiefly be retained. It is not the 
habit of the farmer to add sugar, treacle, brandy, or 
any colouring matter to the liquor ; it is only adulte- 
rated in the hands of cider dealers and publicans, 
who will not lose a hogshead ; and if one has turned 
sour, or has been otherwise damaged, it must be c doc- 
tored,' in order to render it marketable. 

At the beginning of January the cider is moved 
into cellars, where, by large growers, it is frequently 
stored in casks of great capacity, containing 1 000, 
1500, or even 2000 gallons ; these are cheaper in pro- 
portion than smaller vessels, and are thought to pre- 
serve the cider better. In March the liquor is bunged 
down ; it is then fit for sale, and may be used soon 



118 



afterwards, though it will greatly improve by keeping. 
If bottled cider is required, it should be bottled and 
wired in the September or October after it is made ; 
some persons prefer an earlier time, the end of April 
or the beginning of May ; a greater degree of effer- 
vescence is thus attained, but a considerable loss oc- 
curs from the number of bottles that will burst. 

The strongest ciders are made from fruits which 
possess some degree of astringency ; and this quality 
is so necessary in the pear, that we have never known 
a single instance in which perry, made from fruits that 
were without astringency, did not become sour before 
the middle of the succeeding summer. It may be pre- 
served by a mixture of the harsh juice of the crab, 
and this is effected more by the astringent than by 
the saccharine matter the latter contains. 

The merit of cider will always depend much on the 
proper mixture, or rather on the proper separation of 
the fruits. Those whose rind and pulp are tinged 
with green, or red, without the mixture of yellow, 
(for that colour will disappear in the first stages of 
fermentation,) should be carefully kept apart from 
such as are yellow, or yellow intermixed with red. 
The latter kinds, which should remain on the tree till 
ripe enough to fall without being much shaken, are 
alone capable of making fine cider. Each kind should 
be collected separately, and kept till it becomes per- 
fectly mellow. For this purpose, in the common 



119 



practice of the country, it is placed in heaps of ten 
inches or a foot thick, and exposed to the sun and 
air, and rain ; not being ever covered except in very- 
severe frosts. The strength and flavour of the future 
liquor are, however, increased by keeping the fruit 
under cover some time before it is ground ; but unless 
a situation can be afforded it, in which it is exposed 
to a free current of air, and where it can be spread 
very thin, it is apt to contract an unpleasant smell, 
which will much affect the cider produced from it. 
Few farms are provided with proper buildings for this 
purpose on a large scale, and the improvement of the 
liquor will not nearly pay the expense of erecting 
them. It may reasonably be supposed that much 
water is absorbed by the fruit in a rainy season, but 
the quantity of juice yielded by any given quantity of 
fruit will be found to diminish, as the fruit becomes 
more mellow, even in very wet weather, provided it 
be ground when thoroughly dry ; and we are not quite 
satisfied that the apple does not receive benefit from 
the sun and light, subsequently to its being taken 
from the tree. The advantages therefore of covering 
the fruit will, probably, be much less than may at 
first sight be expected. No criterion appears to be 
known by which the most proper point of maturity in 
the fruit can be ascertained with accuracy, but we have 
good reason to believe that it improves, as long as it 
continues to acquire a deeper shade of yellow, without 



120 



decaying. Each heap should be examined prior to 
its being ground, and any decayed or green fruit care- 
fully taken away. The expense of this will be very 
small, and will be amply repaid by the excellence of 
the liquor, and the ease with which too great a degree 
of fermentation will be prevented. Each kind of fruit 
should either be ground separately, or mixed with 
such only as becomes ripe precisely at the same time ; 
but it is from the former practice that fine ciders, of 
different flavours and degrees of strength, are best 
obtained from the same orchard. The practice of 
mixing different varieties of fruit will, however, often 
be found eligible ; for it is much more easy to find 
the requisite quantities of richness, astringency, and 
flavour, in three varieties of fruit, than in one ; and 
hence ciders, composed of the juice of mixed fruits, 
are generally found to succeed with greater certainty 
than those made with any one kind. By mixtures, 
also, the cider-maker, being able to give to each cask 
a less portion of acid or astringency, may best accom- 
modate different portions of his liquor to different 
palates and constitutions. {Knight on the Apple, 107.) 

In 1830 the tax upon cider, of ten shillings a barrel, 
was taken off (M'Culloch, Die. Ccm.) 9 and in the 
same year an Act was passed allowing any person to 
sell cider upon the payment of £2 2s annually for a 
license from the Excise. This act was amended in 
1834, and a license for the sale of cider was in 1836 



121 



granted by the Excise to an application signed by six 
ratepayers of the applicant's parish, the payment 
being S3 3s if the liquor is to be drunk on the pre- 
mises, £ 1 Is if it is not. These alterations have 
necessarily added greatly to the consumption ; but 
the increase of orchards during the last twenty years, 
and the late productive seasons, have fully supplied 
the demand. During the years 1833-4-5 the price 
in the hands of the grower may be thus estimated : — 
Of the best cider, from Is to Is 6d per gallon; 
good, from lOd to Is per gallon ; family cider, used 
by farmers and in public-houses, from 4d to lOd per 
gallon ; c drink 5 for labourers, from 2^d to 6d per 
gallon. These prices amply remunerated the farmer, 
who, in many instances, might increase his profits by 
a diminution of the cost of production. It cannot 
certainly be supposed that small growers can go to 
the expense of procuring much machinery ; neverthe- 
less the extreme clumsiness of the present wasteful 
system would fully warrant larger owners in erecting 
suitable buildings and apparatus. It is true that 
some improvements have been made, that larger mills 
are used, that in the press an easily-worked iron screw 
has been substituted for an awkward wooden one ; 
but far more remains to be effected. If the mill was 
placed upon a first floor, which could easily be done 
in a building erected against a bank, or having an in- 
clined plane, so that horses might enter at that height, 



122 



all lifting of the cider from the trin might be saved, 
as a pipe might be carried from the press into casks 
in the cellars underneath. Again, if the casks in the 
cellars were placed upon stages, manual labour in 
racking might be dispensed with, and waste from 
spilling saved, since a pipe from a hogshead upon a 
high stage would empty the liqour into a cask on a 
lower. No use, again, is made of the siphon, a cheap 
instrument within the reach of any farmer's purse, 
which would no doubt be serviceable and economical. 

The quantity consumed by workmen is very large ; 
two or three quarts a day is the usual allowance given 
in Herefordshire by masters ; and in harvest-time, 
many labourers drink in a day ten or twelve quarts of 
a liquor that in a stranger's mouth would be mistaken 
for vinegar ; they do not like sweet cider. Notwith- 
standing so great a quantity is consumed, there do 
not appear to be any diseases peculiar to, or very 
general in, cider countries ; idiocy and rheumatism 
have been stated to be very prevalent in such dis- 
tricts ; but even if this is true, cider- drinking has in 
no way proved to be the cause. It is remarkable 
that, during the continuance of the cholera in this 
kingdom, there occurred very few cases in Devon- 
shire, and none in Herefordshire, although the sick- 
ness reached the adjoining counties at the time of 
harvest, when cider is drank to excess. 

Cider of good quality is made in Ireland, in the 



123 



counties of Waterford and Cork ; in Normandy, whence 
we have many of our best apples ; in Belgium j and 
of inferior quality in Germany. It is also made in 
abundance, and of excellent quality, in many parts of 
the United States. {Penny Cyclopcedia.) 

Preservation of Apples. — There are two things to 
be especially guarded against in the fruit store-room 
— putrefaction and excessive evaporation — for decay 
and shrivelling are almost equally obnoxious if present 
in fruit for the dessert. 

We have already remarked upon the fitness of fruit 
for gathering, and of the precautions requisite to be 
observed in that process of harvesting ; but we will 
observe, in addition, that two-thirds of the early 
apples should be gathered ten days before they are 
ripe, taking them carefully one by one, and placing 
them in a cool fruit-room ; these will succeed those 
left to ripen on the trees. Look over these every 
morning, and pick out the best fruit for the day's con- 
sumption ; if they do not ripen fast enough, remove 
a few occasionally to a warmer room or kitchen, 
where they will soon get mellow enough. Those for 
kitchen use should also be gathered before they are 
quite ripe, and the ripest of them may be selected for 
the daily consumption. 

Cupboards or shelves in a dark, cold cellar are the 
best store places for apples. The shelves, having a 



124 



rim about one inch in height all round, to prevent the 
apples tumbling off, about six inches apart, and made 
to slide in and out for the convenience of sorting. 
The apples must be placed so as not to touch each 
other, and rest on the eye ; if left a month in this way 
without looking at them, and although during that 
time one or two may have shewn symptoms of decay, 
the contagion will not spread in the same manner that 
it does when they are packed in layers with straw in 
open frames, or exposed to the light without any 
covering. (Gard. Chron. 1843, 336.) 

We were of opinion, at one time, that dryness was 
an essential for the long preservation of apples from 
decay, but later experience and observation has led to 
a contrary conviction. Apples that have remained, 
accidentally, in tufts of box edgings, exposed to all the 
wet and vicissitudes of winter, have been found in the 
spring following as plump and sound as when they 
first fell from the tree, whereas those in the store- 
room were then either shrivelled or entirely decayed. 

Mr. C. Diplock, gardener at Heath Lane Lodge, 
Twickenham, has made the following observations 
upon this point : — Apples do not require to be kept 
so dry and warm as many people imagine ; and if 
kept very dry, you can never keep apples till January 
without shrivelling. Mr. Diplock had two casks 
made air-tight — one filled with apples put in dry 
sand ; the other filled with apples wrapped separately 



125 



in paper ; and the heads of the casks put in and 
made secure with plaster-of-Paris. When opened in 
March every apple was quite rotten. Apples always 
perspire more or less, and a little air now and then is 
useful, and helps to preserve them ; but they should 
on no account be handled in frosty weather. It is 
thought by most gardeners that apples will not keep 
unless gathered when dry ; but about eight years ago, 
during a wet season, he had a large quantity gathered 
when it rained hard — laid them on a floor which was 
covered with straw ; the next day being fine, had 
more gathered in a dry state, which he laid near the 
others ; and found that both kept equally well ; for 
the wet ones soon became dry, and the others per- 
spired. Since then he does not mind their being 
gathered wet, nor does he wait till the dew gets of! 
before he gathers them. Of course he prefers gather- 
ing when the trees are dry. (Gard. Chron. 1842, 
588.) 

Mr. C. Harrison, F.H.S., has some remarks all 
tending to prove that coldness rather than dryness is 
most essential for the preservation of this fruit. In 
winter, he says, if the weather is clear and frosty, the 
windows or ventilators should be kept open several 
hours each day ; but when the weather is damp, they 
are to be kept entirely shut ; and no fire should ever 
be used in the fruit-room, as it always causes a damp 
to arise, which does infinite injury to the fruit. Frost 



126 



does not materially affect apples, for apples com- 
pletely frozen have kept equally well with the rest ; 
but then no artificial means must be used to thaw the 
frost. After the first of March the fruit-room must 
be close shut up, for the admission of much air after 
that period causes the fruit to shrivel up and lose 
their colour ; and they should be handled as little as 
possible after the month of May, nor should they 
ever be wiped until they are about to be used for the 
table, for they soon become unsound after being so 
treated. Apples will be found to keep better and 
much longer in this simple way than by the usual 
practice of covering with hay, straw, moss, or any 
thing else whatever ; for fruit crowded together, or 
covered up with any material, will in a short time be- 
come heated, and deprived not only of its gloss and 
colour, but also of its flavour. In the way recom- 
mended above, the codlins and softer kinds of baking 
apples have kept good till the end of June, and the 
pippins, as well as various sorts of dessert apples, to 
the end of October, with their colour as fresh as 
when they were first gathered, and their flavour not 
in the least deteriorated. (Gard. Mag. iii. 10.) 

Even though the apples are so placed as not to 
touch each other, yet it is very essential that all de- 
caying ones should be removed as soon as observed, 
for it is well-known that all vegetable decomposition 
of this kind is attended by parasitical fungi, the mi- 



127 



mite seeds of which float to other apples in their vici- 
nity, and thus hasten, if they do not instigate, their 
decay. 

Mr. G. Fielder, gardener at Wadhurst Castle, is 
very decided upon this point. He says, one very 
essential thing in keeping apples is, that due attention 
be paid to picking out those which are rotten. Much 
fruit is saved by doing so ; and it is necessary that 
apples should have a general searching in order to be 
effectually cleared. It is useless where persons when- 
ever they visit their fruit-room have been contented 
with picking out only such decayed ones as first pre- 
sented themselves to sight ; as many still remain to 
contaminate those adjoining. (Gard. Chron. 1842, 
638.) 

Storing in Sand. — Apples placed in boxes or other 
enclosures in alternate layers with sand often will un- 
doubtedly keep a length of time, but at others we 
have known them decay to a very serious extent ; and 
apples so kept are always deficient in flavour. The 
only mode of obviating the latter defect is to keep 
them for a fortnight before using on an open shelf. 

Mr. J. Stewart, of Pinkie, gives the following direc- 
tions for this mode of keeping. Some glazed earthen 
jars must be provided, with tops or covers ; and also 
a quantity of pure pit- sand, free of any mixture ; this 
is to be thoroughly dried on a flue. Then put a layer 



128 



of sand an inch thick on the bottom of the jar; above 
this a layer of fruit, a quarter of an inch free from any- 
other. Cover the whole with sand to the depth of 
an inch ; then lay a second stratum of fruit, covering 
again with an inch of sand, and proceed in this way 
till the whole be finished. An inch and a half of 
sand may be placed over the uppermost row of fruit. 
The jar is now to be closed and placed in a dry airy 
situation, as cool as possible, but entirely free from 
frost. 

The usual time at which each kind of fruit ought 
to be fit for the table being known, the jars contain- 
ing such fruit are to be examined, turning out the 
sand and fruit cautiously into a sieve. The ripe fruit 
may be laid in the shelves of the fruit-room for use, 
and the unripe is carefully to be replaced in the jars 
as before, but with fresh dried sand. 

Some kinds of apples managed in this way, says 
Mr. Stewart, will keep till July. Pears will keep till 
April ; the Torling till June. (Caled. Hort. Mem. 
i. 208.) 

That dryness is not essential for the long keeping 
of apples is proved by the fact that in Herefordshire 
the practice is adopted by some parties of actually 
throwing water over the stored fruit. The practice 
of one orchardist is to cover the floor of his cellar 
with hurdles two in thickness, and on these to place 
a little straw, upon which the apples are placed with- 



129 



out further care or attention, except removing all that 
appear to be faulty as he brings them into the cellar ; 
and he thinks it unnecessary to use any particular 
care in this respect. He had at one time, one hundred 
and ten bushels thus heaped up in a small cellar, and 
two or three times each week he gave them a good 
wetting with fresh water, as much as he thought would 
well wet the whole of them. The water drains off, 
through the straw and hurdles, into a well. In this 
way, he stated that his apples keep well until the 
period at which he usually disposes of them — the best 
to make him a good return after Christmas. (Gard. 
Chron. 1842, 805.) 

Other testimony, conclusive that moisture rather 
than dryness is essential to the keeping of apples in 
good order, is afforded by the numerous evidence we 
have that they keep superiorly if stored under a cover- 
ing of earth, according to the mode in which potatoes 
are "hogged." Mr. Marnock, Curator of the Bo- 
tanic Garden, says, that by putting apples in pits in 
autumn, retaining them there through the winter, 
until taken up in March, they still retain the same 
degree of hardness as when pulled from the trees, 
which of course was not the case with those kept 
upon shelves. The following are the sorts which were 
kept in this way, and their condition when taken out : 
— The Ribston Pippin rotted one-tenth ; Red-streaks, 
three-fourths ; Flowery Town, one-sixth ; Royal Rus- 

K 



130 



set, one-eighth ; Golden Pippin, one-sixth*; Mount 
House, one-tenth : Red Robin, none. (Gard. Mag. 
in. 284.) 

Mr. R. Donald, of "Woking Nursery, was still more- 
successful in preserving his apples in this manner. He 
had a trench dug rive feet wide, one foot below the 
surface of the ground, and 12 feet long; covered the 
bottom and sides with turf, the grassy side upwards, 
and then filled the space with Golden Knobs and 
some French Crabs, about 2i feet deep in the centre, 
sloping a little to the side ; he then covered them 
close with turf, the grassy side next the fruit, to keep 
them clean, and had the ridge covered with mould a 
foot thick, to keep out the frost and exclude the ex- 
ternal air. In the end of April following they were 
taken out in fine preservation. (Gard. Mag. i. 209.) 

There are many modes of preserving apples in 
sugar, and by drying, known to every housewife, but 
the following very efficient and simple method is not 
so generally practised as it deserves. 

Any good baking sort, which is liable to rot, if 
peeled and cut into slices about the thickness of one- 
sixth of an inch, and dried in the sun, or in a slow 
oven, till sufficiently desiccated, may be kept in boxes 
in a dry place for a considerable time ; and the slices 
only require to be soaked in water for an hour or two 
before using. {Jour, of Science, July 1S27, 272.) 



H . WOOLDHIDGE. PRINTER; HIGH-STREET. WINCHESTER- 



THE 

GARDENER'S MONTHLY VOLUME. 

EDITED BY GEORGE W. JOHNSON, ESQ. 
Author of " The Dictionary of Modern Gardening," " The 
Gardener's Almanack," eye. 
AIDED BY SOME OF THE BEST PRACTICAL GARDENERS. 



No work on Gardening exists containing within its pages all the informa- 
tion relative to each object of the art that the modern progress of knowledge 
has elicited. This is no fault of the authors, who have gathered together 
masses of horticul rural knowledge. 

To remedy this admitted deficiency, the series of " The Gardener's 
Monthly Volume" has been undertaken. Each volume will be devoted 
to one or more plants cultivated by the gardener ; and will combine all that 
is useful to be known of each connected with its history, chemical and bo- 
tanical qualities, modes of culture, uses, diseases, parasitical marauders, 
and any other relative information ; richly illustrated wherever illustrations 
will be of utility. 

Each volume'being of itself a book, purchasers may select only such as 
may suit their wants ; whilst those who take the entire series will possess 
the most ample store of horticultural knowledge that has ever appeared in 
a collected form. 

A volume, bound in cloth, price half- a- crown, will appear on the 1st of 
every month ; and. at the same time, to suit the convenience of purchasers, 
in half -volumes, with stitched covers, price one shilling each. 

The volumes already published are — 

Jan. 1.— THE POTATO; ITS CULTURE, USES, AND HISTORY. 
By the Editor. 

Feb. 1.— THE CUCUMBER AND THE GOOSEBERRY; THEIR 
CULTURE. USES, AND HISTORY. By the Editor. 

March 1.— THE VINE 'Out-door Culture, &c.' By the Editor, 
and R. Errington, Gardener to Sir P. Egerton, Bart. 

April 1— THE VINE fl^-DooR Culture, &c.) By the same. 

Mat 1. — THE AURICULA; Its Iultuee kc. Br E:.::o?.. in: 
J. Slater, Fl ::s: M U^:::. THE ASPARAGUS ; Its Cul- 
ture. &c. By the Editor and R. Errington, Gardener to Sir P, 
Egerton. Bart. Each complete in Half a Volume. 

June I— THE PINE APPLE. Vol, I. By the Editor, and James 
Barnes, Gardener to Lady Rolle. Bicton," Devonshire. 

July 1.— THE PINE APPLE. Vol. II. Bv the same. 

August : .—THE STRAWBERRY. Br ::e ee:1 R:ee?,t 

Reid, Gardener to Mrs. Clarke, Noblethorpe Hall, nearBamsley. 

Sept. 1.— THE DAHLIA, By the Editor and J. Turner, Florist, 
Chalvey, near Windsor. 

Oct. 1.— THE PEACH. By the Editor and R. Eerington. 

Oct. 1.— THE APPLE. Vol. I. By the same. 



LONDON: SIMPKIN MARSHALL, and CO., Pafernos- 
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