{"1":{"fulltext":"","height":"3633","width":"2088","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0001.jp2"},"2":{"fulltext":"Class\nBook.\nW","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0002.jp2"},"3":{"fulltext":"DEC *l*","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0003.jp2"},"4":{"fulltext":"","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0004.jp2"},"5":{"fulltext":"","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0005.jp2"},"6":{"fulltext":"","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0006.jp2"},"7":{"fulltext":"ELEMENTS\nOF y\nGENERAL HISTORY,\nANCIENT AND MODERN.\nBY ALEXANDER FRASER TYTLER, F. R. S. E.\nProfessor of History in the University of Edinburgh.\nTO WHICH IS ADDED, A SUCCINCT\nHISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES,\nBY AN AMERICAN GENTLEMAN.\nSUPPLYING IMPORTANT OMISSIONS, BRINGING DOWN THE NARRATION\nOP EVENTS TO THE PRESENT TIME, AND CORRECTING MANY PAS-\nSAGES RELATING TO THE HISTORY OP THIS COUNTRY.\nWITH AN IMPROVED\nTABLE OF CHRONOLOGY;\nA COMPARATIVE VIEW OF\nANCIENT AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY;\nAND\nQUESTIONS ON EACH SECTION.\nADAPTED FOR THE USE OP SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES,\nBY AN EXPERIENCED TEACHER.\nONE HUNDRED AND THIRTY-FIFTH EDITION.\nCONCORD, N. H.\nPUBLISHED BY JOHN F. BROWN.\n1844.","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0007.jp2"},"8":{"fulltext":"PREFACE.\nTHE following work contains the Outlines of a Course of Lectt es on\nGeneral History, delivered for many years in the University of Edin-\nburgh, and received with a portion of the public approbation amply\nsufficient to compensate the labours of the author. He began to compose\nthese Elements principally with the view of furnishing an aid to students\nattending his Lectures but soon conceived, that, by giving a little more\namplitude to their composition, he might render the work of more general\nutility. As now given to the public, he would willingly flatter himself\nthat it may be not only serviceable to youth, in furnishing a regular plan\nfor the prosecution of this important study, but useful even to those who\nhave acquired a competent knowledge of general history from the peru-\nsal of the works of detached historians, and who wish to methodize that\nknowledge, or even to refresh their memory on material facts and the\norder of events.\nIn the composition of these Elements the author has endeavoured to\nunite with the detail of facts, so much of reflection as to aid the mind\nin the formation of rational views of the causes and consequences of\nevents, as well as of the policy of the actors but he has anxiously\nguarded against that speculative refinement which has sometimes entered\ninto works of this nature. Such works profess to exhibit the philosophy\nor the spirit of history, but are more adapted to display the writer s\ningenuity as a theorist, or talents as a rhetorician^ than to instruct the\nreader in the more useful knowledge of historical facts.\nAs the progress of the human mind forms a capital object in the study\nof history, the state of the arts and sciences, the religion, laws, govern-\nment, and manners of nations, are material parts, even in an elementary\nwork of this nature. The history of literature is a most important arti-\ncle in this study. The author ha3 therefore endeavoured to give to each ot\nthese topics its due share of attention and in that view they are sepa-\nrately treated, in distinct sections, at particular periods of time.\nALEX. FRASER TYTLL1L\nEdinburgh, April, 1801.\nTransfer\nU. S.Nava? Academ*\nAug. 26 1932","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0008.jp2"},"9":{"fulltext":"CONTENTS.\n^•#♦4*-\nINTRODUCTION.\nPftfe.\nAdvantages arising from the Study of History, and more particularly\nfrom prosecuting it according to a regular Plan 11\nPlAH Of THE COURSE 18\nPART FIRST\nANCIENT HISTORY.\nSect. 1. Earliest authentic Accounts of the History of the World 17\nSect. 2. Considerations on the Nature of the First Governments, and\non the Laws, Customs, Arts, and Sciences of the first\nAges 18\nSect. 3. Of the Egyptians 20\nSect. 4. Of the Phoenicians 22\nSect. 5. The History of Greece ih.\nSect. 6. Reflections on the first and rudest Periods of the Grecian\nHistory 23\nSect. 7. Early period of Grecian History. Argonautic Expedition.\nWars of Thebes and Troy 24\nSect. 8. Establishment of the Greek Colonies 25\nSect. 9. The Republic of Sparta 26\nSect. 10. The Republic of Athens 26\nSect. 11. Of the state of the Persian Empire, and its History down to\nthe War with Greece 29\nSect. 12. The War between Greece and Persia 31\nSect. 13. Age of Pericles 33\nSect. 14. The Republic of Thebes 35\nSect. 15. Philip of Macedon ib.\nSect. 16. Alexander the Great 36\nSect. 17. Successors of Alexander 38\nSect. 18. Fall and conquest of Greece 39\nSect 19. Political Reflections arising from the History of the States of\nGreece 40\nSect 20 State of the Arts in Greece 41\nSect. 21 Of the Greek Poets 43\nSect. 22. Of the Greek Historians 45\nSect. 23. Of the Greek Philosophers 47\nSect. 24 The History of Rome 49\nReflections on the Government and State of Rome under the\nKings 0|\nA2","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0009.jp2"},"10":{"fulltext":"CONTENTS.\nPage-\nSect. 25. Rome under the Consuls 53\nSect. 26. The Law ofVolero 56\nSect, 27. The Decern virate 57\nSect. 28. Increase of popular Power 58\nSect. 29. Conquest of .Italy by the Romans 59\nSect. 30. History of Carthage 60\nSect. 31. History of Sicily 61\nSect. 32. The Punic Wars 62\nSect. 33. The Gracchi, and the Corruption of the Commonwealth 64\nSect 34. Progress of the Civil Wars. Second Triumvirate, and fall of\nthe Republic 67\nSect. 35. Considerations on such particulars as mark the Genius and\nnational Character of the Romans 70\nSystem of Roman Education ib.\nSect. 36. Of the Progress of Literature among the Romans 71\nSect. 37. State of Philosophy among the Romans 75\nSect. 38. Of the Public and Private Manners of the Romans 76\nSect. 39. Of the Art of War among the Romans 77\nSect. 40. Reflections arising from a View of the Roman History dnring\nthe Commonwealth 79\nSect. 41. Rome under the Emperors 81\nSect. 42. The same subject continued 84\nSect. 43. Age of the Antonines, c. 87\nSect. 44. State of the Roman Empire at the time of Constantine. His\nSuccessors 90\nSect. 45. Progress of the Christian Religion from its Institution to the\nExtinction of Paganism in the Reign of Theodosius 93\nSect. 46. Extinction of the Roman Empire in the West 95\nSect. 47. Of the Origin, Manners, and Character of the Gothic Nations\nbefore their establishment in the Roman Empire 97\nSect. 48. Of the Manners, Laws, and Government of the Gothic Na-\ntions after their establishment in the Roman Empire 99\nSect. 49. Method of studying Ancient History IQ2\nPART SECOND.\nMODERN HISTORY.\nSect. 1. Of Arabia and the Empire of the Saracens 106\nSect. 2. Monarchy of the Franks 108\nSect. 3. Reflections on the State of France during the Merovingian\nrace of its Kings 109\nSect. 4. Charlemagne. The new Empire of the West 112\nSect. 5. Manners, Governments, and Customs of the Age of Char-\nlemagne 113\nSect. 6. Retrospective View of the Affairs of the Church before the\nAge of Charlemagne 115\nSect. 7. Empire of the West under the Successors of Charlemagne 116\nSect. 8. Empire of the East during the Eighth and Ninth Centuries 118\nSect. 9. State of the Church in the Eighth and Ninth Centuries 1.19\nSect 10. Of the Saracens in the Eighth and Ninth Centuries 120\nSect. 11. Empire of the West and Italy in the Tenth and Eleventh\nCenturies 121\nSect. 12. History of Britain from its earliest Period down to the Nor-\nman Conquest 123\nSec?. 13 Of the Government, Laws and Manners of the Angk -Sax©»« 127","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0010.jp2"},"11":{"fulltext":"CONTENTS.\nPage.\nfleet. 14. State of Europe during the Tenth, Eleventh, and TwelAh\nCenturies 128\nSect. 15. History of England in the Eleventh, Twelfth, and part of the\nThirteenth Centuries 130\nSect. 16. State of Germany and Italy in the Thirteenth Century 134\nSect. 17. The Crusades or Holy Wars 135\nSect. 18. Of Chivalry and Romance 138\nSect. 19. State of Europe in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries 140\nSect. 20. Revolution in Switzerland 141\nSect. 21. State of Europe continued in the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and\npart of the Fifteenth Centuries 142\nSect. 22. History of England in the Thirteenth Century 143\nSect. 23. History of Scotland from the Eleventh to the Fourteenth\nCentury 144\nSect. 24. History of England in the Fourteenth Century 146\nSect. 25. England and France in the Fifteenth Century. State of\nManners 147\nSect. 26. Decline and Fall of the Greek Empire 149\nSect. 27. Government and Policy of the Turkish Empire 150\nSect. 28. France and Italy in the End of the Fifteenth Century 151\nSect. 29. History of Spain in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries 152\nSect. 30. France, Spain, and Italy, in the End of the Fifteenth and Be-\nginning of the Sixteenth Century 153\nSect. 31. History of England from the Middle of the Fifteenth to the\nBeginning of the Sixteenth Century. Civil Wars of York\nand Lancaster 154\nSect. 32. History of Scotland from the Middle of the Fourteenth Cen-\ntury to the End of the Reign of James V. 156\nSect. 33. Of the Ancient Constitution of the Scottish Government 159\nSect. 34. A view of the Progress of Literature and Science in Europe\nfrom the Revival of Letters to the End of the Fifteenth\nCentury 160\nSect. 35. View of the Progress of Commerce in Europe before the\nPortuguese Discoveries 163\nSect 36. Discoveries of the Portuguese in the Fifteenth Century, and\ntheir effects on the Commerce of Europe 165\nSect. 37. Germany and France in the Reigns of Charles V. and Fran-\ncis I. 167\nSect. 38. Observations on the Constitution of the German Empire 170\nSect. 39. Of the Reformation in Germany and Switzerland, and the\nRevolution in Denmark and Sweden 171\nSect. 40. Of the Reformation in England under Henry VIII. and hi 3\nSuccessors 174\nSect. 41. Of the Discovery and Conquest of America by the Spaniards 175\nSect. 42. Possessions of the other European Nations in America 177\nSect. 43 Of the State of the Fine Arts in Europe, in the Age of Leo X. 180\nSect. 44. Of the Ottoman Power in the Sixteenth Century 182\nSect. 45. State of Persia, and the other Asiatic Kingdoms, in the Six-\nteenth and Seventeenth Centuries 183\nSect. 46. History of. India 184\nSect. 47. Ancient State of India Manners, Laws, Arts, and Sciences,\nand Religion, of the Hindoos 186\nSect. 48. Of China and Japan 188\nSect. 49. Of the Antiquity of the Empire of China. State of the Arts\nand Sciences, Manners, Government, Laws 189\nSect. 50. Mr. Bailly s Theory of the Origin of the Sciences among the\nNations of Asia 192\nSect. 51 Reign of Philip II. of Spam. Revolution of the Netherlands,\nand Establishment of the Republic of Holland 194\nSect 52 Of the Constitution and Government of the United Provinces 196\nSect. 53 Reign of Philip II. continued 197","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0011.jp2"},"12":{"fulltext":"8 CONTENTS.\nSect. 64. State of France in the End of the Sixteenth Century, under\nHenry II., Francis II., Charles IX., Henry III., and\nHenry IV. 197\nSect 55. History of England and Scotland in the Reigns of Elizabeth\nand Mary Queen of Scots 199\nSect 56. History of Great Britain in the Reigns of James I. and\nCharles I. 203\nSect. 57. The Commonwealth of England 207\nSect. 58. Reigns of Charles II. and James II. 209\nSect. 59. On the British Constitution 211\nSect. 60 Ofthe Public Revenue of Great Britain 214\nSect 61 History of France under Lewis XIII. 216\nSect 62. Spain under Philip III. and Philip IV. Constitution of Por-\ntugal and Spain 217\nSect. 63. Affairs of Germany from the Abdication of Charles V. to the\nPeace of Westphalia 218\nSect. 64. France under Lewis XIV. 219\nSect. 65. Of the Constitution of France under the Monarchy 223\nSect 66. Of Peter the Great, Czar of Muscovy, and Charles XII.,\nKing of Sweden 224\n8ect. 67. A View of the Progress of Science and Literature in Europe,\nfrom the End ofthe Fifteenth to the End of the Sixteenth\nCentury 227\nAPPENDIX.\nTHE HISTORY OF THE JEWS.\nSect. 1. A General View of the History of Mankind in the Primeval\nAges 231\nSect. 2. Summary View of Jewish History 232\nSect. 3. The Antiquity of the Scriptures 233\nSect. 4. The Subject of the Books, and Characters ofthe Writers 235\nSect. 5. Of the Antediluvian World 240\nSect. 6. First Ages after the Deluge 241\nSect. 7. Ofthe Jews -----.._ ft\nSect. 8. The History of the Hebrews during the Government of the\nJudges 244\nSect. 9. Retrospect ofthe Government ofthe Hebrews 245\nSect. 10. Regal Government of the Hebrews 246\nSect 11. Restoration ofthe Jews to their Liberty and Country 249\nSect. 12. The State of Learning and Commerce amon g the Jews 252\nConclusion 253\nPART THIRD.\nMODERN HISTORY\nSect. 1. France, from the death of Lewis XIV., 1,715, to the P«ace ef\nVienna, 1,738 257","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0012.jp2"},"13":{"fulltext":"CONTENTS. 9\nPige.\nSect 9. England, from the Accession of the House of Hanover,\n1,714, to the end of the Reign of George the First, 1,727 262\nSect. 3L Austria, (and Germany,) from the Peace of Rastadt, 1,714,\ntothePeaceof Aix-la-Chapelle, 1,748 268\nSect 4. England, from the Accession of George II. to the Throne,\n1,727, to his death, 1,760 273\nSect 5. State of Europe at the Conclusion of the Peace of Aix-la-\nChapelle, 1,748 278\nSect 6. Of the Seven Years War, 1,755—1,762 281\nSect. 7. From the Accession of George III., 1,760, to the Commence-\nment of the Disputes with America, 1,764 288\nSect 8. Disputes between Great Britain and her American Colonies,\n1,764—1,783 291\nSect 9. France, from the Peace of Paris, 1,763, to the Opening of the\nAssembly of the States General, 1,789 297\nSect 10. Austria, from the conclusion of the Seven Years War, to the\ndeath of Maria Theresa, 1,763— 1,780 307\nSect 11. Reigns of Joseph II., Leopold II., c, from 1,765 to 1,800 309\nSect 12. France, from the Opening of the Assembly of the States\nGeneral, 1,789, to the deaths of the King and Queen, 1,793 316\nSect 13. Great Britain, from the conclusion of the American War,\n1,783, to the Peace of Amiens, 1,802 322\nSect. 14. France, from the death of the King and Queen, and Over-\nthrow of the Girondist or Brissotine Party, 1,793, to the\nEstablishment of the Directory, 1,795 333\nSect. 15. France, from the Establishment of the Directory 1,795, to the\nPeace of Amiens 337\nSect. 16. France, from the Peace of Amiens to the Treaty of Tilsit,\n1,807 347\nSect. 17. Spam and Portugal, from 1,788 to 1,814 353\nSect. 18. France, from the Peace of Tilsit, to the Abdication of Na-\npoleon. 1,814 359\nSect. 19. Poland, from the Commencement of the Eighteenth Century,\nto the Treaty of Vienna, 1,815 363\nSect. 20. Great Britain, from the Peace of Amiens, 1,802, to the death\nof George III., 1,820 369\nSect. 21. France, from the Entrance of the Allies into Paris, March,\n1,814, to the final Evacuation of it by the Foreign Troops,\n1,818 375\nSect. 22. Northern States of Europe, from the Close of the Seven-\nteenth Century 379\nSect 23. Southern States of Europe, from the Close of the Seventeenth\nCentury 387\nSect. 24. Of India, or Hindoostan 391\nState of Arts, Sciences, Religion, Laws, Government, Ac. 39S\nBotany 402\nElectricity 405\nMineralogy and Geology 407\nGeography 409\nDiscoveries and Inventions 419\nReligion 420\nHistory, Polite Literature, Fine Arts, eVc. 423\nTreaty of Vienna, 1,815 423\n3","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0013.jp2"},"14":{"fulltext":"10 CONTENTS.\nPART FOURTH.\nTHE UNITED STATES.\nPace\nSect. 1. Discovery of America 424\nSect. 2. Discoveries by the English. Settlement of Virginia. 427\nSect. 3. Settlement of Massachusetts, Rhode-Island, Connecticut, New-\nHampshire, Maine. Maryland, North and South Carolina,\nNew- York, New-Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and\nGeorgia 431\nSect. 4. War with France, and Conquest of Canada. Disputes with\nGreat Britain, and War of the Revolution 438\nSect. 5. Establishment of the State and National Governments. Wars\nwith Tripoli and the Indians, c. 448\nSect 6. War with Great Britain, c. 451\nA Table of Chronology 460\nComparative view of Ancient and Modern Geography 499","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0014.jp2"},"15":{"fulltext":"INTRODUCTION.\n1. THE value of any science is to be estimated according to its tenden-\ncy to promote improvement, either in private virtue, or in those qualities\nwhich render man extensively useful in society. Some objects of pursuit\nhave a secondary utility in furnishing rational amusement, which, re-\nlieving the mind at intervals from the fatigue of serious occupation, in-\nvigorates and prepares it for fresh exertion. It is the perfection of any\n■cience, to unite these advantages, to promote the advancement of public\nand private virtue, and to supply such a degree of amusement, as to super-\nsede the necessity of recurring to frivolous pursuits for the sake of relaxa-\ntion. Under this description falls the science of history.\n2. History, says Dionysius of Halicarnassus, is philosophy teaching\nby examples. The superior efficacy of example to precept is universally\nacknowledged. All the laws of morality and rules of conduct are veri-\nfied by experience, and are constantly submitted to its test and examina-\ntion. History, which adds to our own experience an immense treasure of\nthe experience of others, furnishes innumerable proofs, by which we may\ncerify all the precepts of morality and of prudence.\n3. History, beside its general advantages, has a distinct species of util-\nJty to different men, according to their several ranks in society, and occu-\npations in life.\n4. In this country it is an indispensable duty of every man of liberal\nbirth, to be acquainted, in a certain degree, with the science of politics\n*nd history is the school of politics. It opens to us the springs of human\nAffairs the causes of the rise, grandeur, revolutions, and fall of empires\nit points out the reciprocal influence of government and of national man-\nners it dissipates prejudices, nourishes the love of our country, and di-\nrects to the best means of its improvement it illustrates equally the bless-\nings of political union, and the miseries of faction the danger, on one\nhand, of anarchy, and, on the other, the debasing influence of despotic\npower.\n5. It is necessary that the study of history should be prosecuted accord-\ning to a regular plan for this science, more perhaps than any other, is\nliable to perversion from its proper use. With some it is no better than\nan idle amusement with others it is the food of vanity with a third\nclass it fosters the prejudices of party, and leads to political bigotry. It\nis dangerous for those who, even with the best intentions, seek for histori-\ncal knowledge, to pursue the study without a guide for no science has\nbeen so little methodized. The sources of prejudice are infinite and the\nmind of youth should not be left undirected amidst the erring, the partial,\nand contradictory representations of historians. Besides the importance of\nbeing able to discriminate truth from falsehood, the attention ought to be\ndirected only to useful truths. Much danger arises from the perusal ol\nmemoirs, collections of anecdotes, c. for many of those works exhibit\nthe most depraved pictures, weaken our confidence in virtue, and present\nthe most unfavourable views of human nature.","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0015.jp2"},"16":{"fulltext":"U INTRODUCTION.\n6. There are many difficulties which attend the attempt of forming\nproper plan of study, and giving: an instructive view of general history.\nUtility is to be reconciled with amusement, prejudices are to be encoun-\ntered, variety of taste to be consulted, political opinions balanced, judg-\nment and decision exercised on topics keenly controverted. The proposer\nof such a plan ought therefore to be possessed equally of firmness of mind\nand moderation of sentiment. In many cases he must abandon popularity\nfor the calm approbation of his own conscience. Disregarding every\npartial and inferior consideration, he must direct his view solely to\ntre proper end of all education, the forming of good men, and of good\ncitizens.\n7. The object and ^naral purpose of the following course, is to exhibit a\nprogressiva view of the state of mankind, from the earliest ages of which\nwe have any authentic accounts, down to the close of the 17th century\nto delineate the origin of states and of empires, the great outlines of their\nhistory, the revolutions which they have undergone, the causes which\nhave contributed to their rise and grandeur, and operated to their decline\nand extinction. For these purposes it is necessary to bestow particular\nattention on the manners of nations, their laws, the nature of their govern-\nments, their religion, their intellectual improvements, and their progress\nin the arts and sciences.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0016.jp2"},"17":{"fulltext":"PLAN OF THE COURSE.\nT WO opposite methods have been followed in giving- academical lecture*\non the study of history one exhibiting a strict chronological arrangement\nof events, upon the plan of Turselline s Epitome the other, a series of dis-\nquisitions on the various heads or titles of public law, and the doctrines of\npolitics illustrated by examples drawn from ancient and modern history.\nObjections occur to both these methods the former furnishes only a dry\nchronicle of events, which nothing connects together but the order of\ntime the latter is insufficient for the most important purposes of history,\nthe tracing f events to their causes, the detection of the springs of hu-\nman actions, the display of the progress of society, and of the rise and fall\nof states and empires finally, by confining history to the exemplification\nof the doctrines of politics, we lose its effect as a school of morals.\nIn the following lectures we hold a middle course between these ex-\ntremes, and endeavour, by remedying the imperfection of each, to unite,\nif possible, the advantages of both.\nWhile so much regard is had to chronology as is necessary for showing\nthe progress of mankind in society, and communicating just ideas of the\nstate ofthe world in all the different ages to which authentic history ex-\ntends, we shall, in the delineation of the rise and fall of empires and their\nrevolutions, pay more attention to the connexion of subject than that of\nIn this view we must reject the comman method of arranging general\nhistory according to epochs, or aeras\nWhen the world is viewed at any period either of ancient or of modern\nhistory, we generally observe one nation or empire predominant, to whom\nall the rest bear, as it were, an under part, and to whose history we find\nthat the principal events in the annals of other nations may be referred\nfrom some natural connexion. This predominant empire or state it is pro-\nposed to exhibit to view as the principal object, whose history therefore\nis to be more fully delineated, while the rest are only incidentally touch-\ned when they come to have a natural connexion with the principal.\nThe Jewish history, belonging to a different department of academical\neducation, enters not into the plan of these lectures though we often re-\nsort to the sacred writings for detached facts illustrative of the manners\n•f ancient nations. See appendix.\nIn the ancient world, among the profane nations, the Greeks are the\nearliest people who make a dist:nguished figure, and whose history is at\nthe same time authentic. t\nThe Greeks owed their civilization to the Egyptians and Phoenicians.\nThe Grecian history is therefore properly introduced by a short account\nof these nations, and of the Assyrians, their rivals, conquered at one time\nby the Egyptians, and conquerors afterwards of them in their turn.\nRise of the independent states of Greece, and singular constitution ot\nthe two great republics of Sparta and Athens.\nThe war of Greece with Persia induces a short account of the preceding\nperiods of the history of that nation, the rise of the Persian monarchy, the\nnature of its government, manners, and religion.\nB","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0017.jp2"},"18":{"fulltext":"14 PLAN OF THE COURSE.\nThe Grecian history is pursued through all the revolutions of the na-\ntion, till Greece becomes a province of the Roman empire.\nPolitical reflections applicable to the history of the Btates of Greece.\nProgress of the Greek- in the arts.— Of the Greek poets, historians,\nphilosophers.\nRome, after the conquest of Greece, becomes the leading- object of at-\ntention.\nOrigin of the Romans. Nature of their government under the kings.—\nEasy substitution of the consular for the regal dignity. Subsequent\nchanges in the constitution. Progress to a democracy. Extension of the\nRoman arm3. Conquest of Italy. Wars with foreign nations.\nThe Punic wars open a collateral view to the history of Carthage and\nof Sicily.\nSuccess of the Roman arms in Asia, Macedonia, and Greece. Opu-\nlence of the republic from her conquests, and corruption of her manners.^\nThe civil wars, and ruin of the commonwealth.\nParticulars which mark the genius and national spirit of the R.omans\neducation, laws, literary character, art of war, public and private\nmanners.\nRome under the emperors, Artful policy by which the first emperors\ndisguised their absolute authority. Decline of the ambitious character\nof the Romans. Easy submission to the loss of civil liberty. The military\nspirit purposely abased by the emperors. The empire divided becomes\na languid body, without internal vigour. The Gothic nations pour down\nfrom the north. Italy conquered successively by the Heruli, Ostrogoths,\nand Lombards. Extinction of the western empire-\nThe manners, genius, laws, and government of the Gothic nations, form\nan important object of inquiry, from their influence on the manners and\npolicy of the modern European kingdoms.\nIn the delineation of modern history the leading objects of attention are\nmore various the scene is oftener changed nations, which for a while\noccupy the chief attention, become for a time subordinate, and afterwards\nre-assume their rank as principal yet the same plan is pursued as in the\ndepartment of ancient history the picture is occupied only by one great\nobject at a time, to which all the rest hold an inferior rank, and are\ntaken notice of only when connected with the principal.\nUpon the fall of the western empire, the Saracens are the first who dis\ntinguish themselves by the extension of their conquests, and the splen«\ndour of their dominion.\nWhile the Saracens extend their arms in the east and in Africa, a nf-w\nempire of the west is founded by Charlemagne. The rise and progress xA\nthe monarchy of the Franks. The origin of the feudal system. State ol\nthe European manners in the age of Charlemagne. Government, arts\nand sciences, literature.\nAs collateral objects of attention, we survey the remains of the Roman\nempire in the east the conquests and settlements of the Normans the\nfoundation and progress of the temporal dominion of the church of Rome\nthe conquest of Spain by the Saracens.\nThe conquest of England by the Normans solicits our attention to the\nhistory of Britain. Retrospective view of the British history, from its ear-\nliest period to the end of the Anglo-Saxon government in England. Ob-\nservations on the government, laws, and manners, of the Anglo-Saxons.\nCollateral view of the state of the continental kingdoms of Europe,\nduring the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries. France under the Ca-\npetian race of monarchs. Conquests of the Normans in Italy and Sicily.-\nState of the northern kingdoms of Europe. The eastern empire. Empire\noi Germany. Disputes of supremacy between the popes ana the emperor*.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0018.jp2"},"19":{"fulltext":"PLAN OF THE COURSE. 15\nThe history of Britain still the principal object of attention. England\nunder the kings of the Norman line, and the first princes of the Plantage-\nnet branch. The conquest of Ireland, under Henry II., introduces an an-\nticipated progressive view of the political connexion between England\nand Ireland down to the present time. As we proceed in the delineation\nof the British history, we note particularly those circumstances which\nmark the growth of the English constitution.\nAt this period all the kingdoms of Europe join in the crusades. A brief\naccount is given of those enterprises. Moral and political effects of the\ncrusades on the nations of Europe. —Origin of chivalry, and rise of roman-\ntic fiction.\nShort connected sketch of the state of the European nations after the\ncrusades.-^Rise of the house of Austria. Decline of the feudal govern-\nment in France. Establishment of the Swiss republics. Disorders in the\npopedom. Council of Constance.\nThe history of Britain resumed. England under Henry HI. and Ed-\nward I. The conquest of Wales. The history of Scotland at this period\nintimately connected with that of England. View of the Scottish history\nfrom Malcolm Canmore to Robert Bruce. State of both kingdoms during\nthe reigns of Edward II. and III. The history of France connected with\nthat of Britain. France itself won by Henry V.\nThe state of the east at this period affords the most interesting object of\nattention. The progress of the Ottoman arms retarded for a while by th«\nconquests of Tamerlane and of Scanderbeg. The Turks prosecute the:\nvictories under Mahomet the great, to the total extinction of the Constaa-\ntinopolitan empire. The constitution and policy of the Turkish empire\nFrance, in this age, emancipates herself from the feudal servitude and\nSpain, from the union of Arragon and Castile, and the fall of the kingdom\ncf the Moors, becomes one monarchy under Ferdinand and Isabella.\nThe history of Britain is resumed. Sketch of the history of England\ndown to the reign of Henry VIII. of Scotland, during the reigns of the\nfive Jameses. Delineation of the ancient constitution of the Scottish gov-\nernment.\nThe end of the fifteenth century is a remarkable sere in the history of\nEurope. Learning and the sciences underwent at that time a very rapid\nimprovement and, after ages of darkness, shone out at once with sur-\nprising lustre. A connected view is presented of the progress of literature\nin Europe, from its revival down to this period. In the same age the ad-\nvancement of navigation, and the course to India by the Cape of Good\nHope, explored by the Portuguese, affect the commerce of all the Europe\nan kingdoms.\nThe age of Charles V. unites in one connected view the affairs of Ger-\nmany, of Spain, of France, of England, and of Italy. The discovery of\nthe new world, the reformation in Germany and England, and the splen-\ndour of the fine arts under the pontificate of Leo X., render this period one\nof the most interesting in the annals of mankind.\nThe pacification of Europe, by the treaty of Catteau Cambresis, allows\nus for a while to turn our attention to the state of Asia. A short sketch is\ngiven of the modern history of Persia, and the state of the other kingdoms\nof Asia, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the history of India\nthe manners, laws, arts, and sciences, and religion of the Hindoos the\nhistory of China and Japan the antiquity of the Chinese empire, its\nmanners, laws, government, and attainments in the arts and sciences.\nReturning to Europe, the attention is directed to the state of the conti-\nnental kingdoms in the age of Philip II. Spain, the Netherlands, France,\n*nd England, present a various and animated picture.\nEngland under Elizabeth. The progress of the reformation in Scot-\nland. The distracted reign of Mary, queen of Scots. The history of","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0019.jp2"},"20":{"fulltext":"16 PLAN OF THE COURSE.\nBritain pursued without interruption down to the revolution, and here clog,\ned by a sketch of the progress of the English constitution, and an examina-\ntion of its nature at this period, when it became fixed and determined.\nThe history of the southern continental kingdoms is brought down to\nthe end of the reign of Louis XIV.; of the northern, to the conclusion of\nthe reigns of Charles XII. of Sweden, and of Peter the great, czar of Mus-\ncovy.\nWe finish this view of universal history, by a survey of the state of the\narts and sciences, and of the progress of literature in Europe, during the\nsixteenth and seventeenth centuries.\nThe chronology observed in this View of Universal History is that of\narchbishop Usher, which is founded on the Hebrew text of the Sacred Wri-\ntings. A shurt Table of dr^.ol^fU i* subjoined to these heads, for the\nease of the student.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0020.jp2"},"21":{"fulltext":"PART FIRST.\nANCIENT HISTORY,\nSECTION I.\nEARLIEST AUTHENTIC ACCOUNTS OF THE HISTORY OF\nTHE WORLD.\nIt is a difficult task to delineate the state of mankind in the ear-\nliest ages of the world. We want information sufficient to give us\npositive ideas on the subject but as man advances in civilization,\nand in proportion as history becomes useful and important, its cer-\ntainty increases, and its materials are more abundant.\nVarious notions have been formed with respect to the population\nof the antediluvian world and its physical appearance but as these\nare rather matters of theory than of fact, they scarcely fall with-\nin the province of history and they are of the less consequence,\nbecause we are certain that the state of those antediluvian ages\ncould have had no material influence on the times which succeeded\nthem.\nThe books of Moses afford the earliest authentic history of the\nages immediately following the deluge.\nAbout 150 years after that event, Nimrod (the Belus of profane\nhistorians) built Babylon, and Assur built Nineveh, which became the\ncapital ofthe Assyrian empire.\nrf inus the son of Belus, and his queen Semiramis, are said to have\nraised the empire of Assyria to a higher degree of splendour.\nFrom the death of Ninias the son of Ninus, down to the revolt of\nthe Medes under Sardanapalus, a period of 800 years, there is a\nchasm in the history of Assyria and Babylon. This is to be supplied\nonly from conjecture.\nThe earliest periods of the Egyptian history are equally uncer-\ntain with those of the Assyrian. Menes is supposed the first king ol\nEgypt probably the Misraim of the Holy Scriptures, the grandson\nof Noah, or, as others conjecture, the Oziris of Egypt, the inventor\nof arts, and the civilizer ot a great part of the eastern world.\nAfter Menes or Oziris, Egypt appears to have been divided into\nfour dynasties, Thebes, Thin, Memphis, and Tanis and the people\nto have attained a considerable degree of civilization but a period\nof barbarism succeeded under the shepherd-kings, subsisting for the\nBpace of some centaries, down to the age of Sesostris (1650 A. C).\nwho united the separate principalities into one kingdom, regulated\nits policy with admirable skill, and distinguished himself equally by\nhis foreign conquests, and by his domestic administration.\nB3","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0021.jp2"},"22":{"fulltext":"1* ANCIENT HISTORY.\nSECTION II\nCONSIDERATIONS ON THE NATURE OF THE FIRST GOVERN-\nMENTS, AND ON THE LAWS, CUSTOMS, ARTS, AND\nSCIENCES OF THE EARLY AGES.\n1 The earliest government is the patriarchal, which subsists in\nthe rudest periods of society.\nThis has an easy progress to the monarchical.\nThe first monarchies must have been very weak, and their terri-\ntory extremely limited. The idea of security precedes that of\nconquest. In forming our notions of the extent of the first monar-\nchies, we are deceivec by the word king, which according to modern\nideas, is connected with an extent of territory, and a proportional\npower. The kings in scripture are no more than the chiefs of tribes.\nThere were five kings in the vale of Sodom. J oshua defeated in his\nwars thirty-one kings, and Adonizedec threescore and ten.\nWhen families grew into nations, the transition from patriarchal to\nregal government, was easy the kingly office, probably passed by\ndescent from father to son, and the sovereign ruled his tribe or na-\ntion, as the patriarch his family, by the right of birth.\nThe first ideas of conquest must have proceeded from a people in\nthe state of shepherds, who, necessarily changing their pastures,\nwould probably make incursions on the appropriated territory of\ntheir neighbours. Such were the Arabian or Phoenician invaders,\nwho, under the name of shepherd-kings, conquered Egypt. But\nKingdoms so founded could have little duration. Laws and good\npolicy, essential to the stability of kingdoms, are the fruit of intellec-\ntual refinement, and arise only in a state of society considerably ad-\nvanced in civilization.\nThe progress from barbarism to civilization is slow, because every\nstep in the progress is the result of necessity, after the experience\nof an error, or the strong feeling of a want.\n2. Origin of Laws. Certain political writers have supposed\nthat in the infancy of society penal laws must have been extremely\nmild. We presume the contrary to bave been ralher the case, as\nthe more barbarous the people, the stronger must be the bonds to\nrestrain them and history confirms the supposition in the ancient\nlaws of the Jews, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and Gauls.\nAmong the earliest laws of all states are those regarding marriage\nfor the institution of marriage is coeval with the formation of society.\nThe first sovereigns of all states are said lo have instituted marriage;\nand the earliest laws provided encouragements to matrimony.\nAmong the ancient nations the husband purchased his wife by\nmoney, or personal services. Among the Assyrians the marriageable\nwomen were put up at auction, and the price obtained for the more\nbeautiful was assigned as a dowry to the more homely.\nThe laws of succession are next in order to those of marriage.\nThe father had the absolute power in the division of his estate.\nBut primogeniture was understood to confer certain rights.\nLaws arise necessarily and imperceptibly from the condition of\nsociety; and each particular law may be traced from the state of\nmanners, or the political emergency which gave it birth. Hence\nwe perceive the intimate connexion between nistory and jurispru-","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0022.jp2"},"23":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 19\ndence, and the light which they must uecessarily throw upon each\nother. The laws of a country are best interpreted from its history;\nAnd its uncertain history is best elucidated by its ancient laws.\n3. Earliest Methods of authenticating Contracts. Before the inven-\ntion of writing, contracts, testaments, sales, marriages, and the like,\nwere transacted in public. The Jewish and the Grecian histories fur-\nnish examples. Some barbarous nations authenticate their bargains\nby exchanging symbols or tallies. The Peruvians accomplished most\nof the purposes of writing by knotted cords of various colours, termed\nquipos. The Mexicans communicated intelligence to a distance by\npainting. Other nations used an abridged mode of painting, or hi-\neroglyphics. Before writing the Egyptians used hieroglyphics for\ntransmitting and recording knowledge: after writing, they employ-\ned it for veiling or concealing knowledge from the vulgar.\n4. Methods for recording Historical Facts, and publishing Laws.\nPoetry and song were the tirst vehicles of history, and the earliest\nmode of promulgating laws. The songs of the bards record a great\ndeal of ancient history and the laws of many of the ancient nations\nwere composed in verse.\nStoneSj rude and sculptured, tuirndi and mounds of earth, are the\nmonuments of history among a barbarous people and^ columns, tri-\numphal arches, coins, and medals, among a more refined. These\nlikewise illustrate the progress of manners and of the arts.\n5. Religious Institutions. Among the earliest institutions of all\naations, are those which regard religious worship. The sentiment\nof religion is deeply rooted in the human mind. An uninstructed\nsavage will infer the existence of a God, and his attributes, from the\ngeneral order and mechanism of nature and even the temporary\nirregularities of nature lead to religious veneration of the unknown\npower which conducts it.\nBefore conceiving the idea of a Being utterly imperceptible to his\nsenses, a savage would naturally seek that Being in the most striking\nobjects of sense to which he owed his most apparent benefits. The\nsun, extending his beneficial influence over all nature, was among\nthe earliest objects of worship. The fire presented a symbol of the\nsun. The other celestial bodies naturally attracted their share oi\nveneration.*\nThe symbolical mode of writing led to many peculiarities of the\nidolatrous worship of the ancient nations. Animals, symbolical of the\nattributes of deity, became gods themselves. The same God, re pi e-\nsented by different animals, was supposed to have changed himself\ninto different forms. The gratitude and veneration for men whose\nlives had been eminently useful, joined to the belief of the soul s im-\nmortality, led to the apotheosis of heroes. Many excellent reflections\non idolatry and polytheism are found in the book called Vie Wisdom\nof Solomon.\nThe priesthood was anciently exercised by the chief or monarch;\nIt is a theory, supported by many facts, that in the beginning, all reli-\ngious truth was made known to man by direct revelation. In succeed-\ning ages, intellectual perception was gradually clouded by the sensual\nand gross nature of man, until hi3 mind cculd not contemplate Deity, but\nthrough the veil of His works. Thus the heavenly were perhaps, at first\nworshipped as representative of their maker, but gradually became objects\nof direct adoration, and finally every element was peopled with deities\nand mountains, forests, streams, and animals, were consecrated and wor-\nshipped.","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0023.jp2"},"24":{"fulltext":"30 ANCIENT HISTORY.\nbut as an empire became extensive, the monarch exercised this office\nby his delegates; and hence an additional source of veneration for the\npriesthood. The priests were the framers and the administrators of\nthe laws.\n6. Arts and Sciences of the Ancient Natio?is. The useful arts are\nthe offspring of necessity the sciences are the fruit of ease and\nleisure. The construction of huts, of weapons of war, and of hunt-\ning, are the earliest arts. Agriculture is not practised till the tribe\nbecomes stationary, and property is defined and secured.\nThe sciences arise in a cultivated society, where individuals enjoy\nthat leisure which invites to study and speculation. The priests\nmaintained in that condition by the monarch were the earliest cul-\ntivators of science. The Egyptian science was confined to the\npriests. Astronomy, which is among the earliest of the sciences,\nowed its origin probably to superstition. Medicine was among the\nearly sciences. All rude nations have a pharmacy of their own,\nequal in general to their wants. Luxury, creating new and more\ncomplex diseases, requires a profounder knowledge of medicine, and\nof the animal economy\nSECTION IIJ.\nOF THE EGYPTIANS.\n1 A great portion of the knowledge and attainments of the ancient\nnations, and by consequence of those of the moderns, is to be traced to\nEgypt The Egyptians instructed the Greeks the Greeks perform-\ned the same office to the Romans and the latter have transmitted\nmuch of that knowledge to the world, of which we are in possession\nat this day.*\n2. The antiquity of this empire, though we give no credit to the\nchronicles of Manetho, must be allowed to be very great. The Mo-\nsaic writings represent Egypt, about 430 years after the flood, as a\nflourishing and well regulated kingdom. The nature of the country\nitself affords a presumption of the great antiquity of the empire, and\nits early civilization. From the fertilizing effects of the waters of\nthe Nile, it is probable that agriculture would be more early prac-\ntised there, than in regions less favoured by nature. The periodical\ninundations of the Nile are perhaps owing to the vapours of the\nMediterranean condensed on the mountains of Ethiopia.\n3. The government of Egypt was a hereditary monarchy. The\npowers of the monarch were limited by constitutional laws; yet in\nmany respects his authority was extremely despotical. The func-\ntions of the sovereign were partly civil and partly religious. The\nking had the chief regulation of all that regarded the worship of the\ngods; and the priests, considered as his deputies, filled all the of-\nfices of state. They were both the legislators and the civil judges\nthey imposed and levied the taxes, and regulated weights and meas-\nures. The great national tribunal was composed of thirty judges,\nchosen from the three principal departments of the empire. The\nadministration of justice was defrayed by the sovereign, and, as par-\nties were their own advocates, was no burden upon the people.\nThe penal laws of Egypt were uncommonly severe. Female chas-\n*F«r the supposed origin of Egyptian science, see Part II. Sect. 50.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0024.jp2"},"25":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 21\ntihr was most rigidly protected. Funeral rites were not conferred\ntill after a scrutiny into the life of the deceased, and by a judicial\ndecree approving his character. The characters even of the so ve\nreigns were subjected to this inquiry.\nThere was an extraordinary regulation in Egypt regarding the\nborrowing of money. The borrower gave in pledge the body o*\nhis father, and it was deprived of funeral rites if he failed to re-\ndeem it.\nPopulation was encouraged by law ai.d every man was bound to\nmaintain and educate the children born to him of his slaves.\n4. The manners of the Egyptians were very early formed. They\nhad a singular attachment to ancient usages a dislike to nnovation;\na jealousy and abhorrence of strangers.\n5. They preceded most of the ancient nations in the knowledge\nof the useful arts, and in the cultivation of the sciences. Architecture\nwas early brought to great perfection. Their buildings, the pyra-\nmids, obelisks, ,c, have, from the mildness of the climate, suffered\nlittle injury from time. Pliny describes the contrivance for trans-\nporting the obelisks. The whole country abounds with the remains\nof ancient magnificence. Thebes, in Upper Egypt, was one of the\nmost splendid cities in the world.\nThe pyramids are supposed by some writers to have been erecteo\nabout 900 years A. C. They were probably the sepulchral monu-\nments of the sovereigns. The Egyptians believed that death did\nnot separate the soul from the body and hence their extreme care\nto preserve the body entire, by embalming, concealing it in caves and\ncatacombs, and guarding it by such stupendous structures. Mr.\nBruce supposes the pyramids to be rocks hewn into a pyramidal\nform, and encrusted, where necessary, with mason-work.*\nThe remains of art in Egypt, though venerable for their great an-\ntiquity, are extremely deficient in beauty and elegance. The Egyp-\ntians, were ignorant of the construction of an arch. The remains of\npainting and sculpture evince but a slender proficiency in those arts.\n6. The Egyptians possessed considerable knowledge of geometry,\nmechanics, and astronomy. They had divided the zodiac into twelve\nsigns they calculated eclipses and seem to have had an idea of\nthe motion of the earth.\n7. The morality taught by the priests was pure and refined;\nbut it had little influence on the manners of the people.\n0. So likewise the theology and secret doctrines of the priests\nwere rational and sublime but the worship of the people was de-\nbased by the most absurd and contemptible superstition.\n9. Notwithstanding the early civilization and the great attainments\nof this people, their national character was extremely low and des-\npicable among the contemporary nations of antiquity. The reason\nof this is, they were a people who chose to sequester themselves\nfrom the rest of mankind they were not known to other nations by\ntheir conquests they had little connexion with them by commerce\nand they had an antipathy to the persons and manners of strangers.\n10. There were likewise many circumstances of their own man-\nners which tended to degrade them in the opinion of other nations.\nAll professions were hereditary in Egypt, and the rank of each was\nscrupulously settled; the objects of the religious worship were dif-\nferent in different parts of the kingdom, a fertile source of division\nRecent travellers have almost demonstrated this supposition.","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0025.jp2"},"26":{"fulltext":"£2 ANCIENT HISTORY.\nand controversy their peculiar superstitions were of the most ab\namd and debasing nature and the manners of the people were ex\ntremely loose and profligate.\nSECTION IV.\nOF THE PHCENICIANS.\n1. The Phoenicians were among the most early civilized nations\nof the east. We are indebted to them for the invention of writing,\nand for the first attempts at commercial navigation. The fragments\nof Sanchoniatho are the most ancient monuments of writing after\nthe books of Moses. Sanchoniatho was contemporary with Joshua,\nabout 1440 A. C. and 500 before the cities of Attica were united by\nTheseus.\n2. The Phoenicians, (the Canaanites of scripture), were a com-\nmercial people in the days of Abraham. la the time of the Hebrew\njudges they had begun to colonize. Their first settlements were\nCyprus and Rhodes thence they passed into Greece, Sicily, Sardinia,\nand Spain and formed establishments likewise on the western coast\nof Africa. The Sidonians carried on an extensive commerce at the\ntime of the Trojan war.\nSECTION V.\nTHE HISTORY OF GREECE.\n1 Greece being indebted for the first rudiments of civilization to\nthe Egyptians and Phoenicians, its history is properly introduced by\nan account of those more ancient nations.\n2. The early antiquities of this country are disguised by fable\nbut from the time when it becomes important, it has been treated oi\nby eminent writers.\n3. The ancient inhabitants of Greece, the Pelasgi, Hiantes, Lele-\nges, were extremely barbarous but a dawning of civilization arose\nunder the Titans, a Phoenician or Egyptian colony, who settled in\nthe country about the time of Moses. The Titans gave the Greeks\nthe first ideas of religion, and introduced the worship of their own\n5ods, Saturn, Jupiter, Ceres, c. Succeeding ages confounded those\nitans themselves with the gods, and hence sprung numberless fables.\n4. Inachus, the last of the Titans, founded the kingdom of Argos,\n1856 A. C. and Egialtes, one of his sons, the kingdom of Sicyon.\n5. In the following century happened the deluge of Ogyges, 1796\nA. C. Then followed a period of barbarism for above 200 years.\n6. Cecrops, the leader of another colony from Egypt, landed in\nAttica, 1582 A. C; and, connecting himself with the last king, suc-\nceeded, on his death, to the sovereignty. He built twelve cities,\nand was eminent, both as a lawgiver and politician.\n7. The Grecian history derives some authenticity at this period\nfrom the Chronicle of Paros, preserved among the Arundelian mar-\nbles at Oxford. The authority of this chronicle has been questioned\nof late, and many arguments adduced presumptive of its being a\nlorgery but, on a review of the whole contrcversy, we judge the ar-\nguments for its authenticity to preponderate. It fixes the dates of the","height":"3581","width":"2120","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0026.jp2"},"27":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 23\nmost remarkable events in the history of Greece, from the time of\nocrops down to the age of Alexander the great.\n3. Cranaus succeeded Cecrops, in whose time happened two re-\nmarkable events recorded in the Chronicle of Paros the judgment\nof the areopagus between Mars and Neptune, two princes of Thessa-\nfy and the deluge of Deucalion. The court of areopagus, at Athens,\nwas instituted by Cecrops. The number of its judges varied at differ-\nent periods, from nine to fifty one. The deluge of Deucalion, magni-\nfied and disguised by the poets, was probably only a partial inundation.\n9. Amphyction, the contemporary of Cranaus, if the founder of\nthe amphyctionic council, must have possessed extensive views ot\npolicy. This council, from a league of twelve cities, became a\nrepresentative assembly of the states of Greece, and had the most\nadmirable political effects in uniting the nation, and giving it a com-\nmon interest.\n10. Cadmus, about 1519, A. C, introduced alphabetic writing into\nGreece, from Phoenicia. The alphabet then had only sixteen letters\nand the mode of writing (termed boustrophedon), was alternately from\nright to left and left to right. From this period the Greeks made\nrapid advances in civilization.\nSECTION VI.\nREFLECTIONS ON THE FIRST AND RUDEST PERIODS OF\nTHE GRECIAN HISTORY.\n1. The country of Greece presents a large, irregular peninsuk.\nintersected by many chains of mountains, separating its different\ndistricts, and opposing natural impediments to general intercourse,\nand therefore to rapid civilization. The extreme barbarism of the\nPelasgi, who are said to have been cannibals, and ignorant of the\nuse of fire, has its parallel in modern barbarous nations. There\nwere many circumstances that retarded the progress of the Greeks\nto refinement. The introduction of a national religion was best fit-\nted to remove those obstacles. Receiving this new system of theolo-\ngy from strangers, and entertaining at first very confused ideas of it,\nthey would naturally blend its doctrines and worship with the notions\nof religion which they formerly possessed and hence we observe\nonly partial coincidences of the Grecian with the Egyptian and\nPhoenician mythologies. It has been a vain and wearisome labour of\nmodern mythological writers, to attempt to trace all the fables of anti-\nquity, and the various systems of pagan theology, up to one common\nsource. The difficulty of this is best shown, by comparing the differ-\nent and most contradictory solutions of the same fable given by differ-\nent mythologists as, for example, lord Bacon and the abbe Banier.\nSome authors, with much indiscretion, have attempted to deduce all\nthe Pagan mythologies from the holy scriptures. Such researches\nare unprofitable, sometimes mischievous.\n2. Superstition, in the early periods, was a predominant charac-\nteristic of the Greeks. To this age, and to this character of the\npeople, we refer the origin of the Grecian oracles, and the institu-\ntion of the public games in honour of the gods.\nThe desire of penetrating into futurity, and the superstition com-\nmon to rude nations, gave rise to the oracles of Delphi, Dodona, c.\nThe resort of strangers to these oracles on particular occasions,\nted to the celebration of a festival, and to public games.","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0027.jp2"},"28":{"fulltext":"24 ANCIENT HISTORY.\nThe four solemn games of the Greeks, particularly termed upot,\nwere the Olympic, the Pythian, the Nemean, and the Isthmian\nThey consisted principally in contests of skill in all the athletic ex\nercises, and the prizes were chiefly honorary marks of distinction.\nArchbishop Potter, in his Archzlogia Grceca, fully details their par-\nticular nature. These games had excellent political effects, in pro-\nmoting national union, in diffusing the love of glory, and training the\nyouth to martial exercises. They cherished at once a heroical and\nsuperstitious spirit, which led to the formation of extraordinary and\nhazardous enterprises.\nSECTION VII.\nEARLY PERIOD OF THE GRECIAN HISTORY. THE ARGO-\nNAUTIC EXPEDITION. WARS OF THEBES AND OF TROY.\nthe Trojan war, is intermixed with tables but contains, at tne same\ntime, many facts entitled to credit, as authentic. Erectheus, or Erich-\nthonius, either a Greek who had visited Egypt, or the leader ot a\nnew Egyptian colony, cultivated the plains of Eleusis, and instituted\n1. The history of Greece, for a period of 300 years preceding\nthe Troian war, is intermixed with fables but contains, at the same\ntime,\nthonius\nnew Egyptia..\nthe Eleusinian mysteries, in imitation of the Egyptian games ot Isis.\nThese mysteries were of a religious and moral nature, conveying the\ndoctrines of the unity of God, the immortality of the soul, and a\nfuture state of reward and punishment. Cicero speaks ot them\nwith high encomium. But the ceremonies connected with them\nseem to be childish and ridiculous.\n2. Theseus laid the foundation of the grandeur ot Attica, by unit-\ning its twelve cities, and giving them a common constitution, 1257\nA C.\n*3. The first great enterprise of the Greeks was the Argonautic\nexpedition, 1263 A. C. (Usher), and 937 A. C. (sir I. Newton V\nThis is supposed to have been both a military and a mercantile ad-\nventure, and was singularly bold for the times in which it was under-\ntaken. The object was, to open the commerce of the Luxme sea,\nand to secure some establishments on its coasts. The astronomer\nChiron directed the plan of the voyage, and formed, for the use oi\nthe mariners, a scheme of the constellations, fixing with accuracy\nthe solstitial and equinoctial points. Sir Isaac Newton has founded\nhis emendation of the ancient chronology on a calculation ot the\nregular procession of the equinoxes from this period to the present,\nas well as on an estimate of the medium length of human genera-\ntions. _,\n4. The state of the military art at this time in Greece may be\nestimated from an account of the sieges of Thebes and Troy.\nIn these enterprises the arts of attack and defence were very rude\nand imperfect. The siege was entirely of the nature of blockade, and\ntherefore necessarily of long duration. A dispute for the divided\nsovereignty of Thebes between the brothers Eteocles and Polvnices,\ngave rise to the war, which was terminated by single combat, in\nwhich both were killed.\n5. The sons of the commanders slam in this war renewed the\nquarrel of their fathers, and occasioned the war of the Epigwun,\nsubject on which Homer is said to have written a poem, now lost,\nequal to the Iliad and Odyssey.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0028.jp2"},"29":{"fulltext":"AJMCIENT HISTORY.\n6. The detail of the war of Troy rests chiefly on the authority\nof Homer, and ought not, in spite of modern scepticism lobe refus\ned, in its principal facts, the credit ot a true history. After a block-\nade of ten years Troy was taken, either by storm or surprise, 1184\nA. C, and being set on fire in tne night, was burnt to the ground\nnot a vestige of its ruins existing at the present day. The empire fell\nfrom that moment. The Greeks settled a colony near the spot, and\nthe rest of the kingdom was occupied by the Lydians.\n7. Military expeditions at this time were carried on only in the\nspring and summer. In a tedious siege the winter was a season ot\narmistice. The science of military tactics was then utterly unknown.\nevery battle being a multitude of single combats. The soldier had\nno pay but his share of the booty, divided by the chiefs. The\nweapons of war were the sword, the bow, the javelin, the club, the\nhatchet, and the sling. A helmet of brass, an enormous shield, a\ncuirass, and buskins, were the weapons of defence.\nSECTION VIII.\nESTABLISHMENT OF THE GREEK COLONIES.\n1. About eighty years after the taking of Troy, began the war oi\nthe Heraclidae. Hercules, the son oi Amphitryon, sovereign of\nMycenae, was banished from his country with all his family, while\nthe crown was possessed by a usurper. His descendants, after the\nperiod of a century, returned to Peloponnesus, and subduing all\ntheir enemies, took possession of the states of Mycenae, Argos, anc!\nLacedaemon.\n2. A long period of civil war and bloodshed succeeded, and Greece,\ndivided among a number of petty tyrants, suffered equally the mis-\neries of oppression and anarchy.\nCodrus, king of Athens, showed a singular example of patriotism,\nin devoting himself to death for his country; yet the Athenians,\nweary of monarchy, determined to make the experiment of a popu-\ni ar constitution. Medon, the son of Codrus, was elected chief magis-\ntrate, with the title of archon. This is the commencement of the\nAthenian republic, about 1068 A. C.\n3. It was at this time that the Greeks began to colonize. The\noppression which they suffered at home forced many of them to\nabandon their country, and seek refuge in other lands. A large body\nof iEolians from Peloponnesus founded twelve cities in the Lesser\nAsia, of which Smyrna was the most considerable. A troop oi\nonian exiles built Ephesus, Colophon, Clazomene, and other towns\ngiving to their new settlements the name of their native country,\nIonia. The Dorians sent oft colonies to Italy and Sicily, founding, in\nthe former, Tarentum and Locri, and in the latter, Syracuse and\nArigentum. The mother country considered its colonies as eman-\ncipated children. These speedily attained to eminence and splen-\ndour, rivalling and surpassing their parent states and the example\nof their prosperity, which was attributed to the freedom of their\ngovernments, incited the states of Greece, oppressed by a number of\npetty despots, to put an end to the regal government, and try tho\nexperiment oi a popular constitution. Athens and Thebes gave the\nfirst examples, which were soon followed by all the rest.\n4. These infant republics demanded new laws and it was neces-\nC","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0029.jp2"},"30":{"fulltext":"26 AMCIENT HIS TORY.\nsary that some enlightened citizen should arise, who had discernment\nto perceive what system of legislation was most adapted to the char-\nacter of his native state who had abilities to compile such a system,\nand sufficient authority with his countrymen to recommend and en-\nforce it. Such men were the Spartan Lycurgus and the Athenian\nSolon.\nSECTION IX\nTHE REPUBLIC OF SPARTA.\n1. The origin of this political system has given rise to much inge-\nnious disquisition among the moderns, and affords a remarkable in-\nstance of the passion for systematizing. It is a prevailing propensity\nwith modem philosophers to reduce every thing to general princi-\nples. Man, say tbey, is always the same animal, and, when placed\nin similar situations, will always exhibit a similar appearance. His\nmanners, his improvements, the government and laws under which\nhe lives, arise necessarily from the situation in which we find him\nand all is the result of a few general laws of nature, which operate\nuniversally on the human species. But in the ardour of this passion\nfor generalizing, these nhilosophers often forget, that it is the knowl-\nedge of facts which can alone lead to the discovery of general laws:\na knowledge not limited to the history of a single age or nation, but\nextended to that of the whole species in every age and climate.\nAntecedently to such knowledge, all historical system is mere rc\nmance.\n2. Of this nature is a late theory of the constitution of Sparta, first\nstarted by Mr. Browne, in his Essay on Civil Liberty and from him\nadopted by later writers. It thus accounts for the origin of the Spar-\ntan constitution* The army of the Heraclidae, when they came to\nrecover the dominion of their ancestors, was composed of Dorians\nfrom Thessaly, the most barbarous of all the Greek tribes. The\nAchaeans, the ancient inhabitants of Laconia, were compelled to seek\nnew habitations, while the barbarians of Thessaly took possession of\ntheir country. Of all the nations which are the subject of historical\nrecord, this people bore the nearest resemblance to the rude Ameri-\ncans. An American tribe where a chief presides, where the council\nof the aged deliberate, and the assembly of the people gives their\nvoice, is on the eve of such a political establishment as the Spartan\nconstitution. The Dorians or Thessalians settled in Lacedaemon,\nmanifested, it is said, the same manners with all other nations in a\nbarbarous state. Lycurgus did no more than arrest them in that state,\nby forming their usages into laws. He checked them at once in the\nfirst stage of their improvement. u He put forth a bold hand to that\nspring which is in society, and stopt its motion.\n3. This theory, however ingenious, is confuted by facts. All an-\ncient authors agree, that Lycurgus operated a total change on the\nSpartan manners, and on the constitution of his country while the\nmoderns have discovered that he made no change on either. The\nmost striking features of the manners and constitution of Sparta had\nnot the smallest resemblance to those of any rude nations with which\nwe are acquainted. The communion of slaves and of many other\nspecies of property, the right of the state in the children of all the\nLogan s Philosophy of History, c.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0030.jp2"},"31":{"fulltext":"AJNCIENT HISTORY. £7\ncitizens, their common education, the public tables, the equal divi-\nsion of lands, the oath of government between the kings and people)\nhave no parallel in the history of any barbarous nation.\n4. The real history of Sparta and its constitution is therefore not\nto be found in modern theory, but in the writings of the Greek his-\ntorians, and these are our sole authorities worthy of credit.\nAfter the return of the Heraclidae, Sparta was divided between\nthe two sons of Aristodemus, Eurysthenes, and Procles, who jointly\nreigned and this double monarchy, transmitted to the descendants\nof each, continued in the separate branches for near 900 years. A\nradical principle of disunion, and consequent anarchy, made the want\nof constitutional laws be severely felt. Lycurgus, brother of Poly-\ndectes, one of the kings of Sparta, a man distinguished alike by his\nabilities and virtues, was invested, by the concurring voice of the\nsovereigns and people, with the important duty of reforming and new-\nmodelling the constitution of his country, 884 A. C.\n5. Lycurgus instituted a senate, elective, of twenty-eight mem\noers whose office was to preserve a just balance between the pow-\ner of the kings and that of the people. Nothing could come before\nthe assembly of the people which had not received the previous con-\nsent of the senate and, on the other hand, no judgment of the sen-\nate was effectual without the sanction of the people. The kings pre-\nsided in the senate they were the generals of the republic but\nthey could plan no enterprise without the consent of a council of the\ncitizens.\n6. Lycurgus bent his attention most particularly to the regulation\nof manners and one great principle pervaded his whole system;\nLuxury is the bane of society.\nHe divided the territory ol the republic into 39,000 equal portions,\namong the whole of its free citizens.\nHe substituted iron money for gold and silver, prohibited the prac-\ntice of commerce, abolished all useless arts, and allowed even those\nnecessary to life to be practised only by the slaves.\nThe whole citizens made their principal repast at the public ta-\nbles. The meals were coarse and parsimonious the conversation\nwas fitted to improve the youth in virtue, and cultivate the patriotic\nspirit.\nThe Spartan education rejected all embellishments of the under-\nstanding. It nourished only the severer virtues. It taught the du-\nties of religion, obedience to the laws, respect for parents, reverence\nfor old age, inflexible honour, undaunted courage, contempt of dan-\nger and of death above all, the love of glory and of their country\n7. But the general excellence of the institutions of Lycurgus was\nimpaired by many blemishes. The manners of the Lacedaemonian\nwomen were shamefully loose. They frequented the baths, and\nfought naked in the palaestra promiscuously with the men. Theft\nwas a part ol Spartan education. The youth were taught to subdue\nthe feelings of humanity the slaves were treated with the most bar-\nbarous rigour, and often massacred for sport. The institutions of\nLycurgus had no other end than to form a nation of soldiers.\n8. A faulty part of the constitution of Sparta was the office of the\nephori: magistrates elected by the people, whose power, though in\n§ome respects subordinate, was in others paramount to that of h e\nkings and senate.","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0031.jp2"},"32":{"fulltext":"W AJNC1ENT HISTORY.\nSECTION X.\nTHE REPUBLIC OF ATHENS.\nI On the abolition of the regal office at Athens, the change of\nthe constitution was more nominal than real. The archonship was,\nduring three centuries, a perpetual and hereditary magistracy. In\nf 754 A. C. this office became decennial. In 648 the archons were\nannually elected and were nine in number, with equal authority.\nUnder all these changes the state was convulsed, and the condition of\nthe people miserable.\n2. Draco, elevated to the archonship 624 A. C, projected a reform\nin the constitution of his country, and thought to repress disorders by\nthe extreme severity of penal laws. But his talents were unequal\nto the task he had undertaken.\n3. Solon, an illustrious Athenian, of the race of Codrus, attained\nthe dignity of archon 594 A. C and was entrusted with the care of\nframing for his country a new form of government, and a new sys-\ntem of laws. He possessed extensive knowledge, but wanted that\nintrepidity of mind which is necessary to the character of a great\nstatesman. His disposition was mild and temporizing and, without\nattempting to reform the manners of his countrymen, he accommo-\ndated his system to their prevailing habits and passions.\n4. The people claimed the sovereign power, and they received\nit the rich demanded offices and dignities the system of Solon\naccommodated them to the utmost of their wishes, He divided the\ncitizens into four classes, according to the measure of their wealth.\nTo the three first, the richer citizens, belonged all the offices of the\ncommonwealth. The fourth, the poorer class, more numerous than\nall the other three, had an equal right of suffrage with them in the\npublic assembly, wnere all laws were framed, and measures of state\ndecreed. Consequently the weight of the latter decided every ques-\ntion.\n5. To regulate in some degree the proceedings of those assem-\nblies, and balance the weight of the popular interest, Solon instituted\na senate of 400 members (afterwards enlarged to 500 and 600),\nwith whom it was necessary that every measure should originate,\nbefore it became the subject of discussion in the assembly of the\npeople.\n6. To the court of areopagus he committed the guardianship of\nthe laws, and the power of enforcing them; with the supreme\nadministration of justice. To this tribunal belonged likewise the\ncustody of the treasures of the state, the care of religion, and a\ntutorial power over all the youth of the republic. The number o»\nits judges was various at different periods, and tha most immaculate\npurity of character was essential to that high office.\n7. The authority of the senate and areopagus imposed some check\non the popular assemblies but as these possessed the ultimate right\nof decision, it was always in the power of ambitious demagogues to\nsway them to the worst of purposes. Continual factions divided the\npeople, and corruption pervaded every department .of the state.\nThe public measures, the result of the interested schemes of indi-\nviduals, were often equally absurd as they were profligate. Athena\noften saw her best patriots, the wisest and most virtuous of her citi*\n£ens, shamefully sacrificed to the most depraved and most abandoned.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0032.jp2"},"33":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 3#\n8. The particular laws of the Athenian state are more deserving of\nencomium than its form of government. The laws relating to debt-\nors were mild and equitable, as were those which regulated thi\ntreatment of slaves. But the vassalage of women, or their abso-\nlute subjection to the control of their nearest relations, approached\ntoo near to a state of servitude. The proposer of a law found on\nexperience impolitic was liable to punishment; an enactment ap-\nparently rigorous, but probably necessary in a popular government\n9. One most iniquitous and absurd peculiarity of the Athenian, and\nsome other governments of Greece, was the practice of the ostra-\ncism, a ballot of all the citizens, in which each wrote down the name\nof the person in his opinion most obnoxious to censure and he who\nwas thus marked out by the greatest number of voices, though un-\nimpeached of any crime, was banished for ten years from his coun-\ntry. This barbarous and disgraceful institution, ever capable of the\ngrossest abuse, and generally subservient to the worst of purposes,\nhas stained the character of Athens with many flagrant instances\nof public ingratitude.\n10. The manners of the Athenians formed the most striking con-\ntrast to those of the Lacedaemonians. At Athens the arts were in\nthe highest esteem. The Lacedaemonians despised the arts, and all\nwho cultivated them. At Athens peace was the natural state of the\nrepublic, and the refined enjoyment of life the aim of all its subjects.\nSparta was entirely a military establishment and her subjects, when\nunengaged in war, were totally unoccupied. Luxury was the char-\nacter of the Athenian, as frugality of the Spartan. They were\nequally jealous of their liberty, and equally brave in war. The\ncourage of the Spartans sprang from constitutional ferocity, that oi\nthe Athenian from the principle of honour.\n11. The Spartan government had acquired solidity, while all the\nrest of Greece was torn by domestic dissensions. Athens, a prey to\nfaction and civil disorder, surrendered her liberties to Pisistratus, 550\nA. C. who, after various turns of fortune, established himself firm-\nly in the sovereignty, exercised a splendid and munificent dominion,\ncompletely gained the, affections of the people, and transmitted a\npeaceable crown to his sons Hippias and Hipparcnus.\n12. Hermodias and Aristogiton undertook to restore the democra-\ncy and succeeded in the attempt. Hipparchus was put to death\nand Hippias, dethroned, solicited a foreign aid to replace him in the\nsovereignty. Darius, the son of Hystaspes, meditated at this time\nthe conquest of Greece. Hippias took advantage of the views of\nan enemy against his native country, and Greece was now involved\nin a war with Persia.\nSECTION XI.\nOF THE STATE OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE, AND ITS HISTORY\nDOWN TO THE WAR WITH GREECE.\n1. The first empire of the Assyrians ended under Sardanapalus, and\nthree monarchies arose upon its ruins, Nineveh, Babylon, and the\nkingdom of the Medes.\n2. The history of Babylon and of Nineveh is very imperfectly\nknown. The Medes, hitherto independent tribes, were united under\na monarchy by Dejoces. His son Phraortes conquered Persia, but was\nC 2","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0033.jp2"},"34":{"fulltext":"SO ANCIENT HISTORY.\nhimself vanquished by Nabuchodonosor I., king of Assyria, and put\nto death. Nabuchodonosor II. led the Jews into captivity, took Je-\nrusalem and Tyre, and subdued Egypt.\n3. The history of Cyrus is involved in great uncertainty nor is\nit possible to reconcile or apply to one man the different accounts\ngiven of him by Herodotus, Ctesias, and Xenophon. Succeeding\nhis father Cambyses in the throne of Persia, and his uncle Cyaxares\nin the sovereignty of the Medes, he united these empires, vanquish-\ned the Babylonians and Lydians, subjected the greatest part of the\nLesser Asia, and made himself master of Syria and Arabia.\n4. He was succeeded by his son Cambyses, distinguished only as\na tyrant and a madman.\n5. After the death of Cambyses, Darius, the son of Hystaspes.\nwas elected sovereign of Persia, a prince of great enterprise and\nambition. Unfortunate in a rash expedition against the Scythians,\nhe projected and achieved the conquest of India. Inflated with suc-\ncess, he now meditated an invasion of Greece, and cordially entered\ninto the views of Hippias, who sought by his means to regain the\nsovereignty of Athens.\n6. Government, Manners, Laws, fyc. of the Ancient Persians. The\ngovernment of Persia was an absolute monarchy the will of the sov-\nereign being subject to no control, and his person revered as sacred:\nyet the education bestowed by those monarchs on their children was\ncalculated to inspire every valuable quality of a sovereign.\nThe ancient Persians in general bestowed the utmost attention on\nthe education of youth. Children at the age of five were committed\nto the care of the magi, for the improvement of their mind and\nmorals. They were trained at the same time to every manly exercise.\nThe sacred bookii of the Zendavesta promised to e\\ ery worthy parent\nthe imputed merit and rewairi of all the good actions of his chil-\ndren.\n7. Luxurious as they were in after times, the early Persians were\ndistinguished for their temperance, bravery, and virtuous simplicity\nof manners. They were all trained to the use of arms, and display-\ned great intrepidity in war. The custom of the women following\ntheir armies to the field, erroneously attributed to effeminacy, was\na remnant of barbarous manners.\n8. The kingdom of Persia was divided into several provinces, each\nunder a governor or satrap, who was accountable to the sovereign\nfor the whole of his conduct. The prince, at stated times, visited\nhis provinces in person, correcting all abuses, easing the burdens\nof the oppressed, and encouraging agriculture and the practice of\nthe useful arts. The laws of Persia were mild and equitable, anc\nthe utmost purity was observed in the administration of justice.\n9. The religion of the ancient Persians is of great antiquity. I\nis conjectured that there were two-Zoroasters the first, the founder\nof this ancient religion, and of whom are recorded miracles and\nprophecies the second, a reformer of that religion, contemporary\nwith Darius the son of Hystaspes. The Zendavesta, or sacred book,\ncompiled by the former, was improved and purified by the latter.\nIt has been lately translated into French by ML Anquetil, and appears\nto contain, amidst a mass of absurdity, some sublime truths, and ex-\ncellent precepts of morality. The theology of the Zendavesta is\nfounded on the doctrine of two opposite principles, a good and an\nevil, Ormusd and Ahriman, eternal beings, who divide between them\nthe government of the universe, and whose warfare must endure till","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0034.jp2"},"35":{"fulltext":"AJSCIENT HISTORY. 31\nthe end of 12,000 years, when the good will finally prevail over the\nevil. A separation will ensue of the votaries of eacn the just shall\nbe admitted to tiie immediate enjoyment of Paradise the wicked,\nafter a limited purification by fire, shall ultimately be allowed to par\ntake in the blessings of eternity. Ormusd is to be adored through\nthe medium of his greatest works, the sun, moon, and stars. The\nfire, the symbol of the sun, the air, the earth, the water, have theii\nsubordinate worship.\nThe morality of the Zendavesta is best known from its abridg-\nment, the Sadder, complied about three centuries ago by the modern\nGuebres. It inculcates a chastened species of epicurism; allowing\na free indulgence of the passions, while consistent with the welfare\nof society. It prohibits equally intemperance and ascetic mortifica-\ntion. It recommends, as precepts of religion, the cultivation of the\nearth, the planting of fruit-trees, the destruction of noxious animals,\nthe bringing water to a barren land.\n10. Such were the ancient Persians. But their character had un-\ndergone a great change before the period of the war with Greece.\nAt this time they were a degenerate and corrupted people. Athens\nhad recently thrown oif the yoke of the Pisistratidae, and highly val-\nued her new liberty. Sparta, in the ardour of patriotism, forgot all\njealousy of her rival state, and cordially united in the defence of\ntheir common country. The Persians, in this contest, had no other\nadvantage than that of numbers, an unequal match for superior hero-\nism and military skill.\nSECTION XII.\nTHE WAR BETWEEN GREECE AND PERSIA.\n1 The ambition of Darius, the son of Hystaspes, heightened by the\npassion of revenge, gave rise to the proiect of that monarch for the\ninvasion of Greece. The Athenians hud aided the people of Ionia in\nan attempt to throw off the yoke of Persia, and burnt and ravaged\nSardis, the capital of Lydia. Darius speedily reduced the lonians to\nsubmission, and then turned his arms against the Greeks, their allies\nthe exile Hippias eagerly prompting the expedition.\n2. After an insolent demand of submission, which the Greeks scorn-\nfully refused, Darius began a hostile attack both by sea and land.\nThe first Persian fleet was wrecked in doubling the promontory of\nAthos a second, of 600 sail, ravaged the Grecian islands while an\nimmense army landing in Euboea, poured down with impetuosity on\nAttica. The Athenians met them on the plain of Marathon, and,\nheaded by Miltiades, defeated them with prodigious slaughter, 490\nA. C. The loss of the Persians in this battle was 6,300, and that of\nthe Athenians 190.\n3. The merit of Miltiades, signally displayed in this great battle,\nwas repaid by his country with the most shocking ingratitude. Ac-\ncused of treason for an unsuccessful attack on the isle of Paros. his\nsentence of death was commuted into a fine of fifty talents which\nbeing unable to pay he was thrown into prison, and there died of his\nwounds.\n4. The glory of ungrateful Athens was yet nobly sustained m the\nPersian war by Therristocles and Aristides. Darius dying wa9 suc-\nceeded by his son Xerxes, the heir of his father s ambition, but not of","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0035.jp2"},"36":{"fulltext":"S2 ANCIENT HISTORY.\nhis abilities. He armed, as is said, five millions of men. for the con-\nquest of Greece; 1,200 ships of war, and 3,000 ships of burden.\nLanding in Thessalv he proceeded, by rapid marches, to Thermop-\nylae, a narrow defile on the Sinus Maliacus. The Athenians and\nSpartans, aided only by the Thespians, Plataeans, and Eginetes, de-\ntermined to withstand the invader. Leonidas, king of Sparta, was\nchosen to defend this important pass with 6,000 men. Xerxes, after\na weak attempt to corrupt him, imperiously summoned him to lay\ndown his arms. Let hii.i came, said Leonidas, and take them. For two\ndays the Persians in vain strove to force their way, and were repeat-\nedly repulsed with great slaughter. An unguarded track being at\nlength discovered, the defence of the pass became a fruitless attempt\non the part of the Greeks. Leonidas, foreseeing certain destruction,\ncommanded all to retire but 300 of his countrymen. His motive was\nto give the Persians a just idea of the spirit of that foe whom they\nhad to encounter. He, with his brave Spartans, were all cut off to a\nman, 480 A. C. A monument, erected on the spot, bore this noble\ninscription, written by Simonides O stranger! tell it at Laceda mon y\ntliai we died here in obedience to her laws.\n5. The Persians poured down upon Attica. The inhabitants of\nAthens, after conveying their women and children to the islands for\nsecurity, betook themselves to their fleet, abandoning the city, which\nthe Persians pillaged and burnt. The fleet of the Greeks, consisting\nof 380 sail, was attacked in the straits of Salamis by that of the Per-\nsians, amounting to 1,200 ships. Xerxes himself beheld from an em-\ninence on the coast the total discomfiture of his squadron. He then\nfled with precipitation across the Hellespont. A second overthrow\nawaited his army by land for Mardonius, at the head of 300,000\nPersians, was totally defeated at Platcea by the combined army of the\nAthenians and Lacedaemonians, 479 A. C. On the same day the\nGreeks engaged and destroyed the remains of the Persian fleet at\nMycale. From that day the ambitious schemes of Xerxes were at\nan end and his inglorious life was soon after terminated by assassina\ntion. He was succeeded in the throne of Persia by his son Artaxerxes\nLongimanus, 464 A. C.\n6. At this time the national character of the Greeks was at its highest\nelevation. The common danger had annihilated all partial jealousies\nbetween the states, and given them union as a nation. But with the\ncessation of danger those jealousies recommenced. Sparta meanly\nopposed the rebuilding of deserted Athens. Athens, rising again into\nsplendour, saw with pleasure the depopulation of Sparta by an earth-\nquake, and hesitated to give her aid in that juncture of calamity\nagainst a rebellion of her slaves.\n7. Cimon, the son of Miltiades. after expelling the Persians from\nThrace, attacked and destroyed tneir fleet on the coast of Pamphylia,\nand, landing his troops, gained a signal victory over their army the\nsame day. Supplanted in the public favour by -the arts of his rival\nPericles, he suffered a temporary exile, to return only with higher\npopularity, and to signalize himself still more in the service of his\nungrateful country. He attacked and totally destroyed the Persian\nfleet of 300 sail, and, landing in Cilicia, completed his triumph, by\ndefeating 300,000 Persians under Megabyzes, 460 A. C. Artaxerxes\nnow had the prudence to sue for peace, which was granted by the\nGreeks, on terms most honourable to the nation. They stipulated\nfor the freedom of all the Grecian cities of Asia, and that the fleets of\nPersia should not approach their coasts from the Euxine to the ex-","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0036.jp2"},"37":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. S3\ntreme boundary of Pamphylia. The last fifty years were the period\nof the highest glory of the Greeks and they owed their prosperity\nentirely to their union. The peace with Persia, dissolving that con\nnexion, brought back the jealousies between the predominant states,\nthe intestine disorders of each, and the national weakness.\n8. The martial and the patriotic spirit began visibly to decline in\nAthens, An acquaintance With Asia^ and an importation of her\nwealth, introduoed a relish for Asiatic manners and luxuries. With\nthe Athenians, however, this luxurious spirit was under the guidance\nof taste and genius. It led to the cultivation of the finer arts and\nthe age of Pericles, though the national glory was in its wane, is the\naera of the highest internal splendour and magnificence of Greece.\nSECTION Xlll.\nAGE OF PERICLES.\n1. Republics, equally with monarchies, are generally regulated\nby a single will only, in the former there is a more frequent change\nof masters. Pericles ruled Athens with little less than arbitrary\nsway; and Athens pretended at this time to the command of Greece\nShe held the allied states in the most absolute subjection, and lavished\ntheir subsidies, bestowed for the national defence, in magnificent\nbuildings, games, and festivals, for her own citizens. The tributary\nstates loudly complained, but durst not call this domineering republic\nto account and the war of Peloponnesus, dividing the nation into\ntwo great parties, bound the less cities to the strictest subordination\non the predominantpowers.\n2. The state of Corinth had been included in the last treaty be-\ntween Athens and Sparta. The Corinthians waging war with the\npeople of Corcyra, an ancient colony of their own, both parties so-\nlicited the aid of Athens, which took part with the latter: a measure\nwhich the Corinthians complained of, not only as an infraction of the\ntreaty with Sparta, but as a breach of a general rule of the national\npolicy, that no foreign power should interfere in the disputes between\na colony and its parent state. War was proclaimed on this ground\nbetween Athens and Lacedaemon, each supported by its respective\nallies. The detail of the war, which continued for twenty-eight\nyears, with various and alternate success, is to be found in Tfoucyd-\nldes. Pericles died before its termination a splendid ornament of\nhis country, but a corrupter of its manners. Alcibiades ran a similar\ncareer, with equal talents, equal ambition, and still less purity ol\nmoral principle. In the interval of a truce with Sparta he inconsid\nerately projected the conquest of Sicily and, failing in the attempt,\nwas, on his return to Athens, condemned to death for treason. He\nhesitated not to wreak his vengeance against his country, by selling\nnis services, first to Sparta, and afterwards to Persia. Finally, he\npurchased his peace with his country, by betraying the power\nwhich protected him, and returned to Athens the idol of a populace\nas versatile as worthless.\n3. A fatal defeat of the Athenian fleet at iEgos Potamos, by Ly-\nsander, reduced Athens to the last extremity and the Lacedaemonians\nblockaded the city by land and sea. The war was ended by the\nabsolute submission of the Athenians, who agreed to demolish their\nport, to limit their fleet to twelve ships, and undertake for the fb\n5","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0037.jp2"},"38":{"fulltext":"34 ANCIENT HISTORV.\nno military enterprise, but under command of the Lacedaemonians,\n405 A. C.\n4. To the same Lysander, who terminated the Peloponnesian war\nso gloriously for Lacedaemon, history ascribes the first great breach\nof the constitution of his country, by the introduction of gold into\nthat republic. Lysander, after the reduction of Athens, abolished\nthe popular government in that state, and substituted in its place\nthirty tyrants, whose power was absolute* The most eminent of\nthe citizens fled from their country but a band of patriots, headed\nby Thrasybulus, attacked, vanquished, and expelled the usurpers,\nand once more re-established the democracy.\n5. One event, which happened at this time, reflected more disgrace\non the Athenian name than their national humiliation this was the per-\nsecution and death of Socrates, a philosopher who was himself the\nattern of every virtue which he taught. The sophists, whose futile\nogic he derided and exposed, represented him as an enemy to the\nreligion of his country, because, without regard to the popular su-\nperstitions, he led the mind to the knowledge of a Supreme Being,\nthe creator and ruler of the universe, and to the belief of a future\nstate of retribution. He made his defence with the manly fortitude of\nconscious innocence but in vain his judges were his personal ene-\nmies, and he was condemned to die by poison, 397 A. C. (See Sec-\ntion XXIII, 5.)\n6. On the death of Darius Nothus, his eldest son Artaxerxes Mne-\nmon succeeded to the empire of Persia. His younger brother Cyrus\nformed the project of dethroning him, and with the aid of 1 3,000\nGreeks engaged him near Babylon, but was defeated and slain a\njust reward of his most culpable enterprise. The remainder of the\nGrecian army, to the amount of 10,000, under the command of Xen-\nophon, made a most amazing retreat, traversing a hostile country of\n1,600 miles in extent, from Babylon to the banks of the Euxine Xen-\nophon has beautifully written the history of this expedition but has\npainted the character of Cyrus in too flattering colours, and without\nthe smallest censure of his criminal ambition.\n7. The Greek cities of Asia had taken part with Cyrus. Sparta\nwas engaged to defend her countrymen, and consequently was in-\nvolved in a war with Persia. Had Athens added her strength, the\nGreeks might have once more defied the power of Asia but jealousy\nkept the states divided, and even hostile to each other; and the gold\nof Artaxerxes excited a general league in Greece against Lacedae-\nmon. Agesilaus, king of Sparta, sustained for a time the honour of\nhis country, and won some important battles in Asia; but ethers were\nlost in Greece and a naval defeat near Cnidos utterly destroyed the\nLacedaemonian fleet. Finally, to escape total destruction, the Spartans\nsued for peace, and obtained it by the sacrifice to Persia of all the\nAsiatic colonies, 387 A. C. Artaxerxes further demanded, and obtain-\ned for his allies the Athenians, the islands of Scyros, Lemnos, and Im-\nbro3 a disgraceful treaty j a mortifying picture of the humiliation of\nthe Greeks.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0038.jp2"},"39":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY, 35\nSECTION XIV.\nTHE REPUBLIC OF THEBES,\n1. While Athens and Sparta were thus visibly tending to decline,\nthe Theban republic emerged from obscurity, and rose for a time\nto a degree of splendour eclipsing all its contemporary states. The\nrepublic was divided by faction, one party supporting its ancient de-\nmocracy, and the other aiming at the establishment of an oligarchy.\nThe latter courted the aid of the Spartans, who embraced that occa-\nsion to take possession of the citadel. Four hundred of the exiled\nThebans lied for protection to Athens. Among these was Pelopidas,\nwho planned and accomplished the deliverance of his country. Dis-\nguising himself and twelve of his friends as peasants, he entered\nThebes in the evening, and joining a patriotic party of the citizens,\nthey surprised the heads of the usurpation amid the tumult of a feast,\nand put them all to death. Epaminondas, the friend of Pelopidas,\nshared with him in the glory of this enterprise: and attacking, with\nthe aid of 5,000 Athenians, the Lacedaemonian garrison, drove them\nentirely out of the Theban territory.\n2. A war necessarily ensued between Thebes and Sparta, in which\nthe former had the aid of Athens. This, however, was but for a sea-\nson. Thebes singly opposed the power of Sparta, and the league of\nGreece but Epaminondas and Pelopidas were her generals. The\nlatter, amidst a career of glory, perished in an expedition against\nthe tyrant of Pheraea. Epaminondas, triumphant at Leuctra and Man-\ntinea, fell in that last engagement, and with him expired the glory of\nnis country, 363 A. C. Athens and Sparta were humbled at the battle\nof Mantinea. Thebes was victorious but she was undone by the death\nof Epaminondas. All parties were tired of the war and Artaxerxes,\nmore powerful among those infatuated states than in his own domin-\nions, dictated the terms of the treaty. It was stipulated that each\npower should retain what it possessed and that the less states, now\ntree from the yoke of the greater, should remain so.\nSECTION XV.\nPHILIP OF MACEDON.\n1. Greece was now in the most abject situation. The spirit ot\npatriotism appeared utterly extinct, and military glory at art end.\nAthens seemed to have lost all ambition; the pleasures of luxury had\nentirely supplanted heroic virtue poets, musicians, sculptors, and\ncomedians, were now the only great men of Attica. Sparta, no les«\nchanged from the. simplicity of its ancient manners, and its pcw^r\nabridged by the new independency of the states of Peloponnesus,\nwas in no capacity to attempt a recovery of its former greatness. In\nthis situation Philip of Macedon formed the ambitious project of bi ingo-\ning under his dominion the whole of Greece.\n2. He had mounted the throne of Macedon by popular choice, in\nviolation of the natural right of the nearer heirs to the crown and\nhe secured his power by the success of his arms against the Illyrians*\nPaeonians, and Athenians, who espoused the interest of his competitors.\nUniting to great military talents the most consummate artifice and ad*","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0039.jp2"},"40":{"fulltext":"S6 ANCIENT HISTORY.\ndress, he had his pensionaries in all the states of Greece, who direct-\ned to his advantage every public measure. The miserable policy\nof these states, embroiled in perpetual quarrels, co-operated with hia\ndesigns. A sacrilegious attempt of the rhocians to plunder the tem-\nple of Delphos excited the sacred war, in which almost all the repub-\nlics took a part. Philip s aid being courted by the Thebans and\nThessalians, he began hostilities by invading Phocis, the key to the\nterritory of Attica. iEschines. the orator, bribed to his interest, at\ntempted to quiet the alarms cf the Athenians, by ascribing to Philip\na design only of punishing sacrilege, and vindicating the cause ol\nApollo. Demosthenes, with true patriotism, exposed the artful de-\nsigns of the invader, and with the most animated eloquence roused\nhis countrymen to a vigorous effort for the preservation of their nat-\nural liberties. But tlie event was unsuccessful The battle of Che-\nronaaa, fought 337 A. C, decided the fate of Greece, and subjected all\nthe states to the dominion of the king of Macedon. But it was not\nhis policy to treat them as a conquered people. They retained theii\nseparate and independent governments, while he controlled and direct\ned all the national measures. Convoking a general council of the states,\nPhilip was appointed commander in chief of the forces of the nation\nand he laid before them his project for the conquest of Persia, ap-\npointing each republic to furnish its proportional subsidies. On the\neve of this great enterprise Philio was assassinated by Pausanias. a\ncaptain of his guards, in revenge ot a private injury, 336 A. C. Tne\nAthenians, on the death of Philip, meanly expressed the most tumul\ntuous joy, in the hope of a recovery of their liberty but this vision-\nary prospect was never realized. The spirit of the nation was gone\nand in their subsequent revolutions they only changed theii masters.\nSECTION XVI.\nALEXANDER THE GREAT.\n1. Alexander, the son of Philip, succeeded at the age of twenty to\nthe throne of Macedon, and, after a few successful battles against the\nrevolted states, to the command of Greece. Assembling the deputies\nof the nation at Corinth, he communicated to them his resolution of\nprosecuting the designs of his father for the conquest of Persia.\n2. With an army of 30,000 foot, and 5,000 horse, the sum of 70 tal-\nents, and provisions only for a single month, he crossed the Hellespont\nand in traversing Phrygia visited the tomb of Achilles. Darius Co\ndomanus, resolved to crush at once this inconsiderate youth, met him\non the banks of the Granicus with 100,000 foot and 10,000 horse.\nThe Greeks swam the river, their king leading the van, and, attack-\ning the astonished Persians, left 20,000 dead upon the field, and put to\ntlight their whole army. Drawing from his first success a presage\nof continued victory, Alexander now sent home his fleet, leaving to\nhis army the sole alternative, that they must subdue Asia or perish.\nProsecuting their course for some time without resistance, the Greeks\nwere attacked by the Persians in a narrow valley of Cilicia, near the\ntown of Issus. The Persian host amounted to 400,000 but their sit-\nuation was such that only a small part could come into action, and\nthey were defeated with prodigious slaughter. The loss of the Per-\nsians in this battle was 110,000 that of the Greeks (according to Q,.\nCurtius) only 450.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0040.jp2"},"41":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTROY. 87\n3. The history of Alexander by Quintus Curtius, though a mosf\nelegant composition, is extremely suspicious on the score of authen-\ntic information. Arrian is the best authority.\n44 The generosity of Alexander was displayed after the battle of\nIssusY in his attention to his noble prisoners, the mother, the wife.\nand family of Darius. To the credit of Alexander it must be owned\nthat humanity, however overpowered, and at times extinguished by\nhis passions, certainly formed a part of his natural character.\n5. The consequence of the battle of Issus was the submission of\nall Syria. Damascus, where Darius had deposited his chief treasures-\nwas betrayed and given up by its governor. The Phoenicians were\npleased to see themselves thus avenged for the oppression which they\nhad suffered under the yoke of Persia.\n6. Alexander had hitherto borne his good fortune with moderation.\nFelix, says Curtius, si liac continentia ad ultimum vitce perseverare po4-\nuisset sed nondum Fortuna se animo ejus infuderat.* He directed his\ncourse towards Tyre, and desired admittance to perform a sacrifice\nto Hercules. The Tyrians shut their gates, and maintained for seven\nmonths a noble defence. The city was at length taken by storm,\nand the victor glutted his revenge by the inhuman massacre of 8,000\nof the inhabitants. The late of Gaza, gloriously defended by Betis, was\nequally deplorable to its citizens^ and more disgraceful to the con-\nqueror. Ten thousand of the former were sold into slavery, and its\nbrave defender dragged at the wheels of the victor s chariot Glori-\nante rege, Achillem, a quo genus ipse deduceret, imitatum se esse, poena\nin hostem capiendaj Curtius.\n7. The taking of Gaza opened Egypt to Alexander, and the whole\ncountry submitted without opposition. The course he now pursued\ndemonstrated that in his conquests he followed no determined plan.\nAmidst the most incredible fatigues, he led his army through the\ndeserts of Lybia, to visit the temple of his father, Jupiter Amman. On\nhis return he built Alexandria, at the mouth of the Nile, afterwards the\ncapital of the Lower Egypt, and one of the most flourishing cities in\nthe world. Twenty other cities of the same name were reared by\nhim in the course of his conquests. It is such works as these that\njustly entitle the Macedonian to the epithet of Great. By rearing\nin the midst of deserts those nurseries of population and of industry,\nhe repaired the waste and havoc of his conquests. Except for those\nmonuments of his glory, he would have merited no other epithet\nthan that assigned him by the brahmins of India, The Mighty Murderer.\n8 Returning from Egypt, Alexander traversed Assyria, and was\nmet at Arheda DV Darius, at the head of 700,000 men. The Persian\nhad profferebT peace, consenting to yield the whole country from the\nEuphrates to the Hellespont, to give Alexander his daughter in mar-\nriage, and the immense sum of 10,000 talents. But these terms\nwere haughtily rejected, and peace ottered only upon the unqualified\nsubmission of his enemy. The Persians were defeated at Arbela,\nwith the loss of 300,000 men. Darius lied from province to province.\nAt length betrayed by Bessus, one of his own satraps, he was cruelly\nmurdered; and the Persian empire, which had subsisted for 206\nyears from the time of Cyrus the great, submitted to the conqueror,\nk)«jvj A. C\nHappy if he could have persevered in this temperance to the end of\nhis life, but Fortune had not yet poisoned hi3 mind.\nt The king boasting that he imitated Achilles, from whom he supp«*e4\nhimself descended, in the infliction of this punishment upon hia\nD","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0041.jp2"},"42":{"fulltext":"38 ANCIENT H1STOKY\n9. Alexander now projected the conquest of lndia firmly persuad-\ned that the gods had decreed him the sovereigntist the whole hab-\nitable globe. He penetrated to the Ganges, and would have pro\nceeded to the eastern ocean, if the spiriftrf his army had kept pace\nwith his ambition. But his troops, seeing no end to their toils, refus-\ned to proceed. He returned to the Indus, whence sending round his\nfleet to the Persian gulf under Nearclras, he marched his army\nacross the desert to Persepolis.\n10. Indignant that he had found a limit to his conquests, he abandoned\nhimself to every excess of luxury and debauchery. The arrogance\nof his nature, and the ardour of his passions, heightened by continual\nintemperance, broke out into the most outrageous excesses of cruelty,\nfor which, in the few intervals of sober reflection, his ingenuous\nmind suffered the keenest remorse. From Persepolis he returned\nto Babylon, and there died in a fit of debauch, in the thirty-third year\nof histrge, and thirteenth of his reign, 324 A. C.\n11. Of the character of Alexander the most opposite and contra-\ndictory estimates have been formed. While by some he is esteemed\nnothing better than a fortunate madman, he is by others celebrated\nfor the grandeur, wisdom, and solidity of his political views. Truth\nis rarely to be found in extreme censure or applause. We may al-\nlow to Alexander the spirit and the talents of a great military genius,\nwithout combining with these the sober plans of a profound politician.\nIn a moral view of his character, we see an excellent and ingenuous\nnature corrupted at length by an unvarying current of success, and a\nstriking example of the fatal violence of the pasdons, when eminence\nof fortune removes all restraint, and flattery stimulates to their un\ncontrolled indulgence.\nSECTION XVII.\nSUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER.\n1. Alexander, on his death-bed, named no successor, but gave his\nring to Perdiccas, one of his officers. When his courtiers asked him\nto whom he Wished the empire to devolve upon his death, he replied,\nTo the most worthy and he is said to have added, that he fore-\nsaw this legacy would prepare for him very extraordinary funeral\nrites a prediction which was fully verified.\n2. Perdiccas, sensible that his pretensions would not justify a di-\nrect assumption of the government of this vast empire, brought about\na division of the whole among thirty-three of the principal officers\nand trusting to their inevitable dissensions, he proposed by that means\nto reduce all of them under his own authority. Hence arose a series\nof wars and intrigues, of which the detail is barren both of amuse-\nment and useful information. It is sufficient to say, that their conse-\nquence was a total extirpation of the family of Alexander, and a new\npartition of the empire into four great monarchies, the shares of\nPtolemy, Lysimachus, Cassander, and Seleucus. Of these the most\npowerful were that of Syria under Seleucus and his descendants, and\nthat of Egypt the Ptolemies.\nWe cannot (says Cond iliac) fix our attention on the history of\nthe successors of Alexander, though a great theatre is opened to our\nview, a variety of scenes, and multiplied catastrophes. A picture is\neilen displeasing from the very circumstance of its greatness. We","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0042.jp2"},"43":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 39\nlose the connexion of its parts, because the eye cannot take them in\nat once. Still less will a large picture give us pleasure, if every part\nof it presents a different scene, each unconnected with the other. v\nSuch is the history of the successors of Alexander.\nSECTION XVIII.\nFALL AND CONQUEST OF GREECE.\n1. Nor is the history of Greece from the period of the death of Al-\nexander any longer an interesting or pleasing object of contemplation.\nDemosthenes once more made a noble attempt to vindicate the nation-\nal freedom, and to rouse his countrymen, the Athenians, to shake off\nthe yoke of Macedon. But it was too late. The pacific counsels of\nPhocion suited better the languid spirit of this once illustrious people.\n2. The history of the different republics present from this time\nnothing but a disgusting series of uninteresting revolutions with the\nexception only of that last effort made by the Achaean states to re-\nvive the expiring liberty of their country. The republic of Achaia\nwas a league of a few of the smaller states to vindicate their freedom\nagainst the domineering spirit of the greater. They committed the\ngovernment of the league to Aratus of Sicyon, with the title of prae-\ntor, a young mui of high ambition, who immediately conceived the\nmore extensive project of rescuing the whole of Greece from the\ndominion of Macedon. But the jealousy of the greater states render-\ned this scheme abortive. Sparta refused to arrange itself under the\nguidance of the praetor of Achaia and Aratus, forgetting his patriotic\ndesigns, sought only now to wreak his vengeance against the Lace-\ndaemonians. For this purpose, with the most inconsistent policy, he\ncourted the aid even of the Macedonians the very tyrants who had\nenslaved his country.\n3. The period was now come for the intervention of a foreign\npower, which was to reduce all und-er its wide-spreading dominion.\nThe Romans were at this time the most powerful of all the contem-\nporary nations. The people of Etolia, attacked by the Macedonians,\nwith a rash policy besought the aid of the Romans, who, eager to\nadd to their dominion this devoted country, cheerfully obeyed the\nsummons, and speedily accomplished the reduction of Macedonia.\nPerseus, its last sovereign, was led captive to Rome, and graced the\ntriumph of Paul us iEmilius, 167 A. C. From that period the Ro-\nmans were hastily advancing to the dominion of all Greece a prog\nress in which their art was more conspicuous than their virtue.\nThey gained their end by fostering dissensions between the states,\nwhich they directed to their own advantage, corrupting their princi-\npal citizens, and using, in fine, every art of the most insidious policy.\nA pretext was only wanting to unsheath the sword, and this was\nfurnished by the Achaean states, who insulted the deputies of imperi-\nal Rome. This drew on them at once the resentment of the Romans.\nMetellus marched his legions into Greece, gave them battle, and en-\ntirely defeated them. Mummius the consul terminated the work,\nand made an easy conquest of the whole of Greece, which from that\nperiod became a Roman province, under the name of Achaia, 146 A. C\n4. Rome had acquired from her conquests a flood of wealth, and\nbegan now to manifest a taste for luxury, and a spirit of refinement","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0043.jp2"},"44":{"fulltext":"40 ANCIENT HISTORY.\nIn these points Greece was to its conquerors an instructor and a\nmodel:\nGraecia capta ferum victorem cepit, et artes\nIntulit agresti Latio.*\nHence, even though vanquished, it was regarded with a species of\nrespect by its ruder masters.\nSECTION XIX.\nPOLITICAL REFLECTIONS ARISING FROM THE HISTORY\nOF THE STATES OF GREECE.\n1. The revolutions which the states of Greece underwent, and the\nsituations into which they were thrown by their connexion and differ-\nences with each other, and their wars with foreign nations, were so\nvarious, that their history is a school of instruction in political science.\nThe surest test of the truth or falsehood of abstract principles of pol-\nitics, is their application to actual experience and to the history of\nnations.\n2. The oppression which the states of Greece suffered under their\nancient despots, who were subject to no constitutional control, was a\nmost justifiable motive for their establishing a new form of govern-\nment, which promised them the enjoyment of greatf r political free-\ndom. We believe too that those new forms of government were frarn-\ned by their virtuous legislators in the true spirit of patriotism. But\nas to the real merits of those political fabrics, it is certain that they\nwere very far from corresponding in practice with what was expect-\ned from them in theory. We seek in vain, either in the history of\nAthens or Lacedaemon, for the beautiful idea of a well-ordered common-\nwealth. The revolutions of government which they were ever ex-\nperiencing, the eternal factions with which they were embroiled,\nplainly demonstrate that there was a radical defect in the structure of\nthe machine, which precluded the possibility of regular motion. The\ncondition of the people under those governments was such as par-\ntook more of servitude and oppression, than that of the subjects of the\nmost despotic monarchies. The slaves formed the actual majority of\nthe inhabitants in all the states of Greece. To these the free citi-\nzens were rigorous bond-masters. Bondage being a consequence of\nthe contraction of debts even by freemen, a great proportion of these\nwas subject to the tyrannical control of their fellow-citizens. Nor\nwere the richer classes in the actual enjoyment of independence.\nThey were perpetually divided into factions, which servilely ranked\nthemselves under the banners of the contending chiefs of the repub-\nlic. Those parties were kept together solely by corruption. The\nwhole was therefore a system of servility and debasement of spirit,\nwhich left nothing of a free or ingenuous nature in the condition of in-\ndividuals, nor any thing that could furnish encomium to a real advo-\ncate for the dignity of human nature.\nSuch was the condition of the chief republics of antiquity. Their\ngovernments promised in theory, what they never conferred in prac-\ntice, the political happiness of the citizens.\nFor conquered Greece aubdued her conquering foe,\nAnd taught rude Rome, the arts of peace to koo\\r.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0044.jp2"},"45":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 41\n3. In democracy (says Dr. Fergusson) men must love equality\nthey must respect the rights of their fellow-citizens they must be\nsatisfied with that degree of consideration which they can procure by\ntheir abilities fairly measured against those of an opponent they\nmust labour for the public without hope of profit they must reject\nevery attempt to create a personal dependance. This is the picture\nof a republic in theory. If we reverse this picture in every single\nparticular, and take its direct opposite, we shall have the true por-\ntrait of a republican government in practice.\n4. It is the fundamental theory of Montesquieu s Spirit of Laws,\nthat the three distinct forms of government, the monarchical, despot\nical, and republican, are influenced by the three separate principles\nof honour, fear, and virtue and this theory is the foundation on\nwhich the author builds a great part of his political doctrines. That\neach of these principles is exclusively essential to its respective form\nof government, but unnecessary and even prejudicial in the others, is a\nposition contrary both to reason and to truth. No form of govern-\nment can subsist where every one of those principles has not its\noperation. The admission of such a theory leads to the most mis-\nchievous conclusions as, for example, that in monarchies the state\ndispenses with virtue in its officers and magistrates; that public\nemployments ought to be venal; and that crimes, if kept secret, are\nof no consequence.\n5. It is only in the infant periods of the Grecian history that we\nare to look for those splendid examples of patriotism and heroic vir-\ntue, which the ardent mind of uncorrupted youth will ever delight\nto contemplate. The most remarkable circumstance which strikes\nus on comparing the latter with the more early periods of the his-\ntory of the Greeks, is the total change in the genius and spirit of the\npeople. The ardour of patriotism, the thirst of military glory, the\nenthusiasm of liberty, decline with the rising grandeur and opulence\nof the nation, and an enthusiasm of another species, and far less\nworthy in its aim, succeeds an admiration of the fine arts, a violent\npassion for the objects of taste, and for the refinements of luxury.\nThis leads us to consider Greece in the light in which, after the loss\nof its liberty, it still continued to attract the admiration of other na-\ntions.\nSECTION XX.\nSTATE OF THE ARTS IN GREECE.\n1. It is not among the Greeks that we are to look for the greatest\nimprovements in the useful and necessary arts of life. In agricul-\nture, manufactures, commerce, they never were greatly distinguish-\ned. But in those which are termed the fine arts, Greece surpassed\nall the contemporary nations. The monuments of those which yet\nremain are the models of imitation, and the confessed standard of\nexcellence, in the judgment of the most polished nations of modern\ntimes.\n2. After the defeat of Xerxes the active spirit of the Athenians,\nwhich would have otherwise languished for want of an object, taking\na new direction from luxury, displayed itself signally in all the works\nof taste in the fine arts. The administration of Pericles was the aera\nof luxury and splendour. The arts broke out at once with surpris-\ning lustre and architecture, sculpture, and painting, were carried","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0045.jp2"},"46":{"fulltext":"42 ANCIENT HISTORY.\nto the summit of perfection. This golden age of the arts in Greece\nendured for about a century, till alter the death of Alexander the\ngreat\n3. The Greeks were the parents of that system of architecture\nwhich is universally allowed to be the most perfect.\nThe Greek architecture consisted of three distinct orders the\nDoric, the Ionic, and Corinthian.\nThe Doric has a masculine grandeur, and a superior air of strength\nto both the others. It is therefore best adapted to works of great\nmagnitude, and of a sublime character. The character of sublimity\nis essentially connected with chasteness and simplicity. Of this or-\nder is the temple of Theseus at Athens, built ten years after the bat-\ntle of Marathon, and at this day almost entire.\nThe Ionic order is light and elegant. The former has a masculine\ngrandeur; the latter a feminine elegance. The Ionic is likewise\nsimple for simplicity is an essential requisite in true beauty. Of\nthis order were the temple of Apollo at Miletus, the temple of the\nDelphic oracle, and the temple of Diana at Ephesus.\nThe Corinthian marks an age of luxury and magnificence, when\npomp and splendour had become the predominant passion, but had not\nyet extinguished the taste for the sublime and beautiful. It attempts\ntherefore a union of all these character s, but satisfies not the chasten-\ned judgment, and pleases only a corrupted taste.\nFirst unadorned,\nAnd ndbly plain, the manly Doric rose\nThe Ionic then, with decent matron grace,\nHer airy pillar heav d luxuriant last\nu The rich Corinthian spread her wanton wreath.\nThompson s Liberty, Part 2.\n4. The Tuscan and the Composite orders are of Italian origin.\nThe Etruscan architecture appears to have been nearly allied to the\nGrecian, but to have possessed an inferior degree of elegance. The\nTrajan column at Rome is of this order; less remarkble for the\nbeauty of its proportions than for the admirable sculpture which\ndecorates it. The Composite order is what its name implies it shows\nthat the Greeks had in the three original orders exhausted all the\nprinciples of grandeur and beauty and that it was not possible to\nframe a fourth, except by combining the former.\n5. The Gothic architecture oilers no contradiction to these obser-\nvations. The effect which it produces cannot be altogether account-\ned for from the rules of symmetry or harmony in the proportions be-\ntween the several parts; but depends on a certain idea of vastness,\ngloominess, and solemnity, which are powerful ingredients in the\nsublime.\n6. Sculpture was brought by the Greeks to as high perfection as\narchitecture. The remains of Grecian sculpture are at this day the\nmost perfect models of the art and the modern artists have no means\nof attaining to excellence so certain, as the study of those great mas-\nter-pieces.\n7. The excellence of the Greeks in sculpture may perhaps be\naccounted for chiefly from their having the human figure often before\ntheir eyes quite naked, and in all its various attitudes, both in the\npalcestra, and in the public games. The antique statues have there-\nfore a grandeur united with perfect simplicity, because the attitude is","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0046.jp2"},"47":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 43\nnot the result of an artificial disposition of the figure, as in the mod-\nern academies, but is nature unconstrained. Thus, in the Dying\nGladiator, when we observe the relaxation of the muscles, and the\nvisible failure of strength and life, we cannot doubt that nature was\nthe sculptor s immediate model of imitation.*\n8. And this nature was in reality superior to what we now see in\nthe ordinary race of men. The constant practice of gymnastic ex-\nercises gave a finer conformation of body than what is now to be found\nin the vitiated pupils of modern effeminacy, the artificial children of\nmodern fashion.\n9. A secondary cause of the eminence of the Greeks in the arts of\ndesign, was their theology, which furnished -an ample exercise for\nthe genius of the sculptor and painter.\n10. We must speak with more diffidence of the ability of the\nGreeks in painting, than we do of their superiority in sculpture j be-\ncause the existing specimens of the former are extremely rare, and\nthe pieces which are preserved are probably not the most excellent.\nBut in the want of actual evidence we have every presumption that\nthe Greeks had attained to equal perfection in the art of painting and\nin sculpture for if we find the judgment given by ancient writers of\ntheir excellence in sculpture confirmed by the universal assent of the\nbest critics among the moderns, we have every reason to presume an\nequal rectitude in the judgment which the same ancient writers have\npronounced upon their paintings. If Pliny is right in his opinion of\nthe merits of those statues which yet remain, the venus of Praxiteles,\nand the Laocoonof Agesander, Polydorus, and Athenodorus, we have\nno reason to suppose his taste to be less just when he celebrates the\nmerits, and critically characterizes the different manners of Zeuxis,\nApelles, Parrhasius, Protogenes, and Timanthes, whose works have\nperished.\n11. The paintings found in Herculaneum, Pompeii, the Sepul*\nchrum Nasonianum at Rome, were probably the work of Greek\nartists for the Romans were never eminent in any of the arts de-\npendent on design. These paintings exhibit great knowledge ol\nproportions, and of the chiaro-oscuro but betray an ignorance of\nthe rules of perspective.\n12. The music of the ancients appears to have been very greatly\ninferior to that of the moderns.\n13. The peculiar genius of the Greeks in the fine arts extended its\neffects to the revolutions of their states, and influenced their fate as a\nnation.\nSECTION XXI.\nOF THE GREEK POETS.\n1. The Greeks were the first who reduced the athletic exercises\nto a system, and considered them as an object of general attention and\nimportance. The Panathenaean, and afterwards the Olympic, the\nPythian, Nemaean, and Isthmian games, were under the regulation\nof the laws. They contributed essentially to the improvement of the\nnation and, while they cherished martial ardour, and promoted har-\nCresilas vulneratum deficientem fecit, ex quo possit intelligi quantum\nrttstet animi. Plin. lib. 36. Cresilas has represented a wounded mail\nfainting, from which we may perceive how much life still remains.","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0047.jp2"},"48":{"fulltext":"44 ANCIENT HISTORY.\ndiness and agility of body, they cultivated likewise urbanity and po«\nliteness.\n2. The games of Greece were not confined to gymnastic or athlet-\nic exercises. They encouraged competitions in genius and learning.\nThey were the resort of the poets, the historians, and the philosophers.\n3. In all nations, poetry is of greater antiquity than prose composi-\ntion. The earliest prose writers in Greece, Pherecydes of Scyros,\nand Cadmus of Miletus, were 350 years posterior to Homer. Any\nremains of the more ancient poets, as Linus, Orpheus, c, are ex-\ntremely suspicious. Homer is generally supposed to have flourished\nabout 907 A. C. to have followed the occupation of a wandering\nminstrel, and to have composed his poems in detached fragments,\nand separate ballads, and episodes. Fisistratus, about 540 A. C., em-\nployed some learned men to collect and methodize these fragments;\nand to this we owe the complete poems of the Iliad and Odyssey.\nThe distinguishing merits of Homer are, his profound knowledge of\nhuman nature, his faithful and minute description of ancient man-\nners, his genius for the sublime and beautiful, and the harmony of\nhis poetical numbers. His fidelity as a historian has been questioned\nbut the great outlines of his narrative are probably authentic.\n4. Hesiod was nearly contemporary with Homer we should be\nlittle sensible of his merits, if they were not seen through the medi-\num of an immense antiquity. The poem of the Works and Days\ncontains some judicious precepts of agriculture. The Theogony is\nan obscure history of the origin of the gods, and the formation of the\nuniverse.\n5. About two centuries after Homer and Hesiod, flourished Archi-\nlochus, the inventor of Iambic verse Terpander, equally eminent\nas a poet and a musician Sappho, of whose composition we have\ntwo exquisite odes Alcaeus and Simonides, of whom there are some\nfine fragments and Pindar and Anacicon, who have left enough to\nallow an accurate estimate of their merits.\n6. Pindar was esteemed by the ancients the chief of the lyric poets.\nHe possesses unbounded fancy, and great sublimity of imagery but\nhis digressions are so rapid and so frequent, that we cannot discover\nthe chain of thought and his expression is allowed, even by Longinus,\nto be often obscure and unintelligible.\n7 Anacreon is a great contrast to p indar. His fancy suggests only\nfamiliar and luxurious pictures. He has no comprehension of the\nsublime, but contents himself with the easy, the graceful, and the\nwanton. His morality is loose, and his sentiments little else than the\neffusions of a voluptuary.\n8. The collection termed Anthologia, which consists chiefly of an-\ncient epigrams, contains many valuable specimens of the taste and\npoetnal fancy of the Greeks, and contributes materially to the illus-\ntration of their manners. The best of the modern epigrams may be\ntraced to this source.\n9. The aera of the origin of dramatic composition among the Greeks\nis about 590 A. C. Thespis was contemporary with Solon. Within\nlittle more than a century, the Greek drama was carried to its high-\nest perfection, for iEschylus died 45G A. C. JEschylus wrote sixty-\nsix tragedies for thirteen of which he gained the first prize of dra-\nmatic poetry at the Olympic games. Like Shakspeare, his genius is\nsublime, and his imagination unbounded. He disdained regularity of\nplan, and all artificial restriction; but unfortunately he disdained\nlikewise the restraints of decency and of good morals.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0048.jp2"},"49":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 45\n10. Euripides arid Sophocles flourished about fifty rears after\n^chylug. Euripides is most masterly in painting the passion of love,\nboth m its tendered emotions and in its most violent paroxysms- vet\nthe characters of his women demonstrate that he had no great opinion\nof the virtues of the sex. Longinus does not rate high his talent for\nthe sublime. But he possessed a much superior excellence his verses\nwith great eloquence and harmony, breathe the most admirable mo\nEr a T a rema n u tw nt y tragedies of Euripides; and of these,\nthe Medea is deemed the best.\n1 1 Sophocles shared with Euripides the palm of dramatic poetrv\nand is judged to have surpassed him in the grand and the sublime. Of\n1 ^U tragedies which he composed, only seven remain. They displav\n£J! a r knowledge °f the hum an heart, and a general chastity and\nsmiplicity of expression, which gave the greater force to the occasional\nstrokes of the sublime. The Oedipus of Sophocles is esteemed the\nmost perfect production of the Greek stage.\n12. The Greek comedy is divided into the ancient, the middle, and\ntrie new. The first was a licentious satire and mimicry of real per-\nsonages, exhibited by name upon the stage. The laws repressed this\nextreme license, and gave birth to the middle comedy, which continued\nthe satirical delineation ol real persons, but under fictitious names,\nIhe last improvement consisted in banishing all personal satire, and\nconfining comedy to a delineation of manners. This was the new\ncomedy. Of the first species, the ancient, we have no remains. The\ndramas ot Aristophanes are an example of the second or middle\ncomedy lhe grossness of his raillery, and the malevolence which\nfrequently inspired it, are a reproach to the morals of that people\nwhich could tolerate it. Yet his works have their value, as throwine\nlight upon ancient manners.\n13. Of the new comedy, Menander was the bright example pos-\nsessing a vein of the most delicate wit, with the utmost purity ot\nmoral sentiment. Unfortunately we have nothing of him remaining\nbut a few fragments preserved by Athenaeus. We see a great deal of\nhis merits, however, in his copyist and translator, Terence.\nr Li uu 01 18 in the Greek and Roman theatres, wore masks,\not which the features were strongly painted,-and the mouth so con-\nstructed as to increase the power of the voice. It is probable that the\ntragedy and comedy of the Greeks and Romans were set to music,\nand sung, like the recitative in the Italian opera. Sometimes one\nperson was employed to recite or sing the part, and another to per-\nform the corresponding action or gesticulation.\n15. The mimes were burlesque parodies on the serious tragedy\nand comedy The pantomimes consisted solely of gesticulation, and\nwere earned to great perfection.\nSECTION XXII.\nOF THE GREEK HISTORIANS.\n1. The most eminent of the Greek historians were contempora-\nries. Herodotus died 413 A. C. Thucydides 391 A. C. and Xeno-\nphon was about twenty years younger than Thucydides, Herodotus\nwrites the joint history of the Greeks and Persians, from the time of\nCyrus, to the battles of Plataea and Mycale. He treats incidentally\nlikewise of the Egyptians, Assyrians, Medes, and Lydians. His vera-\ncity is to be depended on in all matters that fell under his own obser-","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0049.jp2"},"50":{"fulltext":"46\nvation; but he admits too easily the reports of others, and is in gen\neral fond of the marvellous. His style is pure, and he has a copious\n6 3? Thucydides, himself an able general, has written, with great abil-\nitv, the history of the first twenty-one years of the Peloponnesian\nwar; introducing it with a short narrative of the preceding periods\nof the history of Greece. He is justly esteemed for his fidelity and\ncandour. His style is a contrast to the full and flowing period of\nHerodotus, possessing a sententious brevity, which is at once lively\nand energetic. The history of the remaining six years of the war\nof Peloponnesus was written by Theopompus and Xenophon.\n3 Xenophon commanded the Greek army in the service of Cyrus\nthe younger, in his culpable enterprise against his brother Artaxerx-\nes. (See Sect XIII, 6.) After the failure of this enterprise Xeno-\nphon directed that astonishing retreat from Babylon to the Euxme,\nof which he has given a splendid and faithful narrative. He wrote\nlikewise the Cyropedia, or the history of the elder Cyrus, which\nis belived to be rather an imaginary delineation of an accomplished\nprince than a real narration. He continued the history of Ihucyd-\nes and has left two excellent political tracts on the constitutions of\nLacedaemon and Athens. His style is simple and energetic; but the\nbrevity of his sentences sometimes obscures his meaning.\n4. Greece, in its decline, produced some historians of great em\ninence. Polybius, a native of Megalopolis, wrote forty books of the\nRoman and Greek history during his own age that is, from the be-\ncinnine of the second Punic war to the reduction of Macedonia into\nI Roman province but of this great work, only the first five books\nare entire, with an epitome of the following twelve. He merits less\nthe praise of eloquence than of authentic information, and most judi-\ncious reflection.\n5 Diodorus Siculus flourished in the time of Augustus, and compos-\ned, in forty books, a general history of the world, under the title of\nBibliotheca Historica. No more remain than fifteen books of which\nthe first five treat of the fabulous periods, and the history of the Egyp-\ntians, Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, c. prior to the Trojan war. 1 he\nnext five are wanting. The remainder brings down the history from\nthe expedition of Xerxes into Greece till after the death of Alexander\nthe great. He is taxed with chronological inaccuracy in the earlier\nparts of his work; but the authenticity and correctness of the later\nperiods are unimpeached.\n6 Dionysius of Halicarnassus, eminent both as a historian andrhet\norician, flourished in the age of Augustus. His Roman Antiquities\ncontain much valuable information, though bis work is too mucfc\ntinctured with the spirit of systematizing. _\n7 Plutarch, a native of Cheronea, in Bceotia, flourished in the\nreign of Nero. His Lives of Illustrious Men is one of the most val-\nuable of the literary works of the ancients introducing us to an\nacquaintance with the private character and manners of those eminent\npersons whose public achievements are recorded by professed his-\ntorians. His morality is excellent and his style, though unpolished,\nis clear and energetic.\n8 Arrian wrote, in the reign of Adrian, seven bo «-1\nAlexander, with great judgment and fidelity; hi -y— trsHj\ncomposed on the authority of AnsLobulus and Ptolemy, two of\nAlexander s principal officers. His style is unadorned, but chaste,\nperspicuous, and manly.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0050.jp2"},"51":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 47\nSECTION XXIII.\nOF THE GREEK PHILOSOPHERS.\n1. After the time of Homer and Hesiod, the increasing relish for\npoetical composition gave rise to a set of men termed rhapsodists,\nwhose employment was to recite at the games and festivals the com-\npositions of the older poets, and to comment on their merits and ex-\nplain their doctrines. Some of these, founding schools of instruction,\nwere dignified by their pupils with the epithet of Sophists, or teach-\ners of wisdom.\n2. The most ancient school of philosophy was that founded by\nThales, 640 A. C, and termed the tonic. Thales is celebrated for\nhis knowledge of geometry and astronomy. His metaphysical doc-\ntrines are imperfectly known. He taught the belief of a first cause,\nand an over-ruling providence but supposed the Divinity to animate\nthe universe, as the soul does the body. The moral doctrines of the\nIonic school were pure and rational. The most eminent of the dis-\nciples of Thales were Anaximander and Anaxagoras.\n3. Soon after the Ionic, arose the Italian sect, founded by Pythag-\noras, who was born about 586 A. C. He is supposed to have derived\nmuch of his knowledge from Egypt and he had, like the Egyptian\npriests, a public doctrine for the people, and a private for his disci-\nples the former a good system of morals, the latter probably unin-\ntelligible mystery. His notions of the Divinity were akin to those ol\nThales but he believed in the eternity of the universe, and its co-\nexistence with the Deity. He taught the transmigration of the soul\nthrough different bodies. His disciples lived in common abstained\nrigorously from the flesh of animals and held music in high estima-\ntion, as a corrective of the passions. Pythagoras believed the earth\nto be a sphere, the planets to be inhabited, and the fixed stars to be\nthe suns and centres of other systems. His most eminent followers\nwere Empedocles, Epicharmus, Ocellus Lucanus, Timaeus, Archytas,\n4. The Eleatic sect was founded by Xenophanes, about 500 A. C.\nIts chief supporters were Parmenides, Zeno, and Leucippus, citizens\nof Elea. The metaphysical notions of this sect were utterly unintel-\nligible. They maintained that things had neither beginning, end,\nnor any change and that all the changes we perceive are in our\nown senses. Yet Leucippus taught the doctrine of atoms, whence\nhe supposed all material substances to be formed. Of this sect were\nDemocritus and Heraclitus.\n5. The Socratic school arose from the Ionic. Socrates died 401\nA. C, the wisest, the most virtuous of the Greeks. He exploded the\nfutile logic of the Sophists, which consisted of a set of general argu-\nments, applicable to all manner of questions, and by which they could,\nwith an appearance of plausibility, maintain either side of any prop-\nosition. Socrates always brought his antagonist to particulars be-\nginning with a simple and undeniable position, which being granted,\nanother followed equally undeniable, till the disputant was conduct-\ned step by step, by his own concessions, to that side of the question\non which lay the truth. His rivals lost all credit as philosophers, but\nhad influence to procure the destruction of the man who had expos-\ned them. The doctrines of Socrates are to be learned from Plato\nand Xenophon. He taught the belief of a first cause, whose benefit","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0051.jp2"},"52":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT. 1 HISTORY.\ncence is equal to his power, the Creator and Ruler of the universe.\nHe inculcated the moral agency of man, the immortality of the soul,\nand a future state of reward and punishment. He exploded the\npolytheistic superstitions of his country, and thence became the\nvictim of an accusation of impiety. (See Section Xlll, §5.)\n6 The morality of Socrates was successfully cultivated by the\nCvrenaic sect, but was pushed to extravagance by the Cynics. Vir-\ntue, in their opinion, consisted in renouncing all the conveniences ol\nlife They clothed themselves in rags, slept and ate m the streets,\nor wandered about the country with a stick and a knapsack. 1 hey\ncondemned all knowledge as useless They associated impudence\nwith ignorance, and indulged themselves in scurrility and invective\nW 7. The Megarian sect was the happy inventor of logical syllogism,\n0r 8 th pia r to°was U1 the m fouRder of the Academic sect a philosopher,\nwhose doctrines have had a more extensive empire over the J minds\nof mankind, than those of any other among the ancients. This is in\npart owing to their intrinsic merit, and in part to the eloquence with\nwhich they have been propounded. Plato had the most sublime\nSeas of the Divinity and his attributes. He taught hat the human\nsoul was a portion of the Divinity, and that this alliance with the\neternal mind micht be improved into actual intercourse with the\nSupreL Be4V abstracting the soul from all the corruptions\nWhich it derives from the body a doctrine highly flattering to the\npride of man, and generating that mystical enthusiasm which hasth*\nmost powerful empire over a warm imagination.\n9 The Platonic philosophy found its chief opponents in tour ^re\nmarkable sects, the Peripatetic, the Sceptic, the Stoic, and the bpi-\nCU ia n Aristotle, the founder of the Peripatetic sect, was the tutor of\nAlexander the great, and established his school in the Lyceum at\nAthens: a philosopher whose tenets have found more zealous parti-\nzans and more rancorous opponents, than those ot any other. Hib\nMetaphysics, from the sententious brevity of his expression, are ex-\ntSy^ure, and have given rise to.numberless commentaries\nThe best analysis of his doctrines is given by Dr. Reid, m Lord\nKa^es sSketclLs of the History of Man. His physical works are\nthe result of great observation and acquaintance with nature; anu his\ncrfticTwrUbgs, as his Poetics and Art of Rhetoric, display both taste\nand internem- The peculiar passion of Aristotle was that of classi-\nfvinf arranging, and combining the objects of his knowledge, so as to\nreduce all toalw principles f a very dangerous propensity m phi.\nwfedom There was, in their opinion, no essential difference be-\ntoeen vice anTvirtne further than as human compact had discnm-\nmateS them. Tranquillity of mind they supposed to be the state of\nSelreateit happiness, and this was to be attained by absolute mdrf-\nof mind, took a n oEle? pat! to arrive at it. They e^voured^ to\nraise themselves above all the passions ana ^^l} 1\nThey believed all nature, and God himself, the soul ol the univeise,","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0052.jp2"},"53":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 49\nto be regulated by fixed and immutable laws. The human soul be-\ning a portion of the Divinity, man cannot complain of being actuated\nby that necessity which actuates the Divinity himself. His pains and\nhis pleasures are determined by the same laws which determine his\nexistence. Virtue consists in accommodating the disposition of the\nmind to the immutable laws of nature vice in opposing those laws\nvice therefore is folly, and virtue the only true wisdom. A beautiful\npicture of the Stoical philosophy is found in the Meditations of M.\nAurelius Antoninus. (See Madan s Translation.)\n13. Epicurus taught that man s supreme happiness consisted in\npleasure. He limited the term, so as to make it mean only the prac-\ntice of virtue. But if pleasure is allowed to be the object, every\nman will draw it from those sources which he finds can best supply\nit. It might have been the pleasure of Epicurus to be chaste and\ntemperate. We are told that it was so. But others find their pleas-\nure in intemperance and luxury, and such was the taste of his princi-\npal followers. Epicurus held that the Deity was indifferent to all the\nactions of man. His followers therefore had no other counsellor\nthan their own conscience, and no other guide than the instinctive\ndesire of their own happiness.\n14. The Greek philosophy, on the whole, affords little more than\na picture of the imbecility and caprice of the human mind. Its\nteachers, instead of experiment and observation, satisfied themselves\nwith constructing theories and these wanting fact for their basis,\nhave only served to perplex the understanding, and retard equally\nthe advancement of sound morality and the progress of useful knowl-\nedge.\nSECTION XXIV.\nTHE HISTORY OF ROME.\n1. In the delineation of ancient history, Rome, after the conquest\nof Greece, becomes the leading object of attention. The history of\nthis empire^ in its progress to universal dominion, and afterwards in its\ndecline^ and fall, involves a collateral account of all the other na-\ntions of antiquity, which in those periods are deserving of our con-\nsideration.\n2. Though we cannot determine the sera when Italy was first peo-\npled, yet we have every reason to believe that it was inhabited by\na refined and cultivated nation, many ages before the Roman name\nwas known. These were the Etruscans, of whom there exist at\nthis day monuments in the fine arts, which prove them to have been\na splendid, luxurious, and highly polished people. Their alphabet,\nresembling the Phoenician, disposes us to believe them of eastern\norigin. The Roman historians mention them as a powerful and opu-\nlent nation long before the origin of Rome and Dionysius of Hali-\ncarnassus deduces most of the religious rites of tne Romans from\nEtruria.\n3. The rest of Italy was divided among a number of independent\ntribes or nations, comparatively in a rude and uncultivated state\nUmbrians, Ligurians, Sabines, Veientes, Latins, iEqui, Volsci, c.\nLatium, a territory of fifty miles in length and sixteen in breadth,\ncontained forty-seven independent cities or states.\n4. The origin of the city and state of Ron^ is involved in great\nuncertainty. Dionysius supposes two cities of that name to have","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0053.jp2"},"54":{"fulltext":"0 ANCIENT HISTORY.\nexisted, and to have perished before the foundation of the city built\nby Romulus. The vulgar account of the latter is, that it waa\nfounded 752 A. C. by a troop of shepherds or banditti, who peo-\npled their new city by carrying off the wives and daughters of their\nneighbours, the Sabines.\n5. The great outlines of the first constitution of the Roman govern-\nment, though generally attributed to the political abilities of Romu-\nlus, seem to have a natural foundation in the usages of barbarous\nnations. Other institutions bear the traces of political skill and posi-\ntive enactment.\n6. Romulus is said to have divided his people into three tribes, and\neach tribe into ten curice. The lands he distributed into three por-\ntions one for the support of the government, another for the main-\ntenance of religion, and the third for the use of the Roman citizens,\nwhich he divided into equal portions of two acres to each citizen.\nHe instituted a senate of 100 members (afterwards increased to 200,)\nwho deliberated on and prepared all public measures for the assembly\nof the people, in whom was vested the right of determination. The\npartrician families were the descendants of those centum patres {hun-\ndred/cithers).\n7. The king had the nomination of the senators, the privilege ol\nassembling the people, and a right of appeal in all questions of im-\nportance. He had the command of the army, and the office of pan-\ntifex maximus {high priest). He had, as a guard, twelve lictors, and\na troop of horsemen named celeres, or equites, afterwards the distinct\norder of Roman knights. These regulations are of positive institu-\ntion others arose naturally from the state of society.\n8. The patriapotestas {paternal autlwrity) is of the latter nature, be-\ning common to all barbarous tribes. The limitation of all arts to the\nslaves arose from the constant employment of the citizens in warfare\nor in agriculture.\n9. The connexion of patron and client was an admirable institu-\ntion, which at once united the citizen?, and maintained a useful sub-\nordination.\n10. The Sabines were the most formidable enemy of the early\nRomans and a wise policy united for a while the two nations into\none state. After the death of Romulus, who reigned thirty-seven\nyears, Numa, a Sabine, was elected king. His disposition was pious\nand pacific, and he endeavoured to give his people the same charac-\nter. He pretended to divine inspiration, to give the greater authori-\nty to his laws, which in themselves were excellent. He multiplied\nthe national gods, built temples, and instituted different classes of\npriests, Jlamines, salii, c, and a variety of religious ceremonies.\nThe flamines officiated each in the service of a particular deity the\nsalii guarded the sacred bucklers the vestals cherished the sacred\nfire the augurs and aruspices divined future events from the flight\nof birds, and the entrails of victims. The temple of Janus was open\nin war. and shut during peace. Numa reformed the calendar, regu-\nlating (he year at twelve lunar months, and distinguished the days\nfor civil occupation {fasti) from those dedicated to religious rest\n(nefasti). Agriculture was lawful on the latter, as a duty of religion.\nNuma reigned forty-three years.\n11. Tullus Hostilius, the third king of Rome, of warlike disposi-\ntion, subdued the Albans, Fidenates, and other neighbouring states.\nThe Sabines, now disunited from the Romans, were among the most\npowerful of their enemies. Tullus reigned thirty three yeare.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0054.jp2"},"55":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 51\n12. Ancus Martius, the grandson of Numa, was elected king on\nthe death of Tullus. He inherited the piety and virtues of his grand-\nfather, and joined to these the talents of a warrior. He increased\nthe population of Rome, by naturalizing some of the conquered\nstates enlarged and fortified the city, and built the port of Ostia at\nthe mouth of the Tiber. He reigned gloriously twenty-four years.\n13. Tarquinius Priscus, a citizen of Corinth, popular from his\nwealth and liberality, was elected to the vacant throne. He enlaFg-\ned the senate by 100 new members from the plebeian families, patres\nminorum gentium {the fathers of the less families). This body consisted\nnow of 300, at which number it remained for some centuries. Tar-\nquin was victorious in his wars, and adorned and improved the city\nwith works of utility and magnificence. Such were the circus or\nhippodrome, the walls of hewn stone the capitol the cloacae, those\nimmense common sewers, which lead to the belief that the new\nRome had been built on the ruins of an ancient city of greater mag-\nnitude. Tarquinius was assassinated in the thirty-eighth year of his\nreign.\n14. Servius Tullius, who had married the daughter of Tarquinius,\nsecured, by his cwn address and the intrigues of his mother-in-law,\nhis election to the vacant throne. He courted popularity by acts of\nmunificence discharging the debts of the poor, dividing among the\ncitizens his patrimonial lands, improving the city with useful edifices,\nand extending its boundaries. The new arrangement which he in-\ntroduced in the division of the Roman citizens is a proof of much po-\nlitical ability, and merits attention, as on it depended many of the\nrevolutions of the republic.\n15. From the time that the Romans had admitted the Albans and\nSabines to the rights of citizens, the urban and rustic tribes were\ncomposed of those three nations. Each tribe being divided into ten\ncuria, and every curia having an equal vote in the comitia, as each\nindividual had in his tribe, all questions were decided by the majority\nof suffrages. There was no pre-eminence between the curies, and\nthe order in which they gave their votes was determined bv lot.\nThis was a reasonable constitution, so long as the fortunes of the\ncitizens were nearly on a par but, when riches came to be une-\nqually divided, it was obvious that much inconvenience must have\narisen from this equal partition of power, as the rich could easily, by\nbribery, command the suffrages of the poor. Besides, all the taxes\nhad hitherto been levied by the head, without any regard to the in-\nequality of fortunes. These obvious defect? furnished to Servius a\njust pretext for an entire change of system. His plan was, to remove\nthe poorer citizens from all share of the government, while the\nburdens attending its support should fall solely on the rich.\n16. All the citizens were required, under a heavy penalty, to de-\nclare upon oatli their names, dwellings, number of their children,\nand amount of their fortune. x\\fter this numeration or census, Ser-\nvius divided the whole citizens, without distinction, into four tribes,\nnamed, from the quarters where they dwelt, the Palati?ie, Suburran,\nCollatine, and Esquiline. Beside this local division, Servius distribut-\ned the whole people into six classes, and each class into several\ncenturies or portions of citizens so called, not as actually consisting\nof a hundred, but as being obliged to furnish and maintain 100 men\nin time of war. In the first class, which consisted of the richest citi-\nzens, or those who were worth at least 100 mince (about 300/. ster-\nling), there were no less than ninety-eight centuries. In the second","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0055.jp2"},"56":{"fulltext":"52 ANCIENT HISTORY.\nclass (those worth 75 mince) there were twenty-two centuries. In\nthe third (those worth 50 mince) were twenty centuries. In the\nfourth (those worth 25 mince) twenty-two centuries. In the fifth\n(those worth 12 mince) thirty centuries. The sixth, the most nu-\nmerous of the whole, comprehending all the poorer citizens, furnish-\ned only one century. Thus the whole Roman people were divided\ninto 193 centuries, or portions of citizens, so called, as furnishing\neach a hundred soldiers. The sixth class was declared exempt from\ntaxes. The other classes, according to the number of centuries of\nwhich they consisted, were rated for the public burdens at so much\nfor each century.\n17. The poor had no reason to complain of this arrangement; but\nsomething was wanting to compensate the rich for the burdens to\nwhich they were subjected For this purpose Servius enacted, that\nhenceforth the comiiia should give their votes by centuries the first\nclass, consisting of ninety-eight centuries, always voting first. Thus,\nthough the whole people were called to the comiiia, and all seemed\nto have an equal suffrage, yet in reality the richer classes determin-\ned every question, the suffrage of the poor being merely nominal;\nfor as the whole people formed 193 centuries, and the first and second\nclasses contained 120 of these, if they were unanimous, which gen-\nerally happened in questions of importance, a majority was secured.\nThus, in the comiiia ccntwriata (assemblies in which the people voted by\ncenturies), in which the chief magistrates were elected, peace and\nwar decreed, and all other important business discussed, the richer\nclasses of the citizens had the sole authority, the votes of the poor\nbeing of no avail. And such was the ingenuity of this policy, that all\nwere pleased with it the rich paid their taxes with cheerfulness, as\nthe price of their power; and the poor gladly exchanged authority\nfor immunities. 1 he census, performed every five years, was closed\nby a lustrum, or expiatory sacrifice and hence that period of time\nwas called a lustrum.\n18. Servius was assassinated, after a reign of forty-four years, by\nhis infamous daughter Tullia, married to Tarquinius, the grandson\nof Priscus, who thus paved the way for his own elevation to the\nthrone. The government of Tarquin, surnamed the proud, was sys-\ntematically tyrannical. He ingratiated himself with the lower orders,\nto abase by their means the power of the higher but, insolent, ra-\npacious, and cruel, he finally disgusted all ranks of his subjects. A\nrape committed by his son Sextus on Lucretia, the wife of Collatinus,\nwho, unable to survive her dishonour, stabbed herself in presence of\nher husband and kindred, roused their vengeance, and procured, by\ntheir influence with their countrymen, the expulsion of the tyrant,\nand the utter abolition of the regal dignity at Rome, 509 A. C.\nReflections on tlie Government and State of Rome during the period of\nthe kings.\n19. The whole structure of the constitution of the Romans under\nthe monarchy has been by most authors erroneously attributed ex-\nclusively to the abilities of Romulus, a youth of eighteen, the leader\nof a troop of shepherds or banditti. This chimerical idea we owe tc\nDionysius of Halicarnassus. The truth is, the Roman government,\nlike almost every other, was the gradual result of circumstances;\nthe fruit of time, and of political emergency.\n20. The constitution of the Roman senate has occasioned consider*","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0056.jp2"},"57":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 63\nable research, and is not free from obscurity. It is probable that the\nkings had the sole right of naming the senators, that the consuls suc-\nceeded them in this right, and afterwards, when these magistrates\nfound too much occupation from the frequent wars in which the state\nwas engaged, that privilege devolved on the censors. The senators\nwere at first always chosen from the body of the patricians, but after-\nwards the plebeians acquired an equal title to that dignity. In the\nearly periods of the republic the people could not be assembled but\nby the senate s authority nor were the plebiscita {decrees of the peo-\nple) of any weight till confirmed by their decree. Hence the early\nconstitution of the republic was rather aristocratical than democrat-\nical. From this extensive power of the senate the first diminution\nwas made by the creation of the tribunes of the people and other\nretrenchments successively took place, till the people acquired at\nlength the predominant power in the state. Yet the senate, even\nafter every usurpation on their authority, continued to have, in many\nEoints, a supremacy. They regulated all matters regarding religion;\nad the custody of the public treasure superintended the conduct of\nall magistrates gave audience to ambassadors decided on the fate of\nvanquished nations disposed of the governments of the provinces\nand took cognizance, by appeal, in all crimes against the state. In\ngreat emergencies tney appointed a dictator, with absolute authority.\n21. At the period of the abolition of the regal government the ter-\nritory of the Romans was extremely limited. The only use which\nthey made of their victories was to naturalize the inhabitants of\nsome of the conquered states, and so increase their population. Thus,\ntheir strength being always superior to their enterprise, they laid a\nsolid foundation for the future extension of their empire.\n22. In the accounts given by historians of the strength of the ar-\nmies, both of the Romans in those early times, and of the neighbour-\ning states, their enemies, we have every reason to believe there is\nmuch exaggeration. The territories from which those armies were\nfurnished were incapable of supplying them.\n23. In the continual wars in which the republic was engaged the\nRomans were most commonly the aggressors. The causes of this\nseem to have been the ambition of the consuls to distinguish their\nshort administration by some splendid enterprise, and the wish of the\nsenate to give the people occupation, to prevent intestine disquiets.\n24. The regal government subsisted 244 years, and in that time\nonly seven kings reigned, several of whom died a violent death.\nThese circumstances throw doubt on the authenticity of this period\nof the Roman history. It is allowed that there were no historians fof\nthe five first centuries after the building of Rome. The first is\nFabius Pictor. who lived during the second Punic war. Livy says\nmat almost all the ancient records were destroyed when Rome was\ntaken by the Gauls.\nSECTION XXV.\nROME UNDER THE CONSULS.\n1 The regal government being abolished, it was agreed to commit\nthe supreme authority to two magistrates, who should be annually\nelected by the people from the patrician order. To these they gave\nthe names of consules a modest title, (says Vertot), which gave to\nE 2","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0057.jp2"},"58":{"fulltext":"64 ANCIENT HISTORY.\nunderstand that they were rather the counsellors of the republic than\nits sovereigns and that the only point which they ought to have in\nview was its preservation and glory. But, in fact, their authority\ndiffered scarcely in any thing from that of the kings. They had\nthe supreme administration of justice, the disposal of the public\nmoney the power of convoking the senate and assembling the peo-\nple, raising armies, naming all the officers, and the right of making\npeace and war. The only difference was, that their authority wua\nlimited to a year.\n2. The first consuls were Brutus and Collatinus (the husband of\nLucretia). Tarquin was at this time in Etruria, where he got two of\nthe most powerful cities, Veii and Tarquinii, to espouse his cause.\nHe had likewise his partisans at Rome, and a plot was formed to\nopen the gates to receive him. It was detected, and Brutus had\nthe mortification to find his two sons in the number of the conspira-\ntors. He condemned them to be beheaded in his presence. Exuit\npatrein ut consulem ageret orbusque vivere, quam publicce vindictce deesse\nmaluit. Val. Max. He ceased i j be a father, that he might execute the\nduties of a consul and chose to live childless rather tlian to neglect the\npublic punishment of a crime.\n3. The consul Valerius, successful in an engagement with the ex-\niled Tarquin, was the first Roman who enjoyed the splendid reward\nof a triumph. Arrogant from his recent honours, his popularity be-\ngan to decline and, in a view of recovering it, he proposed the law,\ntermed from him the Valerian, which permitted any citizen who\nhad been condemned to death by a magistrate, or even to banish-\nment or scourging, to appeal to the people, and required their con\nsent previously to the execution of the sentence. This law gave\nthe first blow to the aristocracy in the constitution of the Roman re-\npublic.\n4. For thirteen years after the expulsion of Tarquin, the Romans\nwere involved in continual wars en his account. Of these the most\nremarkable was the war with the Etrurians, under Porsena a war\nfertile in exploits of romantic heroism.\n5. Soon after this period began those domestic disorders, which\ncontinued long to embroil the republic. Great complaints had arisen\namong the poorer classes of the citizens, both on account of the ine-\nquality of property, from the partial distribution of the conquered\nlands, which the higher ranks generally contrived to engross to them-\nselves, and from the harsh policy by which it was in the power of\ncreditors to reduce to a state of slavery their insolvent debtors. As\nthere was no legal restraint on usury, the poor, when once reduced\nto the necessity of contracting debts!! were left entirely at the mercy\nof their creditors. These grievances, ielt in common by a large pro-\nportion of the citizens, excited much discontent, which, from com-\nplaints long disregarded, grew at length into a spirit of determined\nresistance. The wars required new levies, and the plebeians posi-\ntively refused to enrol their names, unless the senate should put an\nend to their oppression, by decreeing at once an abolition of all the\ndebts due by tne poor to the rich. The emergency was critical, as\nthe enemy was at the gates of Rome. The consuls found their au-\nthority of no avail for the Valerian law had given any citizen con-\ndemned by them a right of appeal to the people. An extraordinary\nmeasure was necessary, and a dictator was created for the first time\na magistrate who, for the period of six months, was invested with\nabsolute and unlimited authority. Lartius, nominated to this high","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0058.jp2"},"59":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 6b\noffice, armed the twenty-four lictors with axes, summoned the whole\npeople to the comitia, and calling over the names, under the penalty\nof death to any citizen who should dare to murmur, enrolled all such\nas he judged most fit for the service of their country. This expedi-\nent became henceforward a frequent and certain resource in all sea-\nsons of public danger.\n6. The death of Tarquin removed one check against the tyranny\nof the higher over the lower orders for the latter had hitherto kept\nalive a salutary apprehension, that, in case of extreme oppression,\nthey would be under the necessity of calling back their king. When\nthis fear was at an end, the domineering spirit of the patricians, ex-\nceeding every bound both of good policy and humanity, drove the\npeople at length to deeds of mutiny and rebellion. An alarm froa\nthe enemy gave full weight to their power, and made the chief magia\ntrates of the state solemnly engage their honour to procure a re»\ndress of their grievances, as soon as the public danger was at an end.\nThe promise, either from a failure of will or of power, was not fuk\nfilled, and this violation of faith drove the people at length to ex\ntremities. Bound by their military oath not to desert their standards,\nthey carried them along with them and the whole army, in military\narray, withdrew from Rome, and deliberately encamped on the Mons\nSacer, at three miles distance from the city and here they were soon\njoined by the greater part of the people. This resolute procedure\nhad its desired effect. The senate deputed ten persons, the most re-\nspectable of their order, with plenary powers; and these, seeing no\nmedium of compromise, granted to the people all their demands.\nThe debts were solemnly abolished and, for the security of their\nprivileges in future, they were allowed the right of choosing magis-\ntrates of their own order, wha should have the power of opposing\nwith effect every measure which they should judge prejudicial to\ntheir interests. These were the tribunes of the people, chosen annu-\nally at first five in number, and afterwards increased to ten. With-\nout guards or tribunal, and having no seat in the senate-house, they\nhad yet the power, by a single veto, to suspend or annul the decrees\nof the senate and the sentences of the consuls. Their persons were\ndeclared sacred, but their authority was confined to the limits of a\nmile from the city. The tribunes demanded and obtained two magis-\ntrates to assist them, who were termed aediles, from the charge com-\nmitted to them of the buildings of the city.\n7. From this aera (2G0 years from the foundation of Rome) we date\nthe commencement of the popular constitution of the Roman repub-\nlic: a change operated by the unwise policy of the patricians them-\nselves, who, by yielding to just complaints, and humanely redressing\nflagrant abuses, might have easily anticipated every ground of dis-\nsatisfaction. The first wish of the people was not power, but relief\nfrom tyranny and oppression and if this had been readily granted\nthem by abolishing the debts, or at least by repressing enormous\nusury, and putting an end to the inhuman right of corporal punish-\nment and the bondage of debtors, the people would have cheerfully\nreturned to order and submission, and the Roman constitution would\nhave long remained aristocratical, as we have seen it was at the com-\nmencement of the consular government. But the plebeians having\nnow obtained magistrates of their own order with those high powers,\nwe shall see it become the object of those magistrates to increase\ntheir authority by continual demands and bold encroachments. The\npeople, regarding them as the champions of their rights, are delight-","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0059.jp2"},"60":{"fulltext":"56 ANCIENT HISTORY.\ned to find themselves gradually approaching to a level with the\nhigher order and, no longer bounding their desires to ease and se-\ncurity, are soon equally influenced by ambition as their superiors.\nWhile this people, borne down by injustice, seek no more than the\nredress of real grievances, we sympathize with their feelings, and\napplaud their spirited exertions. But when they had at length com-\npassed the end which they wished, obtained ease and security, nay,\npower which they had neither sought nor expected when we see\nthem, after this, increasing in their demands, assuming that arrogance\nwhich they justly blamed in their superiors, goaded on by the am-\nbition of their leaders to tyrannize in their turn we view with\nproper discrimination the love of liberty and its extreme licentious-\nness and treat with just detestation the authors of those pernicious\nmeasures, which embroiled the state in endless faction, and paved the\nway for the total loss of that liberty, of which this deluded people\nknew not the value when they actually possessed it.\nSECTION XXVI.\nTHE LAW OF VOLERO.\n1. The disorders of the commonwealth, appeased by the creation\nof the tribunes, were but for a time suspended. It was necessary\nthat the popular magistrates should make an experiment of their\npowers. In an assembly of the people one of the consuls, interrupt-\ned by a tribune, rashly said, that if the tribunes had called that assem\nbly, he would not have interrupted them. This was a concession on\nthe part of the consuls, that the tribunes had the power of assem-\nbling the comitia, which, from that moment, they assumed as their\nacknowledged right. It was a consequence of this right, that the\naffairs of the commonwealth should be agitated in those meetings,\nequally as in the assemblies held in virtue of a consular summons, or\nsenatorial decree, and thus there were, in a manner, two distinct\nlegislative powers established in the republic.\n2. The trial of Conolanus for inconsiderately proposing the. aboli-\ntion of the tribunate, an offence interpreted to be treason against the\nstate, threw an additional weight into the scale of the people. The\nproposal of an agrarian law, for the division of the lands acquired by\nrecent conquests, resumed at intervals, though neve) earned into\nexecution, inflamed the passions of the rival orders.\n3. Publius Volero, formerly a centurion, and a man distinguished\nfor hks military services, had, in the new levies, been ranked as a\ncommon soldier. Complaining of this unmerited degradation, he re-\nfused his services in that capacity and the consuls having con-\ndemned him to corpora! punishment, he appealed from their sen-\ntence to the people. The contest lasted till the annual term of elec-\ntions, when Voiero himself was chosen a tribune of the people. He\nhad an ample revenge, by procuring the enactment of a most impor-\ntant law. The comitia by centuries and by curias could be called\nonly in virtue of a decree of the senate, after consulting the auspices;\nand in those comitia the tribunes had hitherto been elected, and the\nmost important public affairs discussed. It was decreed by the law\nof Volero, that the election of the tribunes should be made, and the\nchief public business henceforward discussed, in the comitia held by\ntribes, which were unfettered by any of those restraints. From this","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0060.jp2"},"61":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. bl\nperiod the supreme authority in the Roman republic may be consid-\nered aa having passed completely from the higher order into the\nhands of the people. The Roman constitution was now plainly a\ndemocracy, 471 A. C.\nSECTION XXVII.\nTHE DECEMVIRATE.\n1. The Romans had, till this period, no body of civil laws. Under\nthe regal government the kings alone administered justice; the\nconsuls succeeded them in this high prerogative, and thus possessed\nwithout control the absolute command of the fortunes and civil rights\nof all the citizens. To remedy this great defect, Terentillus, a tri-\nbune, proposed the nomination of ten commissioners, to frame and\ndigest a code of laws for the explanation and security of the rights\nof all orders of the state. A measure so equitable ought to have met\nwith no opposition. It was, however, strenuously opposed by the\npatricians, who, by a fruitless contest, only exposed their own weak-\nness. The decemviri were chosen but the election being made in\nthe comitia by centuries, the consul Appius Claudius, with his col-\nleague, were at the head of this important commission. The laws\nwere framed, those celebrated statutes known by the name of the\nTwelve Tables, which are the basis of the great structure of the\nRoman jurisprudence, 451 A. C.\n2. An acquaintance with these ancient laws is therefore of impor-\ntance. Even in the most flourishing times of the republic they con-\ntinued to be of the highest authority. They have the encomium of\nCicero himself; and we learn from him, that to commit these laws\nto memory was an essential part of a liberal education. From the\ntwelve tables the jurisconsulti composed a system of judicial forms,\nfor the regulation of the different tribunals. The number of the\nlaws was likewise from time to time increased by the senatusconsuUa\nand plebiscita.\n3. The decemvirs were invested with all the powers of govern-\ninent, for the consulate had ceased on their creation. Each decem-\nvir by turn presided for a day, and had the sovereign authority, with\nits insignia, the fasces. The nine others officiated solely as judges\nin the determination of lawsuits, and the correction of abuses. An\nabuse, however, of the most flagrant nature, committed by the chief\nof their own number, was destined speedily to bring their office to\nits termination.\n4. Appius Claudius, inflamed by lawless passion for the young\nVirginia, the betrothed spouse of Icilius, formerly a tribune of the\npeople, employed a profligate dependant to claim the maiden as his\nown property, on the false pretence of her being the daughter of\none of his female slaves. The claim was made to the decemvir\nhimself in judgment, who pronounced an infamous decree, which\ntore from her family this helpless victim, and put her into the hands\nof his own minion. Her father, to save the honour of his child,\nplunged a dagger into her breast and the people, witnesses of this\nshocking scene, would have massacred Appius on the spot, if he had\nnot found means to escape amidst the tumult Their vengeance,\nhowever, was satiated by the instant abolition of this hated magis-\ntracy, and by the death of Appius, who chose by his own hand to\n8","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0061.jp2"},"62":{"fulltext":"68 ANCIENT HISTORY.\nj reyent the stroke of the executioner. The decemvirate had sub-\nsisted for three years. The consuls were now restored, together\nwith the tribunes of the people, 449 A. C.\nSECTION XXVIII.\nINCREASE OF THE POPULAR POWER.\n1 The scale of the people was daily acquiring weight, at the ex-\npense of that of the highest order. Two barriers, however, still\nseparated the patricians and plebeians: one, a law which prevented\ntheir intermarriage, and the other, the constitutional limitation of all\nthe higher offices to the order of the patricians. It was only neces-\nsary to remove these restrictions, and the patricians and plebeians\nwere on a footing of perfect equality. The first, after a long but\nfruitless contest, was at length agreed to by the senate and this\nconcession had its usual effect of stimulating the people to inflexible\nperseverance in their struggle for the latter. On an emergence oi\nwar the customary device was practised, of refusing to enter the\nrolls, unless upon the immediate enactment of a law, which should\nadmit their capacity of holding all the offices of the republic. The\nsenate sought a palliative, by the creation of six military tribunes in\nlieu of the consuls, three of whom should be patricians, and three\nplebeians. This measure satisfied the people for a time the consuls,\nhowever, were soon restored.\n2. The disorders of the republic, and frequent wars, had inter\nrupted the regular survey of the citizens. This was remedied by\nthe creation of a new magistracy. Two officers, under the title oi\ncensors, were appointed (437 A. CX whose duty was not only to\nmake the census every rive years, but to inspect the morals, and\nregulate the duties of all the citizens an office of dignity equal to\nits importance, exercised, in the latter times of the republic, only by\nconsular persons, and afterwards annexed to the supreme functions\nof the emperors.\n3. The dissensions between the orders continued, with little varia-\ntion either in their causes or effects. The people generally, as the\nlast resource, refused to enrol themselves, till overawed oy the\nsupreme authority of a dictator. To obviate the frequent necessity\nof this measure, which enforced at best an unwilling and compelled\nobedience, the senate had recourse to a wise expedient this was,\nto give a regular pay to the troops. To defray this expense a mod-\nerate tax was imposed in proportion to the fortunes of the citizens.\nFrom this period the Roman system of war assumed a new aspect.\nThe senate always found soldiers at command the army was under\nits control the enterprises of the republic were more extensive,\nand its successes more signal and important. Veii, the proud rival\nof Rome, and its equal in extent and population, was taken by Camil-\nlus, after a siege of ten years, A. if. C. 396. The art of war was\nimproved, as it now became a profession, instead of an occasional\noccupation. The Romans were, from this circumstance, an over-\nmatch for all their neighbours. Their dominion, hitherto confined\nto the territory of a few miles, was now rapidly extended. It was\nimpossible but that the detached states of Italy must have given way\nbefore a people who were always in arms, and, by a perseverance\nalike resolute and judicious, were equal to every attempt in which\nthey engaged.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0062.jp2"},"63":{"fulltext":"AINC1ENT HISTORY. 59\n4. The taking of Veii was succeeded by a war with the Gauls.\nThis people, a branch of the great nation of the Celtae, had opened\nto themselves a passage through the Alps at four different periods,\nand were at this time established in the country between (hose\nmountains and the Appenines. Under the command of Brennus they\nlaid siege to the Etruscan Clusium and the people, of no warlike\nlurn themselves, solicited the aid of the Romans. The circumstan-\nces recorded of this war with the Gauls throw over it a cloud of\ntable and romance. The formidable power of Rome is said to have\nbeen, in a single campaign, so utterly exhausted, that the Gauls en-\ntered the city without resistance, and burnt it to the ground, 385 A.\nC. Though thus overpowered, the Romans, in a single engagement,\nretrieve all their losses, and m one day s time there is not a Gaul\nleft remaining within the Pioman territory.\nTo the burning of the city by the Gauls, the Roman writers attri-\nbute the loss of all the records and monuments of their early history.\n5. It is singular, that most of the Roman revolutions should have\nowed their origin to women. From this cause we have seen spring\nthe abolition of the regal office and the decemvirate. From this\ncause arose the change of the constitution, by which the plebeians\nbecame capable of holding the highest offices of the commonwealth.\nThe younger daughter of Fabius Ambustus, married to a plebeian,\nenvious ol the honours of her elder sister, the wife of a patrician,\nstimulated her father to rouse the lower order to a resolute purpose\nof asserting their equal right with the patricians to all the offices and\ndignities of the state. After much turbulence and contest the final\nissue \\v as the admission of the plebeians, first to the consulate, and\nafterwards to the censorship, the praetorship, and priesthood (A. U.\nC. 454, and A. C. 300) a change beneficial in the main, as consoli-\ndating the strength of the republic, and cutting off the principal source\nof intestine disorder. The factions of the state had hitherto confined\nthe growth of its power, its splendour, and prosperity for no state\ncan at once be prosperous and anarchical. We shall now mark the\nrapid elevation of the Roman name and empire.\nSECTION XXIX.\nCONQUEST OF ITALY BY THE ROMANS.\n1. The war with the Samnites now began, and was of long contin-\nuance but its successful termination was speedily followed by the\nreduction of all the states of Italy. In the course of this important\nwar the Tarentines, the allies of the Samnites, sought the aid ol\nPyrrhus, king of Epirus, one of the greatest generals of his age. Pyrr-\nhvis landed in Italy with 30,000 men and a train of elephants, 280 A.\nC. He was at first successful, but no longer so than till a short ex-\nperience reconciled the Romans to a new mode of war. Sensible at\nlength of the difficulties of his enterprise, and dreading a fatal issue,\nhe embraced an invitation from the Sicilians to aid them in a war\nwith Carthage. On this pretext, which at least was not dishonoura-\nble, Pyrrhus withdrew his troops from Italy. In this interval the\nRomans reduced to extremity the Samnites, the Tarentines, and the\nother allied states. Pyrrhus returned, and made a last effort near\nBeneventum. He was totally defeated, lost 26,000 men, and aban-\ndoning at once all further views to Italy, returned with precipitation","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0063.jp2"},"64":{"fulltext":"60 ANCIENT HISTORY.\nto his own dominions, 274 A. C. The hostile slates submitted to the\nvictorious power; and Rome, 480 years from the foundation of the\ncity, was now mistress of all Italy.\n2. The policy observed by the Romans, with respect to the con-\nquered nations, was wise and judicious. They; removed to Rome\nall the leading men of the principal conquered cities, admitting them\ninto the ancient urban and rustic tribes, and thus soothing the pride of\nthe vanquished, by giving them an apparent share in their own do-\nmestic government; while, in arranging the constitution of the cities,\nthey filled their magistracies with illustrious Romans, whose abilities\nand influence were fitted to maintain those new provinces in alle-\ngiance to the Roman government.\n3. Sicily had long been considered the granary of Italy. The\nCarthaginians at this time possessed considerable settlements in the\nisland, and were ambitious of acquiring its entire dominion. An ob-\nvious policy led the Romans to dispute with them this important ac-\nquisition, and gave rise to the Punic wars. This leads, by a natural\nconnexion, to a short view of the history of Carthage and of Sicily\nSECTION XXX.\nHISTORY OF CARTHAGE.\n1. Carthage, according to the most probable accounts, was founded\nby a colony of Tyrians, about seventy years before the building of\nRome. The colony had the same language, the same or nearly\nsimilar laws and constitution, the same national character, with the\nparent state. The city of Carthage was, at the period of the Punic\nwars, one of the most splendid in the world, and had under its domin\nion 300 of the smaller cities of Africa bordering on the Mediterranean\nsea.\n2. The constitution of the republic is celebrated by Aristotle as\none of the most perfect of the governments of antiquity but we\nknow little more fhan its general nature from ancient writers. Two\nmagistrates, named suffctcs, annually chosen, seem to have possessed\npowers akin to those of the Roman consuls and the Carthaginian\nsenate to those of the senate of Rome with this remarkable differ-\nence, that, in the former, unanimity of opinion was requisite in all\nmeasures of importance. A divided senate transmitted the business\nto the assembly of the people. A tribunal of 104 judges took cog-\nnizance of military operations, and of the conduct of their generals.\nA superior council ol five seems to have controled the decisions of\nthe larger tribunal. Two peculiarities of the Carthaginian policy\nhave been censured by Aristotle. One peculiarity was, that the same\nperson might hold several employments or offices in the state the\nother that the poor were debarred from all offices of trust or import-\nance. But the former of these is frequently both expedient and\nnecessary, and the latter seems agreeable to the soundest policy foi\nin offices of trust poverty offers too powerful an incitement to devia-\ntion from duty.\n3. The first settlements made by the Carthaginians were entirely\nin the way of commerce. Trading to the coast of Spain for gold,\nthey built Carthagena and Gades and coasting along the western\nshore of Africa, they had establishments for the same purpose as far\nas the 25th degree of north latitude. The Periplus of Hanno affor i9","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0064.jp2"},"65":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 61\na proof of ardent enterprise and policy. Desirous of extending a\nlimited territory they armed against the Mauritanians, Numidians,\nand all the neighbouring nations; employing mercenary troops,\nwhich they levied, not only in Africa, but in Spain, the two Gauls,\nand Greece.\n4. The annals of the Carthaginian state are little known till their\nwars with the Romans. The first of their wars mentioned in history\nis that with the Greek colonies of Sicily. Darius courted their alli-\nance when he meditated the conquest of Greece and Xerxes re-\nnewed that treaty when he followed out the designs of his father.\nSECTION XXXI.\nHISTORY OF SICILY.\n1. The early periods of the history of Sicily are as little known a9\nthose of Carthage. The Phoenicians had sent colonies to Sicily be-\nfore the Trojan war. The Greeks, in after times, made considerable\nsettlements in the island. The Corinthians founded Syracuse, which\nbecame the most illustrious of the Greek cities of Sicily- and from\nSyracuse arose afterwards Agrigentum, Acra, Casmene, Camarene,\nand several other Sicilian towns\n2. The government of Syracuse was monarchical, and might have\nlong remained so, if all its sovereigns had inherited the abilities and\nvirtues of Gelon. But his successors, exercising the worst of tyran-\nQy, compelled their subjects at length to abolish the regal govern-\nment and their example was speedily followed by all the Grecian\nstates of Sicily.\n3. The monarchy of Syracuse, however, was revived about sixty\nyears after in the person of Dionysius, a man of obscure origin, but\nof signal ability. Twice expelled for a tyrannical exercise of domin-\nion, he as often found means to overpower his enemies, and re-estab-\nlish himself in the throne. At his death the crown passed, without\nopposition, to his son, Dionysius the younger, a weak and capricious\ntyrant, whom his subjects judging unworthy to reign, dethroned and\nbanished, 357 A. C. The crown was conferred on Dion, his brother-\nin-law, whose amiable character rendered him the delight of his\npeople. But after a short reign this prince fell a victim to treason.\nAided by the distractions of Syracuse consequent on this event, Dio-\nnysius remounted the throne ten years after his expulsion but his\ntyrannical disposition, heightened by his misfortunes, became at\nlength so intolerable, that he was expelled a second time, and\nbanished to Corinth, where he ended his days in poverty and obscurity.\nThe author of this revolution was the illustrious Timoleon, to\nwhose abilities and virtues his country owed equally its liberty and\nits subsequent happiness and prosperity, 343 A. C.\nThe signal opposition of national character between the Romans\nand the Carthaginians may be easily explained, when we attend to\nthe effects of a commercial life on the genius and manners of a nation.\nThe vices of a commercial people are selfishness, cunning, avarice,\nwith an absence of every heroic and patriotic virtue. The favoura-\nble effects of commerce are industry, frugality, general courtesy of\nmanners, improvement in the useful arts. Attending to these conse-","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0065.jp2"},"66":{"fulltext":"«2 ANCIENT HISTORY.\nqences of the prevalence of the commercial spirit, we shall see the\nprincipal features of the Carthaginian character opposed to the\nRoman.\nSECTION XXXII.\nTHE PUNIC WARS.\n1. The triumph which the Romans had obtained over Pvrrhu9\nseemed to give assurance of success in any enterprise in whicn they\nshould engage. The Mamertines, a people of Campania, obtained\naid from the Romans in an unjustifiable attempt which they made to\nseize Messina, a Sicilian town allied to Syracuse. The Syracusans,\nat first assisted by the Carthaginians, opposed this invasion but the\nformer, more alarmed by the ambitious encroachments of the Car-\nthaginians on Sicily, soon repented of this rash alliance, and joined\nthe Romans in the purpose of expelling the Carthaginians entirely\nfrom the island. In fact the Sicilians seem to have had only the des-\nperate choice of final submission either to Rome or Carthage.\nThey chose the former, as the alternative least dishonourable. The\nRomans had ever been their friends, the Carthaginians their enemies.\n2. Agrigentum, possessed by the Carthaginians, was taken, after\na long siege, by the joint forces of Rome and Syracuse. A Roman\nfleet, the first which they ever had, was equipped in a few weeks,\nand gained a complete victory over that of Carthage, at this time the\ngreatest maritime power in the world, 260 A. C. These successei\nwere followed by the reduction of Corsica and Sardinia. In a second\nnaval engagement the Romans took from the Carthaginians sixty of\ntheir ships of war, and now resolutely prepared for the invasion of\nAfrica. The consul Regulus commanded the expedition. He ad-\nvanced to the gates of Carthage and such was the general constep*\nnation that the enemy proposed a capitulation. Inspirited, however,\nby a timely aid of Greek troops under Xantippus, the Carthaginians\nmade a desperate effort, and, defeating the Roman army, made Regu-\nlus their prisoner. But, repeatedly defeated in Sicily, they were at\nlength seriously desirous of a peace and the Roman general was\nsent with their ambassadors to Rome to aid the negotiation, under a\nsolemn oath to return to Carthage as a prisoner, if the treaty should\nfail. It was rejected at the uigent desire of Regulus, who thus sac-\nrificed his life to what he judged the interest of his country.\n3. Lilybceum, the strongest of the Sicilian towns belonging to\nCarthage, was taken after a siege of nine years. After some alter-\nnate successes two naval battles won by the Romans terminated the\nwar, and Carthage at last obtained a peace on the humiliating terms\nof abandoning to the Romans all her possessions in Sicily, the pay-\nment of 3,200 talents of silver, the restitution of all prisoners without\nransom, and a solemn engagement never to make war against Syra-\ncuse or her allies. The island of Sicily was now declared a Roman\nprovince, though Syracuse maintained its independent government,\nA. U. C. 511, and A. C. 241.\n4. The peace between Rome and Carthage was of twenty-three\nyears duration. The latter power was recruiting its strength, and\nmeditated to revenge its losses and disgrace, The second Punic war\nbegan on the part of the Carthaginians, who besieged Saguntum, a\ncity of Spain, in alliance with the Romans. The young Hannibal","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0066.jp2"},"67":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 63\ntook Saguntum after a siege of seven months the desperate inhabi\ntants setting fire to the town, and perishing amidst the flames. Han-\nnibal now formed the bold design of carrying the war into Italy. He\nSTOvided against every difficulty, gained to his interest a part of the\nalhn tribes, passed the Pyrenees, and finally the Alps,* in a toil-\nsome march of five months and a half from his leaving Carthagena,\nand arrived in Italy with 20,000 foot and 6,000 horse.\n5. In the first engagement the Romans were defeated. They also\nlost two other important battles at Trebia, and the lake Thrasyme-\nnus. In the latter of these the consul Flaminius was killed, and his\narmy cut to pieces. Hannibal advanced to Cannae in Apulia, where\nthe Romans opposed him with their whole force. A memorable\ndefeat ensued, in which 40,000 Romans were left dead upon the\nfield, and among these the consul iEmilius, and almost the whole\nbody of the knights. If Hannibal had taken advantage of this great\nvictory, by instantly attacking Rome, the fate of the republic was\ninevitable; but he deliberated, and the occasion was lost. The\nRomans concentrated all their strength. Even the slaves armed in\nthe common cause, and victory once more attended the standards of\nthe republic. Philip, king of Macedon, joined his forces to the\nCarthaginians, but, defeated by Levinus, speedily withdrew his as-\nsistance. Hannibal retreated before the brave Marcellus. Syracuse\nhad now taken part with Carthage, and thus paved the way for the\nloss of its own liberty. Marcellus besieged the city, which was long\ndefended by the inventive genius of Archimedes but was taken in\nthe third year by escalade in the night. This event put an end to\nthe kingdom of Syracuse, which now became a part of the Roman\nprovince of Sicily, A. U. C. 542, A. C. 212.\n6. While the war in Italy was prosperously conducted by the\ngreat Fabius, who, by constantly avoiding a general engagement,\nFound the true method of weakening his enemy, the younger Scipio\naccomplished the entire reduction of Spain. Asdrubai was sent\ninto Italy to the aid of his brother Hannibal, but was defeated by\nthe consul Claudius, and slain in battle. Scipio, triumphant in Spain,\npassed over into Africa, and carried havoc and devastation to the\ngates of Carthage. Alarmed for the fate of their empire the Car-\nthaginians hastily recalled Hannibal from Italy. The battle of\nZema decided the fate of the war, by the utter defeat of the Cartha-\nginians. They entreated a peace, which the Romans gave on these\nconditions that the Carthaginians should abandon Spain, Sicily, and\nall the islands; surrender all their prisoners, give up the whole of\ntheir fleet except ten gallies, pay 10,000 talents, and, in future.,\nundertake no war without consent of the Romans, A. U. C. 552, A.\nC. 202.\n7. Every thing now concurred to swell the pride of the conquer-\nors, and to extend their dominion. A war with Philip of Macedon\nwas terminated by his defeat and his son Demetrius was sent to\nRome as a hostage for the payment of a heavy tribute imposed on\nthe vanquished. A war with Antiochus, king of Syria, ended in\nhis ceding to the Romans the whole of the Lesser Asia. But these\nsplendid conquests, while they enlarged the empire, were fatal to its\nThe passage of Hannibal over the Alps has been lately illustrated,\nm a most learned and ingenious essay, by Mr. Whitaker (the celebrated\nhistorian of Manchester, and vindicator of Queen Mary), who has, with\ngreat acuteness, traced every step of the Carthaginian general, from his\ncrossing the Rhone to his final arrival in Italy.","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0067.jp2"},"68":{"fulltext":"64 ANCIENT HISTORY.\nvirtues, and subversive of the pure and venerable simplicity of\nancient times.\n8. The third Punic war began A. U. C. 605, A. C. 149, and ended\nin the ruin of Carthage. An unsuccessful war with the Numidians\nhad reduced the Carthaginians to great weakness, and the Romans\nmeanly laid hold of that opportunity to invade Africa. Conscious oi\ntheir utter inability to resist this formidable power, the Carthaginians\noffered every submission, and consented even to acknowledge them-\nselves the subjects of Rome. The Romans demanded 300 hostages,\nfor the strict performance of every condition that should be enjoined\nby the senate. The hostages were given, and the condition requir-\ned was, that Carthage itself should be razed to its foundation. Des-\nSair gave courage to this miserable people, and they determined to\nie in the defence of their native city. But the noble effort was in\nvain. Carthage was taken by storm, its inhabitants massacred, and\nthe city burnt to the ground, A. U. C. 607, A. C. 146.\n9. The same year was signalized by the entire reduction of\nGreece under the dominion of the Romans. This was the aera of\nthe dawn of luxury and taste at Rome, the natural fruit of foreign\nwealth, and an acquaintance with, foreign manners. In the unequal\ndistribution of this imported wealth, the vices to which it gave rise,\nthe corruption and venality of which it became the instrument, we\ngee the remoter causes of those fatal disorders to which the republic\nowed its dissolution.\nSECTION XXXIIL\nTHE GRACCHI, AND THE CORRUPTION OF THE COMMON-\nWEALTH.\n1. At this period arose Tiberius and Caius Gracchus, two noble\nyouths, whose zeal to reform the growing corruptions of the state,\nprecipitated them at length into measures destructive of all govern-\nment and social order. Tiberius, the elder of the brothers, urged\nthe people to assert by force the revival of an ancient law, for limit-\ning property in land, and thus abridging the overgrown estates of the\npatricians. A tumult was the consequence, in which Tiberius, with\n300 of his friends, were killed in the forum. This fatal example did\nnot deter his brother, Caius Gracchus, from pursuing a similar career\nof zeal or of ambition. After some successful experiments of his pow\ner, while in the office of tribune, he directed his scrutiny into the cor-\nruptions of the senate, and prevailed in depriving that body of its con\nstitutional control over all the inferior magistrates of the state. Em-\nI\nloying, like his brother, the dangerous engine of tumultuary force,\ne fell a victim to it himself, with 3,000 of his partisans, who were\nslaughtered in the streets of Rome. The tumults attending the se-\ndition of the Gracchi were the prelude to those civil disorders which\nnow followed in quick succession to the end of the commonwealth.\n2. The circumstances attending the war with Jugurtha gave deci-\nsive proof of the corruption of the Roman manners. Jugurtha,\nfrandson of Masinissa, sought to usurp the crown of Numidia by\nestroying his cousins, Hiempsal and Adherbal, the sons of the last\nking. He murdered the elder ot the brothers; and the. younger\napplying for aid to Rome, Jugurtha bribed the senate, who declared\nhim innocent of all culpable act or design, and decreed to him the","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0068.jp2"},"69":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 66\nsovereignty of half the kingdom. This operated only as an incentive\nto his criminal ambition. He declared open war against his cousin,\nbesieged him in his capital of Cirta. and finally put him to death.\nTo avert a threatened war Jugurtna went in person to Rome,\npleaded his own cause in the senate, and once more by bribery\nsecured his acquittal from all charge of criminality. A perseverance,\nhowever, in a similar train of conduct finally drew on him the ven-\ngeance of the Romans and being betrayed into their hands by his\nown father-in-law, he was brought in chains to Rome, to grace the\ntriumph of the consul Marius, confined to a dungeon, and starved to\ndeath, A. U C. 651, A. C. 103.\n3. The ambition of the allied states of Italy to attain the rights\nof citizenship produced the social war, which ended in a conces-\nsion of those rights to such of the confederates as should return\npeaceably to their allegiance. This war with the allies was a pre-\nlude to that which followed between Rome and her own citizens.\nSylla and Marius, rivals, and thence enemies, were at this time the\nleaders of the republic. Sylla, commanding in a war against Mithri-\ndates, was superseded, and recalled from Asia. He refused to obey\nthe mandate, and found his army well disposed to support him.\nLet us march to Rome, said they, with cne voice lead us on\nto avenge the cause of oppressed liberty. Sylla accordingly led\nthem on, and they entered Rome sword in hand. Marius and his\npartizans fled with precipitation from the city, and Sylla ruled for a\nwhile triumphant. But the faction of his rival soon recovered\nstrength. Marius returning to Italy, and joining his forces to those\nof Cinna, his zealous partizan, laid siege to Rome, and, while Sylla\nwas engaged in the Mithridatic war, compelled the city to absolute\nsubmission. After a horrible massacre of all whom they esteemed\ntheir enemies, Marius and Cinna proclaimed themselves consuls,\nwithout the formality of an election but Marius died a few days\nafter in a fit of debauch.\n4. After a victorious campaign in Asia, Sylla returned to Italy,\nand, joined by Cethegus, Verres, and the young Pompey, gave\nbattle to the party of his enemies, and entirely defeated them.\nHis entry into Rome was signalized by a dreadful massacre, and a\nproscription, which had for its object the extermination of every\nenemy whom he had in Italy. Elected dictator for an unlimited\nperiod, he was now without a rival in authority, and absolute master\nof the government, which, of course, was no longer a republic.\nIn the exercise of his dominion he deserved more praise than in\nthe means of acquiring it. He restored the senate to its judicial\nauthority, regulated the election to all the important offices of\nstate, and enacted many excellent laws against oppression and the\nabuse of power. Finally, he gave demonstration, if not of a pure\nconscience, at least of a magnanimous intrepidity of character, by\nvoluntarily resigning all command, retiring to the condition of a\nprivate citizen, and offering publicly to give an account of his con-\nduct. He died within a short time after his resignation. He was\ncertainly a man of great strength of mind, and had some of the qual-\nities of a heroic character but he lived in evil times, when it was\nimpossible at once to be great and to be virtuous.\n5. The death of Sylla renewed the civil war. Lepidus, a man of\nno abilities, aspired to succeed him in power and Pompey, with\nsuperior talents, cherished the same ambition. While the latter was\nemployed in the reduction of the revolted provinces of Asia, the\nF2 9","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0069.jp2"},"70":{"fulltext":"66 ANCIENT HISTORY.\nconspiracy of Catiline threatened the entire destruction of Rome.\nIt was extinguished by the provident zeal and active patriotism\nof the consul Cicero. Catiline and his chief accomplices were\nattacked in the field, and defeated by Antonius. The traitor made\na desperate defence, and died a better death than his crimes had\nmerited.\n6. Julius Caesar now rose into public notice. Sylla dreaded hi\nabilities and ambition, and had numbered him among the proscribed\nThere is many a Marius, said he, w in the person of that young\nman. He had learned prudence from the danger of his situation,\nand tacitly courted popularity, without that show of enterprise\nwhich gives alarm to a rival. While Pompey and Crassus contended\nfor the command of the republic, Caesar, who knew that, by attach-\ning himself to either rival, he infallibly made the other his enemy,\nshowed the reach of his talents by reconciling them, and thus\nacquiring the friendship of both. From favour to their mutual friend\nthey agreed to a partition of power and thus was formed the first\ntriumvirate. Caesar was elected consul. He increased his popularity\nby a division of lands among the poorer citizens, and strengthened\nhis interest with Pompey by giving him his daughter in marriage.\nHe had the command of four legions, and the government of trans-\nalpine Gaul and Illyria.\n7. The military glory of the republic, and the reputation of\nCaesar, were nobly sustained in Gaul. In the first year of his govern-\nment he subdued the Helvetii, who, leaving their own country, had\nattempted to settle themselves in the better regions of the Roman\nprovince. He totally defeated the Germans under Ariovistus, who\nnad attempted a similar invasion. The Belgae, the Nervii, the\nCeltic Gauls, the Suevi, Menapii, and other warlike nations, were\nall successively brought under subjection. In the fourth year of hi?\ngovernment he transported his army into Britain. Landing at Deal,\nhe was opposed by the natives with equal courage and military skill.\nHe gained, however, several advantages, and, binding the Britons to\nsubmission, withdrew into Gaul on the approach of winter. He\nreturned in the following summer with a greater force, and, prose-\ncuting his victories, reduced a considerable portion of the island\nunder the Roman dominion, A. C. 54. But the pressure of affairs\nin Italy suspended for a time the progress of the Roman arms in\nBritain.\n8. Caesar dreaded the abilities of Cicero, who had opposed him\nin his views of ambition. By the machinations of his partizans,\nwhile he was absent in Gaul, he procured the banishment of Cicero,\nand the confiscation of his estates, on the pretence of illegal meas-\nures pursued in the suppression of the. conspiracy of Catiline.\nDuring an exile of sixteen months in Greece, Cicero gave way to a\ndespondency of mind utterly unworthy of the philosopher. Pom-\npey had abandoned him, and this ungrateful desertion bore most\nheavily upon his mind. In the wane of his reputation Pompey soon\nbecame desirous to prop his own sinking fortunes by the abilities of\nCicero, and eagerly promoted his recal from exile. The death of\nCrassus, in an expedition against th« Parthians, now dissolved the\ntriumvirate and Caesar and Pompey, wftige union had no other bond\nthan interest, began each to conceive separately the view of undivid-\ned dominion.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0070.jp2"},"71":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY tf!\nSECTION XXXIV.\nPROGRESS OF THE CIVIL WARS. SECOND TRIUMVIRATE.\nFALL OF THE REPUBLIC.\n1. The ambition of Caesar and of Pompey had now evidently the\nsame object and it seemed to be the only question, in those degen-\nerate times, to which of these aspiring leaders the republic should\nsurrender its liberties. The term of Caesar s government was near\nexpiring. To secure himself against a deprivation of power, he\nprocured a proposal to be made in the senate by one of his partizans,\nwhich wore the appearance of great moderation, namely, that\nCaesar and Pompey should either both continue in their govern-\nments, or both be deprived of them, as they were equally capable\nof endangering the public liberty by an abuse of power. The mo-\ntion passed, and Caesar immediately offered to resign, on condition\nthat nis rival should do so but Pompey rejected the accommodation.\nThe term of his government had yet several years duration, and\nhe suspected the proposal to be a snare laid for him by Caesar. He\nresolved to maintain nis right by force of arms, and a civil war was\nthe necessary consequence. The consuls and a great part of the\nsenate were the friends of Pompey. Caesar had on his side a victo-\nrious army, consisting of ten legions, and the body of the Roman cit-\nizens, whom he had won by his liberality. Mark Antony and Cas-\nsius, at that time tribunes of the people, left Rome, and repaired to\nCaesar s camp.\n2. The senate, apprehensive of his designs, pronounced a decree,\nbranding with the crime of parricide any commander who should\ndare to pass the Rubicon (the boundary between Italy and the\nGauls) with a single cohort, without their permission. Caesar\ninfringed the prohibition, and marched straight to Rome. Pompey,\nto whom the senate committed the defence of the state, had no\narmy. He quitted Rome, followed by the consuls and a part of the\nsenate, and endeavoured hastily to levy troops over all Italy and\nGreece; while Caesar triumphantly entered the city amidst the\nacclamations of the people, seized the public treasury, and possessed\nhimself of the supreme authority without opposition. Having se-\ncured the capital of the empire, he set out to take the field against\nher enemies. The lieutenants of Pompey had possession of Spain.\nCaesar marched thither, and subdued the whole country in the\nspace of forty days. He returned victorious to Rome, where, in his\nabsence, he had been nominated dictator. In the succeeding elec-\ntion of magistrates he was chosen consul, and ivas thus invested, by\na double title, with the right of acting in the name of the republic.\nPompey had by this time raised a numerous army, and Caesar was\nanxious to bring him to a decisive engagement. The two armies\nmet in Illyria, and the first conflict was of doubtful issue. Caesar\nled his army into Macedonia, where he found a large reinforcement\nHe gave battle to Pompey in the field of Pharsalia, and entirely\ndefeated him. Fifteen thousand of Pompey s army were slain, and\n24,000 surrendered themselves prisoners to the victor, A. U. C. 705,\nA. C. 49.\n3 The fate of Pompey was miserable in the extreme. With his\nwife Cornelia, the companion of his misfortunes, he fled to Egypt in","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0071.jp2"},"72":{"fulltext":"68 ANCIENT HISTORY.\na single ship, trusting to the protection of Ptolemy, whose father\nhad owed to nim his settlement on the throne. But the ministers of\nthis young prince, dreading the power ol Caesar, basely courted his\nfavour by the murder of his rival. Pompey was brought ashore in\na small boat by the guards of the king and a Roman centurion,\nwho had fought under his banners, stabbed him, even in the sight of\nCornelia, and cutting off his head, threw the body naked on the\nsands. Caesar pursued Pompey to Alexandria, where the head cf\nthat unhappy man, presented as a grateful offering, gave him the\nfirst intelligence of his fate. He wept, and turned with horror from\nthe sight. He caused every honour to be paid to his memory, and\nfrom that time showed the utmost beneficence to the partizans of\nhis unfortunate rival.\n4. The sovereignty of Egypt was in dispute between Ptolemy\nand his sister Cleopatra. The latter, though married to her brother,\nand joint heir by her father s will, was ambitious of undivided author-\nity and Caesar, captivated by her charms, decided the contest in\nfavour of the beauteous queen. A war ensued, in which Ptolemy\nwas killed, and Egypt subdued by the Roman arms. In this war the\nfamous library of Alexandria was burnt to ashes, A. C. 48. A revolt\nof the Asiatic provinces, under Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates,\nwas signally chastised and the report was conveyed by Caesar to\nthe Roman senate in three words, Vcni, vidi, vici. The conqueror\nreturned to Rome, which needed his presence for Italy was divid-\ned, and the partizans of Pompey were yet extremely^ formidable.\nHis two sons, with Cato and Scipio, were in arms in Africa. Caesar\npursued them thither, and proceeding with caution till secure of his\nadvantage, defeated them in a decisive engagement at Thapsus,\nScipio perished in his passage to Spain. Cato, shutting himself up\n*n Utica, meditated a brave resistance but seeing no hope of suc-\ncess, he finally determined not to survive the liberties of his country,\nmd fell deliberately by his own hand. Mauritania was now added\nto the number of the Roman provinces and Caesar returned to\nRome, absolute master of the empire.\n5. From that moment his attention was directed solely to the\nprosperity and happiness of the Roman people. He remembered\nio longer that there had been opposite parties beneficent alike to\nthe friends of Pompey as to his own. He laboured to reform every\nspecies of abuse or grievance. He introduced order into every de-\npartment of the state, defining the separate rights of all its magistrates,\nand extending his care to the regulation cf its most distant provinces.\nThe reformation of the kalendar, the draining of the marshes of\nCtaly, the navigation of the Tiber, the embellishment of Rome, the\ncomplete survey and delineation of the empire, alternately em-\nployed his liberal and capacious mind. Returning from the final\noverthrow of Pompey s party in Spain, he was haiied the father of\nhis country, was created consul for ten years, and perpetual dic-\ntator. His person was declared sacred, his title henceforth imperator\nA. U. C. 709, A. C. 15.\n6. The Roman republic had thus finally resigned its liberties, by\nits own acts. They were not extinguished, as Montesquieu has\nwell remarked, by the ambition of a Pompey or of a Caesar. If the\nsentiments of Caesar and Pompey bad been the same with those of\nCato, others would have had the same ambitious thoughts; and,\nsince the commonwealth was fated to tall, there never would have\nH n wanting a hand to drag it to destruction. Yet Caesar had by","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0072.jp2"},"73":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 69\nforce subdued his country; and therefore was a usurper. If it had\n6een possible to restore the liberties of the republic, and with these\nits happiness, by the suppression of his usurpation, the attempt\nwould hare merited the praise at least of good design. Perhaps so\nthought his murderers and thus, however weak their policy, how-\never base and treacherous their act, they will ever find apologists.\nThey expected an impossible issue, as the event demonstrated.\n7. A conspiracy was formed by sixty of the senators, at the head\nof whom were Brutus and Cassius the former a man beloved of\nCaesar, who had saved his life, and heaped upon him numberless\nbenefits. It was rumoured that the dictator wished to add to his\nnumerous titles that of king, and that the ides of March was fixed\non for investing him with the diadem. On that day, when taking\nhis seat in the senate-house, he was suddenly assailed by the con-\nspirators. He defended himself for some time against their daggers,\ntill, seeing Brutus among the number, he faintly exclaimed, And\nyou, too, my son and covering his face with his robe, resigned\nhimself to his fate. He fell, pierced by twenty-three wounds, A. U.\nC. 711, and A. C. 43.\n8. The Roman people were struck with horror at the deed.\nThey loved Caesar, master as he was of their lives and liberties.\nMark Antony and Lepidus, ambitious of succeeding to the power ol\nthe dictator, resolved to pave the way by avenging his death.\nCaesar, by his testament, had bequeathed a great part of his fortune\nto the people; and they were penetrated with gratitude to his\nmemory. A public harangue by Antony over the bleeding body, ex-\nposed in the forum, inflamed them with the utmost indignation\nagainst his murderers, who must have met with instant destruction\nif they had not escaped with precipitation from the city. Antony\nprofited by these dispositions and the avenger of Caesar, of course\nthe favourite of the people, was in the immediate prospect of attain-\ning a similar height of dominion. In this, however, he found a for-\nmidable competitor in Octavius, the grand-nephew and the adopted\nheir of Caesar, who, at this critical moment, arrived in Rome.\nAvailing himself of these titles, Octavius gained the senate to his inter-\nest, and divided with Antony the favour of the people. The rivals\nsoon perceived that it was their wisest plan to unite their interests\nand they admitted Lepidus into their association, whose power, as\ngovernor of Gaul, and immense riches, gave him a title to a share\nof authority. Thus was formed the second triumvirate, the effects\nof whose union were beyond measure dreadful to the republic.\nThe triumviri divided among themselves the provinces, and cement-\ned their union by a deliberate sacrifice made by each of his best\nfriends to the vengeance of his associates. Antony consigned to\ndeath his uncle Lucius Lepidus his brother Paulus and Octavius\nhis guardian Toranius and his friend Cicero. In this horrible pro*\nscription 300 senators and 3,000 knights were put to death.\n9. Octavius and Antony now marched against the conspirators, who\nhad a formidable army in the field in Thrace, commanded by Brutus\nand Cassius. An engagement ensued at Philippi, which decided\nthe fate of the empire. Antony obtained the victory, for Octavius\nhad no military talents. He was destitute even of personal bravery,\nand his conduct after the victory was stained with that cruelty which\nis ever the attendant of cowardice. Brutus and Cassius escaped the\nvengeance of their enemies by a voluntary death. Antony now\nsought a recompense for his troops by the plunder of the east","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0073.jp2"},"74":{"fulltext":"70 ANCIENT HISTORY.\nWhile in Cilicia, he summoned Cleopatra to answer for her conduct\nin dethroning an infant brother, and in openly favouring the party of\nBrutus and Cassius. The queen came to Tarsus, and made a com-\nplete conquest of the triumvir. Immersed in luxury, and intoxicated\nwith love, he forgot glory, ambition, fame, and every thing, for\nCleopatra. Octavius saw this phrensy with delight, as the prepara-\ntive of his rival s ruin. He had nothing to dread from Lepidus,\nwhose insignificant character first drew on him the contempt of his\npartizans and whose folly, in attempting an invasion of the province\nof his colleague, was punished by his deposition and banishment.\n10. Antony had in his madness lavished the provinces of the em.\npire in gifts to his paramour and her children, The Roman people\nwere justly indignant at these enormities and the divorce of his\nwife Octavia, the sister of his colleague, was at length the signal of\ndeclared hostility between them. An immense armament, chiefly\nnaval, came at length to a decisive conflict near Actium, on the\ncoast of Epirus. Cleopatra, who attended her lover, deserted him\nwith her galleys in the heat of the engagement and such was the\ninfatuation of Antony, that he abandoned his fleet, and followed her.\nAfter a contest of some hours, they yielded to the squadron of Octavius,\nA. U. C. 723, A. C. 31. The victor pursued the fugitives to Egypt\nand the base Cleopatra proffered terms to Octavius, including the\nsurrender of her kingdom, and the abandonment of Antony. After\nan unsuccessful attempt at resistance, Antony anticipated his fate\nby falling on his sword. Cleopatra soon after, either from remorse,\nor more probably from mortified ambition, as she found it was Octa-\nvius s design to lead her in chains to Rome to grace his triumph, had\ncourage to follow the example of her lover, and put herself to death\nDy the poison of an asp. Octavius returned to Rome sole master ot\nthe Roman empire, A. U. C. 727, A. C. 27.\nSECTION XXXV.\nCONSIDERATIONS OF SUCH PARTICULARS AS MARK THE\nGENIUS AND NATIONAL CHARACTER OF THE ROMANS.\nSYSTEM OF ROMAN EDUCATION.\n1. A virtuous but rigid severity of manners was the characteristic\nof the Romans under their kings, and in the first ages of the repub-\nlic. The private life of the citizens, frugal, temperate, and labori-\nous, had its influence on their public character. The (patria potestas)\npaternal authority gave to every head of a family a sovereign author-\nity over all the members that composed it- and this power, felt as a\nright of nature, was never roused. Plutarch has remarked, as a defect\nin the Roman laws, that they did not prescribe, as those of Lacedae-\nmon, a system and rules for the education of youth. But the truth\nis, the manners of the people supplied this want. The utmost at^\ntention was bestowed in the early formation of the mind and charac*\nter. The excellent author of the dialogue De Oratoribus (concerning\norators) presents a valuable picture of the Roman education in the\nearly ages of the commonwealth, contrasted with the less virtuous\npractice of the more refined ages. The Roman matrons did not\naoandon their infants to mercenary nurses. They regarded the\ncareful nurture of their offspring, the rudiments of theii education.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0074.jp2"},"75":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 71\nand the necessary occupations of iheir household, as the highest\npoints of female merit. Next to the care bestowed in the instilment\nof virtuous morals, a remarkable degree of attention seems to have\nbeen given to the language of children, and to the attainment of\na correctness and purity of expression. Cicero informs us that the\nGracchi, the sons of Cornelia, were educated, non tarn in graemio\nquam in sermone matris, in the speech more than in the bosom of their\nmother, That urbanity which characterized the Roman citizens\nshowed itself particularly in their speech and gesture.\n2. The attention to the language of the youth had another source-\nIt was by eloquence, more than by any other talent, that the young\nRoman could rise to the highest offices and dignities of the state.\nThe studia forensia {forensic studies) were, therefore, a principal ob-\nject of the Roman education. Plutarch informs us, that among the\nsports of the children at Rome, one was pleading causes before a\nmock tribunal, and accusing and defending a criminal in the usual\nforms of judicial procedure.\n3. The exercises of the body were likewise particularly attended\nto whatever might harden the temperament, and confer strength\nand agility. These exercises were daily practised by the youth,\nunder the eye of their elders, in the Campus Martius.\n4. At seventeen the youth assumed the manly robe. He was\nconsigned to the care of a master of rhetoric, whom he attended\nconstantly to the forum, or to the courts of justice for, to be an\naccomplished gentleman, it was necessary for a Roman to be an ac-\ncomplished orator. The pains bestowed on the attainment of this\ncharacter, and the best instructions for its acquisition, we learn from\nthe writings of Cicero, Quintilian, and the younger Pliny.\nSECTION XXXVI.\nOF THE PROGRESS OF LITERATURE AMONG THE ROMANS.\n1. Before the intercourse with Greece, which took place after\nthe Punic wars, the Roman people was utterly rude and illiterate.\nAs among all nations the first appearance of the literary spirit is\nshown in poetical composition, the Roman warrior had probably,\nlike the Indian or the Celtic, his war songs, which celebrated his\ntriumphs in battle. Religion likewise employs the earliest poetry\nof most nations; and if a people subsist by agriculture, a plentiful\nharvest is celebrated in the rustic song of the husbandman. The\nversus fescennini (fescennine verses), mentioned by Livy, were proba-\nbly of the nature of a poetical dialogue, or alternate verses sung by\nthe labourers, in a strain of coarse merriment and raillery. This\nshows a dawning of the drama.\n2. About the 390th year of Rome, on occasion of a pestilence,\nludiones ^drolls or stage dancers) were brought from Etruria, qui\nad tibicinis modos saltantes, haud indecoros motus more Tusco dabant j\nwho danced to the tunes of a musician, and. in tlie Tuscan fashion, exhi-\nbited motions that -were not ungraceful. Livy tells us that the Roman\nyouth imitated these performances, and added to them rude and joc-\nular verses, probably the fescennine dialogues. The regular drama\nwas introduced at Rome from Greece by Livius Andronicus, A. U. C.","height":"3582","width":"2082","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0075.jp2"},"76":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY.\n514. The earliest Roman plays were therefore, we may presume,\ntranslations from the Greek.\nEt post punica bella quietus quaerere coepit,\nQuid Sophocles, et Thespis, et iEschylus utile ferrent.\nHor. Epist. Lib. II, i.\nAnd being at peace after the Punic wars, the Romans began to inquire\nwhat advantages might be derived from the writings of Sophocles, Thespis,\nand JCschylus.\n3. Of the early Roman drama, Ennius was a great ornament, and\nfrom his time the art made rapid advancement. The comedies of\nPlautus, the contemporary of Ennius, with great strength and spirit\nof dialogue, display a considerable knowledge of human nature,\nand are read at this day with pleasure.\n4. Caecilius improved so much on the comedy of Plautus, that he\nis mentioned by Cicero as perhaps the best of the Roman comic\nwriters. Of his compositions we have no remains. His patronage\nfostered the rising genius of Terence, whose first comedy, the Jin-\ndria, was performed A. U. C. 587. The merit of the comedies of\nTerence lies in that nature and simplicity which are observable in\nthe structure of his fables, and in the delineation of his characters.\nThey are deficient, however, in comic energy and are not calcu-\nlated to excite ludicrous emotions. They are chiefly borrowed from\nthe Greek of Menander and Apollodorus.\n5. The Roman comedy was of four different species the comeaut\nlogata or prcetextata, the comedia tabernaria, the attellance, and the\nmimi. The first admitted serious scenes and personages, and was of\nthe nature of the modern sentimental comedy. The second was a\nrepresentation of ordinary life and manners. The attellance were\npieces where the dialogue was not committed to writing, but the\nsubject of the scene was prescribed, and the dialogue filled up by\nthe talents of the actors. The mimi were pieces of comedy of the\nlowest species; farces, or entertainments of buffoonery; though\nsometimes admitting the serious, and even the pathetic.\n6. The Roman tragedy kept pace in its advancement with the\ncomedy. The best of the Roman tragic poets were Actius and\nPacuvius, of whom we have no remains. The tragedies published\nunder the name, of Seneca are generally esteemed the work of dif-\nferent hands, They are none of them of superlative merit.\n7. Velleius Paterculus remarks, that the sera of the perfection\nof Roman literature was the age of Cicero, comprehending all the\nliterary men of the preceding times whom Cicero might have seen,\nand all those of the succeeding who might have seen him. Cicero,\nQ,uintilian, and Pliny celebrate, in high terms, the writing? of the\nalder Cato, whose principal works were historical^ and have entirely\nperished. We have his fragments, de Re Rmtica {on agriculture), in\nwhich he was imitated by Van o, one of the canlest of the good\nwriters among the Romans, and a man of universal erudition. Of\nthe variety of his talents we may judge, not oniy from the splendid\neulogium of Cicero, but from the circumstance of Pliny having re-\ncouirse to his authority in every book of his Natural History.\n8. Sallust, in order of time, comes next to Varro. This writer\nintrod\\iced an inportant improvement on history, as treated by the\nGreek historians, by applying (as Dionysius of Halicarnassus says)","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0076.jp2"},"77":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 73\nthe science of philosophy to the study of facts. Sallust is therefore\nto be considered as the father of philosophic history a species of\nwriting which has been so successfully cultivated in modern times.\nHe is an admirable writer for the matter of his compositions, which\nevince great judgment and knowledge of human nature, but by no\nmeans commendable for his style and manner of writing. He affects\nsingularity of expression, an antiquated phraseology, and a petulant\nbrevity and sententiousness, which has nothing of the dignity of the\nhistorical style.\n9. Caesar has much more purity of style, and more correctness\nand simplicity of expression but his Commentaries, wanting that\namplitude of diction and fulness of illustration which is essential to\nhistory, are rather of the nature of annals.\n10. In all the requisites of a historian, Livy stands unrivalled\namong the Romans possessing consummate judgment in the selec-\ntion of facts, perspicuity of arrangement, sagacious reflection, sound\nviews of policy, with the most copious, pure, and eloquent expres-\nsion. It has been objected, that his speeches derogate from the\ntruth of history but this was a prevalent taste with the ancient\nwriters and as those speeches are always known to be the compo-\nsition of the historian, the reader ls not misled. As to the style of\nLivy, though in general excellent we sometimes perceive in it, and\nmost commonly in the speeches an affectation of the pointed sen-\ntences (the vibrantes sententiolai] and obscurity of the declaimers,\nwhich evinces the pernicious influence acquired by those teachers\nat Rome since the time of Cicero and Sallust.\n11. In the decline of Roman literature Tacitus is a historian of\nso common merit. He successfully cultivated the method pointed\nout by Sallust, of applying philosophy to history. In this he dis\nplays great knowledge of human nature, and penetrates, with sin-\ngular acuteness, into the secret springs of policy, and the motives\nof actions. But his fault is, that he is too much of a politician,\ndr w hig his diameters after the model of his own mind ever as-\nsigning actions and events to preconceived scheme and design, and\nallowing too little for the operation of accidental causes, which often\nhave the greatest influence on human affairs. Tacitus, in his style,\nprofessedly imitated that of Sallust adopting all the ancient phra-\nseology, as well as the new idioms introduced into the Roman lan-\nguage by that writer. To his brevity and abruptness he added mos*\nof the faults of the declaiming school. His expression, therefore,\nthough extremely forcible, is often enigmatically obscure; the\nworst property that style can possess.\n12. Among the eminent Roman poets (after the dramatic} Lucre-\ntius deserves first to be noticed. He has great inequality, oeing at\nsome times verbose, rugged, and perplexed, and at others displaying\nall the elegance as well as the fire 01 poetry. This may be in great\npart attributed to his subject. Philosophical disquisition is unsuitable\nto poetry. It demands a dry precision of thought and expression,\nrejecting all excursive fancy and ornament of diction. That luxuri-\nance of imagery, which is the soul of poetry, is raving and imper-\ntinence when applied to philosophy.\n13. Catullus, the contemporary of Lucretius, is the earliest of the\nRoman lyric poets. His Epigrams are pointed and satirical, but too\nlicentious his Idylla tender, natural, and picturesque. He flourished\nin the age of Julius Caesar.\n14. In the succeeding age of Augustus, poetry attained to its high-","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0077.jp2"},"78":{"fulltext":"74 ANCIENT HISTORY.\nest elevation among the Romans. Virgil, Horace, Ovid, and Tibul-\nlus, were all contemporaries. Virgil is allowed the same rank among\nthe Roman poets, as Homer among the Greek. If Homer excel\nVirgil in the sublime, the latter surpasses the former in the tender\nand elegant. The transcendent merits of Homer are sullied by oc-\ncasional defects. Virgil is the model of a correct taste. The dif-\nference of manner in the Bucolics, the Ge orgies, and the iEneid,\nshows that Virgil was capable of excelling in various departments of\npoetry and such is the opinion of Martial, who affirms that he\ncould have surpassed Horace in lyric poetry, and Varius in tragedy.\n15. Horace excels as a lyric poet, a satirist, and a critic. In his\nodes there is more variety than in those of either Anacreon or\nPindar. He can alternately display the sublimity of the latter, and\nthe jocose vein of the former. His Satires have that characteristic\nslyness and obliquity of censure, associated with humour and pleas-\nantry, which strongly distinguish them from the stern and cutting\nsarcasm of Juvenal. As a critic, his rules are taken chiefly from\nAristotle but they contain the elements of a just taste in poetical\ncomposition, and therefore do not admit of variation. The Satires\nof Juvenal, compared with those of Horace, are deficient in face-\ntiousness and urbanity but they are superior in acuteness of thought,\nand in manly vigor of sentiment.\n16. In variety of talent, without supreme excellence, and in ease\nand elegance of numbers, no Roman poet has exceeded Ovid. In\nhis Metamorphoses, particularly, with great fancy, we have speci-\nmens of the pathetic, the descriptive, the eloquent, and even the\nsublime. His Elegies have more of nature and of real passion,\nman those of either Tibullus or Propertius. His amatory verses\nhave much tenderness, but are too frequently loose, and even grossly\nlicentious.\n17. There is nothing more elegant than the compositions of Ti-\nbullus, nothing more delicate than the turn of his expression but\nit is not the language of passion. The sentiments are tender, but\ntheir power of affecting the heart is weakened by the visible care\nand solicitude of the poet for refined phraseology and polished num-\nbers nor is there either much fancy or variety of thought. A sin*\ngle elegy exhibits the sentiments of the whole.\n18. Martial is the last of the Roman poets who can be mentioned\nwith high approbation. His Epigrams, independent of their art and\ningenuity, are valuable, as throwing light upon the Roman manners.\nHe possesses, above every other poet, a naivete of expression,\nwhich is chiefly observable in his serious epigrams. He is well char-\nacterized by the younger Pliny. Ingeniosus, acer, et qui in scribendo et\nsalts haberet etfellis, nee candoris minus. Epist. 3. 21. His writings are\ningenious and acute they possess humour and satire, and no less candour,\n19. Luxuriance of ornament, and the fondness for points, and bril\nliancy of thought and expression, are certain indications of the de-\ncline of good taste. These characters strongly mark the Latin\npoets of the succeeding ages. Lucan has some scattered examples\nof genuine poetic imagery, and Persius some happy strokes of ani-\nmated satire but they scarcely compensate the affected obscurity\nof one, and the bombast of the other. The succeeding poets, Statius,\nSilius Italicus, and Valerius Flaccus, in their attempts at the most\ndifficult of all species of poetry the epic, have only more signally\ndisplayed the inferiority of their genius, and the manifest decay of\nthe art","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0078.jp2"},"79":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 7ft\nSECTION XXXVII.\nSTATE OF PHILOSOPHY AMONG THE ROMANS.\n1. The Romans, in the earlier periods of the republic, had little\nleisure to bestow on the cultivation of the sciences, and had no idea\nof philosophical speculation. It was not till the end of the sixth\ncentury from the buildiag of the city, and in the interval between\nthe war with Perseus and the third Punic war, that philosophy made\nits first appearance at Rome. A few learned Acnaeans, banished\nfrom their country, had settled in various parts of Italy, and apply-\ning themselves to the cultivation of literature and the education\nof youth, diffused a taste for those studies hitherto unknown to the\nRomans. The elder citizens regarded those pursuits with an unfa-\nvourable eye. Jealous of the introduction of foreign manners with\nforeign studies, the senate banished the Greek philosophers from\nRome. But an Athenian embassy, arriving soon after, brought\nthither Carneades and Critolaus, who revived the taste for the Greek\nphilosophy, and left behind them many able disciples, who publicly\ntaught their doctrines.\n2. It was natural that those systems should be most generally\nadopted which were most suitable to the national character. While\nthe manners of the Romans had a tincture of ancient severity, the\nstoical system prevailed. Scipio, Laelius, and the younger Cato rank\namong its chiet partisans.\n3. The philosophy of Aristotle was little known in Rome till the\nage of Cicero. At that time Cratippus and Tyrannion taught his\nsystem with great reputation. Yet Cicero complains that the peri-\npatetic philosophy was little understood at Rome and therefore, he\nsent his son to study its doctrines in the schools of Athens.\n4. Lucullus, whose stay in Greece gave him an opportunity ot\nbeing acquainted with all the different sects, disseminated, on his\nreturn to Rome, a very general taste for philosophy. His patronage\nof learned men, and his liberality in allowing his library to be open\nfor the public use, contributed greatly to the promotion of litera-\nture.\n5. The Old and New Academy had each its partisans. Of the\nformer, which may be termed the Stoico-Platonic, the most illus-\ntrious disciples were Marcus Brutus and Terentius Varro. To the\nphilosophical talents of Brutus, and the universal erudition of Varro,\nthe writings of Cicero bear ample testimony. Cicero himself must\nbe deemed the most eminent of all the Roman philosophers. He is\nclassed among the principal supporters of the New Academy;\nthough it seems to have been his purpose to elucidate the Greek\nphilosophy in general, rather than to rank himself among the disci-\nples of any particular sect.\n6. The cultivation of physics, or natural philosophy, seems te\nhave been little attended to either by the Greeks or Romans. Un-\nless agriculture should be classed under this description, we know\nof no Roman authors, except Varro and the elder rliny, who seem\nto have bestowed much attention on the operations of nature. The\nworks of Varro have perished, except a few fragments. The Nat-\nural History of Pliny is a most valuable store-house of the knowl-\nedge of the ancients in physics, economics, and the arts and sciences.","height":"3536","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0079.jp2"},"80":{"fulltext":"76 ANCIENT HISTORY.\nIt is to be regretted that the style is unsuitable to the matter, being\ntoo frequently florid, declamatory, and obscure.\n7. The philosophy of Epicurus was unknown in the early ages\nof the Roman commonwealth. It was introduced with luxury, and\nkept pace in its advancement with the corruption of manners. Cin-\nneas having discoursed on the tenets of Epicurus at the table of\nPyrrhus, Fabricius exclaimed, May the enemies of Rome ever\nentertain such principles! Yet these principles were, in a short\ntime from that period, too current among the citizens of Rome.\nSECTION XXXVIII.\nOF THE PUBLIC AND PRIVATE MANNERS OF THE ROMANS.\n1. The manners of the Romans in the early ages of the republic\nwere so different from those of the latter times, that one should be\nled to suppose some very extraordinary causes to have co-operated\nto produce so remarkable a change yet the transition is easy to be\naccounted for. A spirit of temperance, of frugality, and probity, is\nthe characteristic of every infant establishment. A virtuous simpli-\ncity of manners, and a rigour of military discipline, paved the way\nfor the extension of the Roman arms, and for their prodigious con-\nquests. These conquest introduced wealth, luxury, and corruption.\n2. In the early times of the republic the patricians, when in the\ncountry, forgot the distinction of ranks, and laboured in the cultiva-\ntion of their fields, like the meanest plebeians. We have the exam-\n51es of Cincinnatus, Curius, the elder Cato, and Scipio Africanus.\n?he town was visited only every ninth day, which was the market\nday. In those times of virtuous simplicity, says Sallust, Domi mili-\ntixeque boni mores colebantur. Duabus artibus, audacia in bello, ubi pax\nevenerat, cequitate, seque remque publicam curabant. Good manners were\ncultivated both in peace and war. By two means, valour in war, and\nequity in peace, they supported themselves and the commonwealth. But\nwhen the Romans had extended their dominion, in consequence of this\nvery discipline and these manners, they imported with the wealth of\nthe conquered nations their tastes, their manners, and their vices.\n3. The Romans had no natural taste in the line arts. On the con-\nquest of Greece an immense field opened at once to their eyes, and\nthe master-pieces of art poured in upon them in abundance. But\nthey could not appreciate their excellences. The Roman luxury, as\nfar as the arts were concerned, was in general displayed in an\nawkward, heavy, and tasteless magnificence.\n4. The public and private life of the Romans will be best eluci-\ndated by a short account of the manner in which the day was pass-\ned at Rome both, by the higher and lower ranks of the people.\nBy a part of the citizens the morning hours were spent in visiting\nthe temples, by others in attending the levees of the great. The\ndientes (clients) waited on their patroni (patrons); the patricians\nvisited one another, or paid their compliments to tne leaders of the\nrepublic. Popularity was always the first object of ambition at\nRome, as paving the way to all advancement. From the levee they\nproceeded to the forum, either to assist in the public business, or for\namusement. There the time was spent till noon, which was the\nhour of dinner among the Romans. This was chiefly a very light\nrepast, of which it wvs not customary to invite any guests to partake.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0080.jp2"},"81":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 77\nAfter dinner the youth repaired to the Campus Martius, where they\noccupied themselves in atnletic exercises and sports till sunset. The\nelder class retired for an hour to repose, and then passed the after-\nnoon in their porticoes, galleries or libraries, where they enjoyed the\nconversation of their friends, or heard recitations of literary works\nothers repaired to the theatres, or to the shows of the circus and\namphitheatre.\n5. Combats of gladiators were introduced for the first time about\nthe 400th year of the city. These and combats with wild beasts soon\nbecame a favourite amusement among the Romans. The spirit of\nluxury, which in general is not unfavourable to humanity, showed its\nprogress among the Romans by an increasing ferocity and inhumanity\nof the public spectacles. Theatrical entertainments were in high\nrequest. (Sect. XXXVI, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.) The taste for pantomime\ncame to such a height, that the art was taught in public schools, and\nthe nobility and people were divided into parties in favour of the\nrival performers an abuse which called at length for the interposi-\ntion of the laws.\n6. From the porticoes, or from the theatre and amphitheatre, it waa\ncustomary to go to the baths, of which there were many for the use\nof the public. The rich had baths in their own houses, vying with\neach other in this as in every other article of luxury or magnificence.\nFrom the bath they went immediately to supper, generally about the\nninth or tenth hour, counting from sunrise. At table they reclined\non couches. The luxury of the Roman suppers far exceeded every\nthing known among the moderns. An anteccenium of pickles and\nspices was presented to prepare and sharpen the appetite. Cook-\nery became a science. The number and costliness of the dishes\nwere incredible. The entertainment was heightened by every thing\ngratifying to the senses; by male and female dancers, musicians,\npantomimes, and even shows of gladiators.\n7. In the end of the republic pleasure and amusement were the\ndarling object of all ranks of the citizens: they sought no more than\npanem et circenses {bread and games in the circus).\nSECTION XXXIX.\nOF THE ART OF WAR AMONG THE ROMANS.\n1 From the prodigious success which attended the arms of tne\nRomans, and the dominion which they acquired over the greater\npart of the known world, it seems a natural inference that they must\nhave excelled all the contemporary nations in the military art. Vege-\ntius expressly assigns their extensive conquests to that cause alone.\nIt is the discipline of an army that makes a multitude act as one man.\nIt likewise increases the courage of troops for each individual con-\nfides in the steady co-operation of his fellows.\n2. From the constant practice of athletic exercises, the Romans\nwere inured from infancy to hardiness and fatigue, and bred to that\nspecies of life, which a soldier leads in the most active campaign in\nthe field.\n3. The levies were made annually, by the tribes called out, and\ndivided into their respective number of centuries; each century pre-\nsenting by rotation, as many soldiers as there were legions intended\nto be raised; and the tribunes of the several legions taking their turn","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0081.jp2"},"82":{"fulltext":"78 ANCIENT HISTORY.\nby rotation in the selection of the men presented by the centuries\n(Sect. XXIV, 16.) The number of soldiers in the legion was vari-\nous at different periods, from 3,000 to 10,000 and 11,000.\n4. Among the ancient nations there were usually two different\narrangements of the troops in order of battle. One the phalanx,\nor close arrangement in a rectangular form, intersected only by\ngreat divisions a disposition commonly used by the Greeks, and\nby most of the barbarous nations. The other the quincunx or\nchequer, consisting of small companies or platoons, disposed in three\nstraight lines, with alternate spaces between the companies equal\nto the space occupied by each company. In the first line were the\nhastati, in the second the principes, and in the third the triarii. On\nthe flanks of the first line were the cavalry, in detached companies;\nand in front of the line were the velites, or light-armed troops, who\nusually began with a skirmishing attack, and then were withdrawn, to\nmake way for the main body to come into action. The advantages\nof this arrangement we-re, that the line of battle could be three\ntimes formed with fresh troops, and that it was more adapted than\nany other for rapid changes of movement. In the Roman legion,\nthe arms of the hastati and ptincipes were the pilum or heavy jave-\nlin, and the sword and buckler and of the triarii, the long spear,\nwith the sword and buckler.\n5. Notwithstanding these advantages the quincunx went into disuse\ntoward the end of the republic, and from that time various arrange-\nments of the legion were used according to circumstances. The\nRoman tactics are supposed to have been at their greatest pitch of\nexcellence during the Punic wars. Hannibal was a great master of\nthe science of tactics and the Romans profited by the experience\nof his ability. The battle of Cannse, as described by Polybius,\naffords signal evidence of the great talents of the Carthaginian gen-\neral. The description of that battle has been misrepresented by\nFolard but it is accurately explained in the Memoires Militaires of\nM. Guischardt. If the quincunx disposition had been kept by the\nRoman army in that engagement, the event might have been very\ndifferent for it would have disappointed the effect of an artful\nmanoeuvre planned by Hannibal, on observing his enemy s army\narranged in the unusual order of the phalanx.\n6. The art of intrenchment was carried to perfection by the Ro-\nmans, particularly by Julius Caesar. With 60,000 men he defended\nhimself in his intrenchments before Alexia, while the lines of cir\ncumvallation were attacked by 240,000 Gauls, and the lines of counter\nvaliation by 80,000, without effect. These intrenchments consisted\nof a ditch from nine to fifteen feet in depth and width, fenced on the\ninside by the mound of excavated earth, and on the outside by strong\nstakes with pointed branches.\n7. In besieging a town several camps were formed round the\nplace, joined to one another by lines of circumvallation and coun-\ntervallation. A mound of earth {agger) was raised, beginning by a\ngentle slope from one of the camps, and gradually rising in elevation\nas it approached the city. The front, where the workmen were\nemployed, was defended by a curtain of hides fixed on strong posts.\nOn this mound the engines of attack, catapultas and balisfce, were\nadvanced, till they played on the very spot which the besiegers wish-\ned to assail. The catapultm discharged heavy stones, the balistat\narrows. The same machines were used by the besieged for annoy\nin^ the enemy. When the engines on the terrace had driven the","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0082.jp2"},"83":{"fulltext":"AJSCIENT HISTORY. 79\nbesieged from the walls, the battering-ram (aries) was then brought\nup under a pent-house Uestudo) and, if it once reached the wall, was\ngenerally decisive of the fate of the town. The main object of the\nbesieged was therefore to prevent its approach by every power of\nannoyance. Stones, darts, and combustible matters were continually\nlaunched upon the assailants and sometimes a mine was dug from\nthe city to scoop away the terrace and all its engines. These arts\nof attack and defence of fortified places were in general use among\nthe nations of antiquity, and continued down to modern times, till the\ninvention of gunpowder.\n8. The naval military art was utterly unknown among the Ro-\nmans till the first Punic war. A Carthaginian galley was the first\nmodel of a vessel of war. In the space of two months they equipped\na fleet of 100 gallies of five banks of oars, and 20 of three banks.\nThe structure of those gallies, and the mode of arranging the row-\ners, may be learned from the ancient sculptures and medals. The\ncombatants at sea assailed at a distance with javelins, missile com-\nbustibles, and sometimes with catapultce and balistce; but the serious\nattack was made in boarding, when the vessels were grappled by\nmeans of a crane let down from the prow.\n9. In the times of the empire, the Romans maintained their distant\nconquests, not only by their armies, but by their fleets. The ships\nwere moored in the large rivers and bays and both the legions and\nthe fleets generally preserved a fixed station.\nSECTION XL.\nREFLECTIONS ARISING FROM A VIEW OF THE ROMAN HIS\nTORY DURING THE COMMONWEALTH.\n1. The history of all nations evinces, that there is an inseparable\nconnexion between the morals of a people and their political pros-\nperity. But we have no stronger demonstration of this truth than\nthe annals of the Roman commonwealth. To limit to republics alone\nthe necessity of virtue as a principle, is a chimerical notion, fraught\nwith dangerous consequences. Quid leges sine moribus nance, prqfici-\nunt {laws without morals avail notfiing) is a sentiment equally appli-\ncable to all governments and no political system, however excellent\nits fabric, can possess any measure of duration, without that power-\nful cement, virtue, in the principles and manners of the people. (Sect.\nXIX, §4.)\n2. The love of our country, and the desire for its rational liberty,\nare noble and virtuous feelings and their prevalence is ever a test\nof the integrity of the national morals. But no term has been more\nrostituted than the word liberty. In a corrupted people the cry for\niberty is heard the loudest among the most profligate of the commu-\nnity. With these its meaning has no relation to patriotism it im-\nports no more than the aversion to restraint and the personal char-\nacter of the demagogue, and the private morals of his disciples, are\nalways sufficient to unmask the counterfeit. The spirit of patriot-\nism and a general corruption of manners cannot possibly be coexis-\ntent in the same age and nation.\n3. On the other hand, while the morals of a people are pure, no\npublic misfortune is irretrievable, nor any political situation so des-\nperate, that hope may not remain of a favourable change. In such\nsituations the spirit of patriotism pervading all ranks of the state will","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0083.jp2"},"84":{"fulltext":"80 ANCIENT HISTORY.\nsoon recover the national prosperity. The history of the Roman peo\npie, and that of the Grecian states, in various crises, both of honoui\nand of disgrace, affords proofs alike of this position and of its converse.\n4. The national character of the Romans seems to have under\ngone its most remarkable change for the worse from the time of th«\ndestruction of their rival, Carthage. Sallust assigns the cause Ante\nCarthaginem deletam, metus hostilis in bonis artibus civitatem retinebat.\nSed ubi illaformido mentibus decessit, scilicet ea quoe secundce res amant,\nlascivia atque superbia invasere. Before the destruction of Carthage,\nthe fear of their enemy kept the people in the practice of virtue but when\nthe restraint of fear ceased to influence their conduct, they abandoned therrtr\nselves to profligacy and arrogance, the usual concomitants of prosperity.\n5. In the last ages of the commonwealth, avarice and ambition,\nunrestrained by moral principle, were the chief motives of the Ro-\nman conquests. It was sufficient reason for going to war, that a\ncountry offered a tempting object to the rapacity and ambition of\nthe military leaders. The conquest of Italy paved the way for the\nreduction of foreign nations. Hence the Romans imported, with their\nwealth, the manners, the luxuries, and the vices of the nations which\nthey subdued. The generals returned not as formerly, after a suc-\ncessful war, to the labours of the field, and to a life of temperance\nand industry. They were now the governors of kingdoms and prov-\ninces and at the period of their command abroad, disdaining the\nrestraints of a subject, they could be satisfied with nothing less than\nsovereignty at home. The armies, debauched by the plunder of\nkingdoms, were completely disposed to support them in all their\nschemes of ambition and Uie populace, won by corruption, alwayi\ntook part with the chief who best could pay for their favour and\nsupport. Force or bribery overruled every election and the in-\nhabitants of distant states, now holding the right of citizens, were\nbrought to Rome, at the command of the demagogue, to influence\nany popular contest, and turn the scale in his favour. In a govern-\nment thus irretrievably destroyed by the decay of those springs\nwhich supported it, it was of little consequence by what particular\ntyrant, usurper, or demagogue, its ruin was finally accomplished.\n6. From a consideration of the rise and fall of the principal states\nof antiquity, it has been a commonly received opinion, that the con-\nstitution of empires has, like the human body, a period of growth,\nmaturity, decline, and extinction. But arguments from analogy are\nextremely deceitful, and particularly so when the analogy is from\nphysical to moral truths. The human body is, from its fabric, natu-\nrally subject to decay, and is perpetually undergoing a change from\ntime. Its organs, at first weak, attain gradually their perfect\nstrength, and thence, by a similar gradation, proceed to decay and\ndissolution. This is an immutable law of its nature. But the springs\nof the body politic do not necessarily undergo a perpetual change\nfrom time, it is not regularly progressive from weakness to strength,\nand thence to decay and dissolution nor is it under the influence\nof any principle of corruption which may not be checked, and even\neradicated, by wholesome laws. Thus the beginning of the cor-\nruption of Sparta is attributed to Lysander s breach of the institu-\ntions ol Lycurgus, in introducing gold into the treasury of the state\ninstead of its iron money. But was this a necessary, or an unavoid\nable measure Perhaps a single vote in the senate decreed its adop-\ntion, and therefore another suffrage might have prevented, or long\npostponed, the downfal of the commonwealth. The Roman repub-","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0084.jp2"},"85":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 8!\nlie owed its dissolution to the extension of its dominions. If it had\nbeen a capital crime for any Roman citizen to have proposed to\ncarry the arms of the republic beyond the limits of Italy, its consti-\ntution might have been preserved for many ages beyond the period\nof its actual duration. Accustom your mind, said Phocion to\nAristias, to discern, in the fate of nations, that recompense which\nthe great Author of nature has annexed to the practice of virtue.\nNo state ever ceased to be prosperous, but in consequence of having\ndeparted from those institutions to which she owed her prosperity.\nHistory indeed has shown that all states and empires have had their\nEeriod of duration but history, instructing us in the causes which\nave produced their decline and fall, inculcates also this salutary\nlesson, that nations are in general the masters of their own destiny,\nand that they may, and most certainly ought to, aspire at immortality.\n7. It was a great desideratum in ancient politics, that a government\nshould possess within itself the power of periodical reformation a\ncapacity of checking any overgrowth of authority in any of its\nbranches, and of winding up the machine, or bringing back the con-\nstitution to its first principles. To the want of such a power in the\nstates of antiquity (which they ineffectually endeavoured to supply\nby such partial contrivances as the ostracism and petalism) we may\ncertainly ascribe, in no small degree, the decay of those states for\nin their governments, when the balance was once destroyed, the\nevil grew worse from day to day, and admitted no remedy but a\nrevolution, or entire change of the system. The British constitu-\ntion possesses this inestimable advantage over all the governments\nboth of ancient and modern times, with the single exception of the\ngovernment of the United States of America. Besides the perpetua*\nEower of reform vested in parliament, the constitution may be puri-\ned of every abuse, and brought back to its first principles, at the\ncommencement of every reign. But of this we shall afterwards\ntreat in its proper place.\nSECTION XLI.\nROME UNDER THE EMPERORS.\nt. The battle of Actium decided the fate of the commonwealtn,\nand Octavius, now named Augustus, was master of the Roman\nempire. He possessed completely the sagacity of discerning what\ncharacter was best fitted for gaining the affections of the people\nwhom he governed, and the versatility of temper and genius to as-\nsume it. His virtues, though the result of policy, not of nature, were\ncertainly favourable to the happiness, and even to the liberties of\nhis subjects. The fate of Caesar warned him of the insecurity of a\nusurped dominion and therefore, while he studiously imitated the\nengaging manners and clemency of his great predecessor, he affect-\ned a much higher degree of moderation, and respect for the rights of\nthe people.\n2. The temple of Janus was shut, which nad been open for 188\nyears, since the beginning of the second Punic war an event pro-\nductive of universal joy. The Romans (says Condillac) now be-\nlieved themselves a free people, since they nad no longer to fight for\ntheir liberty. The sovereign kept up this delusion, by maintaining\nthe ancient forms of the republican constitution, in the election of\nU","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0085.jp2"},"86":{"fulltext":"82 ANCIENT HISTORY.\nmagistrates, c, though they were nothing more than forms. He\neven pretended to consider his own function as merely a temporary\nadministration for the public benefit. Invested with the consulate\nand censorship, he went through the regular forms of periodical\nelection to those offices, and at the end ol the seventh year of his\ngovernment actually announced to the senate his resignation of all\nauthority. The consequence was a general supplication of the sen-\nate and people, that he would not abandon the republic, which he\nhad saved from destruction. Since it must be so, said he, I accept\nthe empire for ten years, unless the public tranquillity shall, before\nthe expiration of that time, permit me to enjoy retirement, which\nI passionately long for. He repeated the same mockery five times\nin the course of his government, accepting the administration some-\ntimes for ten, and sometimes only for five years.\n3. It was much to the credit of Augustus, that in the government\nof the empire he reposed unlimited confidence in Mecaenas, a most\nable minister, who had sincerely at heart the interest and happiness\nof the people. By his excellent counsels all public affairs were con-\nducted, and the most salutary laws enacted for the remedy of public\ngrievances, and even the correction of the morals of the people,\nTo his patronage literature and the arts owed their encouragement\nand advancement. By his influence and wise instructions Augustus\nassumed those virtues to which his heart was a stranger, and\nwhich, in their tendency to the happiness of his subjects were\nequally effectual as if they had been the genuine fruits of his nature.\n4. On the death of Marcellus, the nephew and son-in-law of Au-\ngustus, and a prince of great hopes, 23 A. C, the emperor bestowed\nhis chief favour on Marcus Agrippa, giving him his daughter Julia,\nthe widow of Marcellus, in marriage. Agrippa had considerable\nmilitary talents, and was successful in accomplishing the reduction of\nSpain, and subduing the revolted provinces of Asia. Augustus as-\nsociated Agrippa with himself in the office of censor, and would prob-\nably have given him a share of the empire, if his death had not\noccasioned a new arrangement. Julia now took for her third husband\nTiberius, who became the son-in-law of the emperor by a double\ntie, for Augustus had previously married his mother Li via. This\nartful woman, removing all of the imperial family who stood betwixt\nher and the object of her ambition, thus made room for the succes-\nsion of her son Tiberius, who, on his part, bent all his attention to gain\nthe favour and confidence ot Augustus. On the return of Tiberius\nfrom a successful campaign against the Germans, the people were\nmade to solicit the emperor to confer on him the government of the\nprovinces and the command of the armies. Augustus now gradually\nwithdrew himself from the cares of empire. He died soon after at\nNola, in Campania, in the 76th year of his age, and the 44th of his\nimperial reign, A. U. C. 767, and A. D. 14.\n5. A considerable part of the lustre thrown on the reign of Augus-\ntus is owing to the splendid colouring bestowed on his character by\nthe poets and other authors who adorned his court, and repaid his\nfavours by their adulation. Other sovereigns of much higher merits\nhave been less fortunate in obtaining the applause of posterity.\nIllacrymabilea\nUrguentur, ignotique, longa\nNocte, carent quia vate sacro. Hor. Car. Lib. IV, 9.\nUnlamented and unknown they sink into oblivion, because they have no\ninspired bard to celebrate their praise.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0086.jp2"},"87":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 83\nOne great event distinguished the reign of Augustus, the birth of\nour Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, which, according to the best\nauthorities, happened A. U. C. 754, and four years before the vulgai\ndate of the christian aera.*\n5. Augustus had named Tiberius his heir, together with his moth-\ner Livia and had substituted to them Drusus, the son of Tiberius,\nand Germanicus. Tiberius was vicious, debauched, and cruel yel\nthe very dread of his character operated in securing an easy suc-\ncession to the empire. An embassy from the senate entreated him\nto accept the government, which he modestly affected to decline,\nbut suffered himself to be won by their supplications. Notwithstand-\ning these symptoms of moderation, it soon appeared that the power\nenjoyed by his predecessor was too limited for the ambition of Ti-\nberius. It was not enough that the substance of the republic was\ngone the very appearance of it was now to be demolished. The\npeople were no longer assembled, and the magistrates of the state\nwere supplied by the imperial will.\n6. Germanicus, the nephew of Tiberius, became the object of his\njealousy, from the glory which he had acquired by his military ex-\nploits in Germany, and the high favour in which he stood with the\nRoman people. He was recalled in the midst of his successes, and\ndespatched to the oriental provinces, where he soon after died; and it\nwas generally believed that he was poisoned by the emperor s com-\nmand.\n7. jElius Sejanus, praefect of the praetorian guards, the favourite\ncounsellor of Tiberius, and the obsequious minister of his tyranny\nand crimes, conceived the daring project of a revolution, whicn\n•hould place himself on the throne, by the extermination of the whole\nimperial family. Drusus, the son of the emperor, was destroyed by\npoison. Agrippina, the widow of Germanicus, with her elder son,\nwas banished and the younger son was confined in prison. Tibe-\nrius was persuaded by Sejanus, under the pretence of the discovery\nof plots for his assassination, to retire from Rome to the Isle of\nCapreae, and devolve the government upon his faithful minister.\nBut while Sejanus, thus far successful, meditated the last step to the\naccomplishment of his wishes, by the murder of his sovereign, his\ntreason was detected and the emperor despatched his mandate to the\nsenate, which was followed by his immediate sentence and execution.\nThe public indignation was not satisfied with his death the populace\ntore Bis body to pieces, and flung it into the Tiber.\n8. Tiberius now became utterly negligent of the cares of govern-\nment, and the imperial power was displayed only in public execu-\ntions, confiscations, and scenes of cruelty and rapine. At length the\ntyrant falling sick was strangled in his Bed by Macro, the praefect of\nthe praetorian guards, in the 78th year of his age, and the 23d of his\nreign.\n9. In the 18th year of Tiberius, our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ,\nthe divine author of our religion, suffered death upon the cross, a\nsacrifice and propitiation for the sins of mankind, A. D. 33.\n10. Tiberius had nominated for his heir, Caligula the son of Ger-\nmanicus, his grandson by adoption and had joined with him Tibe-\nrius the son of Drusus, his grandson by blood. The former enjoyed,\non his father s account, the favour of the people and the senate, to\nSee Dr. Playfair s System of Chronology, p. 49, 50, a work of great\nesearch and accuracy, and by far the best on that subject.","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0087.jp2"},"88":{"fulltext":"84 AJNC1EJST HISTOKY.\ngratify them, set aside the right of his colleague, and conferred on\nEim the empire undivided. The commencement of his reign was\nsignalized by a few acts of clemency, and even good policy. He\nrestored the privileges of the comitia, and abolished arbitrary prose-\ncutions for crimes of state. But, tyrannical and cruel by nature, he\nsubstituted military execution for legal punishment. The provinces\nwere loaded with the most oppressive taxes, and daily confiscations\nfilled the imperial coffers. The follies and absurdities of Caligula\nwere equal to his vices, and it is hard to say whether he was most the\nobject of hatred or of contempt to his subjects. He perished by\nassassination in the fourth year of his reign, the twenty-ninth of his\nage, A. U. C. 794, A. D. 42.\n11. Claudius, the uncle of Caligula, was saluted emperor by the\npraetorian guards, who had been the murderers of his nephew. He\nwas the son of Octavia, the sister of Augustus a man of weak in-\ntellects, and of no education. His short reign was marked by an\nenterprise of importance. He undertook the reduction of Britain,\nand after visiting the island in person, left his generals, Plautius and\nVespasian, to prosecute a war which was carried on for several years\nwith various success. The Silures or inhabitants of South Wales,\nunder their king Caractacus (Caradoc), made a brave resistance, but\nwere finally defeated; and Caractacus was led captive to Rome,\nwhere the magnanimity of his demeanour procured him respect and\nadmiration.\n12. The civil administration of Claudius was weak and contempt-\nible. He was the slave even of his domestics, and the dupe of his in-\nfamous wives Messalina and Agrippina. The former, abandoned to\nthe most shameful profligacy, was at length but to death on suspi-\ncion of treasonable designs. The latter, who was the daughter oi\nGermanicus, bent her utmost endeavours to secure the succession to\nthe empire to her son Domitius Oenobardus, and employed every\nengine of vice and inhumanity to remove the obstacles to the accom-\nplishment of her wishes. Having at length prevailed on Claudius to\nadopt her son, and confer on him the title of Caesar, to the exclusion\nof his own son Britannicus, she now made room for the immediate\nelevation of Domitius, by poisoning her husband. Claudius waf\nput to death in the 15th year of his reign, and the 63d c£ his age.\nSECTION XLI1.\n1. The son of Agrippina assumed the title of Nero Claudius. He\nhad enjoyed the beneht of a good education under the philosopher\nSeneca, but reaped from his instructions no other fruit than a pedan-\ntic affectation of taste and learning, with no real pretension to either.\nWhile controledby his tutor Seneca, and by Burrhus, captain of\nthe praetorian guards, a man of worth and ability, Nero maintained\nfor a short time a decency of public conduct but the restraint was\nintolerable, and nature soon broke out. His real character was a\ncompound of every thing that is base and inhuman. In the murder\nof his mother Agrippina he revenged the crime which she had\ncommitted in raising him to the throne he rewarded the fidelity\nof Burrhus, by poisoning him and as a last kindness to his tutor\nSeneca he allowed him to choose the mode of his death. It was his\ndarling amusement to exhibit on the stage and amphitheatre as an","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0088.jp2"},"89":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 85\nactor, musician, or gladiatoi. At length, become the object of\nuniversal hatred and contempt, a rebellion of his subjects, headed by\nVindex, an illustrious Gaul, hurled this monster from the throne.\nHe had not courage to attempt resistance and a slave, at his own\nrequest, despatched him with a dagger. Nero perished in the 30th\nyear of his age, after a reign of fourteen years, A. D, 69.\n2. Galba, the successor of Nero, was ot an ancient and illustrious\nfamily. He was in the 73d year of his age when the senate, ratify-\ning the choice of the praetorian bands, proclaimed him emperoi\nBut an impolitic rigour of discipline soon disgusted the army the\navarice of his disposition, grudging the populace their favourite\ngames and spectacles, deprived^ him of their affections; and some\niniquitous prosecutions and confiscations excited general discontent\nand mutiny. Galba, adopted and designed for his successor the able\nand virtuous Piso a measure which excited the jealousy of Otho,\nhis former favourite, and led him to form the daring plan of raising\nhimself to the throne by the destruction of both. He found the\npraetorians apt to his purpose. They proclaimed him emperor, and\npresented him, as a grateful offering, the heads of Galba and Piso\nwho were slain in quelling the insurrection. Galba had reigne*\nseven months. Major privato visus, dum pnvatus fuit, et omnium con*\nsensu capax imperii, nisi imperasset. Tacitus. He appeared to be greater\nthan a private man. while he was in a private station and by the consent\nof all was capable of governing, if he liad not governed.\n3. Otho had a formidable rival in Vitellius, who ha.l been pro-\nclaimed emperor by his army in Germany. It is hard to say which\nof the competitors was, in point of abilities, the more despicable, or\nin character the more infamous. A decisive battle was fought at\nBedriacum, near Mantua, where Otho was defeated, and in a fit of\ndespair ended his life by his own hand after a reign of three months,\nA. D. 70.\n4. The reign of Vitellius was of eight months duration. He is\nsaid to have proposed Nero for his model, and it was just that he\nshould resemble him in his fate. Vespasian had obtained from Nero\nthe charge of the war against the Jews, which he had conducted\nwith ability and success, and was proclaimed emperor by his troops\nin the east. A great part of Italy submitted to Vespasian s generals\nand Vitellius meanly capitulated to save his life, by a resignation of\nthe empire. The people, indignant at his dastardly spirit, compelled\nhim to an effort of resistance but the attempt was fruitless. Priscus.\no«e of the generals of Vespasian, took possession of Rome anil\nVitellius was massacred, and his body flung into the Tiber.\n5. Vespasian, though of mean descent, was worthy of the empire,\n\\n\\ reigned with high popularity for ten years. He possessed great\nclemency of disposition. His manners were affable and engaging,\nar*d his mode of life was characterized by simplicity and frugality.\nHe respected the ancient forms of the constitution, restored the sen-\nare to its deliberative rights, and acted by its authority in the admin-\nisti ation of all public affairs. The only blemish in his character was\na tincture of avarice, and even that is greatly extenuated by the\nlau lable and patriotic use which he made of his revenues, tinder\nhis reign, and by the arms of his son Titus, was terminated the war\nagainst the Jews. They had been brought under the yoke of Rome\nby Pompey, who took Jerusalem. They were governed for some\ntime by Herod, as viceroy under Augustus. The tyranny of his so.i\nArchelaus was the cause of his banishment, and of the reduction of\nH","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0089.jp2"},"90":{"fulltext":"86 ANCIENT HISTORY.\nhu aea into the ordinary condition of a Roman province. The Jews\nrebelled on every slight occasion, and Nero had sent Vespasian to\nreduce them to order. He had just prepared for the siege of Jeru-\nsal ;m, when he was called to Rome to assume the government of the\nen pire. Titus wished to spare the city, and tried every means\nto prevail on the Jews to surrender but in vain. Their ruin was\nde sreed by Heaven. After an obstinate blockade of six months\nJerusalem was taken by storm, the temple burnt to ashes, and the\ncify buried in ruins. The Roman empire was now in profound\npeace. Vespasian associated Titus in the imperial dignity, and\nsoon after died, universally lamented, at the age of sixty-nine, A.\nD. 79.\n6. The character of Titus was humane, munificent, dignified, and\nsplendid. His short reign was a period of great happiness and\nprosperity to the empire, and his government a constant example of\nvirtue, justice, and beneficence. In his time happened that dreadful\neruption of Vesuvius, which overwhelmed the cities of Herculaneum\n*nd Pompeii. The public losses from these calamities he repaired\nby the sacrifice of his fortune and revenues. He died in the third\nyear of his reign, and fortieth of his age ever to be remembered\nby that most exalted epithet, deticice kumani genens {the delight of\nmankind).\n7. Domitian, the brother of Titus, was suspected of murdering him\nby poison, and succeeded to the empire, A. D. 31. He was a vicious\nand inhuman tyrant. A rebellion in Germany gave him occasion to\nsignalize the barbarity of his disposition; and its consequences were\nlong felt in the sanguinary punishments inflicted under the pretence\nof justice. The prodigal and voluptuous spirit of this reign was a\nsingular contrast to its tyranny and inhumanity. The people were\nloaded with insupportable taxes to furnish spectacles and games for\ntheir amusement. The successes of Agricola in Britain threw a\nlustre on the Roman arms, no part of which reflected on the emperor,\nfor he treated this eminent commander with the basest ingratitude.\nAfter fifteen tedious years this monster fell at last the victim of assas-\nsination, the empress herself conducting the plot for his murder, A\nD. 96.\n8. Gocceius Nerva, a Cretan by birth, was chosen emperor by the\nsenate, from respect to the probity and virtues of his character.\nHe was too old for the burden of government, and of a temper too\nplacid for the restraint of rooted corruptions and enormities. His\nreign was weak, inefficient, and contemptible. His only act of real\nmerit as a sovereign, was the adoption of the virtuous Trajan as his\nsuccessor. Nerva died after a reign of sixteen months, A. D. 98.\n9. Ulpius Trajanus possessed every talent and every virtue that\ncan adorn a sovereign. Of great military abilities, and an indefatiga-\nble spirit of enterprise, he raised the Roman arms to their ancient\nsplendour, and greatly enlarged the boundaries of the empire. He\nsubdued the Dacians, conquered the Parthians, and brought under\nsubjection Assyria, Mesopotamia, and Arabia Felix. Nor was he less\neminent in promoting the happiness of his subjects, and the internal\nprosperity of the empire. His largesses were humane and munifi-\ncent. He was the friend and support of the virtuous indigent, and\nthe liberal patron of every useful art and talent. His bounties were\nsupplied by well judged economy in his private fortune, and a wise\nadministration of the public finances. In his own life he was a man\nof simple manners, modest, affable, fond of the familiar intercourse","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0090.jp2"},"91":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 87\nof his friends, and sensible to all the social and benevolent affections.\nHe merited the surname universally bestowed on him, Trajonm\nOptimus. He died at the ige of sixty-three, after a glorious reign of\nnineteen years, A, D. 118.\n10. iElius Adrianus, nephew of Trajan, and worthy to fill his place,\nwas chosen emperor by the army in the east, and his title was\nacknowledged by all orders of the state. Me adopted a policy differ-\nent from that of his predecessor. Judging the limits of the empire\ntoo extensive, he abandoned all the conquests of Trajan bounding\nthe eastern provinces by the Euphrates. He visited in person all the\nprovinces of the empire, reforming in his progress all abuses, reliev-\ning his subjects of every oppressive burden., rebuilding the ruined\ncities, and establishing every where a regular and mild administra-\ntion, under magistrates of approved probity and humanity. I le gave\na discharge to the indigent debtors of the state, and appointed liberal\ninstitutions for the education of the children of the poor. To the\ntalents of an able politician he joined an excellent taste in th 2 liberal\narts. His reign, which was of twenty-two years duration, was an aera\nboth of public happiness and splendour. In the last year of his life\nhe bequeathed to the empire a double legacy, in adopting for his\nimmediate successor Titus Aurelius Antoninus, and substituting An-\nnius Verus to succeed upon his death. These were the Antonines,\nwho during forty years ruled the Roman empire with consummate\nwisdom, ability, and virtue. Adrian died A. JD. 1 38, at the age of\nsixty-two.\nSECTION XLIll.\nAGE OF THE ANTONINES, c.\n1. The happiest reigns furnish the fewest events for the pen of\nhistory. Antoninus was the father of his people. He preferred\npeace to the ambition of conquest; yet in every necessary war\nthe Roman arms had their wonted renown. The British province\nwas enlarged by the enquests of Urbicus, and some formidable\nrebellions were subdued in Germany, Dacia, and the east. The\ndomestic administration of the sovereign was dignified, splendid, and\nhumane. With all the virtues of Numa, his love of religion, peace,\nand justice, he had the superior advantage of diffusing these blessings\nover a great portion of the world. He died at the age of seventy-\nfour, after a reign of twenty-two years, A. D. 161.\n2. Annius Verus assumed, at his accession, the name of Marcus\nAurelius Antoninus, and bestowed on his brother Lucius Verus a joint\nadministration of the empire. The former was as eminent for the\nworth and virtues of his character, as the latter was remarkable for\nprofligacy, meanness, and vice. Marcus Aurelius was attached boil\nby nature and education to the Stoical philosophy, which he has ad\nmirably taught and illustrated in his Meditations. His own life wa\nthe best commentary on his precepts. The Parthians were repulsed\nin an attack upon the empire, and a rebellion of the Germans was\nsubdued In these wars the mean and worthless Verus brought dis-\ngrace upon the Roman name in every region where he commanded\nbut fortunately relieved the empire of its fears by an early death.\nThe residue of the reign of Marcus Aurelius was a continued bless-\ning to his subjects. He reformed the internal policy of the state,\nregulated the government of the provinces, and visited himself, for","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0091.jp2"},"92":{"fulltext":"88 ANCIENT HISTORY.\nthe purposes of beneficence, the most distant quarters of his domin-\nions. He appeared, says an ancient author, like some benevo-\nlent deity, diffusing around him universal peace and happiness. He\ndied in rannonia, in the 59th year of his age, and 19th of his reign,\nA. D. 180.\n3. Commodus, his most unworthy son, succeeded to the empire\non his death. He resembled in character his mother Faustina, a\nwoman infamous for all manner of vice. Her profligacy was known\nto all but her husband Marcus, by whom she was regarded as a para-\ngon ol virtue. Commodus had an aversion to every rational and\nliberal pursuit, and a fond attachment to the sports of the circus and\namphitheatre, the hunting of wild beasts, and the combats of boxers\nand gladiators. The measures of this reign were as unimportant as\nthe character of the sovereign was contemptible. His concubine and\nsome of his chief officers prevented their own destruction by assas-\nsinating the tyrant, in the 32d year of his age, and 13th of his\nreign, A. D. 193.\n4. The praetorian guards gave the empire to Publius Helvius\nPertinax, a man of mean birth, who had risen to esteem by his vir-\ntues and military talents. He applied himself with zeal to the cor-\nrection of abuses; but the austerity of his government deprived him\nof the affections of a corrupted people. He had disappointed the\n.army of a promised reward, and, after a reign of eighty-six days,\nwas murdered in the imperial palace by the same hands which had\nplaced him on the throne.\n5. The empire was now put up to auction by the praetorians, and\nwas purchased by Didius Julianus while Pescenius Niger in Asia,\nClodius Albinus in Britain, and Septimius Severus in Iiiyria, were\neach chosen emperor by the troops which they commanded. Se-\nverus marched to Rome, and, on his approach, the praetorians aban-\ndoned Didius, who had failed to pay the stipulated price for his ele-\nvation and the senate formally deposed to put him to death. Seve-\nrus being now master of Rome, prepared to reduce the provinces\nwhich had acknowledged the sovereignty of Niger and Albinus.\nThese two rivals were successively subdued. Niger was slain in\nbattle, and Albinus fell by his own hands. The administration of Se-\nverus was wise and equitable, but tinctured with despotic rigour.\nIt was his purpose to erect the fabric of absolute monarchy, and all\nhis institutions operated with able policy to that end. He possessed\neminent military talents. He gloriously boasted, that, having re-\nceived the empire oppressed with foreign and domestic wars, he left\nit in profound, universal, and honourable peace. He carried with\nhim into Britain his two sons, Caracalla and Geta, whose unpromis-\ning dispositions clouded his latter days. In this war the Caledonians\nunder Fingal are said to have defeated, on the banks of the Carron,\nCaracul, the son of the king of the world. Severus died at York, in\nthe 66th year of his age, after a reign of eighteen years, A. D. 21 1.\n6. The mutual hatred of Caracalla and Geta was increased by\ntheir association in the empire and the former, with brutal inhu-\nmanity, caused his brother to be openly murdered in the arms of his\nmother. His reign, which was of six years duration, and one con-\ntinued series of atrocities, was at length terminated by assassination,\nA D. 217.\n7. Those disorders in the empire which began with Commodus\ncontinued for about a century, till the accession of Diocletian. That\ninterval was filled by the reigns of Heliogabalus, Alexander Severus,","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0092.jp2"},"93":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 89\nMarimin, Gordian, Decius, Gallus, Valerianus, Gallienus, Claudius,\nAurelianus, Tacitus, Probus, and Carus a period of which the an-\nnals furnish neither amusement nor useful information. The single\nexception is the reign of Alexander Severus, a mild, beneficent, and\nenlightened prince, whose character shines the more from the con-\ntrast of those who preceded and followed him.\n8. Diocletian began his reign A. D. 284, and introduced a new\nsystem of administration, dividing the empire into four governments,\nunder as many princes. Maximian shared with him the title of\nAugustus, and Galerius an,AConstantius were declared Caesars. Each\nhad his separate department or province, all nominally supreme, but\nin reality under the direction of the superior talents and authority of\nDiocletian an unwise policy, which depended for its efficacy on\nindividual ability alone. Diocletian and Maximian, trusting to the\ncontinuance of that order in the empire which their vigour had\nestablished, retired from sovereignty, and left the government in the\nhands of the Caesars but Constantius died soon after in Britain, and\nhis son Constantine was proclaimed emperor at York, though Gale-\nrius did not acknowledge his title. Maximian, however, having once\nmore resumed the purple, bestowed on Constantine his daughter in\nmarriage, and thus invested him with a double title to empire. On\nthe death of Maximian and Galerius, Constantine had no other com-\npetitor but Maxentius, the son of the former, and the contest between\nthem was decided by the sword. Maxentius fell in battle, and Con-\nstantine remained sole master of the empire.\n9. The administration of Constantine was, in the beginning of his\nreign, mild, equitable, and politic. Though zealously attached to\nthe christian faith, he made no violent innovations on the religion of\nthe state. He introduced order and economy into the civil govern-\nment, and repressed every species of oppression and corruption.\nBut his natural temper was severe and cruel, and the latter part of\nhis reign was as much deformed by intolerant zeal and sanguinary\nrigour, as the former had been remarkable for equity and benignity.\nFrom this unfavourable change of character he lost the affections of\nhis subjects and, from a feeling probably of reciprocal disgust, he\nremoved the seat of the Roman empire to Byzantium, now termed\nConstantinople. The court followed the sovereign; the opulent\nproprietors were attended by their slaves and retainers. Rome was\nm a few years greatly depopulated, and the new capital swelled at\nonce to enormous magnitude. It was characterized by eastern\nsplendour, luxury, and voluptuousness; and the cities of Greece\nwere despoiled for its embellishments. Of the internal policy of\nthe empire we shall treat in the next section. In an expedition\nagainst the Persians, Constantine died at Nicomedia, in the 30th\nyear of his reigiu and 63d of his age, A. D. 337. In the time of\nConstantine the Goths had made several irruptions on the empire,\nand, though repulsed and beaten, began gradually to encroach on\nthe provinces.\nH2 12","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0093.jp2"},"94":{"fulltext":"90 ANCIENT HISTORY.\nSECTION XL1V.\nSTATE OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE AT THE TIME OF CON-\nSTANTINE. HIS SUCCESSORS.\n1. In lieu of the ancient republican distinctions, which were\nfounded chiefly on personal merit, a rigid subordination of rank and\noffice now went through all the orders of the state. The magis-\ntrates were divided into three classes, distinguished by the unmean-\ning titles of, 1 the illustrious 2, the respectable 3, the clarissimi.\nThe epithet of illustrious was bestowed on, 1, the consuls and patri-\ncians 2, the praetorian praefects of Rome and Constantinople 3, the\nmasters-general of the cavalry and infantry 4, the seven ministers\nof the palace. The consuls were created by the sole authority of\nthe emperor their dignity was inefficient they had no appropriate\nfunction in the state, and their names served only to give the legal\ndate to the year. The dignity of patrician was not, as in ancient\ntimes, a hereditary distinction, but was bestowed, as a title of honour,\nby the emperor on his favourites. From the time of the abolition of\nthe praetorian bands by Constantine, the dignity of praetorian prae-\nfect was conferred on the civil governors of the four departments of\nthe empire. These were, the East, Illyria, Italy, and the Gauls.\nThey had the supreme administration of justice and of the finances,\nthe power of supplying all the inferior magistracies in their district,\nand an appellative jurisdiction from all its tribunals. Independent\nof their authority, Rome and Constantinople had each its own prae-\nfect, who was the chief magistrate of the city. In the second class-\nthe respectable, were the proconsuls of Asia, Achaia, and Africa,\nand the military comites and duces, generals of the imperial armies.\nThe third class, clarissimi, comprehended the inferior governors\nand magistrates of the provinces, responsible to the prefects and\ntheir deputies.\n2. The intercourse between the court and provinces was main-\ntained by the construction of roads, and the institution of regular\nCosts or couriers under which denomination were ranked the num-\nerless spies of government, whose duty was to convey all sort of\nintelligence from the remotest quarter of ihe empire to its chief\nseat. Every institution was calculated to support the fabric of des-\npotism. Torture was employed for the discovery of crimes. Taxes\nand impositions of every nature were prescribed and levied by the\nsole authority of the emperor. The quantity and rate were fixed by a\nce7isus made over all the provinces, and part was generally paid in\nmoney, part in the produce of the lands; a burden frequently found\nso grievous as to prompt to the neglect of agriculture. Every ob-\nject of merchandise and manufacture was likewise highly taxed.\nSubsidies, moreover, were exacted from all the cities, under the\nname of free gifts, on various occasions of public concerns as the\naccession of an emperor, his consulate, the birth of a prince, a victory\nover the barbarians, or anv other event of similar importance.\n3. An impolitic distinction was made between the troops stationed\nin the distant provinces and those in the heart of the empire. The\nlatter, termed palatines, enjoyed a higher pay and more peculiar\nfavour, and, having less employment, spent their time in idleness and\nluxury while the former, termed the borderers^ who, in fact, had the","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0094.jp2"},"95":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY 91\ncare of the empire, and were exposed to perpetual hard service, had,\nwith an inferior reward, the mortification of feeling themselves re-\ngarded as of meaner rank than their fellow-soldiers. Constantine like-\nwise, from a timid policy of guarding against mutinies of the troops,\nreduced the legion from its ancient complement of 5,000, 6,000,\n7,000, and 8,000, to 1,000 or 1,500; and debased the body of the\narmy by the intermixture of Scythians, Goths, and Germans.\n4. This immense mass of heterogeneous parts, which internally\nlaboured with the seeds of dissolution and corruption, was kept to-\ngether for some time by the vigorous exertion of despotic author ty.\nThe fabric was splendid and august but it wanted both that energy\nof constitution and that real dignity, which, hi former times, it derived\nfrom the exercise of heroic and patriotic virtues.\n5. Constantine, with a destructive policy, had divided the empire\namong five princes, three o( them his sons, and two nephews but\nConstantius, the youngest of the sons, finally got rid of all his com-\npetitors, and ruled the empire alone with a weak and impotent scep-\ntre. A variety of domestic broils, and mutinies of the troops against\ntheir generals, had left the western frontier to die mercy of the bar-\nbarian nations. The Franks, Saxons, Alemanni, and Sarmatians, laid\nwaste all the fine countries watered by the Rhine, and the Persians\nmade dreadful incursions on the provinces of the east. Constantius\nindolently wasted his time in theological controversies, but was pre-\nvailed on to adopt one prudent measure, the appointment ot his\ncousin Julian to the dignity of Caesar.\n6. Julian possessed many heroic qualities, and his mind was formed\nby nature tor the sovereignty of a great people but, educated at\nAthens, in the schools of the Platonic philosophy, he had unfortunately\nconceived a rooted antipathy to the doctrines of Christianity. With\nevery talent of a general, and possessing the confidence and affec-\ntion of his troops, he once more restored the glory of the Roman\narms, and successfully repressed the invasions of the barbarians.\nHis victories excited the jealousy of Constantius, who meanly re-\nsolved to remove from his command the better part of his troops. The\nconsequence was a declaration of the army, that it was their choice\nthat Julian should be their emperor. Constantius escaped the igno-\nminy that awaited him by dying at this critical juncture, and Julian\nwas immediately acknowledged sovereign of the Roman empire.\n7. The reformation of civil abuses formed the first object of his\nattention, which he next turned to the reformation, as he thought,\nof religion, by the suppression of Christianity. He began by reform-\ning the pagan theology, and sought to raise the character of its\npriests, by inculcating purity of life and sanctity of morals; thus\nbearing involuntary testimony to the superior excellence, in those\nrespects, of that religion which he laboured to abolish. Without\npersecuting he attacked the christians by the more dangerous policy\nof treating them with contempt, and removing them, as visionaries,\nfrom all employments of public trust. He refused them the benefit\nof the laws to decide their differences, because their religion forbade\nall dissensions and they were debarred the studies of literature and\nphilosophy, which they could not learn but from pagan authors. He\nwas himself, as a pagan, the slave of the most bigoted superstition,\nbelieving in omens and auguries, and fancying himself favoured with\nan actual intercourse with the gods and goddesses. To avenge the\ninjuries which the empire had sustained from the Persians, Julian\nmarched into the heart of Asia, and was for some time in the train","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0095.jp2"},"96":{"fulltext":"V\n92 ANCIENT HISTORY.\nof conquest, when, in a fatal engagement, though crowned with\nvictory, he was slain, at the age ofthirty-one, after a reign of three\nyears, A. D. 363.\n8. The Roman army was dispirited by the death of its commander.\nThey chose for their emperor Jovian, a captain of the domestic\nguards, and purchased a free retreat from the dominions of Persia\nBy the ignominious surrender of five provinces, which had been ceded\nby a former sovereign to Galerius. The short reign of Jovian, a\nperiod of seven months, was mild and equitable. He favoured Chris-\ntianity, and restored its votaries to all their privileges as subjects.\nHe died suddenly at the age of thirty-three.\n9. Valentinian was chosen emperor by the army on the death of\nJovian; a man of obscure birth and severe manners, but of consider-\nable military talents. He associated with himself in the empire his\nbrother Valens, to whom he gave the dominion of the eastern prov-\ninces, reserving to himself the western. The Persians, under Sapor,\nwere making inroads on the former, and the latter was subject to\ncontinual invasion from the northern barbarians. They were suc-\ncessfully repelled by Valentinian in many battles and his domestic\nadministration was wise, equitable, and politic. The christian reli-\ngion was favoured by the emperor, though not promoted by the\npersecution of its adversaries a contrast to the conduct of his\nbrother Valens, who, intemperately supporting the Arian heresy, set\nthe whole provinces in a flame, and drew a swarm of invaders upon\nthe empire in the guise of friends and allies, who in the end entirely\nsubverted it. These were the Goths, who, migrating from Scandi\nnavia, had, in the second century, settled on the banks of the Palus\nMoeotis, and thence gradually extended their territory. In the reign of\nValens they took possession of Dacia, and were known by the distinct\nappellation of Ostrogoths and Visigoths, or eastern and western Goths\na remarkable people, whose manners, customs, government, and\nlaws, are afterwards to be particularly noted.\n10. Valentinian died on an expedition against the Alemanni, and\nwas succeeded in the empire of the west by Gratian, his eldest son,\na boy of sixteen years of age, A. D. 367. Valens, in the east, was\nthe scourge of his people. The Huns, a new race of barbarians, of\nTartar or Siberian origin, now poured down on the provinces both\nof the west and east. The Goths, comparatively a civilized people,\nfled before them. The Visigoths, who were first attacked, requested\nprotection from the empire, and Valens imprudently gave them a\nsettlement in Thrace. r I he Ostrogoths made the same request, and*\non refusal, forced their way into the same province. Valens gave\nthem battle at Adrianople. His army was defeated, and he was slair\nin the engagement. The Goths, unresisted, ravaged Achaia and Pan\nnonia.\n11. Gratian, a youth c\\t great worth, but of little energy of char-\nacter, assumed Theodosius as his colleague. On the early death of\nGratian, and the minority of his son Valentinian II, 1 heodosius\ngoverned, witli great ability, both the eastern and western empire.\nThe character of Theodosius, deservedly surnamed the great, was\nworthy of the best ages of the Roman state. He successfully repell-\ned the encroachments of the barbarians, and secured, by wholesome\nlaws, the prosperity of his people. He died, after a reign of\neighteen years, assigning to his sons, Arcadius and Honorius, the\nseparate sovereignties of east and west, A. D. 395.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0096.jp2"},"97":{"fulltext":"ANC ENT HISTORY.\nSECTION XLV.\nPROGRESS OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION, FROM ITS INSTI-\nTUTION TO THE EXTINCTION OF PAGANISM IN THE\nREIGN OF THEODOSIUS.\n1 The reign of Theodosius was signalized by the downfal of the\npagan superstition, and the full establishment of the christian religion\nin the Roman empire. This great revolution of opinions is highly\nworthy of attention, and naturally induces a retrospect to the condi-\non of the christian church from its institution down to this period.\nIt has been frequently remarked (because it is an obvious truth),\nthat at the time of our Saviour s birtn a divine revelation seemed to\nbe more peculiarly needed and that, from a concurrence of circum-\nstances, the state of the world was then uncommonly favourable for\nthe extensive dissemination of the doctrines which it conveyed. The\nunion of so many nations under one power, and the extension of civ-\nilization, were tavourable to the progress of a religion which pre-\nscribed universal charity and benevolence. The gross superstitions\nof paganism, and its tendency to corrupt instead of purifying the\nmorals, contributed to explode its influence with every thinking mind.\nEven the prevalent philosophy of the times, epicurism, more easily\nunderstood than the refinements of the Platonists, and more grateful\nthan the severities of the Stoics, tended to degrade human nature to\nthe level of the brute creation. The christian religion, thus neces-\nsary for the reformation of the world, found its chief partisans in those\nwho were the friends of virtue, and its enemies among the votaries\nof vice.\n2. The persecution which the christians suffered from the Romans\nhas been deemed an exception to that spirit of toleration which\nthey showed to the religions of other nations but they were toler-\nant only to those whose theologies were not hostile to their own.\nThe religion of the Romans was interwoven with their political con-\nstitution. The zeal of the christians, aiming at the suppression of all\nidolatry, was naturally regarded as dangerous to the state and hence\nthey were the object of hatred and persecution. In the first century\nthe christian church suffered deeply under Nero and Domitian\nyet those persecutions had no tendency to check the progress of its\ndoctrines.\n3. It is matter of question what was the form of the primitive\nchurch, and the nature of its government and on this head much\ndifference of opinion obtains, not only between the catholics and prot\nestants, but between the different classes of the latter, as the Luther-\nans and Calvinists. It is moreover an opinion, that our Saviour and\nhis apostles, confining their precepts to the pure doctrines of religion,\nhave left all christian societies to regulate their frame and govern-\nment in the manner best suited to the civil constitutions of the coun-\ntries m which they are established.\n4. In the second century the books of the New Testament were\ncollected into a volume by the elder fathers of the church, and re-\nceived as a canon of faith. The Old Testament had been translat-\ned from the Hebrew into Greek, by order of Ptolemy Philadelphus,\n28 i years before Christ. The early church suffered much from an\nabsurd endeavour of the more learned of its votaries to reconcile its","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0097.jp2"},"98":{"fulltext":"94 ANCIENT HISTORY.\ndoctrines to the tenets c r the pagan philosophers hence the sects of\nthe Gnostics and Ammonbns, and the Platonising christians. In the\nsecond century the Greek churches hegan to form provincial associ\nations, and to establish general rules of government and discipline.\nAssemblies were held, termed synodoi and concilia, over which a me-\ntropolitan presided. A short time after arose the superior order of\npatriarch, presiding over a large district of the christian world and\na subordination taking place even among these, the bishop of Rome\nwas acknowledged the chief of the patriarchs. Persecution still at-\ntended the early church, even under those excellent princes, Trajan,\nAdrian, and the Antonines and, in the reign of Severus, all the prov-\ninces of the empire were stained with the blood of the martyrs.\n5. The third century was more favourable to the progress of Chris-\ntianity and the tranquillity of its disciples. In those times it suffered\nless from the civil arm than from the pens of the pagan philosopers,\nTorphyry, Philostratus, ,c. but these attacks called forth the zeal\nand talents of many able defenders, as Origen, Dionysius, and Cy-\nprian. A part of the Gauls, Germany, and Britain, received the light\nof the gospel in this century.\n6. In the fourth century the christian church was alternately per-\nsecuted and cherished by the Roman emperors. Among its oppres-\nsors we rank Diocletian, Galerius, and Julian; among its favourers,\nConstantine and his sons, Valentinian, Valcns, Gratian, and the excel-\nlent Theodosius, in whose reign the pagan superstition came to its\nfinal period.\n7 From the age of Numa to the reign of Gratian the Romans\npreserved the regular succession of the several sacerdotal colleges\nthe pontiffs, augurs, vestals, Jlamines, salii. c, whose authority,\nthough weakened in the latter ages, was still protected by the laws.\nEven the christian emperors held, like their pagan predecessors, the\noffice of poniifex maximus. Gratian was the first who refused that\nancient dignity as a profanation. In the time of Theodosius the\ncause of Christianity and of paganism was solemnly debated in the\nRoman senate between Ambrose, archbishop of Milan, the champion\nof the former, and Symmachus, the defender of the latter. The\ncause of Christianity was triumphant, and the senate issued its de-\ncree for the abolition of paganism, whose downfal in the capital was\nsoon followed by its extinction in the provinces. Theodosius, with\nable policy, permitted no persecution of the ancient religion, which\nperished with more rapidity, because its fall was gentle and un-\nresisted.\n8. But the christian church exhibited a superstition in some re-\nspects little less irrational than polytheism, in the worship of saint?\nand relics; and many novel tenets, unfounded in the precepts oi\nour Saviour and his apostles, were manifestly borrowed from the\nEagan schools. The doctrines of the Platonic philosophy seem to\nave led to the notions of an intermediate state of purification, ce-\nlibacy of the priests, ascetic mortifications, penances, and monastic\nseclusion.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0098.jp2"},"99":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY.\nSECTION XL VI.\nEXTINCTION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE WEST.\n1 In the reigns of Arcadius and Honorius, the sons and successors\nof Theodosius, the barbarian nations established themselves in the\nfrontier provinces both of the east and west. Theodosius had com-\nmitted the government to Rufinus and Stilicho during the nonage of\nhis sons and their fatal dissensions gave every advantage to the\nenemies of the empire. The Huns, actually invited by Rutinus,\noverspread Armenia, Cappadocia, and Syria. The Goths, under\nAlaric, ravaged to the borders of Italy, and laid waste Achaia to the\nPeloponnesus. Stilicho, an able general, made a noble stand against\nthese invaders but his plans were frustrated by the machinations\nof his rivals, and the weakness of Arcadius, who purchased an\nignominious peace, by ceding to Alaric the whole of Greece.\n2. Alaric, now styled king of the Visigoths, prepared to add Italy\nto his new dominions. He passed the Alps, and was carrying all\nbefore him, when, amused by the politic Stilicho with the prospect\nof a new cession of territory, he was attacked unawares, and defeated\nby that general, then commanding the armies of Honorius. The\nemperor triumphantly celebrated, on that occasion, the eternal defeat\nof the Gothic nation an eternity bounded by the lapse of a few\nmonths. In this interval, a torrent of the Goths breaking down upon\nGermany forced the nations whom they dispossessed, the Suevi,\nAlani, and Vandals, to precipitate themselves upon Italy. They\njoined their arms to those of Alaric, who, thus reinforced, determined\nto overwhelm Rome. The policy of Stilicho made him change his\npurpose, on the promise of 4,000 pounds weight of gold a promise\nrepeatedly broken by Honorius, and its violation finally revenged by\nAlaric, by the sack and plunder of the city, A. D. 410. With gene-\nrous magnanimity he spared the lives of the vanquished, and, with\nsingular liberality of spirit, was anxious to preserve every ancient\nedi.ice from destruction.\nAlaric, preparing now for the conquest of Sicily and Africa,\ndied at this aera of his highest glory; and Honorius, instead of profit-\ning by this event to recover his lost provinces, made a treaty with\nhis successor Ataulfus, gave him in marriage his sister Placidia, and\nsecured his friendship by ceding to him a portion of Spain, while a\ngreat part of what remained had before been occupied by the Van-\ndals. He allowed soon after to the Burgundians a just title to their\nconquests in Gaul. Thus the western empire was passing by de-\ngrees from the dominion of its ancient masters.\n4. The mean and dissolute Arcadius died in the year 408, leaving\n(he eastern empire to his infant son Theodosius II. Theodosius was\na weak prince, and his sister Pulcheria governed the empire, with\nprudence and ability, for the space of forty years. Honorius died in\nthe year 423. The laws of Arcadius and Honorius are, with a few\nexceptions, remarkable for their wisdom and equity which is a\nsingular circumstance, considering the personal character of those\nprinces, and evinces at least that they employed some able ministers.\n5. The Vandals, under Genseric, subdued the Roman province\nin Africa. The Huns, in the east, extended their conquests fror t\nthe borders of China to the Baltic sea. Under Attila they laid waste","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0099.jp2"},"100":{"fulltext":"9C ANCIENT HISTORY.\nMoesia and Thrace and Theodosius, after a mean attempt to mur\nder the barbarian general, ingloriously submitted to pay him an an-\nnual tribute. It was in this crisis of universal decay that the Britons\nimplored the Romans tc defend them against the Picts and Scots, but\nreceived for answer, that they had nothing to bestow on them but\ncompassion. The Britons, in despair, sought aid from the Saxons\nand Angles, who seized, as their property, the country which they\nwere invited to protect, and founded, in the fifth and sixth centuries,\nthe kingdoms of the Saxon heptarchy. (See Part II, Sect. XII, 5.)\n6. Attila, with an army of 500,000 men, threatened the total de-\nstruction of the empire. He was ably opposed by iEtius, general of\nValentinian III., now emperor of the west. Valentinian was shut up\nin Rome by the arms ot the barbarian, and at length compelled to\npurchase a peace On the death of Attila his dominions were dis-\nmembered by his sons, whose dissensions gave temporary relief to\nthe falling empire of Rome.\n7. After Valentinian III. we have in the west a succession of\nprinces, or rather names, for the events of their reigns merit no\ndetail. In the reign of Romulus, surnamed Augustulus, the son of\nOrestes, the empire of the west came to a final period. Odoacer,\nprince of the Heruli, subdued Italy, and spared the life of Augustulus,\non condition of his resigning the throne, A. D. 476. From the build-\ning of Rome to the extinction of the western empire, A. D. 476, is\na period of 1224 years.\n8. We may reduce to one ultimate cause the various circum-\nstances that produced the decline and fall of this once magnificent\nfabric. The ruin of the Roman empire was the inevitable conse-\nquence of its greatness. The extension of its dominion relaxed\nthe vigour of its frame the vices of the conquered nations infected\nthe victorious legions, and foreign luxuries corrupted their command-\ners selfish interest supplanted the patriotic affection the martial\nspirit was purposely debased by the emperors, who dreaded its\neffects on their own power; and tho whole mass, thus weakened\nand enervated, fell an easy prey to the torrent of barbarians which\noverwhelmed it.\n9. The Herulian dominion in Italy was of short duration. Theo-\ndoric, prince of the Ostrogoths (afterwards deservedly surnamed\nthegreat), obtained permission of Zeno, emperor of the east, to at-\ntempt the recovery of Italy, and a promise of its sovereignty as the\nreward of his success. The whole nation of the Ostrogoths attend-\ned the standard of Theodoric, who was victorious in repeated en-\ngagements, and at length compelled Odoacer to surrender all Italy to\nthe conqueror. The Romans had tasted happiness under the govern-\nment of Odoacer; but their happiness was increased under the do-\nminion of Theodoric, who possessed every talent and virtue of a sov-\nereign. His equity and clemency rendered him a blessing to his\nsubjects. He allied himself with all the surrounding nations, the\nFranks, Visigoths, Burgundians, and Vandals. He left a peaceable\nsceptre to his grandson Athalaric, during whose infancy his mother\nAmalasonte governed with such admirable wisdom and moderation, as\nleft her subjects no real cause of regret for the loss of her father.\n10. While such was the state of Gothic Italy, the empire of the\neast was under the government of Justinian, a prince of mean ability,\nvain, capricious, and tyrannical. Yet the Roman name rose for a\nwhile from its abasement by the merit of his generals. Belisarius was\nthe support of his throne; yet Justinian treated him with the most","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0100.jp2"},"101":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 97\nshocking ingratitude. The Persians were at this time the most for-\nmidable enemies of the empire, under their sovereigns Cabades and\nCosrhoes and from the latter, a most able prince, Justinian meanly\npurchased a peace, by a cession of territory, and an enormous trib-\nute in gold. The civil factions of Constantinople, arising from the\nmost contemptible of causes, the disputes of the performers in the\ncircus and amphitheatre threatened to hurl Justinian from the\nthrone, but were fortunately composed by the arms and the policy of\nBelisarius. This great general overwhelmed the Vandal sovereignty\nof Africa, and recovered that province to the empire. He wrested\ntaly from its Gothic sovereign, and once more restored it for a short\ntime to the dominion of its ancient masters.\n11. Italy was recovered to the Goths by the heroic Totila, who\nbesieged and took the city of Rome, but forebore to destroy it at\n(he request of Belisarius. The fortunes of Belisarius were now in\nthe wane. He was compelled to evacuate Italy, and, on his return\nto Constantinople, his long services were repaid with disgrace. He\nwas superseded in the command of the armies by the eunuch Narses,\nwho defeated Totila in a decisive engagement, in which the Gothic\nprince was slain. Narses governed Italy with great ability for thir-\nteen years, when he was ungratefully recalled by Justin II. the suc-\ncessor of Justinian. He invited the Lombards to avenge his injuries\nand this new tribe of invaders overran and conquered the country,\nA. D. 568.\nSECTION XLVII.\nOF THE ORIGIN, MANNERS, AND CHARACTER OF THE\nGOTHIC NATIONS, BEFORE THEIR ESTABLISHMENT IN\nTHE ROMAN EMPIRE.\n1. The history and manners of the Gothic nations are curious\nobjects of inquiry, from their influence on the constitutions and na-\ntional character of most of the modern kingdoms of Europe. As the\npresent inhabitants of these kingdoms are a mixed race, compounded\nof the Goths and of the nations whom they subdued, the laws, man-\nners, and institutions of the modern kingdoms are the result of this\nconjunction and in so far as these are different from the usages prev-\nalent before this intermixture, they are, in all probability, to be\ntraced from the ancient manners and institutions of those northern\ntribes. We purpose to consider the original character of the\nGothic nations, and the change of their manners on their establish-\nment in the Roman empire.\n2. The Scandinavian chronicles attribute to the ancient inhabitants\nof that country an Asiatic origin, and inform us that the Goths were\na colony of Scythians, who migrated thither from the banks of the\nBlack sea and the Caspian but these chronicles do not fix the period\nof this migration, which some later writers suppose to have been\n1 ,000 years, and others only 70, before the christian sera. Odin, the\nchief deity of the Scandinavians, was the god of the Scythians.\nSigga, a Scythian prince, is said to have undertaken a distant expedi-\ntion, and, after he had subdued several of the Sarmatian tribes, to\nhave penetrated into the northern parts of Germa-ny, and thence\ninto Scandinavia. He assumed the honours of divinity, and the title\nof Odin, his national god. He conquered Denmark, Sweden, and\nI 13","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0101.jp2"},"102":{"fulltext":"98 AJNCiENT HISTORY.\nNorway, and gave wise and salutary laws to the nations which he\nhad suhdued by his arms.\n3. The agreement in manners between the Scythians and the\nancient Scandinavian nations, corroborates the accounts given in the\nnorthern chronicles of the identity of their origin. The description\nof the manners of the Germans by Tacitus (though this people was\nprobably not of Scythian, but of Celtic origin) may, in many partic-\nulars, be applied to the ancient nations of Scandinavia and the\nsame description coincides remarkably with the account given by\nHerodotus of the manners of the Scythians. Their life was spent\nin hunting, pasturage, and predatory war. Their dress, their weap-\nons, their food, their respect for their women, their religious wor-\nship, were the same. They despised learning, and had no other\nrecords for many ages than the songs of their bards.\n4. The theology of the Scandinavians was most intimately con-\nnected with their manners. They held three great principles or\nfundamental doctrines of religion To serve the Supreme Being\nwith prayer and sacrifice to do no wrong or unjust action and to\nbe intrepid in tight. These principles are the key to the Edda, or\nsacred book of the Scandinavians, which, though it contains the sub-\nstance of a very ancient religion, is not a work of high antiquity,\nbeing compiled in the thirteenth century by Snorro Sturleson,\nsupreme judge of Iceland. Odin, characterized as the terrible and\nsevere god, the father of carnage, the avenger, is the principal deity\nof the Scandinavians from whose union with Frea, the heavenly\nmother, sprung various subordinate divinities; as Thor, who per-\npetually wars against Loke and his evil giants, who envy the power\nof Odin, and seek to destroy his works. Among the inferior deities\nare the virgins of the Valhalla, whose ofhce is to minister to the he-\nroes in paradise. The favourites of Odin are all who die in battle, or,\nwhat is equally meritorious, by their own hand. The timid wretch,\nwho allows himself to perish by disease or age, is unworthy of the\njoys of paradise. These joys are, fighting, ceaseless slaughter, and\ndrinking beer out of the skulls of their enemies, with a renovation\nof life, to furnish a perpetuity of the same pleasures.\n5. As the Scandinavians believed this world to be the work of\nsome superior intelligences, so they held all nature to be constantly\nunder the regulation of an almighty will and power, and subject\nto a fixed and unalterable destiny. These notions had a wonderful\neffect on the national manners, and on the conduct of individuals.\nThe Scandinavian placed his sole delight in war he entertained an\nabsolute contempt of danger and of death, and his glory was estimat-\ned by the number which he had slain in battle. The death-song of\nRegner Lodbrok, who comforts himself in his last agonies by recount-\ning all the acts of carnage which he had committed m his life-time,\nis a faithful picture of the Scandinavian character.\n6. We have remarked the great similarity of the manners of the\nScandinavians and the ancient Germans. These nations seem, how-\never, to have had a different origin. The Germans, as well as the\nGauls, were branches of that great original nation termed Celtce, who\ninhabited most of the countries of Europe south of the Baltic, before\nthey were invaded by the northern tribes from Scandinavia. The\nCeltaB were all of the druidical religion, a system different from the\nbelief and worship of the Scandinavians, but founded nearly on the\nsame principles and the Goths, in their progress, intermixing with\nthe Germans, could not fail to adopt, in part, the notions of a kindred","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0102.jp2"},"103":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 99\nreligion. Druidism acknowledged a god who delighted in blood\nshed, taught the immortality of the soul, and inculcated the contempt\nof danger and of death. Tacitus remarks that the ancient Germans\nhad neither temples nor idols. The open air was the temple of the\ndivinity, and a consecrated grove the appropriated place for prayer\nand sacrifice, which none but the priests were allowed to enter.\nThe chief sacrifices were human victims, most probably the prison-\ners taken in war. The druids heightened the sanctity of their char-\nacter by concealing the mysteries of their worship. They had the\nhighest influence over the minds of the people, and thus found it\neasy to conjoin a civil authority with the sacerdotal a policy which\nin the end led to the destruction of the druidical system for the\nRomans found no other way of securing their conquests over any o\nthe Celtic nations, but by exterminating the druids.\n7. Whatever difference of manners there may have been amon^\nthe various nations or tribes of Gothic origin, the great features oi\ntheir character appear to have been the same. Nature, education,\nand prevailing habits, all concurred to form them for an intrepid\nand conquering people. Their bodily frame was invigorated by\nthe climate which they inhabited they were inured to danger and\nfatigue war was their habitual occupation they believed in an un-\nalterable destiny, and were taught by their religion that a heroic\nsacrifice of life gave certain assurance of eternal happiness. Hov*\ncould a race of mec so characterized fail to be the conquerors of the\nworld?\nSECTION XLV1II.\nOF THE MANNERS, LAWS, AND GOVERNMENT OF THE\nGOTHIC NATIONS, AFTER THEIR ESTABLISHMENT IN THE\nROMAN EMPIRE.\n1. It has been erroneously supposed that the same ferocity of\nmanners, which distinguished the Goths in their original seats, at-\ntended their successors in their new establishments in the provinces\nof the Roman empire. Modern authors have given a currency to\nthis false supposition. Voltaire, in describing the middle ages, paints\nthe Goths in all the characters of horror as a troop of hungry\nwolves, foxes, and tigers, driving before them the scattered timid\nherds, and involving all in ruin and desolation. The accounts of\nhistorians most worthy of credit will dissipate this injurious preju-\ndice, and show those northern nations in a more favourable point of\nview, as not unworthy to be the successors of the Romans.\n2. JBefore their settlement in the southern provinces of Europe,\nthe Goths were no longer idolaters, but christians; and their mo\nrality was suitable to the religion which they professed. Salvianus,\nnishop of Marseilles, in the fifth century, draws a parallel between\nthe manners of the Goths and of the Romans, highly to the credit oi\nthe former. Grotius, in his publication of Procopius and Jornandes,\nremarks, as a strong testimony to their honourable character as a\nnation, that no province once subdued by the Goths ever voluntarily\nwithdrew itself from their government.\n3. It is not possible to produce a more beautiful picture of an\nexcellent administration than that of the Gothic monarchy in Italy\nunder Theodoric the great Though master of the country by","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0103.jp2"},"104":{"fulltext":"100 ANCIENT HISTORY.\nconquest, yet he was regarded by his subjects with ?mj affection ot\na native sovereign. He retained the Roman laws, wad, as nearly\nas possible, the ancient political regulations. In supplying all civil\noffices of state he preferred the native Romans. It w«a his care to\npreserve every monument of the ancient grandeur of the empire,\nand to embellish the cities by new works of beauty and utility. In\nthe imposition and levying ot taxes he showed the most humane in-\ndulgence on every occasion of scarcity or calamity. His laws were\ndictated by the most enlightened prudence and benevolence, and\nframed on that principle wnich he nobly inculcated in his instructions\nto the Roman senate, M Benigni principis est, non tarn delia% velle pu-\nnire, quam tollere. It is the duty of a benign prince to be disposed to\nprevent rather tlian to punish offences. The historians of ihe times\ndelight in recounting the examples of his munificence and humanity.\nPartial as he was to the Arian heresy, many even of the catholic\nfathers have done the most ample justice to his merits, acknowledging\nthat, under hu reign, the church enjoyed a high measure ©f pros-\nperity. Such was Theodoric the great, who is justly termed by Si-\ndonius Apollinaris, Romance, decus colum nque gentis {the glory and the\nsupport of the Roman nation).\n4. But a single example could not warrant a general inference\nwith regard to the merits of a whole people. The example of\nTheodoric is not single. If it does not find a complete parallel, it\nis at least nearly approached to in the similar characters of Alaric,\nAmalasonte, and Totila. Alaric, compelled by his enemy s breach\nof faith to revenge himself by the sack of Rome, showed even in\nthat revenge a noble example of humanity. No blood was shed\nwithout necessity the churches were inviolable asylums the hon\nour of the women was preserved the treasures of the city were\nsaved from plunder. Amalasonte, the daughter of Theodoric.\nrepaired to her subjects the loss of her father, by the equity ana\nwisdom of her administration. She trained her son to the stuay of\nliterature and of every polite accomplishment, as the best means of\nreforming and enlightening his people. Totila, twice master of\nRome, which he won by his arms after an obstinate resistance, imi-\ntated the example of Alaric in his clemency to the vanquished, and\nin his care to preserve every remnant of ancient magnificence from\ndestruction. He restored the senate to its authority, adorned Rome\nwith useful edifices, regulated its internal policy, and took a noble\npride in reviving the splendour and dignity of the empire. Habitavit\ncum Romanis, says a contemporary author, tanquam pater cum Jiliis.\nHe lived with the Romans as another -with his children.\n5. The stem of the Gothic nation divided itself into two great\noranches, the Ostrogoths, who remained in Pannonia, and the West-\nrogoths or Visigoths, so termed from their migrating thence to the\nwest of Europe. Italy was possessed by the latter under Alaric, and\noy the former under Theodoric. The Visigoths, after the death of\nAlaric, withdrew into Gaul, and obtained from Honorius the province\nof Aquitaine, of which Thoulouse was the capital. When expelled\nfrom that province by the Franks, they crossed the Pyrenees,\nand, settling in Spain, made Toledo the capital of their kingdom.\nThe race of the Visigoth princes was termed the Balti, that of the\nOstrogoths the Jimali. The Ostrogoths enforced in their dominions\nthe observance of the Roman laws the Visigoths adhered to a code\ncompiled by their own sovereigns, and founded on the ancient man-\nners and usages of their nations. From this code, therefore, we may","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0104.jp2"},"105":{"fulltext":"AJNCIENT HISTORY. 101\nderive much information relative to the genius and character of this\nancient people.\n6. It is enacted by the laws of the Visigoths that no judge shall\nbecide in any lawsuit, unless he find in that book a law applicable to\nthe case. All causes that fall not under this description are reserved\nfor the decision of the sovereign. The penal laws are severe, but\ntempered with great equity. No punishment can affect the heirs of\nthe criminal Omnia crimina suos sequantur auctores, et ille solus judi-\ncetur culpabilis qui culpaiula commiserit, et crimen cum illo quijecerit\nmoriatur. All crimes snail attach to their authors, and he alone shall be\njudged culpable, who hath committed offences, and the crime shall die with\nhim who hath committed it. Death was the punishment of the murder\nof a freeman, and perpetual infamy of the murder of a slave. Pe-\ncuniary fines were enacted for various subordinate offences, accord-\ning to their measure of criminality. An adulterer was delivered in\nbondage to the injured husband and the free woman who had com-\nmitted adultery with a married man, became the slave of his wife.\nNo physician was allowed to visit a female patient, except in the\npresence of her nearest kindred. The lex talionis {the law of retalia-\ntion) was in great observance for such injuries as admitted it. It was\neven carried so far that the incendiary of a house was burnt alive.\nThe trials by judicial combat, by ordeal, and by the judgment of\nGod, which were in frequent use among the Franks and Normans,\nhad no place among the Visigoths. Montesquieu has erroneously\nasserted, that in all the Gothic nations it was usual to judge the\nlitigants by the law of their own country the Roman by the Roman\nlaw, the Frank by the law of the Franks, the Aleman by the law\nof the Alemans. On the contrary, the Visigoth code prohibits the\nlawsof all other nations within their territories. JVolumus sive Rch\nmanis legibus, sive alienis institutionibus, amplius convexari. We will not\nbe controlled by the Roman laws, nor by foreign institutions. The law9\nof the Franks and Lombards are remarkable for their wisdom and\njudicious policy.\n7. The government of the Goths, after their settlement in the\nRoman provinces, was monarchical. It was at first elective, and\nafterwards became hereditary. The sovereign on his death-bed\nappointed his successor, with the advice or consent of his grandees.\nIllegitimacy did not disqualify from succession or nomination to the\nthrone.\n8. The dukes and counts were the chief officers under the Gothic\ngovernment. The duke {dux exercitm) was the commander in chief\nof the troops of the province the count {comes) was the highest\ncivil magistrate. But these offices frequently intermixed their func-\ntions, the count being empowered, on sudden emergencies, to assume\na military command, and the duke, on some occasions, warranted to\nexercise judicial authority. In general, however, their departments\nwere distinct. Ofcomites there were various orders, with distinct offi-\ncial powers; as, comes, cubiculi, chamberlain, comes stabuli, constable, c.\nThese various officers were the proceres or grandees of the kingdom,\nby whose advice the sovereign conducted himself in important mat-\nters of government, or in the nomination of his successor; but we do\nnot find that they had a voice in the framing of laws, or in the im-\nposition of taxes and the prince himself had the sole nomination to\nall offices of government, magistracies, and dignities.","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0105.jp2"},"106":{"fulltext":"102 ANCIENT HISTORY.\nSECTION XLIX.\nMETHOD OF STUDYING ANCIENT HISaoRY.\n1. A general and concise view of ancient history may be acquired\noy the perusal of a very few books as that part of the Cours d? Etude\nof the Abbe Condillac which regards the history of the nations of\nantiquity the Elements of General History by the Abbe Millot, part\n1st; the Epitome of Turselline, with the notes of L Agneau, part\n1st; or the excellent Compendium Histories Universalis, by professor\nOiferhaus of Groningen. The two first of these works have the\nmerit of uniting a spirit of reflection with a judicious selection of\nevents. The notes of L Agneau to the Epitome of Turselline con-\ntain a great store of geographical and biographical information.\nThe work of Oflerhaus is peculiarly valuable, as uniting sacred with\nprofane history, and containing most ample references to the ancient\nauthors. The Discours sur PHistoire Universelle, by the bishop\nof Meaux, is a work of higii merit, but is not adapted to convey in-\nformation to the uninstructed. It is more useful to those who have\nalready studied history in detail, for uniting in the mind the great\ncurrent of events, and recalling to the memory their order and con-\nnexion.\nBut the student who wishes to derive the most complete advan-\ntage from history, must not confine himself to such general or com-\npendious views he must resort to the original historians of ancieir*\ntimes, and to the modem writers who have treated with amplitude\nol particular periods. It may be useful to such students to point\nout the order in which those historians may be most profitably\nperused.\n2. Next to the historical books of the Old Testament, the most\nancient history worthy of perusal is that of Herodotus, which com\nprehends the annals of Lydia, Ionia, Lycia, Egypt, Persia, Greece,\nand Macedonia, during above 230 years preceding 479 A. C.\nBook 1. History of Lydia from Gyges to Croesus. Ancient Ionia.\nManners of the Persians, Babylonians, ,c. History of Cyrus the\nElder.\nB. 2. History of Egypt, and Manners of the Egyptians.\nB. 3. History of Cambyses. Persian Monarchy under Darius\nHystaspes.\nB. 4. History of Scythia,\nB. 5. Persian Embassy to Macedon. Athens, Lacedsemon, Corinth,\nat the same period.\nB. 6. Kings of Lacedaemon. War of Persia against Greece, to the\nbattle of Marathon.\nB. 7. The same War, to the battle of Thermopylae.\nB. 8. The Naval Battle of Salamis.\nB. 9. The Defeat and Expulsion of the Persians from Greece.\n(The merits of Herodotus are shortly characterized in Sect\nXXII, 1.)\n3. A more particular account of the periods treated by Herodotus\nmay be found in Justin, lib. 1, 2, 3, and 7 in the Cyropedia of Xeno-\nphon in the Lives of Aristides, Themistocles, Cimon, Miltiades, and\nrausanias, written by Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos; and in the\nlives of Anaximander, Zeno, Empedocles, Heraclitus, and Democri-\ntus, by Diogenes Laertius.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0106.jp2"},"107":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 3\n4. The Grecian history is taken up by Thucydides from the\nperiod where Herodotus ends, and is continued for seventy years, to\nthe twenty-first of the Peloponnesian war. (This work characterized,\nSect. XXII, §2.) This period is more amply illustrated by perusing\nthe 11th and 12th books of Diodorus Siculus; the Lives of Alcibia-\ndes, Chabrias, Thrasybulus, and Lysias, by Plutarch and Nepos the\n2d, 3d, 4th, and 5th books of Justin; and the 14th and 15th chapters\nof the 1st book of Orosius.\n5. Next to Thucydides the student ought to peruse the 1st and\n2d books of Xenophon s History of Greece, which comprehends the\nnarrative of the Peloponnesian war, with the contemporary history of\nthe Medes and Persians then the expedition of Cyrus {Anabasis), and\nthe continuation of the history to its conclusion with the battle of\nMantinea. (Xenophon characterized, Sect. XXII, 3.) For illustrat\ning this period we have the Lives of Lysander, Agesilaus, Artaxerxes,\nConon, and Datames, by Plutarch and Nepos the 4th, 5th, and 6th\nbooks of Justin and the 13th and 16th books of Diodorus Siculus.\n6. After Xenophon let the student read the 15th and 16th books\nof Diodorus, which contain the history of Greece and Persia, from\nthe battle of Mantinea to the reign of Alexander the great. (Diodorus\ncharacterized, Sect XXII, 5.) To complete this period let him\nread the Lives of Dion, Iphicrates, Timotheus, Phocion, and Timo-\nleon, by Nepos.\n7. For the history of Alexander the great we have the admirable\nworks of Arrian and Quintus Curtius. (Arrian characterized Sect\nXXII, 8.) Curtius possesses great judgment in the selection of\nfacts, with much elegance and perspicuity of diction. He is a good\nmoralist and a good patriot; but his passion for embellishment\nderogates from the purity of history, and renders his authority sus-\npicious.\n8. For the continuation of the history of Greece from the death\nof Alexander, we have the 18th, 19th, and 20th books of Diodorus;\nthe history of Justin from the 13th book to the end; and the Lives\nof the principal personages written by Plutarch. The history of\nJustin is a judicious abridgment of a much larger work by Trogus\nPompeius, which is lost. Justin excels in the delineation of charac-\nters, and in purity of style.\n9. I have mentioned the Lives of Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos\nas the best supplement to the account of particular periods of ancient\nhistory. It is the highest praise of Plutarch that his writings are\nadmirable for their morality, and furnish instructive lessons of active\nvirtue. He makes us familiarly acquainted with the great men of\nantiquity, and chiefly delights in painting their private character and\nmanners. The short Lives written by Nepos show great judgment,\nand a happy selection of such facts as display the genius and charac\nter of his heroes. They are written with purity and elegance.\n10. For the Roman History in its early periods we have the An\ntiquities of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, which bring down the his\ntory of Rome to 412 A. U. C. They are chiefly valuable, as illus\ntrating the manners and customs, the rites civil and religious, and the\nlaws of the Roman state. But the writer is too apt to frame hypoth-\neses, and to give views instead of narratives. We expect these in\nthe modern writers who treat of ancient times, but cannot tolerate\nthem in the sources of history.\n11. The work of Livy is far more valuable than that of Dio-\nnysius. It is a perfect model of history, both as to matter and compo-","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0107.jp2"},"108":{"fulltext":"104 ANCIENT HISTORY\nsition. (Characterized, Sect. XXXVI, 10.) Of 132 books only 35\nremain, and those are interrupted by a considerable chasm. The\nfirst decade (or ten books) treats of a period of 460 years the sec-\nond decade, containing seventy-five years, is lost; the third contains\nthe second Punic war, including eighteen years the fourth contains\nthe war against Philip of Macedon, and the Asiatic war against Anti-\nochus, a space of twenty-three years. Of the fifth decade there are\nonly five books and the remainder, which reaches to the death of\nDrusus, 746, A. U. C. together with the second decade, have been\nsupplied by frreinshemius. To supply the chasm of the second de-\ncade the student ought to read, together with the epitome of those\nlost books, the first and second books of Polybius the 17th, 18th,\n22d, and 23d books of Justin the lives of Marcellus and Fabius\nMaximus by Plutarch and the Punic and Illyrian wars by Appian.\n12. The liistory of Polybius demands a separate and attentive\nperusal, as an admirable compendium of political and military in-\nstruction. Of forty books of general history we have only five en-\ntire, and excerpts of the following twelve. Polybius treats of the\nhistory of the Romans, and of the nations with whom they were at\nwar, from the beginning of the second Punic war to the beginning of\nthe war with Macedonia, comprising in all a period of about fifty\nyears. Of the high estimation in which Polybius was held by the\nauthors of antiquity we have sufficient proof in the encomiums be-\nstowed on him by Cicero, Strabo, Josephus, and Plutarch and in the\nuse which Livy has made of his history, in adopting his narratives\nby a translation nearly literal.\n13. The work of Appian, which originally consisted of twenty\nbooks, from the earliest period of the Roman history down to the\nage of Adrian, is greatly mutilated and there remains only his\naccount of the Syrian, Parthian, Mithridatic, Spanish, Punic, and\nIllyrian wars. His narrative of each of these wars is remarkably\ndistinct and judicious and his composition, on the whole, is chaste\nand perspicuous. After the history of Appian the student should re-\nsume Livy, from the beginning of the third decade, or 21st book, to\nthe end. Then he may peruse with advantage the Lives of Hanni-\nbal, Scipio Africanus, Flaminius. Paulus iEmilius, the elder Cato, the\nGracchi, Marius, Sy 11a, the youff*er Cato, Sertorius. Lucullus, Julius\nCaesar, Cicero, Pompey, and Brutus, by Plutarch.\n14. Sallusfs histories of the Jugurthine war and of the conspiracy\nof Catiline come next in order. (Saiiust characterized, Sect. XXXVI,\n8.) Then follow the Commentaries of Caesar, remarkable for\nperspicuity of narration, and a happy union of brevity with elegant\nsimplicity of style. (Sect. XXXIV, 9.) The epitomes of Florus and\nof veleius Paterculus may be perused with advantage at this period\nof the course. The latter is a model for abridgment of history, in\nkhe opinion of the president Henault.\n15. For the history of Rome under the first emperors we have\nSuetonius and Tacitus; and for the subsequent reigns, the series of\n(he minor historians, termed Historic Augusta Scripiores {writers of\naugust history), and the Byzantine writers. Suetonius gives us a\nseries of detached characters, illustrated by an artful selection of facts\nand anecdotes, rather than a regular history. His work is chiefly\nvaluable as descriptive of Roman manners. His genius has too much\nof the caustic humour of a satirist. Tacitus, with greater powers\nand deeper penetration, has drawn a picture of the times in stern\nand gloomy colours. (Sect. XXXVI, §11.) From neither of these his-","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0108.jp2"},"109":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT HISTORY. 105\ntorians will the ingenuous mind of youth receive moral improvement,\nor pleasing and benevolent impressions yet we cannot deny theii\nhign utility to the student of politics.\n16. If we except Herodian, who wrote with taste and judgment, il\nis doubtful whether any of the subsequent writers of the Roman\nhistory deserve a minute perusal. It is therefore advisable for the\nstudent to derive his knowledge of the history of the decline and\nfell of the Roman empire from modern authors, resorting to the\noriginal writers only for occasional information on detached points of\nimportance. For this purpose, the General History by Dr. Howel\nis a work of great utility, being written entirely on the basis of the\noriginal historians, whose narrative he generally translates, referring\nconstantly to his authorities in the margin. In this work the student\nwill find a valuable mass of historical information.\n17. The reader having thus founded his knowledge of general his-\ntory on the original writers, will now peruse with great advantage\nthe modern histories of ancient Greece and Rome by Mitford, Gillies,\nGast, Hooke, Gibbon*, and Furgusson and will find himself qualified\nto form a just estimate of their merits, on which it is presumptuous\nto decide without such preparatory knowledge.\n18. The greatest magazine of historical information which has\never been collected into one body, is the English Universal History;\na most useful work, from the amplitude of its matter, its general\naccuracy, and constant reference to the original authors. We may\noccasionally consult it with great advantage on points where deep\nresearch is necessary but we cannot read it with pleasure as a con-\ntinued work, from its tedious details and harshness of style, its abrupt\ntransitions, and the injudicious arrangement of many of its parts.\n19. Geography and chronology have been justly termed the lights\nof history. We cannot peruse with advantage the historical annals\noi any country without a competent knowledge of its geographical\nsituation, and even of its particular topography. In reading the de\nscription of any event the mind necessarily forms a picture of the\nscene of action and it is surely better to draw the picture with truth\nfrom nature and reality, than falsely from imagination. Many actions\nand events are likewise intimately connected with the geography and\nlocal circumstances of a country, and are unintelligible without a\nknowledge of them.\n20. The use of chronological tables is very great, both for the\npurpose of uniting in one view the contemporary events in different\nnations, which often have an influence on one another, and for re-\ncalling to the memory the order and series of events, and renewing\nthe impressions of the objects of former study. It is extremely use-\nful, after perusing the history of a nation in detail or that of a certain\nage or period, to run over briefly the principal occurrences in a table\nof chronology. The most perfect works of this kind are the chro-\nnological tables of Dr. Playfair, which unite history and biography;\nthe tables of Dr. Blair or the older tables by Tallent.*\nEND OF PART FIRST.\nA list of the best translations of the principal books above mentioned.\nHerodotus, translated by Beloe, 4 vols. 8vo.\nXenophon s Cycropedia by Cooper, 8vo.\nXenophon s Anabasis, by Spelman, 2 vols. 8vo.\nXenophon s History of Greece, by Smith, 4to\n14","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0109.jp2"},"110":{"fulltext":"PART SECOND.\nMODERN HISTORY,\nSECTION I.\n1. The fall of the western empire of the Romans, and the final sub-\njugation of Italy by the Lombards, is the sera from which we date the\ncommencement of Modern History.\nThe eastern empire of the Romans continued to exist for many\nages after this period, still magnificent, though in a state of compar-\native weakness and degeneracy. Towards the end of the sixth cen-\ntury a new dominion arose in the east, which was destined to produce\na wonderful change on a great portion of the globe.\nThe Arabians, at this time a rude nation, living chiefly in indepen-\ndent tribes, who traced their descent from the patriarch Abraham,\nprofessed a mixed religion, compounded of Judaism and idolatry.\nMecca, their holy city, rose to eminence from the donations of pil-\ngrims to its temple, in which was deposited a black stone, an object\nof high veneration. Mahomet was born at Mecca, A. D. 571. Of\nmean descent, and no education, but of great natural talents, he sought\nto raise himself to celebrity, by feigning a divine mission to propagate\na new religion for the salvation of mankind. He retired to the des-\nert, and pretended to hold conferences with the angel Gabriel, who\ndelivered to him, from time to time, portions of a sacred book or Co-\nran, containing revelations of the will of the Supreme Being, and of\nthe doctrines which he required his prophet to communicate to the\nworld.\n2. This religion, while it adopted in part the morality of Christian-\nity, retained many of the rites of Judaism, and some of the Arabian\nsuperstitions, as the pilgrimage to Mecca but owed to a certain spirit\nPlutarch, by Langhorne, 6 vols. 8vo., or 6 vols. 12mo. Wrangham a\nedition.\nThucydides, by Smith, 2 vols. 8vo.\nDionysius Halicamassus, by Spelman, 4 vols. 4to\nPolybius, by Hampton, 4 vols. 8vo.\nLivy, by Baker, 6 vols. 8vo.\nSallust, by Murphy, 8vo. by Stuart, 2 vols. 4to. by Rose, 8ro»\nTacitus, by Murphy, 8 vols. 8vo. Irish edition, 4 vols. 8vo.\nSuetonius, by Thompson, 8vo.\nDiodorus Siculus, by Booth, folio.\nArrian, by Rook, 2 vols. 8vo.\nQ. Curtius, by Digby, 2 vols. 12mo.\nJustin, by Turnbull, 12mo.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0110.jp2"},"111":{"fulltext":"MODERN H1STORV. 107\nof Asiatic voluptuousness its chief recommendation to its votaries.\nThe Coran taught the belief of one God, whose will and power were\nconstantly exerted towards the happiness of his creatures that the\nduty of man was to love his neighbours, assist the poor, protect the\ninjured, to be humane to inferior animals, and to pray seven times a\nday. The pious mussulman was allowed to have four wives, and as\nmany concubines as he chose and the pleasures of love were prom-\nised as the supreme joys of paradise. To revive the impression of\nthese laws, which God had engraven originally in the hearts of men,\nhe had sent i om time to time his prophets upon earth, Abraham,\nMoses, Jesus Christ, and Mahomet the last the greatest, to whom\nall the world should owe its conversion to the true religion. By\nproducing the Coran in detached parcels, Mahomet had it in his pow-\ner to solve all objections by new revelations.\n3. Dissensions and popular tumults between the believers and infi-\ndels caused the banishment of Mahomet from Mecca. His flight,\ncalled the hegyra, A. D. 622, is the aera of his glory. He retired to\nMedina, and was joined by the brave Omar. He propagated his doc-\ntrines with great success, and marched with his followers in arms, and\ntook the city of Mecca. In a few years he subdued all Arabia and\nthen attacking Syria, took several of the Roman cities. In the midst\nof his victories he died at the age of sixty-one, A. D. 632. He had\nnominated Ali, his son-in-law, his successor; but Abubeker, his father-\nin-law, secured the succession by gaining the army to his interest\n4. Abubeker united and published the books of the Coran, and\nprosecuted the conquests of Mahomet. He defeated the army of He-\nraclius,took Jerusalem, and subjected all the country between Mount\nLibanus and the Mediterranean. On his death Omar was elected to\nthe caliphate, and in one campaign deprived the Greek empire of\nSyria, Phoenicia., Mesopotamia, and Chaldaea. In the next campaign\nhe subdued to tne mussulman dominion and religion, the whole em-\nEire of Persia. His generals at the same time conquered Egypt,\nibya, and Numidia.\n5. Otman, the successor of Omar, added to the dominion of the\ncaliphs Bactriana, and part of Tartary, and ravaged Rhodes and the\nGreek islands. His successor was Ali, the son-in-law of Mahomet, a\nname to this day revered by the Mahometans. He transferred tne\nseat of the caliphate from Mecca to Couffa, whence it was afterwards\nremoved to Bagdat. His reign was glorious, but only of five years\nduration. In the space of half a century from the beginning of the\nconquests of Mahomet, the Saracens raised an empire more extensive\nthan what remained of the Roman. Nineteen caliphs of the race of\nOmar {Ommicides) reigned irv succession, after which began the dy-\nnasty of the Abassidce, descenaeu by the male line from Mahomet.\nAlmanzor, second caliph of this race, removed the scat of empire to\nBagdat, and introduced learning and the culture of the sciences,\nwhich his successors continued to promote with equal zeal and liber-\nality. Haroun Alraschid, who flourished in the beginning of the ninth\ncentury, is celebrated as a second Augustus. The sciences chiefly\ncultivated by the Arabians were, medicine, geometry, and astronomy,\nThey improved the oriental poetry, by adding regularity to its fancy\nand Iuxuriancy of imagery.","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0111.jp2"},"112":{"fulltext":"108 MODERN HISTORY.\nSECTION II.\nMONARCHY OF THE FRANKS.\n1. The Franks were originally those tribes of Germans who inhab-\nited the districts lying on the Lower Rhine and Weser, and who, in\nthe time of Tacitus, passed under the names of Chauci, Cherusci.\nCatti, Sieambri, c. They assumed or received the appellation of\nFranks, or freemen, from their temporary union to resist the domin-\nion of the Romans. Legendary chronicles record a Pharamond and\na Meroveus the latter the head of the first race of the kings of France,\ntermed the Merovingian but the authentic history of the Franks\ncommences only with his grandson Clovis, who began his reign in\nthe year 481. In the twentieth year of his age Clovis achieved the\nconquest of Gaul, by the defeat of Syagrius the Roman governor,\nand marrying Clotilda, daughter of Chilperic king of Burgundy, soon\nadded that province to his dominions, by dethroning his father-in-law.\nHe was converted by Clotilda and the Franks, till then idolaters, be-\ncame christians, after their sovereign s example. The Visigoths,\nprofessing Arianism, were masters at this time of Aquitaine, the coun-\ntry between the Rhone and Loire. The intemperate zeal of Clovis\nprompted the extirpation of those heretics, who retreated across\nthe Pyrenees into Spain and the provinces of Aquitaine became part\nof the kingdom of the Franks. They did not long retain it, for The-\nodoric the, great defeated Clovis in the battle of Aries, and added\nAquitaine to his dominions. Clovis died A. D. 511.\n2. His four sons divided the monarchy, and were perpetually at\nwar with one another. A series of weak and wicked princes succeed-\ned, and Gaul for some ages was characterized under its Frank sover-\neigns by more than ancient barbarism. On the death of Dagobert 11,\nA. D. 638, who left two infant sons, the government, during their mi-\nnority, fell into the hands of their chief officers, termed mayors of the\npalace and these ambitious men founded a new power, which for\nsome generations held the Frank sovereigns in absolute subjection,\nand left them little more than the title of king. Austrasia and Neus-\ntria, the two great divisions of the Frank monarchy, were nominally\ngoverned by Thierry, but in reality by Pepin Heristel, mayor of the\npalace, who, restricting his sovereign to a small domain, ruled France\nfor thirty years with great wisdom and good policy. His son, Charles\nMartel, succeeded to his power, and under a similar title governed for\ntwenty-six years with equal ability and success. He was victorious\nover all hi* domestic foes. His arms kept in awe the surrounding\nnations, and he delivered France from the ravages of the Saracens,\nwhom he entirely defeated between Tours and Poictiers, A. D. 32.\n3. Charles Martel bequeathed the government of France, as an un-\ndisputed inheritance, to his two sons, Pepin Ie bref and Carloman,\nwho governed, under the same title or mayor, one Austrasia, and the\nother Neustria and Burgundy. On the resignation of Carloman, Pepin\nsucceeded to the sole administration. Ambitious of adding the title\nof king to the power which he already enjoyed, he proposed the\nquestion to pope Zachary, whether he or his sovereign Childeric\nwas most worthy of the throne Zachary, who had his interest in\nview, decided that Pepin had a right to add the title of king to the\noffice and Childeric was confined to a monastery for life. With","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0112.jp2"},"113":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY 109\nhim ended the first or Merovingian race of the kings of France,\nA.D.751.\n4. Pepin recompensed the service done him by the pope, by turn\ning his arms against the Lombards. He deprived them of the exar-\nchate* of Ravenna, and made a donation of that and other considerable\nterritories to the holy see, which were the first, as is alleged, of its\ntemporal possessions. Conscious of his defective title, it was the\nprincipal object of Pepin le bref to conciliate the affections of the\npeople whom he governed. The legislative power among the Frank?\nwas vested in the people assembled in their champs ae Mars. Under\nthe Merovingian race the regal authority had sunk to nothing, while\nthe power of the nobles had attained to an inordinate extent. Pepin\nfound it his best policy to acknowledge and ratify those rights, which\nhe could not without danger have invaded; and thus, under the char-\nacter of guardian of the powers of all the orders of the state, he exalt\ned the regal office to its proper elevation, and founded it on the se-\ncurest basis. On his death-bed he called a council of the grandees\nand obtained their consent to a division of hb kingdom between his\ntwo son Charles and Carloman. He died A. D. 768, at the age of\nfifty-three, after a reign of seventeen years from the death of Chil-\nderic III, and an administration of twenty-seven from the death of\nCharles MarteL\nSECTION 111.\nREFLECTIONS ON THE STATE OF FRANCE DURING THE\nMEROVINGIAN RACE OF ITS KINGS. ORIGIN OF THE\nFEUDAL SYSTEM.\n1. The manners of the Franks were similar to those of the other\nGermanic nations described by Tacitus. Though under the command\nof a chief or king, their government was extremely democratical, and\nthey acknowledged no other than a military subordination. The legis-\nlative authority resided in the general assembly, or champs de Mars*\nheld annually on the 1st day of March, a council in which the king\nhad but a single suffrage, equally with the meanest soldier. But,\nwhen in arms against the enemy, his power was absolute in enforcing\nmilitary discipline.\n2. After the establishment of the Franks in Gaul some changes took\nplace from their new situation. They reduced the Gauls to absolute\nsubjection yet they left many in possession of their lands, because the\nnew country was too large for ite conquerors. They left them like-\nwise the use of their existing laws, which were those of the Roman\ncode, while they themselves were governed by the salique and npua-\nrian laws, ancient institutions in observance among the Franks before\nthey left their original seats in Germany. Hence arose that extraor-\ndinary diversity of local laws and usages in the kingdom of France,\nwhich continued down to modern times, and gave occasion to number-\nless inconveniences.\n3. The ancient Germans had the highest veneration for the priests\nor druids. It was natural that the Franks, after their conversion to\nChristianity, should have the same reverence for their bishops, to\nwhom accordingly they allowed the first rank in the national as-\nsembly. These bishops were generally chosen from among the na-\ntive Gauls for, having adopted from this nation their new religion-\nit was natural that their priests should be chosen from the same peo-\nK","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0113.jp2"},"114":{"fulltext":"t MODERN HISTORY.\npie. The influence of the clergy contributed much to ameliorate\nthe condition of the conquered Gauls, and to humanize their conquer\nors and in a short space of time the two nations were thoroughly in-\ncorporated.\n4. At this period a new system of policy is visible among this unit-\ned people, which by degrees extended itself over most of the nations\nof Europe. This is the feudal system. By this expression is properly\nmeant that tenure or condition on which the proprietors of land held\ntheir possessions, viz. an obligation to perform military service,\nwhenever required by the chief or overlord to whom they owed al-\nlegiance.\nMany modern writers attribute the origin of this institution or poli-\ncy to the kings of the Franks, who, after the conquest of Gaul, are\nsupposed to have divided the lands among their followers, on this\ncondition of military service. But this notion is attended with insur-\nmountable difficulties. For, in the first place, it proceeds on this false\nsupposition, that the conquered lands belonged in property to the king,\nand that he had the right of bestowing them in gifts, or dividing them\namong his followers whereas it is a certain fact, that among the\nFranks the partition of conquered lands was made by lot, as was the\ndivision even of the spoil or booty taken in battle; and that the king s\nshare, though doubtless a larger portion than that of his captains, was\nlikewise assigned him by lot. Secondly, if we should suppose the king\nto have made those gifts to his captains out of his own domain, the\ncreation of a very few beneficia {benefices) would have rendered him\na poorer man than his subjects. We must therefore have recourse\nto another supposition for the origin of the fiefs and we shall find\nthat it is to be traced to a source much more remote than the con\nquest of Gaul by the Franks.\n5. Among all barbarous nations, with whom war is the chief occu-\npation, we remark a strict subordination of the members of a tribe to\n♦Heir chief or leader. It was observed by Caesar as peculiarly strong\namong the Gaulish nations, and as subsisting not only between the\nsoldiers and their commander, but between the inferior towns or vil-\nlages, and the canton or province to which they belonged. In peace\nevery man cultivated his land, free of all taxation, and subject to no\nother burden but that of military service, when required by his chief.\nWhen the province was at war, each village, though taxed to furnish\nonly a certain number of soldiers, was bound to send, on the day ap-\npointed for a general muster, all its males capable of bearing arms;\nand from these its rated number was selected by the chief of the prov-\nince. This clientela {vassalage) subsisted among the Franks as well\nas among the Gauls. It subsisted among the Romans, who, to check\nthe inroads of the barbarian nations, and to secure their distant con-\nquests, were obliged to maintain fixed garrisons on their frontiers.\nTo each officer in those garrisons it was customary to assign a por-\ntion of land as the pledge and pay of his service. These gifts were\ntermed beneficia^ and their proprietors beneficiarii. Plin. Ep. lib. 10,\nep. 32. The beneficia were at first granted only for life. Alexander\nSeverus allowed them to descend to heirs, on the like condition of\nmilitary service.\n6. When Gaul was overrun by the Franks, a great part of the lands\nwas possessed on this tenure by the Roman soldiery, as the rest was\nby the native Gauls. The conquerors, accustomed to the same poli-\ncy -*viil naturally adopt it in the partition of their new conquests\nw% M receiving his share, becoming bound to military service,","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0114.jp2"},"115":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. Ill\nas a condition necessarily annexed to territorial property. With\nrespect to those Gauls who retained their possessions, no other\nchange was necessary but to exact the same obligation of military\nvassalage to their new conquerors, which they had rendered to their\nformer masters the emperors, and, before the Roman conquest, to\ntheir native chiefs. Thus no other change took place but that of\nthe overlord. The system was the same which had prevailed for\nages.\n7. But these beneficia, or fiefs, were personal grants, revocable by\nthe sovereign or overlord, and reverting to him on the death of the\nvassal. The weakness 01 the Frank kings of the Merovingian race\nemboldened the possessors of fiefs to aspire at independence and\nsecurity of property. In a convention held at Andeli in 587, to treat\nof peace between Gontran and Childebert II., the nobles obliged\nthese princes to renounce the right of revoking their benefices,\nwhich nenceforward passed by inheritance to their eldest male issue.\n8. It was a necessary consequence of a fief becoming perpetual and\nhereditary, that it should be capable of subinfeudation and that the\nvassal himself, holding his land of the sovereign by the tenure of\nmilitary service, should be enabled to create a train of inferior vas-\nsals, by giving to them portions of his estate to be held on the same\ncondition, of following his standard in battle, rendering him homage\nas their lord, and paying, as the symbol of their subjection, a small\nannual present, either of money or the fruits of their lands. Thus,\nin a little time, the whole territory in the feudal kingdoms was either\nheld immediately and in capite of the sovereign himself, or mediately\nby inferior vassals of the tenants in capite.\n9. It was natural in those disorderly times, when the authority of\ngovernment and the obligation of general laws were extremely weak,\nthat the superior or overlord should acquire a civil and criminal\njurisdiction over his vassals. The comites, to whom, as the chief\nmagistrates of police, the administration of justice belonged of right,\npaid little attention to the duties of their office, and shamefully abused\ntheir powers. The inferior classes naturally chose, instead of seek-\ning justice through this corrupted channel, to submit their lawsuits to\nthe arbitration of their overlord and this jurisdiction, conferred at first\nby the acquiescence of parties, came at length to be regarded as\nfounded on strict right. Hence arose a perpetual contest of jurisdic-\ntion between the greater barons in their own territories and the es-\ntablished judicatories a natural cause of that extreme anarchy and\ndisorder which prevailed in France during the greater part of the\nMerovingian period, and sunk the regal authority to the lowest pitch\nof abasement. In a government of which every part was at variance\nwith the rest, it was not surprising that a new power should arise,\nwhich, in able hands, should be capable of bringing the whole under\nsubjection.\n10. The mayor of the palace, or first officer of the household,\ngradually usurped, under a series of weak princes, the whole\npowers of the sovereign. This office, from a personal dignity, be-\ncame hereditary in the family of Pepin Heristel. His grandson,\nPepin le bref, removed from the throne those phantoms of the Me-\nrovingian race, assumed the title of king, by the authority of a pa-\npal decree, and reigned for seventeen years with dignity and success.\nHe was the founder of the second race of the French monarchs\nknown by the name of the Carlovingian. See Rett s Elements of\nGeneral Knowledge, vol. I.","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0115.jp2"},"116":{"fulltext":"112 MODERN HISTORY.\nSECTION IV.\nCHARLEMAGNE. THE NEW EMPIRE OF THE WEST.\n1. Pepin le brefi with the consent of his nobles, divided, on his\ndeath-bed, the kingdom of France between his sons* Charles and\nCarloman, A. D. 768. The latter died a few years after his father,\nand Charles succeeded to the undivided sovereignty. In the course\nof a reign of forty-five years Charlemagne (for so he was de-\nservedly styledj) extended the limits of his empire beyond the Dan-\nube subdued Dacia, Dalmatia, and Istria conquered and subjected\nall the barbarous tribes to the banks of the Vistula made himself mas-\nter of a great portion of Italy and successfully encountered the arms\nof the Saracens, the Huns, the Bulgarians, and the Saxons. His\nwar with the Saxons was of thirty years duration, and their final\nconquest was not achieved without an inhuman waste of blood. At\ntiie request of the pope, and to discharge the obligation of his father\nPepin to the holy see, Charlemagne dispossessed Desiderius king of\nthe Lombards of all his dominions, though allied to him by marriage\nand put a final period to the Lombard dominion in Italy, A. D. 774.\n2. He made his entry into Rome at the festival of Easter, was\nthere crowned king of France and of the Lombards, and was, by\npope Adrian I, invested with the right of ratifying the election of\nthe popes. Irene, empress of the east, sought to ally herself with\nCharlemagne, by the marriage of her son Constantine to his daugh-\nter but her subsequent inhuman conduct, in putting Constantine to\ndeath, gave ground to suspect the sincerity of her desire for that\nalliance.\n3. In the last visit of Charlemagne to Italy he was consecrated\nemperor of the west by the hands of pope Leo III. It is probable\nthat if he had chosen Rome for his residence and seat of government,\nand at his death had transmitted to his successor an undivided domin-\nion, the great but fallen empire of the west might have once more\nbeen restored to lustre and respect. But Charlemagne had no fixed\ncapital, and divided, even in his lifetime, his dominions among his\nchildren, A. D. 806.\n4. The economy of government and the domestic administration\nof Charlemagne merit attention. Pepin le href had introduced the\nsystem of annual assemblies or parliaments, held at first in March,\nand afterwards in May, where the chief estates of clergy and nobles\nwere called to deliberate on the public affairs and the wants of the\npeople. Charlemagne apointed these assemblies to be held twice in\nthe year, in spring and in autumn. In the latter assembly all affairs\nwere prepared and digested in the former was transacted the busi-\nness of legislation; and of this assembly he made the people a party,\nby admitting from each province or district twelve deputies or rep-\nresentatives. The assembly now consisted of three estates, each of\nwhich formed a separate chamber, and discussed apart the concerns\nof its own order. They afterwards united to communicate their\nresolutions, or to deliberate on their common interests. The sove-\nreign was never present, unless when called to ratify the decrees of\nthe assembly.\n5. Charlemagne divided the empire into provinces, and the prov-\ninces into districts, each comprehending a certain number of coun-","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0116.jp2"},"117":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 113\nties. The districts were governed by royal envoys, chosen from the\nclergy and nobles, and bound to an exact visitation of their territories\neverv three months. These envoys held annual conventions, at\nwhich were present the higher clergy and barons, to discuss the\naffairs of the district, examine the conduct of its magistrates, and\nredress the grievances of individuals. At the general assembly, or\nchamp de Mzi, the royal envoys made their report to the sovereign\nand states; and thus the public attention was constantly directed to\nnil the concerns of the empire.\n6. The private character of Charlemagne was most amiable and\ndespectable. His secretary, Eginhart, has painted his domestic life\nin beautiful and simple colours. The economy of his family is char-\nacteristic of an age of great simplicity for his daughters were as-\nsiduously employed in spinning and housewifery, and the sons were\ntrained by their father in the practice of all manly exercises. This\nillustrious man died A. D. 814, in the seventy-second year of his age.\nContemporary with him was Haroun Alraschid, caliph of the Sara-\ncens, equally celebrated for his conquests, excellent policy, and the\nwisdom and humanity of his government.\n7. Of all the lawful sons of Charlemagne, Lewis the debonnaire\nwas the only one who survived him, and who therefore succeeded\nwithout dispute to all the imperial dominions, except Italy, which\nthe emperor had settled on Bernard, his grandson by Pepin, his\nsecond son,\nSECTION V.\nMANNERS, GOVERNMENT, AND CUSTOMS OF THE AGE OF\nCHARLEMAGNE.\n1. In establishing the provincial conventions under the royal\nenvoys, Charlemagne did not entirely abolish the authority of the\nancient chief magistrates, the dukes and counts. They continued\nto command the troops of the province, and to make the levies in\nstated numbers from each district. Cavalry were not numerous in\nthe imperial armies, twelve farms being taxed to furnish only one\nhorseman with his armour and accoutrements. The province sup-\nplied six months provisions to its complement of men, and the king\nmaintained them during the rest of the campaign.\n2. The engines for the attack and defence of towns were, as in\nformer times, the ram, the balista, catapulta, testudo, c. Charle-\nmagne had his ships of war stationed in the mouths of all the larger\nrivers. He bestowed great attention on commerce. The merchants\nof Italy and the south of France traded to the Levant, and exchanged\nthe commodities of Europe and Asia. Veaice and Genoa were\nrising into commercial opulence; and the manufactures of wool, glass,\nand iron, were successfully cultivated in many of the principal towns\nin the south of Europe\n3. The value of money was nearly the same as in the Roman\nempire in the age of Constantine the great. The numerary livre,\nin the age of Charlemagne, was supposed to be a pound of silver, in\nvalue about 3k sterling of English money. At present the livre is\nworth 10 l-2d. English. Hence we ought to be cautious in forming\nour estimate of ancient money from its name. From the want of","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0117.jp2"},"118":{"fulltext":"114 MODERN HISTORY.\nthis caution have arisen the most erroneous ideas of the commerce,\nriches, and strength of the ancient kingdoms.\n4. The capituktria {statute-books) of Charlemagne, compiled into a\nbody A. D. 827, were recovered from oblivion in 1531 and 1545.\nThey present many circumstances illustrative of the manners of the\ntimes. Unless in great cities there were no inns the laws obliged\nevery man to give accommodation to travellers. The chief towns\nwere built of wood. The state of the mechanic arts was very low\nin Europe. The Saracens had made more progress in them. Paint-\ning and sculpture were only preserved from absolute extinction by\nthe existing remains of ancient art. Charlemagne appears to have\nbeen anxious for the improvement of music and the Italians are said\nto have instructed his French performers in the art of playing on the\norgan. Architecture was studied and successfully cultivated in that\nstyle termed the Gothic, which admits of great beauty, elegance,\nand magnificence. The composition of Mosaic appears to have been\nan invention of those, ages.\n5. The knowledge of ietters was extremely low, and confined to a\nfew of the ecclesiastics., Charlemagne gave the utmost encourage-\nment to literature and the sciences, inviting into his dominions of\nFrance, men eminent in those departments from Italy, and from the\nBritannic isles, which, in those dark ages, preserved more of the\nlight of learning than any of the western kingdoms. JVeque enim\nsuenda laus Britarmice, Scotia, et Hibemice, qiw studio liberalium artium\neo tempore antecellebant reliquis occidentalisms regnis et cura prcesertim\nmonachorum, qui literarum gloriam, alibi aid languentem aut depressam^\nin lis regionibus impigre suscitabant atque tuebantwrP Murat. Antiq.\nItal. Diss. 43. I must not omit the praise due to England, Scotland^\nand Ireland, which at that time excelled the other western kingdoms in the\nitudy of the liberal arts and especially to the monks, by whose care and\ndiligence the honour (if literature, which in other countries was either\nlanguishing or depressed, was revived and protected in Hiese. n The\nscarcity of books in those times, and the nature of their subjects,\nas legends, lives of the saints, c, evince the narrow diffusion of\nliterature.\n6. The pecuniary fines for homicide, the ordeal or judgment of\nGod, and judicial combat, were striking peculiarities in the laws and\nmanners of the northern nations, and particularly of the Franks. By\nthis warlike, barbarous people, revenge was esteemed honourable and\nmeritorious. The high-spirited warrior chastised or vindicated with\nhis own hand the injuries which he had received or inflicted. The\nmagistrate interfered, not to punish, but to reconcile, and was satisfied\nif he could persuade the aggressor to pay, and the injured party to\naccept, the moderate fine which was imposed as the price of blood,\nand of which the measure was estimated according to the rank, the\nsex, and the country of the person slain. But increasing civilization\nabolished those barbarous distinctions. We have remarked the equal\nseverity of the laws of the Visigoths, in the crimes of murder and\nrobbery; and even among the Franks, in the age of Charlemagne,\ndeliberate murder was punished with death.\n7. By their ancient laws, a party accused of any crime was al-\nlowed to produce compurgators, or a certain number of witnesses,\naccording to the measure of the offence and if these declared\nupon oath their belief of his innocence, it was held a sufficient excur-\npation. Seventy-two compurgators were required to acquit a mur-\nderer or an incendiary. The flagrant perjuries occasioned by this","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0118.jp2"},"119":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. us\nabsurd practice probably gave rise to the trial by ordeal, which was\ntermed, as it was belie vea to be, the judgment of God. The crimi-\nnal was ordered, at the option of the judge, to prove his innocence\nor guilt, by the ordeal of cold water, of boiling water, or red hot\niron. He was tied hand and foot, and thrown into a pool, to sink or\nswim he was made to fetch a ring from the bottom of a vessel of\nboiling water, or to walk barefooted over burning ploughshares. His-\ntory records examples of those wonderful experiments having been\nmade without injury or pain.\n8. Another peculiarity of the laws and manners of the northern\nnations was judicial combat. Both in civil suits and in the trial of\ncrimes, the party destitute of legal proofs might challenge his antag-\nonist to mortal combat, and rest the cause upon its issue. This san-\nguinary and most iniquitous custom, which may be traced to this day\nin the practice of duelling, had the authority of law in the court of\nthe constable and marshal, even in the last century, in France and\nEngland.\nSECTION VI.\nRETROSPECTIVE VIEW OF THE AFFAIRS OF THE CHURCH\nBEFORE THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE.\n1. The Arian and Pelagian heresies divided the christian church\nfor many ages. In the fourth centurv, Arius, a presbyter of Alexan-\ndria, maintained the separate and interior nature of the second per-\nson of the trinity, regarding Christ as the noblest of created beings,\nthrough whose agency the Creator had formed the universe. His\ndoctrine was condemned in the council of Nice, held by Constantine\nA. 1). 325, who afterwards became a convert to it. For many cen-\nturies it had an extensive influence, and produced the sects of the\nEunomians, Semi-Arians, Eusebians, c.\n2. In the beginning of the fifth century Pelagius and Caslestius,\nthe former a native of Britain, the latter of Ireland, denied the doc-\ntrine of original sin, and the necessity of divine grace to enlighten\nthe understanding, and purify the heart and maintained the suffi-\nciency of man s natural powers for the attainment of the highest\ndegrees of piety and virtue. These tenets were ably combated by\nSt. Augustine, and condemned by an ecclesiastical council, but have\never continued to find many supporters.\n3. The most obstinate source of controversy in those ages was the\nworship of images a practice which was at first opposed by the\nclergy, but was afterwards, from interested motives, countenanced\nand vindicated by them. It was, however, long a subject of division in\nthe church. The emperor Leo the Isaurian, A. D. 727, attempted\nto suppress this idolatry, by the destruction of every statute and pic-\nture found in the churches, and by punishment of their worshippers:\nbut this intemperate zeal rather increased than repressed the super-\nstition. His son Constantine Copronymus, with wiser policy, pro-\ncured its condemnation by the church.\n4. From the doctrines of the Platonic and Stoic philosophy,\nwhich recommended the purification of the soul, by redeeming it\nfrom its subjection to the senses, arose the system of penances, mor-\ntification, religious sequestration, and monachism. After Constantine\nhad put an end to the persecution of the christians, many conceived","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0119.jp2"},"120":{"fulltext":"116 MODERN HISTORY.\nit a duty to procure for themselves voluntary grievances and suffer-\nings. They retired into caves and hermitages, and there practised\nthe most rigorous mortifications of the flesh, by fasting, scourging,\nvigils, c. This phrensy first showed itself in Egypt in the fourth\ncentury, whence it spread over all the east, a great part of Africa,\nand within the limits of the bishopric of Rome. In the time of The-\nodosius these devotees began to form communities or ccenobia, each\nassociate binding himself by oath to observe the rules of his order.\nSt. Benedict introduced monachism into Italy, under the reign of\nTotila and his order, the Benedictine, soon became extremely nu-\nmerous and opulent. Many rich donations were made by the devout\nand charitable, who believed that they profited by the prayers of the\nmonks. Benedict sent colonies into Sicily and France, whence they\nsoon spread over all Europe.\n5. In the east, the monachi solitarii (solitary monks) were first incor-\nporated into ccsnobia by St. Basil, bishop of Csesarc^i, in the middle of\nthe fourth century and some time before that period the first monas-\nteries for women were founded in Egypt by the sister of St. Pacomo.\nFrom these, in the following age, sprung a variety of orders, under\ndifferent rules. The rule of the canons regular was framed after the\nmodel of the apostolic life. To chastity, obedience, and poverty, the\nmendicants added the obligation of begging alms. The military reli-\ngious orders were unknown till the age of the holy wars. (Sect. XVII,\n3.) The monastic fraternities owed their reputation chiefly to the\nlittle literary knowledge which, in those ages of ignorance, they ex\nclusively possessed. (For the origin of monachism, see Varieties of\nLite rat- ire.)\n6. In the fifth century arose a set of fanatics termed stylites, or pil-\nlar-saints, who passed their lives on the tops of pillars of various height.\nSimeon of Syria lived thirty-seven years, and died on a pillar sixty\nfeet high. This phrensy prevailed in the east for many centuries.\n(For a curious account of the fanaticism of the Hindoos, see Tennant s\nIndian Recreations.)\n7. Auricular confession, which had been abolished in the east in\nthe fourth century, began to be in use in the west in the age of Char-\nlemagne, and has ever since prevailed in the Romish church. The\ncanonization of saints was, for near twelve centuries, practised by ev-\nery bishop. Pope Alexander III, one of the most vicious of men,\nfirst claimed and assumed this right, as the exclusive privilege of the\nsuccessor of St. Peter.\n8. The conquests of Charlemagne spread Christianity in the north\nof Europe but all beyond the limits of his conquests was idolatrous.\nBritain and Ireland had received the light of Christianity at an earlier\nperiod but it was afterwards extinguished, and again revived under\nthe Saxon heptarchy.\nSECTION VII.\nEMPIRE OF THE WEST UNDER THE SUCCESSORS OF CHAR-\nLEMAGNE.\n1. The empire of Charlemagne, raised and supported solely by his\nabilities, fell to pieces under his weak posterity. Lewis (le debonnaire),\nthe only survivor of his lawful sons, was consecrated emperor and\nking of the Franks at Aix la Chapelle, A. D. 816. Among the first","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0120.jp2"},"121":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 117\nacts of his reign was the partition of his dominions among his children.\nTo Pepin, his second son, he gave Aquitaine,a third part of the south\nof France to Lewis, the youngest, Bavaria and he associated his\neldest son Lotharius with himself in the government of the rest. The\nthree princes quarrelled among themselves, agreeing in nothing but\nin hostility against their father. They made open war against him,\nsupported by pope Gregory IV. The pretence was, that the emper-\nor having a younger son, Charles, born after this partition of his\nstates^ wanted to give him likewise a share, which could not be done\nbut at the expense of his elder brothers. Lewis was compelled to\nsurrender himself a prisoner to his rebellious sons. They confined\nhim for a year to a monastery, till, on a new quarrel between Lewis\nthe younger and Pepin, Lotharius once more restored his father to\nthe throne but his spirits were broken, his health decayed, and he\nfinished, soon after, an inglorious and turbulent reign, A. D. 840.\n2. The dissensions of the brothers still continued. Lotharius, now\nemperor, and Pepin his brother s son, having taken up arms against\nthe two other sons of Lewis le debonnaire^ Lewis of Bavaria and\nCharles the bald, were defeated by them in the battle of Fontenai,\nwhere 100,000 are said to have fallen in the field. The church in\nthose times was a prime organ of the civil policy. A council of bish-\nops immediately assembled, and solemnly deposed Lotharius. At the\nsame time they assumed an equal authority over his conquerors,\nwhom they permitted to reign, on the express condition of submissive\nobedience to the supreme spiritual authority. Yet Lotharius, though\nexcommunicated and deposed, found means to accommodate matters\nwith his brothers, who agreed to a new partition of the empire. By\nthe treaty of Verdun, A. D. 843, the western part of France, termed\nNeustria and Aqjiitaine, was assigned to Charles the bald Lotharios,\nwith the title of emperor, had the nominal sovereignty of Italy, and\nthe real territory of Lorraine, Franche Compte, Provence, and the\nLyonnois the share of Lewis was the kingdom of Germany.\n3. Thus was Germany finally separated from the empire of the\nFranks. On the death of Lotharius, Charles the bald assumed the\nempire, or, as is said, purchased it from pope John VIII, on the con-\ndition of holding it as a vassal to the holy see. This prince, after a\nweak and inglorious reign, died by poison, A. D. 877. He was the\nfirst of the French monarchs who made dignities and titles hereditary.\nUnder the distracted reigns of the Carlovingian kings, the nobles at-\ntained great power, and commanded a formidable vassalage. Thev\nstrengthened themselves in their castles and fortresses, and bid defi-\nance to the arm of government, while the country was ravaged and\ndesolated by their feuds.\n4. In the reign of Charles the bald, France was plundered by the\nNormans, a new race of Goths from Scandinavia, who had begun\ntheir depredations even in the time of Charlemagne, and were only\nchecked in their progress by the terror of his arms. A. D. 843 they\nsailed up the Seine, and plundered Rouen while another fleet enter-\ned the Loire, and laid waste the country and its vicinity, carrying,\ntogether with its spoils, men, women, and children, into captivity.\nIn the following year they attacked the coasts of England, France\nand Spain, but were repelled from the last by the good conduct and\ncourage of its Mahometan rulers. In 845 they entered the Elbe,\nplundered Hamburgh, and penetrated far into Germany. Eric, king\nof Denmark, who commanded these Normans, sent once more a fleet\ninto the Seine, which advanced to Paris. Its inhabitants fled, and the","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0121.jp2"},"122":{"fulltext":"118 MODERN HISTORY.\ncity was burnt. Another fleet, with little resistance, pillaged Bour-\ndeaux. To avert the arms of these ravagers, Charles the bald bribed\nthem with money, and his successor, Charles the gross, yielded them\na part of his Flemish dominions. These were only incentives to\nfresh depredation. Paris was attacked a second time, but gallantly\ndefended by count Odo or Eudes, and the venerable bishop Goslin.\nA truce was a second time concluded but the barbarians only chang-\ned the scene of their attack they besieged Sens, and plundered\nBurgundy. An assembly of the states held at Mentz deposed the\nunworthy Charles, and conferred the crown on the more deserving\nEudes who, during a reign of ten years, bravely withstood the Nor-\nmans. A great part of the states of France, however, refused his\ntitle to the crown, and gave their allegiance to Charles surnamed the\nsimple.\n5. Rollo, the Norman, in 912, compelled the king of France to\nyield him a large portion of the territory of Neustria, and to give\nnim his daughter in marriage. The new kingdom was now called\nNormandy, of which Rouen was the capital.\nSECTION VIII.\nEMPIRE OF THE EAST DURING THE EIGHTH AND NINTH\nCENTURIES.\n1. While the new empire of the west was thus rapidly tending\nto dissolution, the empire of Constantinople still retained a vestige ol\nits ancient grandeur. It had lost its African and Syrian dependencies,\nand was plundered by the Saracens on the eastern frontier, and rav-\naged on the north and west by the Abari and Bulgarians. The capi-\ntal, though splendid and refined, was a constant scene of rebellions\nand conspiracies and the imperial family itself exhibited a series of\nthe most horrid crimes and atrocities. One emperor was put to\ndeath in revenge of murder and incest another was poisoned by his\nqueen a third was assassinated in the bath by his own domestics a\nfourth tore out the eyes of his brother the empress Irene, respecta-\nble for her talents, was infamous for the murder of her only son.\nOf such complexion was that series of princes who swayed the scep-\ntre of the east nearly 200 years.\n2. In the latter part of this period a most violent controversy was\nmaintained respecting the worship of images, which were alternately\ndestroyed and replaced according to the humour of the sovereign.\nThe female sex was their most zealous supporter. This was not the\nonly subject of division in the christian church the doctrines of Man-\niches were then extremely prevalent, and the sword was frequent-\nly employed to support and propagate their tenets.\n3. The misfortunes of the empire were increased by an invasion\nof the Russians from the Palus Mceotis and Euxine. In the reign of\nLeo, named the philosopher, the Turks, a new race of barbarians, of\nScythian or Tartarian breed, began to make effectual inroads on its\nterritories. About the same time its domestic calamities were aggra-\nvated by the separation of the Greek from the Latin church, of\nwhich we shall treat under the following section.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0122.jp2"},"123":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 119\nSECTION IX.\nSTATE OF THE CHURCH IN THE EIGHTH AND NINTH\nCENTURIES.\n1. The popes had begun to acquire a temporal authority under\nPepin le href and Charlemagne, from the donations of territory\nmade by those princes, and they were now gradually extending a\nspriritual jurisdiction over all the christian kingdoms. Nicholas 1.\nproclaimed to the whole world his paramount judgment in appeal\nfrom the sentences of all spiritual judicatories his power of as-\nsembling councils of the church, and of regulating it by the canons\nof those councils the right of exercising his authority by legates in\nall the kingdoms of Europe, and the control of the pope over all\nprinces and governors Literary imposture gave its support to these\npretences. Certain spurious epistles were written in the name of\nIsidorus, with the design of proving the justice of the claims of the\npope and the forgery of those epistles was not completely exposed\ntill the sixteenth century. Among the prerogatives of the popes was\nthe regulation of the marriages of all the crowned heads, by the\nextreme extension of the prohibitions of the canon law, with which\nthey alone had the power of dispensing.\n2. One extraordinary event (if true) afforded, in the ninth cen-\ntury, a ludicrous interruption to the boasted succession of regular\nbishops from the days of St. Peter, the election of a female pope\nwho is said to have ably governed the church for three years, till\ndetected by the birth of a child. Till the reformation by Luthei\nthis event was not regarded by the catholics as incredible, nor dis-\ngraceful to the church since that time its truth or falsehood has\nbeen the subject of keen controversy between the protestants and\ncatholics and the evidence for its falsehood seems to preponderate.\n3. The church was thus gradually extending its influence, and\nits head arrogating the control over sovereign princes, who, by a\nsingular interchange of character, seem, in those ages, to have\nfixed their chief attention on spiritual concerns. Kings, dukes, and\ncounts, neglecting their temporal duties, shut themselves up in clois-\nters, and spent their lives in prayers and penances. Ecclesiastics\nwere employed in all the departments of secular government; and\nthey alone conducted all public measures and state negotiations,\nwhich of course they directed to the great objects of advancing the\ninterests of the church, and establishing the paramount authority of\nthe holy see.\n4. At this period, however, when the popedom seemed to have\nattained its highest ascendancy, it suffered a severe wound in that\nremarkable schism which separated the patriarchates of Rome and\nConstantinople, or the Greek and Latin churches. The Roman pon-\ntiff had hitherto claimed the right of nominating the patriarch of\nConstantinople. The emperor Michael III. denied this right, and de-\nposing the pope s patriarch, Ignatius, appointed the celebrated Photius\nin his stead. Pope Nicholas 1, resented this affront with a high spirit,\nand deposed and excommunicated Photius, A. D. 863, who, in his\nturn, pronounced a similar sentence against the pope. The church\nwas divided, each patriarch being supported by many bishops and\ntheir dependent clergy. The Greek and Latin bishops had long","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0123.jp2"},"124":{"fulltext":"120 MODERN HISTORY.\ndiffered in many points of practice and discipline, as the celibacy of\nthe clergy, the shaving of their beards, ,c. but in reality the prime\nsource of division was the ambition of the rival pontiffs, and the jeal-\nousy of the Greek emperors, unwilling to admit the control of\nRome, and obstinately asserting every prerogative which they con-\nceived to be annexed to the capital of the Roman empire. As nen\nther party would yield in its pretensions, the division of the Greek\nand Latin churches became from this time permanent.\n5. Amid those ambitious contests for ecclesiastical power and pre-\neminence, the christian religion itself was disgraced, both by the\npractice and by the principles of its teachers. Worldly ambition,\ngross voluptuousness, and grosser ignorance, characterized all ranks\nof the clergy and the open sale of benefices placed them often in\nthe hands of the basest and most profligate of men. Yet the charac-\nter of Photius forms an illustrious exception. Though bred a states-\nman and a soldier, and in both these respects of great reputation, he\nattained, by his singular abilities, learning, and worth, the highest\ndignity of the church. His Bibliotheca is a monument of the most\nvarious knowledge, erudition, and critical judgment.\nSECTION X.\nOF THE SARACENS IN THE EIGHTH AND NINTH CENTURIES.\n1. In the beginning of the eighth century the Saracens subverted\nthe monarchy of the Visigoths in Spain, and easily overran the coun-\ntry. They had lately founded in Africa the empire of Morocco,\nwhich wasgoverned by Muza, viceroy of the caliph Valid Almanzor,\nMuza sent his general Tariph into Spain, who, in one memorable\nbattle, fought A. D. 713, stripped the Gothic king Rodrigo of his\ncrown and life. The conquerors, satisfied with the sovereignty of\nthe country, left the vanquished Goths in possession of their proper-\nty, laws, and religion. Abdallah the Moor married the widow of\nKodrigo, and the two nations formed a perfect union. One small\npart of the rocky country of Asturia alone adhered to its christian\nprince, Pelagius, who maintained his little sovereignty, and transmit-\nted it inviolate to his successors.\n2. The Moors pushed their conquests beyond the Pyrenees but\ndivision arising among their emirs, and civil wars ensuing, Lewis\nle debonnaire took advantage of the turbulent state of the country,\nand invaded and seized Barcelona. The Moorish sovereignty in the\nnorth of Spain was weakened by throwing off its dependence on\nthe caliphs and in this juncture the christian sovereignty of the\nAsturias, under Alphonso the chaste, began to make vigorous en-\ncroachments on the territory of the Moors. Navarre and Arragon,\nroused by this example, chose each a christian king, and boldly as-\nserted their liberty and independence.\n3. While the Moors of Spain were thus losing ground in the north,\nihey were highly flourishing in the southern parts of the kingdom.\nAbdalrahman, the last heir of the family of the Ommiades (the\nAcassidae now enjoying the caliphate), was recognized as the true\nrepresentative of the ancient line by the southern Moors. He fixed\nthe seat of his government at Cordova, which, for two centuries from\nthat time, was the capital of a splendid monarchy. This period,\nfrom the middle of the eighth to the middle of the tenth century,","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0124.jp2"},"125":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 121\nis the most brilliant sera of Arabian magnificence. Whilst Haroun\n\\lraschid made Bagdat illustrious by the splendour of the arts and\nsciences, the Moors of Cordova vied with their brethern of Asia\nin the same honourable pursuits, and were undoubtedly at this period\nthe most enlightened of the states of Europe. Under a series of\nable princes they gained the highest reputation, both in arts and\narms, of all the nations of the west.\n4. The Saracens were at this time extending their conquests in\nalmost every quarter of the world. The Mahometan religion was\nprofessed over a great part of India, and all along me eastern and\nMediterranean coast of Africa. The African Saracens invaded\nSicily, and projected the conquest of Italy. They actually laid\nsiege to Rome, which was nobly defended by pope Leo IV. They\nwere repulsed, their ships were dispersed by a storm, and their army\nwas cut to pieces, A. D. 848.\n5. The Saracens might have raised an immense empire, if they\nhad acknowledged only one head but their states were always dis-\nunited. Egypt, Morocco, Spain, and India, had all their separate\nsovereigns, who continued to respect the caliph of Bagdat as the\nsuccessor of the prophet, but acknowledged no temporal subjection\nto his government\nSECTION XI.\nEMPIRE OF THE WEST AND ITALY IN THE TENTH AND\nELEVENTH CENTURIES.\n1. The empire founded by Charlemagne now subsisted only in\nname. Arnold, a bastard son of Carloman, possessed Germany.\nItaly was divided between Guy duke of Spoletto and Berengarius\nduke of Priuli, who had received these duchies from Charles the\nbald. France, though claimed oy Arnold, was governed by Eudes\nThus the empire in realitv consisted only of a part of Germany,\nwhile France, Spain, Italy, Burgundy, and the countries between the\nMaes and Rhine, were all subject to different powers. The emper-\nors were at this time elected by the bishops and grandees, all oi\nwhom claimed a voice. In this manner Lewis the son of Arnold,\nthe last of the blood of Charlemagne, was chosen emperor after the\ndeath of his father. On his demise Otho duke of Saxony, by his\ncredit with his brother grandees, conferred the empire on Conrad\nduke of Franconia, at whose death Henry surnamed the fowler, son\nof the same duke Otho, was elected emperor, A. D. 918.\n2. Henry I. (the fowler), a prince of great abilities, introduced\norder and good government into the empire. He united the gran-\ndees, and curbed their usurpations built, embellished, and fortified\nthe cities and enforced with great rigour the execution of the laws\nin the repression of all enormities. He had been consecrated by\nhis own bishops, and maintained no correspondence with the see oi\nRome.\n3. His son Otho (the great), A. D. 938, again united Italy to the\nempire, and kept the popedom in complete subjection. He made\nDenmark tributary to the imperial crown, annexed the crown of Bo-\nhemia to his own dominions, and seemed to aim at a paramount\nauthority over all the sovereigns of Europe.\nL","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0125.jp2"},"126":{"fulltext":"122 MODERN HISTORY.\n4. Otho owed his ascendancy in Italy to the disorders of the pa-\npacy. Formosus, twice excommunicated by pope John VIII., had\narrived at the triple crown. On his deatn his rival, pope Stephen\nVII., caused his body to be dug out of* the grave, and, after trial for\nhis crimes, condemned it to be flung into the Tiber. The friends oi\nFormosus had interest to procure the deposition of Stephen, who\nwas strangled in prison. They sought and found his body, and\nburied it. A succeeding pope, Sergius III., again dug up this ill-fated\ncarcase, and threw it into the Tiber. Two infamous women, Marozia\nand Theodora, managed for many years the popedom, and filled the\nchair of St. Peter with their own gallants, or their adulterous off-\nspring. Such was the state of the holy see, when Berengarius duke\nof Friuli disputed the sovereignty of Italy with Hugh of Aries.\nThe Italian states and pope John XII., who took part against Beren-\ngarius, invited Otho to compose the disorders of the country. He\nentered Italy, defeated Berengarius, and was consecrated emperor\nby the pope, with the titles of Caesar and Augustus in return for\nwhich honours he confirmed the donations made to the holy see by\nhis predecessors, Pepin, Charlemagne, and Lewis the debonnaire,\nA. 962.\n5. But John XII. was false to his new ally. He made his peace\nwith Berengarius, and both turned their arms against the emperor.\nOtho hew back to Rome, and revenged himself by the trial and\ndeposition of the pope but he had scarcely left the city, when\nJohn, by the aid of his party, displaced his rival Leo VIII. Otho\nonce more returned, and took exemplary vengeance on his enemies,\nby hanging one half of the senate. Calling together the lateran\ncouncil, he created a new pope, and obtained from the assembled\nLishops a solemn acknowledgment of the absolute right of the em-\nfieror to elect to the papacy, to give the investiture of the crown of\ntaly, aud to nominate to all vacant bishoprics concessions observed\nno longer than while the emperor was present to enforce them.\n6. Such was the state of Rome an .1 Italy under Otho the great;\nand it continued to be much the same under his successors for a cen-\ntury. The emperors asserted their sovereignty over Italy and the\npopedom, though with a constant resistance on the part of the\nRomans, and a general repugnance of the pope, when once establish-\ned. In those ages of ecclesiastical profligacy it was not unusual to\nput up the popedom to sale. Benedict Vlll. and John XIX., two\nbrothers, publicly bought the chair of St. Peter, one after the other\nand, to keep it in their family, it was purchased afterwards by their\nfriends for Benedict IX., a cnild of twelve years of age. Three\npopes, each pretending regular election and equal right, agreed first\nto divide the revenues between them, and afterwards sold all their\nshares to a fourth.\n7. The emperor Henry III., a prince of great ability, strenuously\nvindicated his right to supply the pontifical chair, and created three\nsuccessive popes without opposition.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0126.jp2"},"127":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 123\nSECTION XII.\nHISTORY OF DR1TAIN FROM ITS EARLIEST PERIOD DOWN\nTO THE NORMAN CONQUEST.\n1. The history of Britain has been postponed to this time, that il\nmay be considered in one connected view from its earliest period to\nthe end of the Anglo-Saxon government.\nWe strive not to pierce through that mist of obscurity which veils\nthe original population of the British isles remarking only, as a mat-\nter of high probability, that they derived their first inhabitants from\nthe Celtae of Gaul. Their authentic history commences with the first\nRoman invasion; and we learn from Caesar and Tacitus, that the\ncountry was at that period in a state very remote from barbarism.\nIt was divided into a number of small independent sovereignties, each\n{)rince having a regular army and a fixed revenue. The manners,\nanguage, and religion of the people, were the same as those of the\nGallic Celtae. The religion was the druidical system, whose in-\nfluence pervaded every department of the government, and, by fts\nEower over the minds of the people, supplied the imperfection of\niws.\n2. Julius Caesar, after the conquest of Gaul, turned his eyes\ntowards Britain. He landed on the southern coast of the island, 55\nA. C. and meeting with most obstinate resistance, though on the\nwhole gaining some advantage, he found himself obliged, after a\nshort campaign, to withdraw fo-r the winter into Gaul. He returned\nin the following summer with a great increase of force, an army of\n20,000 foot, a competent body of horse, and a fleet of 800 sail. The\nindependent chiefs of the Britons united their forces under Cassibe-\nlanus king of the Trinobantes, and encountering the legions with\ngreat resolution, displayed all the ability of practised warriors. But\nthe contest was vain. Caesar advanced into the country, burnt Veru-\nlamium, the capital of Cassibelanus, and, after forcing the Britons\ninto articles of submission, returned to Gaul.\n3* The domestic disorders of Italy gave tranquillity to the Britons\nfor near a century but, in the reign of Claudius, the conquest of the\nisland was determined. The emperor landed in Britain and com-\nSelJ.ed the submission of the south-eastern provinces. Ostorius Scapula\nefeated Caractacus, who was sent prisoner to Rome. Suetonius\nPaulinus, the general of Nero, destroyed Mona (Anglesey, or as\nothers think, Man), the centre of the druidical superstition. The\nIceni (inhabitants of Norfolk and Suffolk), under their queen Boadicea,\nattacked several of the Roman settlements. London, with its Roman\ngarrison, was burnt to ashes. But a decisive battle ensued, in which\n80,000 of the Britons fell in the field, A. D. 61. Thirty years after\nin the reign of Titus, the reduction of the island was completed by\nthe Roman general, Julius Agricola. He secured the Roman prov\nince against invasion from the Caledonians, by walls and garrisons\nand reconciled the southern inhabitants to the government of their\nconquerors, by the introduction of Roman arts and improvements.\nUnder Severus the Roman province was extended far into the north\nof Scotland.\n4. With the decline of the Roman power in the west, the\n6outhern Britons recovered their liberty, but it was only to become","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0127.jp2"},"128":{"fulltext":"124 MODERN HISTORY.\nthe object of incessant predatory invasion from their brethren of the\nnorth. The Romans, after rebuilding the wall of Severus, finally bid\nadieu to Britain, A. D. 448. The Picts and Caledonians now broke\ndown upon the south, ravaging and desolating the country, without a\npurpose of conquest, and merely, as it appears, for the supply of their\ntemporary wants. After repeated application for aid from Rome\nwithout success, the Britons meanly solicited the Saxons for succour\nand protection.\n5. The Saxons received the embassy with great satisfaction. Brit-\nain had been long known to them in their piratical voyages to its\ncoasts. They landed to the amount of 1,600, under the command of\nHengist and Horsa, A. D. 450 and joining the South Britons, soon\ncompelled the Scots to retire to their mountains. They next turned\ntheir thoughts to the entire reduction of the Britons, and received\nlarge reinforcements of their countrymen. After an obstinate contest\nof near 150 years, they reduced the whole of England under the Sax-\non government. Seven distinct provinces became as many indepen-\ndent kingdoms.\n6. The history of the Saxon heptarchy is uninteresting, from its\nobscuritv and confusion. It is sufficient to mark the duration of the\nseveral kingdoms, till their union under Egbert. Kent began in 455,\nand lasted, under seventeen princes, till 827, when it was subdued by\nthe West Saxons. Under Ethelbert, one of its kings, the Saxons\nwere converted to Christianity by the monk Augustine. Northumber-\nland began in 597, and lasted, under twenty-three kings, till 792.\nEast Anglia began in 575, and ended in 793. Mercia subsisted from\n582 to 827. Essex had fourteen princes, from 527 to 747. Sussex\nhad five kings before its reduction under the dominion of the West\nFaxons, about 600. Wessex the country of the West Saxons) began\nm 519, and had not subsisted above eighty years, when Cadwalla,\nking of Wessex, conquered Sussex, and annexed it to his dominions.\nAs there was no fixed rule of succession, it was the policy of the Sax-\non princes to put to death all the rivals of their intended successor.\nFrom this cause, and from the passion for celibacy, the royal families\nwere nearly extinguished in the kingdoms of the heptarchy and Eg-\nbert, prince of the West Saxons, remained the sole surviving descendant\nof the Saxon conquerors of Britain. This circumstance, so favourable\nto his ambition, prompted him to attempt the conquest of the heptar-\nchy; and he succeeded in the enterprise. By nis victorious arms\nand judicious policy all the separate states w T ere united into one great\nkingdom, A. D. 827, near 400 years after the first arrival of the Sax-\nons in Britain.\n7. England, thus united, was far from enjoying tranquillity. The\npiratical Normans or Danes had for fifty years desolated her coasts,\nand continued, for some centuries after this period, to be a perpetual\nscourge to the country. Under Alfred (the great), grandson of Eg-\nbert, the kingdom was from this cause reduced to extreme wretched-\nn ess. The heroic Alfred in one year defeated the Danes in eight bat-\ntles; but a new irruption of their countrymen forced him to solicit a\npeace, which these pirates constantly interrupted by new hostilities\nA Ifred was compelled to seek his safety for many months in an obscure\nquarter of the country, till the disorders of the Danish army offered\na fair opportunity of attacking them, which he improved to the entire\ndefeat of his enemies. He might have destroyed them all, but chose\nrather to spare and to incorporate them with his English subjects.\nThis clemency did not restrain their countrymen from attempting a","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0128.jp2"},"129":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 12b\nnew invasion. They were again defeated with immense loss; and\nthe extreme severity which it was necessary to exercise against the\nvanquished, had the effect of suspending the Danish depredations for\nseveral wars.\n8. Alfred, whether considered in his public or private character,\ndeserves to be reckoned among the best and greatest of princes. He\nunited the most enterprising and heroic spirit with consummate pru-\ndence and moderation, the utmost vigour of authority with the most\nengaging gentleness of manner, the most exemplary justice with the\ngreatest lenity, the talents of the statesman and the man of letters\nwith the intrepid resolution and conduct of the general. He found\nthe kingdom in the most miserable condition to which anarchy, do-\nmestic barbarism, and foreign hostility, could reduce it he brought\nit to a pitch of eminence surpassing, in many respects, the situation of\nits contemporary nations.\n9. Alfred divided England into counties, with their subdivisions of\nhundreds and tithings. The tithing or decennary consisted of ten\nfamilies, over wiiich presided a tithing-man or borg-holder and ten\nof these composed the hundred. Every house-holder was answerable\nfor his family, and the tithing-man for all within his tithing. In the\ndecision of differences the tithing-man had the assistance of the rest\nof his decennary. An appeal lay from the decennary to the court of\nthe hundred, which was assembled every four weeks and the cause\nwas tried by a jury of twelve freeholders, sworn to do impartial jus-\ntice. An annual meeting of the hundred was held for the regulation\nof the police of the district. The county-court, superior to that of\nthe hundred, and consisting of all the freeholders, met twice a year\nafter Michaelmas and Easter, to determine appeals from the hundreds,\nand settle disputes between the inhabitants of different hundreds.\nThe ultimate appeal from all these courts lay to the king in council\nand the frequency of these appeals prompted Alfred to extreme cir-\ncumspection in the appointment of his judges. He composed for the\nregulation of these courts, and of his kingdom, a body of laws, the\nbasis of the common law of England.\n10. Alfred gave every encouragement to the cultivation of letters,\nas the best means of eradicating barbarism. He invited, from every\nquarter of Europe, the learned to reside in his dominions, established*\nschools, and is said to have founded the university of Oxford. He\nwas himself a most accomplished scholar for the age in which he\nlived, as appears from the works which he composed poetical apo-\nlogues, the translation of the. histories of Bede and Orosius and of Bo-\nethius on the consolation of philosophy. In every view of his char-\nacter we must regard Alfred the great as one of the best and wisest\nmen that ever occupied the regal seat. He died at the age of fifty-\nthree, A. D. 901, after a glorious reign of twenty-nine years and a\nhalf.\n11. The admirable institutions of Alfred were partially and feebly\nenforced under his successors and England, still a prey to the rava-\nges of the Danes and intestine disorder, relapsed into confusion and\nbarbarism. The reigns of Edward the elder, the son of Alfred, and\nof his successors, Athelstan, Edmund, and Eared, were tumultuous and\nanarchical. The clergy began to extend their authority over the\nthrone, and a series of succeeding princes were the obsequious slaves\not their tyranny and ambition. In the reign of Ethelred, A. D. 981,\nthe Danes seriously projected the conquest of England; and led by\nSweyn king of Denmark, anl Olaus king of Norway, made a more\nL2","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0129.jp2"},"130":{"fulltext":"126 MODERN HISTORY.\nformidable descent, won several important battles, and were restrain-\ned from the destruction of London only by a dastardly submission,\nand a promise of tribute to be paid by the inglorious Ethelred. The\nEnglish nobility were ashamed of their prince, and, seeing no other\nrelief to the kingdom, made a tender of the crown to the Danish\nmonarch. On the death of Sweyn, Ethelred attempted to regain his\nkingdom, but found in Canute, the son of Sweyn, a prince determined\nto support his claims. On the death of Ethelred, his son Edmund\nIronside gallantly but ineffectually opposed Canute. At length a\npartition of the kingdom was made between Canute and Edmund,\nwhich, after a few months, the Danes annulled by the murder of\nEdmund, thus securing to their monarch Canute the throne of all\nEngland, A. D. 1,017. Edmund left two children, Edgar Atheling,\nand Margaret, afterwards wife to Malcolm Canmore, king of Scot-\nland.\n12. Canute, the most powerful monarch of his time, sovereign of\nDenmark, Norway, and England, swayed, for seventeen years, the\nsceptre oi England with a firm and vigorous hand. He was severe\nin the beginning of his reign, while his government was insecure\nbut mild and equitable when possessed of a settled dominion, He\nleft, A. D. 1,036, three sons, Sweyn, who was crowned king of Nor-\nway, Harold, who succeeded to the throne of England, and Hardi-\ncanute, sovereign of Denmark. Harold, a merciless tyrant, died in\nthe fourth year of his reign, and was succeeded by Hardicanute,\nwho, after a violent administration of two years, died in a lit of de\nbauch. The English seized this opportunity of shaking off the\nDanish yoke, and conferred the crown on Edward, a younger son of\nEthelred, rejecting the preferable right of Edgar Atheling, the son\nof Edmund, who, unfortunately for his pretensions, was, at this time\nabroad in Hungary. Edward, surnamed the confessor, A. D. 1,041,\nreigned weakly and ingloriously for twenty-five years. The rebel-\nlious attempts of Godwin, earl of Wessex, aimed at nothing less than\na usurpation of the crown and on his death, his son Harold, cherish-\ning secretly the same views of ambition, had the address to secure to\nhis interest a very formidable party in the kingdom. Edward, to de-\nfeat these views, bequeathed the crown to William duke of Norman-\ndy, a prince whose great abilities and personal prowess had rendered\nhi3 name illustrious over Europe.\n13. On the death of Edward the confessor, 1,066, the usurper\nHarold took possession of the throne, which the intrepid Norman\ndetermined immediately to reclaim as his inheritance of right. He\nmade the most formidable preparations, aided, in this age of roman-\ntic enterprise, by many of the sovereign princes, and a vast body ol\nthe nobility, from the different continental kingdoms. A Norwegian\nfleet of 300 sail entered the Humber (a river on the eastern coast\nof England). The troops were disembarked, and, after one success-\nful engagement, were defeated by the English army in the interest\nof Harold. William landed his army on the coast of Sussex, to the\namount of 60,000 and the English, under Harold, flushed with their\nrecent success, hastily advanced to meet him, being imprudently re-\nsolved to venture all on one decisive battle. The total rout and dis-\ncomfiture of the English army in the field of Hastings, on the 14th\nday of October, 1,066, and the death of Harold, after some fruitless\nattempts of further resistance, put William duke of Normandy in\npossession of the throne of England.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0130.jp2"},"131":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. m\nSECTION XIII.\nOF THE GOVERNMENT, LAWS, AND MANNERS OF THE\nANGLO-SAXONS.\n1. The government, laws, and manners of the Anglo-Saxons have\nbecome a subject of inquiry to modern writers, as being supposed to\nhave had influence in the formation of the British constitution.\nThe government of the Saxons was the same as that of all the an-\ncient Germanic nations, and they naturally retained, in their new\nsettlement in Britain, a policy similar to their accustomed usages.\nTheir subordination was chiefly military, the king having no more\nauthority than what belonged to the general, or military leader.\nThere was no strict rule of succession to the throne for though the\nking was generally chosen from the family of the last prince, yet\nthe choice usually fell on the person of the best capacity for govern-\nment. In some instances the destination of the last sovereign regu-\nlated the choice. We know very little of the nature of the Anglo-\nSaxon government, or of the distinct rights of the sovereign and\npeople.\n2. One institution common to all the kingdoms of the heptarchy was\nthe wittenagemot, or assembly of the wise men, whose consent was\nrequisite for enacting laws, and ratifying the chief acts of public ad-\nministration. The bishops and abbots formed a part of this assem-\nbly also the aldermen, or earls, and governors of counties. The\nwites, or wise men, are discriminated from the prelates and nobility,\nand nave by some been supposed to have been Hie representaiived\nof the commons. But we hear nothing of election or representation\nin those periods, and we must therefore presume that they were\nmerely landholders, or men of considerable estate, who, from their\nweight and consequence in the country, were held entitled, without\nany election, to take a share in the public deliberations.\n3. The Anglo-Saxon government was extremely aristocraticah\nthe regal authority being very limited, the rights of the people little\nknown or regarded, and the nobility possessing much uncontrolled\nand lawless rule over their dependents. The offices of government\nwere hereditary^ in their families, and they commanded the whole\nmilitary force of their respective provinces. So strict was the clien-\ntela between these nobles and their vassals, that the murder of a vas-\nsal was compensated by a tine paid to his lord.\n4. There were three ranks of the people, the nobles, the free, and\nthe slaves. The nobles were either the kin-^s thanes, who hela\ntheir lands directly from the sovereign, or less thanes, who held land?\nfrom the former. One law of Athelstan declared, that a merchant\nwho had made three voyages on his own account was entitled to the\ndignity of thane another decreed the same rank to a ceorle, or hus*\nbandman, who was able to purchase five hides of land, and had a\nchapel, a kitchen, a hall, and a bell. The ceorles, or freemen of the\nlower rank, occupied the farms of the thanes, for which they paid\nrent; and they were removable at the pleasure of their lord. The\nslaves or villains were either employed in domestic purposes, or in\ncultivating the lands. A master was fined for the murder of his slave\nand if he mutilated him, the slave recovered his freedom.\n5. Under this aristocratical government there were some traces of","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0131.jp2"},"132":{"fulltext":"128 MODERN HISTORY-\nthe ancient Germanic democracy. The courts of the decennary, the\nhundred, and the county, were a considerable restraint on the pow-\ner of the nobles. In the county-courts the freeholders met twice\na year to determine appeals by the majority of suffrages. The\nalderman presided in those courts, but had no vote he received a\nthird of the fines, the remaining two-thirds devolving to the king,\nwhich was a great part of the royal revenue. Pecuniary fines were\nthe ordinary atonement for every species of crime, and the modes\nof proof were the ordeal by fire or water, or by compurgators..\n(Part II.. Sect. V., 7.)\n6. As to the military force, the expense of defending the state lay\nequally on all the land, every five hides or ploughs being taxed to\nfurnish a soldier. There were 243,600 hides in England, conse-\nquently the ordinary military force consisted of 48,720 men.\n7 The king s revenue, besides the fines imposed by tne courts,\nconsisted partly of his demesnes or property-lands, which were ex-\ntensive, and partly in imposts on boroughs and sea-ports. The Dane-\ngelt was a tax imposed by the states, either for payment of tribute\nexacted by the Danes, or for defending the kingdom against them.\nBy the custom of gavelkind, the land was divided equally among all\nthe male children of the deceased proprietor. Lands held by the\ntenure of Borough-English, on the death of the tenant, went to the\nyoungest son, instead of the eldest Book-land was that which was\nheld by charter, and folk-land what was held by tenants removable\nat pleasure.\n8. The Anglo-Saxons were behind the Normans in every point ot\ncivilization and the conquest was therefore to them a real advan-\ntage, as it led to material improvement in arts, science, government,\nand laws.\nSECTION XIV.\nSTATE OF EUROPE DURING THE TENTH, ELEVENTH, AND\nTWELFTH CENTURIES.\n1 France, from the extent and splendour of its dominion under\nCharlemagne, had dwindled to a shadow under his weak posterity.\nAt the end of the Carlovingian period France comprehended neither\nNormandy, Dauphine, nor Provence. On the death of Lewis V.\n(Faineant), the crown ought to have devolved on his uncle, Charles\nof Brabant, as the last male of the race of Charlemagne; but Hugh\nCapet, lord of Picardy and Champagne, the most powerful of the\nFrench nobles, was elected sovereign by the voice of his brothei\npeers, A. D. 987. The kingdom, torn by parties, suffered much\ndomestic misery under the reign of Hugh, and that of his successoi\nRobert, the victim of papal tyranny, for daring to marry a chstan*\ncousin without the dispensation of the church.\n2. The prevailing passion of the times was pilgrimage and chiv-\nalrous enterprise. In this career of adventure the Normans most\nremarkably distinguished themselves. In 983 they relieved the\nprince of Salerno, by expelling the Saracens from his territory.\nThey did a similar service to pope Benedict VIII., and the duke of\nCapua while another band of their countrymen fought first against\nthe Greeks, and afterwards against the popes, always selling their ser-\nvices to those who best rewarded them. William Fierabras, and his\nbrothers, Humphrey, Robert, and Richard, kept the pope a prisoner","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0132.jp2"},"133":{"fulltext":"MODERN niSTORY.\nfor a year at JBenevento, and forced the court ot ome to yield Capua\nto Richard and Apulia and Calabria to Robert, with the investiture\nof Sicily, if* he should gain the country from the Saracens. In 1,101\nRogero the Norman completed the conquest of Sicily, of which the\npopes continued to be the lords paramount.\n3k. The north of Europe was in those periods extremely barba\nrous. Russia received the christian religion in the eighth centurj\nSweden, after its conversion in the ninth century, relapsed into idola\ntry, as did Hungary and Bohemia. The Constantinopolitan empire\ndefended its frontiers with difficulty against the Bulgarians on the\nwest, and against the Turks and Arabians on the east and north.\n4. In Italy, excepting the territory of the popedom, the principali-\nties of the independent nobles, and the states of Venice and Genoa, the\ngreater part of the country was now in the possession of the Nor-\nmans. Venice and Genoa were rising gradually to great opulence from\ncommerce. Venice was for some ages tributary to the emperors ol\nGermany. In the tenth century its doge assumed the title of duke\nof Dalmatia, of which the republic had acquired the property by\nconquest, as well as of Istria, Spalatro, Ragusa, and Narenza.\n5. Spain was chiefly possessed by the Moors the christians retain-\ning only about a fourth of the kingdom, namely, Asturia, part of Castile\nand Catalonia, Navarre, and Arragon. Portugal was likewise occu-\npied by the Moors. Their capital was Cordova, the seat of luxury\nand magnificence. In the tenth century the Moorish dominions were\nsplit among a number of petty sovereigns, who were constantly at\nwar with one another. Such, unfortunately, was likewise the situa-\ntion of the christian part of the kingdom and it was no uncommon\npolicy for the christian princes to form alliances with the Moors\nagainst one another. Besides these the country abounded with inde-\npendent lords who made war their profession, and performed the\noffice of champions in deciding the quarrels of princes, or enlisted\nthemselves in their service with all their vassals and attendants. Oi\nthese, termed cavalleros andantes, or knights-errant, the most dis-\ntinguished was Rodrigo the cid, who undertook for his sovereign.\nAlphonso king of Old Castile, to conquer the kingdom of New Cas-\ntile, and achieved it with success, obtaining the government of Va-\nlencia as the reward of his services.\n6. The contentions between the imperial and papal powers made\na istinguished figure in those ages. Henry III. vindicated the im-\nperial right to fill the chair of St. Peter, and nominated three suc-\ncessive popes, without the intervention of a council of the church.\nBut in the minority of his son Henry IV., this right was frequently inter\nrup ed, and Alexander II. kept his seat, though the emperor named\nano her in his place. It was the lot of this emperor to experience\nthe utmost extent of papal insolence and tyranny. After a spirited\ncontest with Gregory VII., in which the pope was twice his prisoner,\nand the emperor as often excommunicated and deposed, Henry fell\nat length the victim of ecclesiastical vengeance. Urban II., a succes\nsor of Greg ory, prompted the two sons of Henry to rebel against\ntheir father and his misfortunes were terminated by imprisonment\nan death in 1,106. The same contests went on under a succession of\npopes and emperors, but ended commonly in favour of the former.\nFrederick I. (Barbarossa), a prince of high spirit, after an indignant\nenial of the supremacy of Alexander III., and a refusal of the cus-\ntomary homage, was at length compelled to kiss his feet, and appease\nhis holiness by a large cession of territory. Pope Celestinus kicked\n17","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0133.jp2"},"134":{"fulltext":"130 MODERN HISTORY.\noff the imperial crown of Henry VI., while doing homage on his\nknees, but made amends for this insolence by the gift of Naples and\nSicily, from which Henry had expelled the Normans. These terri-\ntories now became an appanage of the empire, 1,194. The suc-\nceeding popes rose on the pretensions of their predecessors, till at\nlength Innocent 111., in the beginning of the thirteenth century, estab-\nlished the power of the popedom on a settled basis, and obtained a\npositive acknowledgment of the papal supremacy, or the right prin-\ncipaliter ct Jinaliter {principally and finally) to confer the imperial\ncrown. It was the same pope Innocent whom we shall presently\nsee the disposer of the crown of England in the reign of the tyrant\nJohn.\nSECTION XV\nHISTORY OF ENGLAND IN THE ELEVENTH, TWELFTH, AND\nPART OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURIES.\n1. The consequence of the battle of Hastings was the submission\nof all England to William the conqueror. The character of this\nprince was spirited, haughty, and tyrannical, yet not without a por-\ntion of the generous affections. He disgusted his English subjects\nby the strong partiality which he showed to his Norman followers,\npreferring them to all offices of trust and dignity. A conspiracy\narose from these discontents, which William defeated, and avenged\nwith signal rigour and cruelty. He determined henceforward to\ntreat the English as a conquered people, a policy that involved his\nreign in perpetual commotions, which, while they robbed him of all\npeace of mind, aggravated the tyranny of his disposition. To his\nown children he owed the severest of his troubles. His eldest son\nRobert rose in rebellion, to wrest from him the sovereignty ot\nMaine and his foreign subjects took part with the rebel. William\nled against them an army of the English, and was on the point of\nperishing in fight by his son s hand, Philip I. of France had aided\nthis rebellion, which was avenged by William, who carried havoc and\ndevastation into the heart of his kingdom, but was killed in the en-\nterprise by a fail from his horse, 1,087. He bequeathed England to\nWilliam his second son to Robert he left Normandy and to Henry,\nhis youngest son, the property of his mother Matilda.\n2. William the conqueror introduced into England the feudal law,\ndividing the whole kingdom, except the royal demesnes, into baron-\nies, and bestowing the most of these, under the tenure of military\nservice, on his Norman followers. By the forest laws he reserved\nto himself the exclusive privilege of killing game over all the\nkingdom.; a restriction resented by his subjects above every other\nmark of servitude. Preparatory to the introduction of the feudal\ntenures, he planned and accomplished a general survey of all the\nlands in the kingdom, with a distinct specification of their extent, na\nture, value, names of their proprietors, and an enumeration of every\nclass of inhabitants who lived on them. This most valuable record,\ncalled Doomsday-book, is preserved in the English exchequer, and is\nnow printed.\n3. William II. (Rufus) inherited the vices, without any of the\nvirtues, of his father. His reign is distinguished by no event of im-\nrtance, and, after the defeat of one conspiracy in its outset, pre","height":"3574","width":"2121","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0134.jp2"},"135":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 131\nsents nothing but a dull career of unresisted despotism. After a reign\nof thirteen years he was killed when hunting by the random shot of\nan arrow, 1,100. The crown of England would have devolved on his\nelder brother Robert but his absence on a crusade in Palestine made\nway for the unopposed succession of his younger brother Henry,\nwho, by his marriage with Matilda, the niece of Edgar Atheling, unit-\ned the last remnant of the Saxon with the Norman line. With most\ncriminal ambition, he now invaded his brother s dominions of Norman-\ndy; and Robert, on his return, was defeated in battle, and detained\nfor life a prisoner in England. The crimes of Henry were expiated\nby his misfortunes. His only son was drowned in his passage from\nNormandy. His daughter Matilda, married first to the emperor Hen-\nry V., and afterwards to Geoifrey Plantagenet of Anjou, was destined\nto be his successor but the popularity of his nephew Stephen, son\nof the count of Blois, defeated these intentions. Henry I. died in Nor-\nmandy, after a reign of thirty-five years, A. D. 1,135; and, in spite of\nhis destination to Matilda, Stephen seized the vacant throne. The\nparty of Matilda, headed by her natural brother, the earl of Glouces-\nter, engaged, defeated, and made Stephen prisoner. Matilda in her\nturn mounted the throne but, unpopular from the tyranny of her\ndisposition, she was solemnly deposed by the prevailing party of her\nrival and Stephen was once more restored. He found, however, in\nHenry Planlagenet, the son of Matilda, a more formidable competitor.\nOf a noble and intrepid spirit, he resolved, while yet a boy, to reclaim\nhis hereditary crown and, landing in England, won by his prowess,\nand the favour of a just cause, a great part of the kingdom to his in\nterest. By treaty with Stephen, who was allowed to reign for life\nhe secured the succession at his death, which soon after ensued,\n1,154.\n4. Henry II., a prince in every sense deserving of the throne, began\nhis reign with the reformation of all the abuses of the government of\nhis predecessors revoking all impolitic grants, abolishing partial im-\nmunities, regulating the administration of justice, and establishing the\nfreedom of the towns by charters, which are at this day the basis of\nthe national liberty. Happy in the affections of his people, and pow-\nerful in the vast extent of additional territory which he enjoyed on\nthe continent in right of his father and of his wife, the heiress of a\ngreat portion of France, his reign had every promise of prosperity\nand happiness; but from one fatal source these pleasing prospects\nwere all destroyed. Thomas Becket was raised by Henry from ob-\nscurity to the office of chancellor of England. On the vacancy of the\nsee of Canterbury the. king, desirous of his aid in the correction of\necclesiastical abuses, conferred the primacy on his favourite and the\narrogant Becket availed himself of that authority to abase the prerog-\native of his sovereign, and exalt the spiritual power above the crown.\nIt was disputed, whether a priest could be tried for a murder, and pun-\nished by the civil court. It was determined in the affirmative by the\ncouncirof Clarendon, against the opinion of Becket. Pope Alexander\nIII. annulled the decree of the council; and Becket, who took pai-\nwith the pope, was deprived by Henry of all his dignities and estates.\nHe avenged himself by the excommunication of the king s ministers:\nand Henry, in return, prohibited all intercourse with the see of Rome.\nAt lengtlfboth parties found it their interest to come to a good under-\nstanding. Becket was restored to favour, and reinstated in his primacy,\nwhen the increasing insolence of his demeanour drew from the king\nsome hasty expressions of indignation, which his servants interpreted","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0135.jp2"},"136":{"fulltext":"132 MODERN HISTORY.\ninto a sentence of proscription, and, trusting that the deed would be\ngrateful to their master, murdered the prelate while in the act of\ncelebrating vespers at the altar. For this shocking action Henry\nexpressed the regret which he sincerely felt, and the pope indulgent-\nly granted his pardon, on the assurance of his dutiful obedience to\nthe holy church.\n5. The most important event of the reign of Henry II. was the\nconquest of Ireland. The Irish, an early civilized people, and among\nthe first of the nations of the west who embraced the christian reli-\ngion, were, by frequent invasions of the Danes, and their own domes-\ntic commotions, replunged into barbarism for many ages. In the\ntwelfth century the kingdom consisted of five separate sovereignties,\nUlster, Leinster, Munster, Meath, and Connaught; but these were\nsubdivided among an infinite number of petty chie/s, owing a very\nweak allegiance to their respective sovereigns. Dermot Macmor-\nrogh, expelled from his kingdom of Leinster for a rape on the daugh-\nter of the king of Meath, sought protection from Henry, and engaged\nto become his feudatory, if he should recover his kingdom by the aid\nof the English. Henry empowered his subjects to invade Ireland,\nand, while Strongbow earl of Pembroke and his followers were lay-\ning waste the country, landed in the island in 1,172, and received the\nsubmission of many oi the independent chiefs. Roderick O Connor,\nprince of Connaught, whom the Irish elected nominal sovereign of\nall the provinces, resisted for three years the arms of Henry, but\nfinally acknowledged his dominion by a solemn embassy to the king\nat Windsor. The terms of the submission were, an annual tribute of\nrvery tenth hide of land, to be applied for the support of government,\ntmd an obligation of allegiance to the crown oi England; on which\nconditions trie Irish should retain their possessions, and Roderick his\nkingdom except the territory of the Pale, or that part which the\nEnglish barons had subdued before the arrival of Henry.\n6. Henry divided Ireland into counties, appointed sheriffs in each\nand introduced the laws of England into the territory of the Pale.\nThe rest of the kingdom was regulated by their ancient laws, till the\nreign of Edward I., when, at the request of the nation, the English\nlaws were extended to the whole kingdom. In the first Irish parlia-\nment, which was held in the same reign, sir John Wogan presided as\ndeputy of the sovereign. From that time there was little intercourse\nbetween the two kingdoms for some centuries nor was the island\nconsidered as fully subdued till the reign of Elizabeth and of her sue\ncessor James I.\n7. The latter part of the reign of Henry II. was clouded by domes-\ntic misfortunes. His children, Henry, Richard, Geoffrey, and John,\ninstigated by their unnatr al mother, rose in rebellion, and, with the\naid of Louis* VII., king i/ ance, prepared to dethrone t heir father.\nWhile opposing them with spirit on the continent, his kingdom was\ninvaded by the Scots under William (the lion). He hastened back to\nEngland, defeated the Scots, and made their king his prisoner. Two\nof his sons, Henry and Geoffrey, expiated their offences by an early\ndeath but Richard, once reconciled, was again seduced from his al-\nlegiance, and, in league with the king of France, plundered his fa-\nther s continental dominions. The spirit of Henry was unequal to his\ndomestic misfortunes, and h? died o; a broken heart in the 58th year\nof his age, 1,189, an ornament to the English throne, and a prince sur-\npassing all his contemporaries in the valuable qualities of a sovereign.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0136.jp2"},"137":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY 133\nTo him England owed her first permanent improvement in arts, in\nlaws, in government, and in civil liberty.\n8. Richard I. (coeur de lion) immediately on his accession embark-\ned for the Holy Land, on a crusade against the infidels, after plunder-\ning his subjects of an immense sum of money to defray the charges\nof the enterprise. Forming a league with Philip Augustus of France,\nthe two monarchs joined their forces, and acting for some time in\nconcert, were successful in the taking of Acraor Ptolemais; but Phil-\nip, jealous of his rival s glory, soon returned to France, while Richard\nhad the honour of defeating the heroic Saladin in the battle of Asca-\nlon, with prodigious slaughter of his enemies. He prepared now foi\nthe siege of Jerusalem; but, finding his army wasted with famine and\nfatigue, he was compelled to end the war by a truce with Saladin, in\nwhich ne obtained a free passage to the Holy Land for every chris-\ntian pilgrim. Wrecked in his voyage homeward, and travelling in\ndisguise through Germany, Richard was seized, and detained in pris-\non, by command of the emperor Henry VI. The king of France un-\ngenerously opposed his release, as did his unnatural brother John,\nfrom selfish ambition but he was at length ransomed by his subjects\nfor the sum of 150,000 merks, and, after an absence of nine years, re-\nturned to his dominions. His traitorous brother was pardoned after\nsome submission and Richard employed the short residue of his\nreign in a spirited revenge against his rival Philip. A truce, howev-\ner, was concluded by the mediation of Rome and Richard was soon\nafter killed, while storming the castle of one of his rebellious vassals\nin the Limosin. He died in the tenth year of his reign, and forty\nsecond of his age, 1,199.\n9. John (lack-land) succeeded to the throne on the death of his\nbrother, but found a competitor in his nephew Arthur, the son ol\nGeoffrey, supported by Philip of France. War was of course renew-\ned with that country. Arthur, with fatal confidence, throwing him-\nself into the hands of his uncle, was removed by poison or the sword\na deed which, joined to the known tyranny of his character, rendered\nJohn the detestation of his subjects. He was stripped by Philip ol\nhis continental dominions, and he made the pope his enemy by an ava-\nricious attack on the treasures of the church. After an ineffectual\nmenace of vengeance, Innocent III. pronounced a sentence of interdict\nagainst the kingdom, which put a stop to all the ordinances of religion,\nto baptism, ana! the burial of the dead. He next excommunicated\nJohn, and absolved his subjects from their allegiance and he finally\ndeposed him, and made a gift of the kingdom to Philip. John, intimi-\ndated into submission, declared himself the pope s vassal, swore alle-\ngiance on his knees to the papal legate, and agreed to hold his king\ndom tributary to the holy see. On these conditions, which ensured\nthe universal hatred and contempt of his people, he made his peace\nwith the church. It was natural that his subjects, thus trampled upon\nand sold, should vindicate their rights. The barons of the king-\ndom assembled, and, binding themselves by oath to a union of meas-\nures, resolutely demanded from the king a ratification of a charter of\nprivileges granted by Henry I. John appealed to the pope, who, in\nsupport of his vassal, prohibited the confederacy of the barons as re-\nbellious. The barons were only the more resolute in their purpose,\nand the sword was their last resource. At length John was compelled\nto yield to their demands, and signed at Runymede, on the 19th\nday of June, 1,215, that solemn charter, which is the foundation and\nbulwark of English liberty, Magna Charta {the great charter).","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0137.jp2"},"138":{"fulltext":"134 MODERN HISTORY\n10. By this great charter, 1, the freedom of election to benefices\nwas secured to the clergy 2, the fines to the overlord on the suc-\ncession of vassals were regulated 3, no aids or subsidies were allow-\ned to be levied from the subject, without the consent of the great\ncouncil, unless in a few special cases 4, the crown shall not seize\nthe lands of a baron for a debt, while he has personal property\nsufficient to discharge it; 5, all the privileges granted by the king to\nhis vassals shall be communicated by them to their inferior vassals\n6, one weight and one measure shall be used throughout the king-\ndom 7, all men shall pass from and return to the realm at their\npleasure; 8, all cities and boroughs shall preserve their ancient\nliberties 9, the estate of every freeman shall be regulated by his\nwill, and, if he die intestate, by the law; 10, the king s court shall be\nstationary, and open to all 1 1 every freeman shall be fined only in\nproportion to his offence, and no fine shall be imposed to his utter\nruin; 12, no peasant shall, by a fine, be deprived of his instruments\nof husbandry; 13, no person shall be tried on suspicion alone, but\non the evidence of lawful witnesses; 14, no person shall be tried\nor punished unless by the judgment of his peers and the law ot the\nland.\n11. John granted at the same time the Charta de Foresta {the char-\nter concerning forests), which abolished the royal privilege of killing\ngame over all the kingdom, and restored to the lawful proprietors\ntheir woods and forests, which they were now allowed to enclose\nand use at their pleasure. As compulsion alone had extorted these\nconcessions, John was determined to disregard them, and a foreign\nforce was brought into the kingdom to reduce the barons to submis-\nsion. The barons applied for aid to F ranee, and Philip sent his con\nLewis to England with an army and such was the people s hatred\nof their sovereign, that they swore allegiance to this foreigner. At\nthis critical period John died at Newark, in 1,216, and an instant\nchange ensued. His son Henry III., a boy of nine years of age, was\ncrowned at Bristol and his uncle, the earl of Pembroke, was appoint-\ned protector of the realm. The disaffected barons returned to their\nallegiance the people hailed their sovereign and Lewis with his\narmy, after an ineffectual struggle, made peace with the protector,\nand evacuated the kingdom.\nSECTION XVI.\nSTATE OF GERMANY AND ITALY IN THE THIRTEENTH\nCENTURY.\n1 Frederick II., son of Henry VI., was elected emperor on the\nresignation of Otho IV., in 1,212. At this period Naples, Sicily, and\nLombardy, were all appanages of the empire and the contentions\nbetween the imperial and papal powers divided the states of Italy\ninto factions, known by the name of Guelphs and Ghibellines the\nformer maintaining the supremacy of the pope, the latter that of the\nemperor. The opposition of Frederick to four successive popes\nwas avenged by excommunication and deposition yet he kept posses-\nsion of his throne, and vindicated his authority with great spirit.\nFrequent attempts were made against his life, by assassination and\npoison, which he openly attributed to papal resentment. On his\ndeath, in 1,250, the splendour of the empire was for many years ob-","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0138.jp2"},"139":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 136\nscured. It was a prey to incessant factions and civil war, the fruit oi\ncontested claims of sovereignty. Yet the popes gained nothing by\nits disorders, for the troubles of Italy were equally hostile to their\nambition. We have seen the turbulent state of England. France\nwas equally weak and anarchical and Spain was ravaged by the\ncontests of the Moors and christians. Yet, distracted as appears the\nsituation of Europe, one great project gave a species of union to this\ndiscordant mass, of which we now proceed to give an account\nSECTION XVII.\nTHE CRUSADES, OR HOLY WARS.\n1. The Turks or Turcomans, a race of Tartars from the regions\nof Mount Taurus and Imaus, invaded the dominions of Moscovy\nin the eleventh century, and came down upon the banks of the\nCaspian. The caliphs employed Turkish mercenaries, and they\nacquired the reputation of able soldiers in the wars that took place\noh occasion of the contested caliphate. The caliphs of Bagdat s the\nAbassidae, were deprived of Syria, Egypt, and Africa, by their rival\ncaliphs of the race of Omar and the Turks stripped of their do-\nminions both the Abassidae and Ommiades. Bagdat was taken by the\nTurks, and the empire of the caliphs overthrown in 1,055 and these\nprinces, from temporal monarchs, became now the supreme pontifls\nof the Mahometan faith, as the popes of the christian. At the time\nof the first crusade, in the end of the eleventh century, Arabia was\ngoverned by a Turkish sultan, as were Persia and the greater por-\ntion of Lesser Asia. The eastern empire was thus abridged of its\nAsiatic territory, and had lost a great part of its dominions in Europe.\nIt retained, however, Greece, Macedonia, Thrace, and Illyria and\nConstantinople itself was populous, opulent, and luxurious. Palestine\nwas in the possession of the Turks and its capital Jerusalem, fallen\nfrom its ancient consequence and splendour, was yet held in re-\nspect by its conquerors as a holy city, and constantly attracted the re-\nsort of Mahometans to the mosque of Omar, as of christian pilgrims\nto the sepulchre of our Saviour.\n2. Peter the hermit, a native of Amiens, on his return from this\npilgrimage, complained in loud terms of the grievances which the\nchristians suffered from the Turks and Urban II. pitched on this\nenthusiast as a fit person to commence the execution of a grand de-\nsign which the popes had long entertained, of arming all Christen-\ndom, and exterminating the infidels from the Holy Land. The project\nwas opened in two general councils held at Placentia and Clermont\nThe French possessed more ardour than the Italians and an im\nmense multitude of ambitious and disorderly nobles, with all their\ndependents, eager for enterprise and plunder, and assured of eternal\nsalvation, immediately took the cross. Peter the hermit led 80,000\nunder his banners, and they began their march towards the east in\n1,095. Their progress was marked by rapine and hostility in every\nchristian country through which they passed and the army of the\nhermit, on its arrival at Constantinople, was wasted down to 20,000.\nThe emperor Alexius Comnenus, to whom the crusaders behaved\nwith the most provoking insolence and folly, conducted himself with\nadmirable moderation and good sense. He hastened to get rid of\nthis disorderly multitude, by furnishing them with every aid which","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0139.jp2"},"140":{"fulltext":"136 MODERN HISTORY.\nthey required, and cheerfully lent his ships to transport them across\nthe Bosphorus. The sultan Solyman met them in the plain of\nNicea, and destroyed the army of the hermit. A new host in the\nmean time arrived at Constantinople, led by more illustrious com-\nmanders by Godfrey of Bouillon duke of Brabant, Raymond count\nof Thoulouse, Robert of Normandy, son of William king of Eng-\nland, Bohemond, son of Robert Guiscard, the conqueror of Sicily,\nand other princes of high reputation. To these, who amounted to\nsome hundred thousands, Alexius manifested the same prudent con-\nduct, to accelerate their departure. The Turks, overpowered by\nQumbers, were twice defeated and the crusaders, pursuing their suc-\ncesses, penetrated at length to Jerusalem, which after a siege of six-\nweeks, they took by storm, and with savage fury massacred the\nwhole of its Mahometan and Jewish inhabitants, A. D. 1,099. Godfrey\nwas hailed king of Jerusalem, but was obliged soon after to cede his\nkingdom to the pope s legate. The crusaders divided Syria and,\nPalestine, and formed four separate states, which weakened their\npower. The Turks began to recover strength and the christians\nof Asia soon found it necessary to solicit aid from Europe.\n3. The second crusade set out from the west in 1,146, to the\namount of 200,009 French, Germans, and Italians, led by Hughj\nbrother of Philip I. of France. These met with the same fate\nwhich attended the army of Peter the hermit. The garrison of\nJerusalem was at this time so weak, that it became necessary to\nembody and arm the monks for its defence and hence arose the\nmilitary orders of the knights templars and hospitallers, and soon\nafter the Teutonic, from the German pilgrims. Meantime pone\nEugenius III. employed St. Bernard to preach a new crusade in\nFrance, which was headed by its sovereign Lewis VII., (the young),\nwho, in conjunction with Conrad III., emperor of Germany, mus-\ntered jointly 300,000 men. The Germans were extirpated by the\nsultan of Iconium the French were totally defeated near Laodicea\nand the two monarchs, after much disaster, returned with shame to\ntheir dominions.\n4. The illustrious Saladin, nephew of the sultan of Egypt, formed\nthe design of recovering Palestine from the christians and besieging\nJerusalem, he took the city, and made prisoner its sovereign, Guy\nof Lusignan. Pope Clement III., alarmed at the successes of the\ninfidels, began to stir up a new crusade from France, England, and\nGermany and the armies of each country were headed by their\nrespective sovereigns, Philip Augustus, Richard I., and Frederick\nBarbarossa. In this third crusade the emperor Frederick died in\nAsia, and his army, by repeated defeats, mouldered to nothing.\nThe English and French were more successful they besieged and\ntook Ptolemais but Richard and Philip quarrelled from jealousy ot\neach other s glory, and the French monarch returned in disgust to\nhis country. Richard nobly sustained the contest with Saladin,\nwhom he defeated near Ascalon but his army was reduced by fam-\nine and fatigue. He concluded a treaty, at least not dishonourable*\nwith his enemy, and was forced at length to escape from Palestine\nwith a single ship. (See Sect. XV., 8.) Saladin, revered even by\nthe christians, died in 1,195.\n5. A fourth crusade was fitted out in 1 ,202, under Baldwin count\nof Flanders, of which the object was not the extirpation of the infi-\ndels, but the destructior of the empire of the east. Constantinople,\nembroiled by civil war and revolution from disputed claims to the","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0140.jp2"},"141":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 137\nsovereignty, was besieged and taken by the crusaders; and Baldwin,\ntheir chief, was elected emperor, to be within a few months dethron\ned and murdered. The imperial dominions were shared among the\nprincipal leaders and the Venetians, who had lent their ships for the\nexpedition, got the isle of Candia (anciently Crete) for their reward.\nAlexius, of the imperial family of trie Commeni, founded a new sove-\nreignty in Asia, which he termed the empire of Trebizond. The ob-\nject of a fifth crusade was to lay waste Egypt, in revenge for an\nattack on Palestine, by its sultan Saphadin. Partial success and ulti-\nmate ruin was the issue of this expedition, as of all the preceding.\n6. At this period, 1,227, a great revolution took place in Asia.\nGengiskan with his Tartars broke down from the north upon Persia\nand Syria, and massacred indiscriminately Turks, Jews, and Chris-\ntians, who opposed them. The christian knights, templars, hospital-\nlers, and Teutonic, made a desperate but ineffectual resistance and\nPalestine must have been abandoned to these invaders, if its fate had\nnot been for a while retarded by the last crusade under Lewis IX. oi\nFrance. This prince, summoned by Heaven, as he believed, after\nfour years preparation, set out for the Holy Land, with his queen,\nhis three brothers, and all the knights of France. His army began\ntheir enterprise by an attack on Egypt, where, after some consider-\nable successes, they were at length utterly -defeated and the\nFrench monarch, with two of his brothers, fell into the hands of the\nenemy. He purchased his liberty at an immense ransom, and, return-\ning to France, reigned prosperously and wisely for thirteen years.\nBut the same phrensy again assailing him, he embarked on a crusade\nagainst the Moors in Africa, where he and his army were destroyed\nby a pestilence, 1,270. It is computed that, in the whole of the\ncrusades to Palestine, two millions of Europeans were buried in the\neast.\n7. Effects of the crusades. One consequence of the holy wars is\nsupposed to have been the improvement of European manners but\nthe times immediately succeeding the crusades exhibit no such actual\nimprovement. Two centuries of barbarism and darkness elapsed\nbetween the termination of those enterprises and the fall of the\nGreek empire in 1,453, the asra of the revival of letters, and the\ncommencement of civilization. A certain consequence of the cru-\nsades was the change of territorial property in all the feudal king-\ndoms, the sale of the estates of the nobles, and their division among\na number of smaller proprietors. Hence the feudal aristocracy was\nweakened, and the lower classes began to acquire weight, and a\nspirit of independence. The towns hitherto bound by a sort of vassal-\nage to the nobles, began to purchase their immunity, acquired the\nright of electing their own magistrates, and were governed by their\nown municipal laws. The church in some respects gained, and in\nothers lost by those enterprises. The popes gained a more extend-\ned jurisdiction but the fatal issue of those expeditions opened the\neyes of the world to the selfish and interested motives which had\nprompted them, and weakened the sway of superstition. Many of the\nreligious orders acquired an increase of wealth but this was bal-\nanced by the taxes imposed on the clergy. The coin was altered\nand debased in most oi the kingdoms of Europe, from the scarcity\nof specie. The Jews were supposed to have hoarded and concealed\nit, and hence they became the victims of general persecution. The\nmost substantial gainers by the crusades were the Italian states of\nGenoa, Pisa, and Venice, from the increased trade to the Levant\nM2 18","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0141.jp2"},"142":{"fulltext":"138 MODERN HISTORY.\nfor the supply of those immense armies. Venice, as we have seen.\ntook an active concern, and obtained her share of the conquered\nterritory.\nThe age of the crusades brought chivalry to its perfection and gave\ntise to romantic fiction.\nSee Kett s Elements of General Knowledge, vol. I.\nSECTION XVIII.\nOF CHIVALRY AND ROMANCE.\n1. Chivalry arose naturally from the condition of society in those\nages in which it prevailed. Among the Germanic nations the profes-\nsion of arms was esteemed the sole employment that deserved the\nname of manly or honourable. The initiation of the youth to this pro-\nfession was attended with peculiar solemnity and appropriate cere-\nmonies. The chief of the tribe bestowed the sword and armour on\nhis vassal, as a symbol of their devotion to his service. In the prog-\nress of the feudal system these vassals, in imitation of their chief, as-\nsumed the power of conferring arms on their sub-vassals, with a\nsimilar form of mysterious and pompous ceremonial. The candidate\nfor knighthood underwent his preparatory fasts and vigils, and re-\nceived on his knees the accollade and benediction of his chief. Arm-\ned and caparisoned, he sallied forth in quest of adventure, which,\nwhether just or not in its purpose, was ever esteemed honourable in\nproportion as it was perilous.\n2. The esteem of the female sex is characteristic of the Gothic\nmanners. In those ages of barbarism the castles of the greater bar-\nons were the courts of sovereigns in miniature. The society of the\nladies, who found only in such fortresses a security from outrage, pol-\nished the manners and to protect the chastity and honour of the fair,\nwas the best employ and the highest merit of an accomplished knight.\nRomantic exploit therefore had always a tincture of gallantry.\nIt hath been through all ages ever seen,\nThat with the praise of arms and chivalry\nThe prize of beauty still hath joined been,\nAnd that for reasons special privity\nFor either doth on other much rely\nFor he, me seems, most fit the fair to serve,\nThat can her best defend from villany\nAnd she most fit his service doth deserve\nThat fairest is, and from her faith will never swerve.\nSpenser s Fairy Queejt.\n3. To the passion for adventure and romantic love was added a\nhigh regard for morality and religion but as the latter were ever\nsubordinate to the former, we may presume more in favour of the\nrefinement than of the purity of the knights. It was the pride of a\nknight to redress wrongs and injuries but in that honourable employ-\nment he made small account of those which he committed. It was\neasy to expiate the greatest offences by a penance or a pilgrimage,\nwhich furnished only a new opportunity for adventurous exploit.\n4. Chivalry, whether it began with the Moors or Normans, attain-\ned its perfection at the period of the crusades, which presented a no-","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0142.jp2"},"143":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 13\nble object of adventure, and a boundless field for military glory.\nFew indeed returned from those desperate enterprises; but those had\na high reward in the admiration of their countrymen. The bards and\nromancers sung their praises, and recorded their exploits, with a\nthousand circumstances of fabulous embellishment.\n5. The earliest of the old romances (so termed from the Romance\nlanguage, a mixture of the Frank and Latin, in which they were\nwritten) appeared about the middle of the twelfth century, the period\nof the second crusade. But those more ancient compositions did not\nrecord contemporary events, whose known truth would have preclud-\ned all liberty of fiction or exaggeration. Geoffrey of Monmouth, and\nthe author who assumed the name of archbishop Turpin, had free\nscope to their fancy, by celebrating the deeds of Arthur and the\nknights of the round table, and the exploits of Charlemagne and his\ntwelve peers. From the fruitful stock of those first romances sprung\na numerous offspring equally wild and extravagant.\n6. Philosophers have analyzed the pleasure arising from works of\nfiction, and have endeavoured, by various hypotheses, to account for\nthe interest which we take in the description of an event or scene\nwhich is known to be utterly impossible. The fact may be simply\nexplained as follows. Every narration is in some degree attenaed\nwith a dramatic deception. We enter for the time into the situation\nof the persons concerned and, adopting their passions and feelings,\nwe lose all sense of the absurdity of their cause, while we see the\nagents themselves hold it for reasonable and adequate. The most in-\ncredulous sceptic may sympathize strongly with the feelings of Ham-\nlet at the sight of his father s spectre.\n7. Thus powerfully affected as we are by sympathy, even against\nthe conviction of our reason, how much greater must have been the\neffect of such works of the imagination in those days, when popular\nsuperstition gave full credit to the reality, or at least the possibility,\nof all that they described And hence we must censure, as both un-\nnecessary and improbable, the theory of Dr. Hurd, which accounts\nfor all the wildness of the old romances, on the supposition that their\nfictions were entirely allegorical which explains the giants and sav-\nages into the oppressive feudal lords and their barbarous dependents;\nas M. Mallet construes the serpents and dragons which guarded the\nenchanted castles, into their winding walls, fosses, and battlements.\nIt were sufficient to sav, that many of those old romances are inex-\nplicable by allegory. They were received by the popular belief as\ntruths and even their contrivers believed in the possibility of the\nscenes and actions which they described. In latter ages, and in the\nwane of superstition, yet while it still retained a powerful influence,\nthe poets adopted allegory as a vehicle of moral instruction: and to\nthis period belong those political romances which bear an allegorical\nexplanation as the Fairy Queen of Spenser, the Orlando of Ariosto,\nand the Gierusalemme Lioerata of Tasso.\n8. In more modern times the taste for romantic composition declin-\ned with popular credulity and the fastidiousness of philosophy affect-\ned to treat all supernatural fiction with contempt. But it was at\nlength perceived that this refinement had cut off a source of very\nhigh mental enjoyment. The public taste now took a new turn and\nthis moral revolution is at present lending to its extreme. We are\ngone back to the nursery to listen to tales of hobgoblins a change\nwhich we may safely prognosticate can be of no duration.","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0143.jp2"},"144":{"fulltext":"140 MODERN HISTORY.\nSECTION XIX.\nSTATE OF EUROPE IN THE THIRTEENTH AND FOURTEENTH\nCENTURIES.\n1. Constantinople, taken in 1,202 by the crusaders, was possessed\nonly for a short time by its conquerors. It was governed by French\nemperors for the space of sixty years, and was retaken by the\nGreeks in 1,281, under Michael Pakeologus, who, by imprisoning and\nputting out the eyes of his pupil Theodore Lascaris, secured to him-\nself the sovereignty.\n2. In the beginning of the thirteenth century Germany was\nfoverned by Frederick II who paid homage to the pope lor the\ningdom of Naples and Sicily, which was possessed by his son Con-\nrad, and afterwards by his brother Manfred, who usurped the crown\nin violation of the right of his nephew Conradin. Pope Clement IV.,\njealous of the dominion of the imperial family, gave the investiture\nof Naples and Sicily to Charles of Anjou, brother of Lewis IX. oi\nFrance, who defeated and put to death his competitors. The Sicil-\nians revenged this act of usurpation and cruelty by the murder, in\none night, of every Frenchman in the island. This shocking massa-\ncre, termed the Sicilian vespers, happened on Easter Sunday, 1,282.\nIt was followed by every evil that comes in the train of civil war and\nrevolution.\n3. The beginning of the thirteenth century had been signalized\nby a new species of crusade. The Albigenses, inhabitants of Alby\nin the Pays de Vaud, were bold enough to dispute many of the tenets\nof the catholic church, judging them contrary to the doctrines oi\nscripture. Innocent III. established a holy commission at Thoulouse,\nwith power to try and punish those heretics. The count of Thou-\nlouse opposed this persecution, and was, for the punishment of his\noffence, compelled by the pope to assist in a crusade against his own\nvassals. Simon de Monfort was the leader of this pious enterprise,\nwhich was marked by the most atrocious cruelties. The benefits of\nthe holy commission were judged by the popes to be so great, that it\nbecame from that time a permanent establishment, known by the\nname of the inquisition.\n4. The rise of the house of Austria may be dated from 1,274,\nwhen Rodolphus of Hapsbourg, a Swiss baron, was elected emperor\nof Germany. He owed his elevation to the jealousies of the elec-\ntoral princes, who could not agree in the choice of any one of them-\nselves. The king of Bohemia, to whom Rodolphus had been stew-\nard of the household, could ill brook the supremacy of his former de-\npendent; and refusing him the customary homage for his Germanic\npossessions, Rodolphus stripped him of Austria, which has ever since\nremained in the family of its conqueror.\n5. The Italian states of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, were at this time\nflourishing and opulent, while most of the kingdoms of Europe (if\nwe except England under Edward I.,) were exhausted, feeble, and\ndisorderly. A dawning of civil liberty began to appear in France\nunder Philip IV. {le bel), who summoned the third estate to the\nnational assemblies, which had hitherto consisted of the nobility and\nclergy, 1,303. Philip established perpetual courts of judicature in\nFrance, under the name of parliaments. Over these the parliament","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0144.jp2"},"145":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 141\nrf Paris possessed a jurisdiction by appeal but it was not till later\ntimes that it assumed any authority in matters of State.\n6. The parliament of England had before this era begun to assume\nits present constitution. The commons, or the representatives of\ncounties and boroughs, were first called to parliament by Henry\nHI. Before that time this assembly consisted only of the greater\nbarons and clergy. But of the rise and progress of the constitution\nof England we shall afterwards treat more paticularly in a separate\nsection.\n7. The spirit of the popedom, zealous in the maintenance and ex-\ntension of its prerogatives, continued much the same in the thirteenth\nand fourteenth, as we have seen it in the three preceding centuries.\nPhilip the fair had subjected his clergy to bear their share of the\npublic taxes, and prohibited all contributions to be levied by the pope\nin his dominions. This double offence was highly resented by Boni-\nface VIII., who expressed his indignation by a sentence of excom-\nmunication and interdict, and a solemn transference of the kingdom\nof France to the emperor Albert. Philip, in revenge, sent his gen-\neral Nogaret to Rome, who threw the pope into prison. The\nFrench, however, were overpowered by the papal troops; and the\ndeath of Boniface put an end to the quarrel.\n8. It is less easy to justify the conduct of Philip the fair to the\nknights templars than his behaviour to pope Boniface. The whole\nof this order had incurred his resentment, from suspicion of harbour-\ning treasonable designs. He had influence with Clement V. to pro\ncure a papal bull warranting their extirpation from all the christian\nkingdoms: and this infamous proscription was carried into effect\nover all Europe. Those unfortunate men were solemnly tried, not\nfor their real offence, but for protended impieties and idolatrous prac-\ntices, and committed to the flames 1,309 1,312.\nSECTION XX.\nREVOLUTION OF SWITZERLAND.\n1. The beginning of the fourteenth century was distinguished by\nthe revolution of Switzerland, and the rise of the Helvetic republic.\nThe emperor Rodolphus of Hapsbourg was hereditary sovereign\nof several of the Swiss cantons, and governed his states with much\nequity and moderation. His successor Albert, a tyrannical prince,\nformed the design of annexing the whole of the provinces to his\ndominion, and of erecting them into a principality for one of his\nsons. The cantons of Schweitz, Ury, and Under wald, which had\nalways resisted the authority of Austria, combined to assert their\nfreedom and a small army of 400 or 500 men defeated an immense\nhost of the Austrians in the pass of Morgate, 1,315. The rest of the\ncantons by degrees joined the association. With invincible persever-\nance the united cantons Won and secured their dear-bought liberty,\nafter sixty pitched battles with their enemies.\n2. Constitution of Szmtzerland. The thirteen cantons were united\nby a solemn treaty, which stipulated the proportional succours to be\nfurnished by each in the case of foreign hostility, and the measures\nto be followed for securing the union of the states, and accommodat-\ning domestic differences. With respect to its internal government\nand economy each canton was independent. Of some the constitution","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0145.jp2"},"146":{"fulltext":"142 MODERN HISTORY-\nwas monarchical, and of others republican. All matters touching\nthe general league were transacted either by letters sent to Zurich,\nand thence officially circulated to all the cantons, or by conferences.\nThe general diet, where two deputies attended from each canton, was\nheld once a year, the first deputy of Zurich presiding. The catholic\nand protestant cantons likewise held their separate diets on occasional\nemergencies.\n3. The Swiss, when at peace, employed their troop3 for hire in\nforeign service, judging it a wise policy to keep alive the military\nspirit of the nation; and the armies thus employed have been equally\ndistinguished for their courage and fidelity. The industry and\neconomy of the Swiss are proverbial and their country supports an\nabundant population, from the zealous promotion of agriculture and\nmanufactures.\nSECTION XXI.\nSTATE OF EUROPE IN THE THIRTEENTH, FOURTEENTH, AND\nPART OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURIES.\n1. The rival claims of superiority between tne popes and em-\nperors still continued. Henry VIL, the successor of Albert, vindicat-\ned his right by the sword, triumphantly fought his way to Rome,\nwhere he was solemnly crowned, and imposed a tribute on all the\nstates of Italy. His sudden death was suspected to be the consequence\nof papal resentment. In his time the seat of the popedom was trans-\nferred by Clement V. from Rome to Avignon, 1,309, where it re-\nmained till 1,377. The factions of Italy were the cause of this re-\nmoval. Lewis of Bavaria, the successor of Henry, deposed and ex\ncommunicated by John XXII., revenged himself by deposing the\npope. This pontiff, who had originally been a cobbler, surpassed\nmost of his predecessors in pride and tyranny. He kept his seat on\nthe papal chair, and left at his death an immense treasure accumu-\nlated by the sale of benefices while his rival the emperor died in\nIndigence.\n2. His successor in the empire, Charles IV., published, in 1,355,\nthe imperial constitution, termed the golden bull, the fundamental law\nof the Germanic body, which reduced the number of electors to\nseven, and settled on them all the hereditary offices of state. The\nelectors exemplified their new rights by deposing his son Wenceslaus\nfor incapacity, 1,400. Three separate factions of the French and\nItalian cardinals having elected three separate popes, the emperor\nSigismund judged this division of the church to be a fit opportunity\nfor his interference to reconcile all differences, and establish his own\nsupremacy. He summoned a general council at Constance in 1,414,\nand ended the dispute by degrading all the three pontiffs, and naming\na fourth, Martin Colonna. This division of the papacy is termed\nthe great schism of the west.\n3. The spiritual business of the council of Constance was no less\nimportant than its temporal. John Huss, a disciple of Wickliff, was\ntried for heresy, in denying the hierarchy, and satirizing the im\nmoralities of the pones and bishops He did not deny the charge,\nand, refusing to confess his errors, was burnt alive. A similar fate\nwas the portion of his friend and disciple, Jerom of Prague, who","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0146.jp2"},"147":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 143\ndisplayed at his execution the eloquence of an apostle, and the con-\nstancy of a martyr, 1,416. Sigismund felt the consequence of these\nhorrible proceedings for the Bohemians opposed his succession to\ntheir vacant crown, and it cost him a war of sixteen years to attain it.\n4. Whatever was the imperial power at this time, it derived but\nsmall consequence from its actual revenues. The wealth of the\nGermanic states was exclusively possessed by their separate sove-\nreigns, and the emperor had little more than what he drew from\nBohemia and Hungary. The sovereignty of Italy was an empty\ntitle. The interest of the emperor in that country furnished only a\nsource of faction to its princes, and embroiled the states in perpetual\nquarrels. A series of conspiracies and civil tumults form the annals\nof the principal cities for abo\\ e 200 years. Naples and Sicily were\nruined by the weak and disorderly government of the two Joannas.\nA passion which the younger of these conceived for a soldier of the\naame of Sforza raised him to the sovereignty of Milan and her\nadoption, first of Alphonzo of Arragon, and afterwards of Lewis of\nAnjou, laid the foundation of those contests between Spain and\nFrance for the sovereignty of the two Sicilies, which afterwards\nagitated all Europe.\nSECTION XXII.\nHISTORY OF ENGLAND IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY.\n1. On the death of John, his son Henry III. succeeded to the\ncrown of England at nine years of age. He was a prince of ami\nable dispositions, but of weak understanding. His preference d\nforeign favourites disgusted his nobles and the want of economy in fife?\ngovernment, and oppressive exactions, deprived him of the affection\nof lis people. Montfort earl of Leicester, son of the leader of the\ncrusade against the Albigenses, and brother-in-law of the king, con-\nceived a plan for usurping the government. He formed a league\nwith the barons, on the pretext of reforming abuses, and compelled\nHenry to delegate all the regal power into the hands of twenty-four\nof their number. These divided among themselves the offices of\ngovernment, and new-modelled the parliament, by summoning a cer-\ntain number of knights chosen from each county. This measure\nwas fatal to their own power for these knights or representatives\nof the people, indignant at Leicester s usurpation, determined to\nrestore the royal authority and called on prince Edward, a youth\nof intrepid spirit, to avenge his father s wrongs and save the king-\ndom.\n2. Leicester raised a formidable force, and defeated the royal\narmy at Lewes, in Sussex, 1,264, and made both the king and prince\nEdward his prisoners. He now compelled the impotent Henry to\nratify his authority by a solemn treaty. He assumed the character\nof regent, and called a parliament, summoning two knights from\neach of the counties, and deputies from the principal boroughs, the\nfirst regular plan of the English house of commons. This assembly\nexercising its just rights, and asserting with firmness the re-establish-\nment of the ancient government of the kingdom, Leicester judged it\nprudent to release the prince from his confinement. Edward was\nno sooner at liberty than he took the field against the usurper, who\nwas defeated and slain in the battle of Evesham, on the 4th day of","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0147.jp2"},"148":{"fulltext":"144 MODERN HISTORY.\nAugust, 1 .265. Henry was now restored to his throne by the arms\nof his gallant son, who, after establishing domestic tranquillity, em-\nbarked in the last crusade with Lewis IX., and signalized his prowess\nby many valorous exploits in Palestine. He had the honour of con-\ncluding an advantageous truce for ten years with the sultan of Baby-\nlon, and was on his return to England when he received intelligence\nof nis accession to the crown by the death of his father, 1,272.\n3. Edward I. projected the conquest of Wales in the beginning\nof his reign. The Welsh, the descendants of the ancient Britons\nwho had escaped the Roman and Saxon conquests, preserved their\nliberty, laws, manners, and language. Their prince, Lewellyn,\nrefused his customary homage to the king of England. Edward in-\nvaded Wales, and, surrounding the army of the prince, who retreated\nto the mountains, cut off all his supplies, and compelled him to an\nunqualified submission. The terms demanded were, the surrender\nof a part of the country, a large sum of money, and an obligation of\nperpetual fealty to the crown of England. The Welsh infringed\nthis treaty, and Edward marched his army into the heart of the\ncountry, where the troops of Lewellyn made a most desperate but in-\neffectual resistance. In a decisive engagement, in 1,283, the prince\nwas slain. His brother David, betrayed into the hands of the con-\nqueror, was inhumanly executed on a gibbet; and Wales, complete-\nly subdued, was annexed to the crown of England. With a policy\nequally absurd and cruel, Edward ordered the Welsh bards to be put\nto death wherever found thereby ensuring the perpetuation of their\nheroic songs, and increasing the abhorrence of the vanquished people\nfor their barbarous conqueror.\n4. The conquest of Wales inflamed the ambition of Edward, and\ninspired him with the design of extending his dominion to the ex\ntremity of the island. The designs of this enterprising monarch on\nthe kingdom of Scotland invite our attention to that quarter.\nSECTION XXIII.\nHISTORY OF SCOTLAND FROM THE ELEVENTH TO THE\nFOURTEENTH CENTURY.\n1. The history of Scotland before the reign of Malcolm III., sm\nnamed Canmore, is obscure and fabulous. This prince succeeded to\nthe throne in 1,057 by the defeat of Macbeth, the murderer of his\nfather Duncan. Espousing the cause of Edgar Atheling, heir of the\nSaxon kings of England, whose sister he married, he thus provoked\na war with William the conqueror, which was equally prejudicial\nto both kingdoms. In an expedition of Malcolm into England it is\nalleged, that, after concluding a truce, he was compelled by William\nto do homage for his kingdom. The truth is, that this homage was\ndone for the territories in Cumberland and Northumberland won by\nthe Scots, and held in vassalage of the English crown though this\nhomage was afterwards absurdly made the pretext of a claim of\nfeudal sovereignty over all Scotland. In a reign of twenty-seven\nyears Malcolm supported a spirited contest with England, both under\nWilliam I. and his son Rufus and to the virtues of his queen Mar-\ngaret, his kingdom, in its domestic policy, owed a degree of civiliza-\ntion remarkable in those ages of barbarism.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0148.jp2"},"149":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 145\n2. Alexander I., his son and successor, defended, with equal spirit\nand good policy, the independence of his kingdom, and hi3 son\nDavid I., celebrated even by the democratic Buchanan as an honour\nto his country and to monarchy, won from Stephen, and annexed to\nhis crown, the whole earldom of Northumberland. In those reigns\nwe hear of no claim of the feudal subjection of Scotland to the\ncrown of England though the accidental fortune of war afterwards\nfurnished a ground for it. William I., (the lion), taken prisoner at\nAlnwick by Henry II., was compelled, as the price of his release, to\ndo homage for his whole kingdom an obligation which his succes-\nsor Richard voluntarily discharged, deeming it to have been unjustly\nextorted.\n3. On the death of Alexander III. without male issue, in 1,285,\nBruce and Baliol, descendants of David I. by the female line, were\ncompetitors for the crown, and the pretensions of each were support-\ned by a formidable party in the kingdom. Edward I. of England,\nchosen umpire of the contest, arrogated to himself, in that character,\nthe feudal sovereignty of the kingdom, compelling all the barons to\nswear allegiance to him, and taking actual possession of the country\nby his troops. He then adjudged the crown to Baliol, on the express\ncondition of his swearing fealty to him as lord paramount. Baliol,\nhowever, soon after renouncing his allegiance, the indignant Edward\ninvaded Scotland with an immense force, and compelled the weak\nprince to abdicate the throne, and resign the kingdom into his hands\n4. William Wallace, one of the greatest heroes whom history re\ncords, restored the fallen honours of his country. Joined by a few\npatriots, his first successes in attacking the English garrisons brought\nnumbers to his patriotic standard. TLheir successes were signal and\nconspicuous. Victory followed upon victory. While Edward was\nengaged on the continent, his troops were utterly defeated in a des-\nperate engagement at Stirling, and forced to evacuate the kingdom.\nWallace, the deliverer of his country, now assumed the title of gov-\nernor of Scotland under Baliol, who was Edward s prisoner a dis-\ntinction which was followed by the envy and disaffection of many oi\nthe nobles, and the consequent diminution of his army. The Scots\nwere defeated at Falkirk. Edward returned with a vast accession oi\nforce. After a fruitless resistance the Scottish barons finally obtained\nEeace by a capitulation, from which the brave Wallace was excepted\ny name. A fugitive for some time, he was betrayed into the hands ot\nEdward, who put him to death, with every circumstance of cruelty\nthat barbarous revenge could dictate, 1,304.\n5. Scotland found a second champion and deliverer in Robert\nBruce, the grandson of the competitor with Baliol; who, deeply re-\nsenting the humiliation of his country, once more set up the standard\nof war, and gave defiance to the English monarch, to whom his\nfather and grandfather had meanly sworn allegiance. Under this in-\ntrepid leader the spirit of the nation was roused at once. The Eng-\nlish were attacked in every quarter, and once more entirely driven\nout of the kingdom. Robert Bruce was crowned king at Scone,\n1,306. Edward was advancing with an immense army, and died at\nCarlisle on the 7th day of July, 1,307. He enjoined it with his last\nbreath to his son, Edward II., to prosecute the war with the Scots to\nthe entire reduction of the country.\nN 19","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0149.jp2"},"150":{"fulltext":"(40 MODERN HISTORY.\nSECTION XXIV.\nHISTORY OF ENGLAND IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY.\n1 In the reign of Edward 1. we observe the constitution of Eng-\nland gradually advancing. The commons had been admitted to par-\nliament in the latter period of his father Henry III. A statute was\npassed by Edward, which declared, that no tax or impost should be\nlevied without the consent of lords and commons. Edward ratified\nthe Magna Charta no less than eleven times in the course of his reign\nand henceforward this fundamental law began to be regarded as sa-\ncred and unalterable.\n2. Edward II. was in character the very opposite of his father;\nweak, indolent, and capricious but of humane and benevolent affec-\ntions. He disgusted his nobles by his attachment to mean and unde-\nserving favourites, whom he raised to the highest dignities of the\nstate, and honoured with his exclusive confidence. Piers Gaveston,\na vicious and trifling minion, whom the king appointed regent when\non a journey to Paris to marry Isabella, daughter of Philip the fair,\ndisgusted the barons to such a pitch, that they compelled the king to\ndelegate all the authority of government to certain commissioners, and\nto abandon his favourite to their resentment. He was doomed to\nperpetual imprisonment, and, on attempt to escape, was seized and\nbeheaded.\n3. Edward, in obedience to his father s will, invaded Scotland with\nan army of 100,000 men. King Robert Bruce met this immense\nforce with 30,000 men at Bannockburn, and defeated them with pro-\ndigious slaughter. This important victory secured the independence\nof Scotland. Edward escaped by sea to his own dominions. A new\nfavourite, Spenser, supplied the place of Gaveston; but his undeserv-\ned elevation and overbearing character completed the disaffection of\nthe nobles to their sovereign. The queen, a vicious adulteress, join-\ned the malcontents, and, passing over to France, obtained from her\nbrother Charles IV. an army to invade England, and dethrone her\nhusband. Her enterprise was successful. Spenser and his father\nwere betrayed into the hands of their enemies, and perished on a\nscaffold. The king was taken prisoner, tried by parliament, and sol-\nemnly deposed and being confined to prison, was soon after put to\ndeath in a manner shocking to humanity, 1 ,327.\n4. Edward III., crowned at fourteen years of age, could not submit\nto the regency of a mother stained with the foulest of crimes. His\nfather s death was revenged by the perpetual imprisonment of Isabel-\nla, and the public execution of heT paramour Mortimer. Bent on the\nconquest of Scotland, Edward marched to the north with a prodigious\narmy, vanquished the Scots in the battle of Halidoun-hill, and placed\non the throne Edward Baliol, his vassal and tributary. But the king-\ndom was as repugnant as ever to the rule of England, and a favoura-\nble opportunity was taken for the renewal of hostilities, on the depart-\nure of Edward for a foreign enterprise, which gave full scope to his\nambition.\n5. On the death of Charles IV. without male issue, the crown of\nFrance was claimed by Edward III. of England, in right of his moth-\ner, the sister of Charles, while, in the mean time, the throne was oc\ncupied by the male heir, Philip of Valois. Edward fitted out an in","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0150.jp2"},"151":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 141\nmense armament by sea and land, and, obtaining a signal victory over\nthe French fleet, landed on the coast of Normandy, and with his son,\nthe black prince, ran a career of the most glorious exploits. Philip,\nwith 100,000 men, met the English with 30,000, and was entirely de-\nfeated in the field of Cressy, August 26, 1,348. Calais was taken by\nthe English, and remained in their possession 210 years. The En-\nglish are said to have first used artillery in the battle of Cressy. Fire\narms were then but a recent invention (1,340)^ and have much con-\ntributed to lessen both the slaughter and the frequency of wars. Mr.\nHume well observes that war is now reduced nearly to a matter oi\ncalculation. A nation knows its power, and, when overmatched,\neitheryields to its enemies, or secures itself by alliance.\n6. The Scots in the mean time invaded England, and were defeated\nin the battle of Durham by Phiiippa, the heroic queen of Edward III.\nand their sovereign David II. was led prisoner to London. A truce\nconcluded between Edward and Philip was dissolved by the death of\nthe latter. Philip was succeeded by his son John, who took the field\nwith 60,000 men against the black prince, and was defeated by him\nwith a far inferior number in the signal battle of Poictiers, September\n19, 1,356. John king of France was led in triumph to London, the\nfellow-prisoner of David king of Scotland. But England derived from\nthose victories nothing but honour. The French continued the war\nwith great vigour during the captivity of their sovereign, who died\nin London in 1,364. They obtained a peace by the cession to the\nEnglish of Poitou, St. Onge, Perigord and other provinces and Ed-\nward consented to renounce his claim to the crown of France. The\ndeath of the black prince, a most heroic and virtuous man, plunged\nthe nation in grief, and broke the spirits of his father, who did not long\nsurvive him.\n7. Richard II. succeeded his grandfather, in 1,377, at the age of\neleven. Charles VI. soon after became king of France at the age\nof twelve. Both kingdoms suffered from the distractions attending a\nregal minority. In England the contests for power between the\nking s uncles, Lancaster, York, and Gloucester, embroiled all public\nmeasures and the consequent disorders required a stronger hand to\ncompose them than that of the weak and facile Richard. Taking\nadvantage of the king s absence, then engaged in quelling an insur-\nrection in Ireland, Henry of Lancaster rose in open rebellion, and\ncompelled Richard, at his return, to resign the crown. The parlia-\nment confirmed his deposition, and he was soon after privately assas-\nsinated. Thus began the contentions between the houses of York\nand Lancaster.\nSECTION XXV.\nENGLAND AND FRANCE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.\nSTATE OF MANNERS.\n1. Henry IV. ascended the throne on the deposition of Richard 1L,\n1,399 and had immediately to combat a rebellion raised by the earl\nof Northumberland, for placing Mortimer, the heir of the house of\nYork, on the throne. The Scots and Welsh took part with the rebels,\nbut their united forces were defeated at Shrewsbury, and their lead\ner, young Percy (Hotspur), killed on the field. A second rebellion","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0151.jp2"},"152":{"fulltext":"148 MODERN HISTORY.\nheaded bjr the archbishop of York, was quelled by the capital punish.-\nment of its author. The secular arm was rigorously extended\nagainst the followers of Wickliff, and this reign saw the first detestable\nexamples of religious persecution. The life of Henry was imbitter-\ned by the youthful disorders of his son the prince of Wales, who\nafterwards nobly redeemed his character. Henry IV. died in 1,413,\nat the age of forty-six.\n2. Henry V. took advantage of the disorders of France, from the\ntemporary insanity of its sovereign Charles VI., and the factious\nstruggles for power between the dukes of Burgundy and Orleans,\nto invade the kingdom with a large army, which a contagious dis-\ntemper wasted down to a fifth of its numbers yet with this handful\nof resolute and hardy troops, he defeated the French army of 60,000,\nunder the constable D Albert, in the famous battle of Agincourt, in\nwhich 10,000 of the enemy were slain, and 14,000 made prisoners,\nOctober 24, 1,415. Returning to England to recruit his forces, he\nlanded again with an army of 25,000, and fought his way to Paris.\nThe insane monarch, with his court, fled to Troye, and Henry pur-\nsuing, terminated the war by a treaty with tke queen-mother of\nthe duke of Burgundy, by which it was agreed that he should marry\nthe daughter of Charles vl., and receive the kingdom of France as\nher dowry, which, till the death of her father, he should govern as\nregent.\n3 Mean time the return of Henry to England gave the dauphin\nhopes of the recovery of his kingdom. He was victorious in an\nengagement with the English under the duke of Clarence but his\nsuccess was of no longer duration than the absence of the English\nsovereign, who was himself hastening to the period of his triumphs.\nSeized with a mortal distemper, Henry died in the 34th year of his\nage, 1,422, one of the most heroic princes that ever swayed the\nsceptre of England. His brother, the duke of Bedford, was declared\nregent of France, and Henry VI., an infant nine months old, was pro-\nclaimed king at Paris and at London, 1 ,422.\n4. Charles VII. recovered France by slow degrees. With the aid\nof a young female enthusiast, the maid of Orleans, whom the credu-\nlity of the age supposed to be inspired by Heaven, he gained several\nimportant advantages over the English, which the latter inhumanly\nrevenged, by burning this heroine as a sorceress. Her death was of\nequal advantage to the French as her life had been. The govern-\nment of the English was universally detested. After a struggle of\nmany years, they were at length, in 1,450, deprived of all that they\nhad ever possessed in France, except Calais and Guignes. Charles,\nwhen he had restored his kingdom to peace, governed it with admi-\nrable wisdom and moderation.\n5. The state of England and of France, the two most polished\nkingdoms in Europe, furnishes a good criterion of the condition of\nsociety in those ages of which we have been treating. Even in\nthe large cities the houses were roofed with thatch, and had no\nchimnies. Glass windows were extremely rare, and the floors\nwere covered with straw. In England wine was sold only in the\nshops of the apothecaries. Paper made from linen rags was first\nmanufactured in the beginning of the fifteenth century and the use\nof linen for shirts was at that time a very rare piece of luxury.\nYet even before that age the progress of luxury had excited a se-\nrious alarm, for the parliament under Edward III. found it necessary\nto prohibit the use of gold and silver in apparel to all who had net","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0152.jp2"},"153":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY 149\na hradred pounds a year and Charles VI. of France ordained, that\nnone should presume to entertain with more than two dishes and a\nmess of soup. Before the reign of Edward I. the whole country of\nEngland was plundered by robbers in great bands, who laid waste\nentire villages and some of the household officers of Henry III.\nexcused themselves for robbing on the highway, because the king\nallowed them no wages. In 1,303 the abbot and monks of Westmin-\nster were indicted for robbing the king s exchequer, but acquitted.\nThe admirable laws of Edward I., which acquired him the title of\nthe English Justinian, give strong testimony of the miserable policy\nand barbarism of the preceding times\nSECTION XXVI.\nDECLINE AND FALL OF THE GREEK EMPIRE.\n1. In the fourteenth century the Turks were proceeding by de-\ngrees to encroach on the frontiers of the Greek empire. The sul-\ntan Ottoman had fixed the seat of his government at Byrsa in Bi\nthynia and his son Orcan extended his sovereignty to the Propontis,\nand obtained in marriage the daughter of the emperor John Canta-\ncuzenos. About the middle of the century the Turks crossed over\ninto Europe, and took Adrianople. The emperor John Palaeologus,\nafter meanly soliciting aid from the pope, concluded a humiliating\ntreaty with sultan Amurat, and gave his son as a hostage to serve in\nthe Turkish army.\n2. Bajazet, the successor of Amurat, compelled the emperor to\ndestroy his fort of Galata, and to admit a Turkish judge into the city.\nHe prepared now to besiege Constantinople in form, when he was\nforced to change his purpose, and defend himself against the victorious\nTamerlane.\n3. Timur-bek or Tamerlane, a prince of the Usbek Tartars, and\ndescended from Gengiskan, after the conquest of Persia, a great part\nof India and Syria, was invited by the Asiatic princes, enemies ot\nBajazet, to protect them against the Ottoman power, which threaten-\ned to overwhelm them. Tamerlane, flattered by this request, im-\nperiously summoned the Turk to renounce his conquests but the\nmessage was answered with a proud defiance. The armies met near\nAngoria (Ancyra) m Phrygia, and Bajazet was totally defeated and\nmade prisoner by Tamerlane, 1,402. The conqueror made Samar\ncand the capital of his empire, and there received the homage of all\nthe princes of the east. Tamerlane was illiterate, but yet was solici-\ntious for the cultivation of literature and science in his dominions.\nSamarcand became for a while the seat of learning, politeness, and\nthe arts but was destined to relapse, after a short period, into its\nancient barbarism.\n4. The Turks, after the death of Tamerlane, resumed their pur-\npose of destroying the empire of the east. Amurat II., a prince of\nsingular character, had, on the faith of a solemn treaty with the\nking of Poland, devoted his days to retirement and study. A viola-\ntion of the treaty, by an attack from the Poles on his dominions, made\nhim quit his solkude. He engaged and destroyed the Polish army,\nwith their perfidious sovereign, and then calmly returned to his re-\ntreat, till a similar crisis of public expediency once more brought\nhim into active life. He left his dominions to his son Mahomet II.\nN2","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0153.jp2"},"154":{"fulltext":"IbO MODERN HISTORY.\ngurnamed the great, who resumed the project for the destruction of\nConstantinople but its fall was a second time retarded by the neces-\nsity in which the Turks were unexpectedly placed, of defending\ntheir own dominions against a powerful invader.\n5. Scanderbeg (John Castriot) prince of Albania, whose territories\nhad been seized by Amurat II., was educated by the sultan as his\nown child, and when of age, intrusted with the command of an\narmy, which he employed in wresting from Amurat his paternal\nkingdom, 1 ,443. By great talents and military skill he maintained\nhis independent sovereignty against the whole force of the Turkish\nempire.\n6. Mahomet II., m of the philosophic Amurat, a youth of twen-\nty-one years of age, resumed the plan of extinguishing the empire\nof the Greeks, and making Constantinople the capital of the Otto-\nman power. Its indolent inhabitants made but a feeble preparation\nfor defence, and the powers of Europe looked on with supine indif-\nference. The Turks assailed the city both by land and sea and,\nbattering down its walls with their cannon, entered sword in hand,\nand massacred all who opposed them. The emperor Constantine\nwas slain the city surrendered and thus was finally extinguished\nthe eastern empire of the Romans, A. D. 1,453, which, from the\nbuilding of its capital by Constantine the great, had subsisted 1,123\nyears. The imperial edifices were preserved from destruction.\nThe churches were converted into mosques; but the exercise of\ntheir religion was allowed to all the christians. From that time the\nGreek christians have regularly chosen their own patriarch, whom\nthe sultan instals; though his authority continues to be disputed by\nthe Latin patriarch, who is chosen by the pope. Mahomet the great\nliberally patronized the arts and sciences and, to compensate for\nthe migration of those learned Greeks, who, on the fall of the empire,\nspread themselves over the countries of Europe, invited both artists\nand men of letters to his capital from other kingdoms.\n7. The taking of Constantinople was followed by the conquest of\nGreece and Epirus. Italy might probably have met a similar fate, but\nby means of their fleet the Venetians opposed the arms of Mahomet\nwith considerable success, and even attacked him in Greece. The\ncontending powers soon after put an end to hostilities by a treaty.\nMahomet the great died at the age of fifty-one, 1,481.\nSECTION XXVII.\nGOVERNMENT AND POLICY OF THE TURKISH EMPIRE.\n1 The government of Turkey is an absolute monarchy, tl^e\nwhole legislative and executive authority of the state centering in\nthe sultan, whose power is subject to no constitutional control. It is,\nhowever, limited in some degree by religious opinion; the precepts\nof the Coran inculcating certain duties on the sovereign, which it\nwould be held an impiety to transgress. It is yet more strongly limit-\ned by the fear of deposition and assassination. Under these restraints\nthe prince can seldom venture on an extreme abuse of power.\n2. The spirit of the people is fitted for a subjection bordering on\nslavery. Concubinage being agreeable to the law of Mahomet, the\ngrand seignior, the viziers, are born of female slaves and there is\nscarcely a subject of the empire of ingemious blood by both parents.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0154.jp2"},"155":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 151\nIt is a fundamental maxim of the Turkish policy, that all the officers\nof state should be such as the sultan can entirely command, and at\nany time destroy, without danger to himself.\n3. The grand vizier is usually entrusted with the whole functions\nof government, and of course subjected to the sole responsibility for\nall public measures. Subordinate to him are six viziers of the bench,\nwho are his counsel and assessors in cases of law, of which he is\nsupreme judge. The power of the grand vizier is absolute over all\nthe subjects of the empire but he cannot put to death a begler-\nbeg or a bashaw without the imperial signature nor punish a jani-\nzary, unless through the medium of his military commander. The\nbeglerbegs are the governors of several provinces, the bashaws of\na single province. All dignities in the Tukish empire are personal,\nand dependent on the sovereign s pleasure.\n4. The revenues of the grand seignior arise from taxes and cus-\ntoms laid on the subject, annual tributes paid by the Tartars, stated\ngifts from the governors of the provinces, and, above all, the confis-\ncations of estates, from the viziers and bashaws downwards to the\nlowest subjects of the empire. The certain and fixed revenues of\nthe sovereign are small in comparison of those which are arbitrary.\nHis absolute power enables him to execute great projects at a small\nexpense.\nSECTION XXVIII.\nFRANCE AND ITALY IN THE END OF THE FIFTEENTH\nCENTURY.\nL Scarcely any vestige of the ancient feudal government now\nremained in France. The onlv subsisting fiefs were Burgundy and\nBrittany. Charles the bold, duke of Burgundy, who sought to in-\ncrease his territories by the conquest of Switzerland and Lorraine,\nwas defeated by the Swiss, and killed in battle. He left no son, and\nLewis XI. of France took possession of Burgundy as a male fief,\n1,447. The duke s daughter married Maximilian, son of the empe-\nror Frederick III., who, by this marriage, acquired the sovereignty\nof the Netherlands.\n2. The acquisition of Burgundy and of Provence, which was be-\nqueathed to France by the count de la Marche, increased very great-\nly the power of the crown. Lewis XL, an odious compound of vice,\ncruelty, and superstition, and a tyrant to his people, was the author\nof many wise and excellent regulations of public policy. The bar-\nbarity of the public executions rn his reign is beyond all belief; yet\nthe wisdom of his laws, the encouragement which he gave to com-\nmerce, the restraints which he imposed on the oppressions of the\nnobility, and the attention which he bestowed in regulating the courts\nof justice, must ever be mentioned to his honour.\n3. The count de la Marche, beside the bequest of Provence to\nLewis XL, left him his empty title of sovereign of the Two Sicilies.\nLewis was satisfied with the substantial gift; but his son Charles\nVIII. was dazzled with the shadow. In the beginning of his reign\nhe projected the coKquest of Naples, and embarked in the enterprise\nwith the most improvident precipitancy.\n4. The dismembered state of Italy was favourable to his views","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0155.jp2"},"156":{"fulltext":"152 MODERN HISTORY.\nThe popedom, during the transference of its seat to Avignon, had\nlost many of its territories. Mantua, Modena, and Ferrara, had their\nindependent sovereigns. Piedmont belonged to the duke of Savoy;\nGenoa and Milan to the family of Sforza. Florence, under the Medi-\nci, had attained a very high pitch of splendour. Cosmo, the founder\not that family, employed a vast fortune, acquired by commerce, in\nthe improvement of his country, in acts of public munificence, and in\nthe cultivation of the sciences and elegant arts. His high reputation\nobtained for himself and his posterity the chief authority in his native\nstate. Peter de Medici, his great grandson, ruled in Florence at the\nperiod of the expedition of Charles VIII. into Italy.\n5. The papacy was enjoyed at this time by Alexander VI., a mon\nster of wickedness. The pope and the duke of Milan, who had invited\nCharles to this enterprise, immediately betrayed him, and joined the\ninterest of the king of Naples. Charles, after besieging the pope in\nRome, and forcing him to submission, devoutly kissed his feet. He\nnow marched against Naples, while its timid, prince Alphonso fled to\nSicily, and his son to the isle of Ischia, after absolving his subjects\nfrom their allegiance. Charles entered Naples in triumph, and was\nhailed emperor and Augustus but he lost his new kingdom in almost\nas short a time as he had gained it. A league was formed against\nFrance between the pope, the emperor Maximilian, Ferdinand of Ar-\nragon, Isabella of Castile, and the Venetians and on the return of\nCharles to France, the troops which he had left to guard his conquest\nwere entirely driven out of Italy.\n6. It has been remarked that, from the decisive effect of this con\nfederacy against Charles VIIL, the sovereigns of Europe derived a\nuseful lesson of policy, and first adopted the idea of preserving a bal-\nance of power, by that tacit league which is understood to be always\nsubsisting, for the prevention of the inordinate aggrandizement of any\nparticular state.\n7. Charles VIIL died at the age of twenty-eight, 1,498 and, leav-\ning no children, the duke of Orleans succeeded to the throne of\nFrance by the title of Lewis XII.\nSECTION XXIX.\nHISTORY OF SPAIN IN THE FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH\nCENTURIES.\n1. We go back a little to the middle of the fourteenth century, to\ntrace the history of Spain. Peter of Castile, surnamed the cruel, for\nno other reason but that he employed severe means to support his\njust rights, had to contend against a bastard brother, Henry of Trans-\ntamarre, who, with the aid of a French banditti, called Malandrins,\nled by Bertrand du Guesclin, strove to dispossess him of his kingdom.\nPeter was aided by Edward the black prince, then sovereign of Gui-\nenne, who defeated Transtamarre, and took Bertrand prisoner; but,\non the return of the prince to England, Peter was attacked by his\nformer enemies, and entirely defeated. Unable to restrain his rage\nin the first view with Transtamarre, the latter put him to death with\nhis own hand, 1,368 and thus this usurper secured for himself and\nhis posterity the throne of Castile.\n2. The weakness and debauchery of one of his descendants, Hen-\nry IV. of Castile, occasioned a revolution in the kingdom. The ma-","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0156.jp2"},"157":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 163\njority of the nation rose in rebellion; the assembly of the nobles sol-\nemnly deposed their king, and, on the alleged ground of his daughter\nJoanna being a bastard, compelled him to settle the crown on his sis-\nter Isabella. They next brought about a marriage between Isabella\nand Ferdinand of Arragon, which united the monarchies of Arragon\nand Castile. After a ruinous civil war the revolution was at length\ncompleted by the death of the deposed sovereign, 1,474, and the re-\ntirement of his daughter Joanna to a monastery, 1,479.\n3. At the accession of Ferdinand and Isabella to the thrones of Ar-\nragon and Castile, Spain was in a state of great disorder, from the\nlawless depredations of the nobles and their vassals. It was the first\nobject of the new sovereigns to repress these enormities, by subject-\ning the offenders to the utmost rigour of law, enforced by the sword.\nThe holy brotherhood was instituted for the discovery and punishment\nof crimes; and the inquisition (Sect. XIX, 6 3), under the pretext of\nextirpating heresy and impiety, afforded the most detestable exam-\nples of sanguinary persecution.\n4. The Moorish kingdom of Granada, a most splendid monarchy,\nbut at that time weakened by faction, and a prey to civil war, offered\na tempting object to the ambition of Ferdinand and Isabella. Alboa-\ncen was at war with his nephew Aboabdeli, who wanted to dethrone\nhim and Ferdinand aided Aboabdeli, in the view of ruining both\nfor no sooner was the latter in possession of the crown by the death\nof Alboacen, than Ferdinand invaded his ally with the whole force of\nArragon and Castile. Granada was besieged in 1,491, and, after a\nblockade of eight months, surrendered to the victor. Aboabdeli, by\na mean capitulation, saved his life, and purchased a retreat for his\ncountrymen to a mountainous part of the kingdom, where they were\nsuffered to enjoy unmolested their laws and their religion. Thus\nended the dominion of the Moors in Spain, which had subsisted for\n800 years.\n5. Ferdinand, from that period, took the title of king of Spain. In\n1,492 he expelled all the Jews from his dominions, on the absurd\nground, that they kept in their hands the commerce of the kingdom\nand Spain thus lost above 150,000 of the most industrious of her in-\nhabitants. The exiles spread themselves over the other kingdoms of\nEurope, and were often the victims of a persecution equally inhuman.\nIt would appear that Spain has felt, even to the present times, the ef-\nfects of this- folly, in the slow progress of the arts, and that deplora-\nble inactivity which is the characteristic of her people. Even the\ndiscovery of the new world, which happened at this very period, and\nwhich stimulated the spirit of enterprise and industry in all the neigh-\nbouring kingdoms, produced but a feeble impression on that nation,\nwhich might in a great degree have monopolized its benefits. Of\nthat great discovery we shall afterwards treat in a separate section\nSECTION XXX.\nFRANCE, SPAIN, AND ITALY, IN THE END OF THE FIF-\nTEENTH AND BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.\n1. Lewis XII., eagerly bent on vindicating his right to Naples,\ncourted the interest of pope Alexander VI., who promised his aid on\ncondition that his natural son, Csesar Borgia, should receive from\nLewis the duchy of Valentinois, with the king of Navarre s sister in\n20","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0157.jp2"},"158":{"fulltext":"164 MODERN HISTORY.\nmarriage. Lewis crossed the Alps, and in the space of a few days\nwas master of Milan and Genoa. Sforza duke of Milan became his\nprisoner for life. Afraid of the power of Ferdinand of Spain, Lewis\njoined with him in the conquest of Naples, and agreed to divide\nwith him the conquered dominions, the pope making no scruple to\nsanction the partition. But the compromise was of no duration;\nfor Alexander VI., and Ferdinand, judging it a better policy to share\nItaly between themselves, united their interest to deprive Lewis\nof his new territories. The Spaniards, under Gonsalvo de Cordova,\ndefeated the French, under the duke de Nemours and the chevalier\nBayard and Lewis irrecoverably lost his share of the kingdom of\nNaples.\n2. History relates with horror the crimes of pope Alexander V.,\nand his son Caesar Borgia; their murders, robberies, profanations,\nincests. They compassed their ends in attaining every object of\ntheir ambition, but with the universal abhorrence of mankind, and\nfinally met with an ample retribution for their crimes. The pope\ndied by poison, prepared, as was alleged, by himself for an enemy\nand Borgia, stripped of all his possessions by pope Julius II., and sent\nprisoner to Spain by Gonsalvo de Cordova, perished in miserable\nobscurity.\n3. Julius II., the successor of Alexander, projected the formidable\nleague of Cambray, 1,508, with the emperor, the kings of France\nand Spain, the duke of Savoy, and king of Hungary, for the destruc-\ntion of Venice, and the division of her territories among the confed-\nerates. They accomplished in part their design, and Venice was on\nthe verge of annihilation, when the pope changed his politics.\nHaving made the French subservient to his views of plundering the\nVenetians, he now formed a new league with the Venetians, Ger-\nmans, and Spaniards, to expel the French from Italy, and appropriate\nall their conquests. The Swiss and the English oo-operated in this\ndesign. The French made a brave resistance under their generals\nBayard and Gaston de Foix, but were finally overpowered. Lewis\nwas compelled to evacuate Italy Ferdinand, with the aid of Henry\nVIII. of England, stripped him of Navarre, and forced him to pur-\nchase a peace. He died in 1,515. Though unfortunate in his milita-\nry enterprises, from the superior abilities of his rivals pope Julius\nand Ferdinand, yet he was justly esteemed by his subjects for the\nwisdom and equity of his government.\nSECTION XXXI.\nHISTORY OF ENGLAND FROM THE MIDDLE OF 1 HE\nFIFTEENTH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH\nCENTURY. CIVIL WARS OF YORK AND LANCASTER.\n1. We have seen France recovered from the English in the early\npart of the reign of Henry VI., by the talents and prowess of Charles\nVIII. During the minority of Henry, who was a prince of no capa-\ncity, England was embroiled by the factious contention for power\nbetween his uncles, the duke of Gloucester and the cardinal of Win-\nchester. The latter, to promote his own views of ambition, married\nHenry to Margaret of Anjou, daughter of Regner the titular king of\nNaples, a woman of great meritul endowments and singular heroism","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0158.jp2"},"159":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 155\nof character, but whose severity in the persecution of her enemies\nalienated a great part of the nobles from their allegiance, and in-\ncreased the partisans of a rival claimant of the crown.\n2. This was Richard duke of York, descended by his mother from\nLionel, second son of Edward IIL, and elder brother to John of Gaunt,\nthe progenitor of Henry VI. The white rose distinguished the fac-\ntion of York, and the red rose that of Lancaster. The party of\nYork gained much strength from the incapacity of Henry, who was\nsubject to periodical madness and Richard was appointed lieutenant\nand protector of the kingdom. The authority of Henry was now\nannihilated; but Margaret roused her husband, in an interval of\nsanity, to assert his right; and the nation was divided in arms be-\ntween the rival parties. In the battle of St. Albans 5,000 of the\nLancastrians were slain, and the king was taken prisoner by the duke\nof York, on the 22d day of May, 1,455. Yet the parliament, while\nit confirmed the authority of the protector, maintained its allegiance\nto the king.\n3. The spirit of the queen reanimated the royal party and the\nLancastrians gained such advantage, that the duke of York fled to\nIreland, while his cause was secretly maintained in England by Guy\nearl of Warwick. In the battle of Northampton the party of York\nagain prevailed, and Henry once more was brought prisoner to Lon-\ndon while his dauntless queen still nobly exerted herself to retrieve\nhis fortunes. York now claimed the crown in open parliament, but\nprevailed only to have his right of succession ascertained on Henry s\ndeath, to the exclusion of the royal issue.\n4. In the next battle the duke of York was slain, and his party de-\nfeated but his successor Edward, supported by Warwick, avenged\nthis disaster by a signal victory near Touton, in Yorkshire, in\nivhich 4 3.000 of the Lancastrians were slain. York was proclaimed\nking by trie title of Edward IV., while Margaret, with her dethroned\nhusband and infant son, fled into Flanders.\n5. Edward, who owed his crown to Warwick, was ungrateful\nto his benefactor and the imprudence and injustice of his conduct\nforced that nobleman at length to take part with ths faction of Lan-\ncaster, The consequence was, that, after some struggles, Edward\nwas deposed, and Henry VI. once more restored to the throne by\nthe hands of Warwick, now known by the epithet of the king-maker.\nBut this change was ot no duration. The party of York ultimately\nprevailed. 1 he Lancastrians were defeated in the battle of Barnet,\nand the brave Warwick was slain in the engagement, 1,472.\n6. The intrepid Margaret, whose spirit was superior to every\nchange of fortune, prepared to strike a last blow for the crown of\nEngland in the battle of Tewksbury. The event was fatal to her\nhopes victory dec Wed for Edward. Margaret was sent prisoner to\nthe tower of London and the prince her son, a youth of high spirit,\nwhen brought into the presence of his conqueror, having nobly dared\nto justify his enterprise to the face of his rival, was barbarously mur-\ndered by the dukes of Gloucester and Clarence. Henry VI. was\nsoon after privately put to death in the Tower. The heroic Margare t\nransomed by Lewis XL, died in France, 1,482.\n7. Edward IV., thus secured on the throne by the death of all his\ncompetitors, abandoned himself without reserve to the indulgence of\na vicious and tyrannical nature. He put to death, on the most frivo-\nlous pretence, his brother Clarence. Preparing to gratify his subjects\nby a war with France, he died suddenly in the forty-second year of","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0159.jp2"},"160":{"fulltext":"156 MODERN HISTORY.\nhis age, poisoned, as was suspected, by his brother Richard duke of\nGloucester, 1,483.\n8. Edward left two sons, the elder, Edward V., a boy of thirteen\nyears of age. Richard duke of Gloucester, named protector in the\nminority of his nephew, hired, by means of Buckingham, a mob of\nthe dregs of the populace to declare their wish tor his assumption\nof the crown. He yielded, with affected reluctance, to this voice of\nthe nation, and was proclaimed king by the title of Richard III., 1 ,483.\nEdward after a reign of two months, with his brother the duke\nof York, were, by command of the usurper, smothered while asleep,\nand privately buried in the Tower.\n9. These atrocious crimes found an avenger in Henry earl of\nRichmond, the surviving heir of the house of Lancaster, who, aided\nby Charles VIII. of France, landed in England, and revived the spirits\nof a party almost extinguished in the kingdom. He gave battle to\nRichard in the field of Bosworth, and entirely defeated the army of\nthe usurper, who was slain while fighting with the most desperate\ncourage, August 22, 1 ,485. The crown which he wore in the engage-\nment was immediately placed on the head of the conqueror. This\nauspicious day put an end to the civil wars of York and Lancaster.\nHenry VII. united the rights of both families by his marriage with\nElizabeth, daughter of Edward IV.\n10. The reign of Henry VII. was of twenty-four years duration;\nand under his wise and politic government the kingdom recovered\nall the wounds which it had sustained in those unhappy contests.\nIndustry, good order, and perfect subordination, were the fruit of the\nexcellent laws passed in this reign though the temper of the sove\nreign was despotic, and his avarice, in the latter part of his reign,\nprompted to the most oppressive exactions.\n1 1 The government of Henry was disturbed by two very singular\nenterprises the attempt of Lambert Simnel, the son of a baker, to\ncounterfeit the person of the earl of Warwick, son of the duke of\nClarence; and the similar atte-mpt of Perkin Warbeck, son of a\nFlemish Jew, to counterfeit the duke of York, who had been smother-\ned in the Tower by Richard III. Both impostors found considerable\nsupport, but were finally defeated. Simnel, after being crowned\nking of England and Ireland at Dublin, ended his days in a menial\noffice of Henry s household. Perkin supported his cause by force\nof arms for five years, and was aided by a great proportion of the\nEnglish nobility. Overpowered at length he surrendered to Henry,\nwho condemned him to perpetual imprisonment but his ambitious\nspirit meditated a new insurrection, and he was nut to death as a\ntraitor. Henry VII. died in 1,509, in the fifty-third year of his age,\nand the twenty-fourth of his reign.\nSECTION XXXII.\nHISTORY OF SCOTLAND FROM THE MIDDLE OF THE\nFOURTEENTH CENTURY TO THE END OF THE REIGN OF\nJAMES V\n1. In no country of Europe had the feudal aristocracy attained to\na greater height than in Scotland. The power of the greater\nbarons, while it rendered them independent, and often the rivals","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0160.jp2"},"161":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY.\nof their sovereign, was a perpetual source of turbulence and dis\norder in the kingdom. It was therefore a constant policy of the\nVitish kings toliumbie the nobles, and break their factious com-\nbinations. Robert I. attempted to retrench the vast territorial pos-\nsessions of his barons, by requiring every landholder to produce the\ntitles of his estate; but was resolutely answered, that the sword was\n(heir charter of possession.\n2. On the death of Robert in 1,329, and during the minority of\niiis son David, Edward Baliol, the son of John formerly king o!\nScotland, with the aid of Edward III. of England, and of many of\nthe factious barons, invaded the kingdom, and was crowned at Scone,\nwhile the young David was conveyed for security to France. The\nmean dependence of Baliol on the English monarch deprived him of\nthe affections of the people. Robert, the steward of Scotland, Ran-\ndolph, and Douglas, supported the Brucian interest, and, assisted by\nthe French, restored David to his throne. This prince was destined\nto sustain many reverses of fortune for, in a subsequent invasion ol\nthe English territory by the Scots, he was taken prisoner in the bat-\ntle of Durham, and conveyed to London. He remained eleven\nyears in captivity, and witnessed a similar fate of a brother monarch,\nJohn king of France, taken prisoner by the black prince in the battle\nof Poictiers. David was ransomed by his subjects, and restored to\nhis kingdom in 1.357 and ended a turbulent reign in 1,370-1. The\ncrown passed at his demise to his nephew Robert, the high steward\nof Scotland, in virtue of a destination made by Robert 1.\n3. The reign of Robert II., which was of twenty years duration\nwas spent in a series of hostilities between the Scots and English\nproductive of no material consequence to either kingdom. The\nweak and indolent disposition of his successor Robert III., who found\nhimself unequal to the contest with his factious nobles, prompted\nhim to resign the government to his brother, the duke of Albany.\nThis ambitious man formed the design of usurping the throne by the\nmurder of his nephews, the sons of Robert. The elder, Rothsay, a\nprince of high spirit, was imprisoned on pretence of treasonable de-\nsigns, and starved to death. The younger, James, escaped a similar\nfate which was intended for him; but on his passage to France,\nwhither he was sent for safety by his father, he was taken by an Eng-\nlish ship of war, and brought prisoner to London. The weak Robert\nsunk under these misfortunes, and died, 1,405, after a reign of fifteen\nyears.\n4. James I., a prince of great natural endowments, profited by a\ncaptivity of eighteen years at the court of England, in adorning his\nmind with every valuable accomplishment. At his return to his\nkingdom, which in his absence had been weakly governed by the\nregent Albany, and suffered under all the disorders of anarchy, he\nbent his whole attention to the improvement and civilization of his\npeople, by the enactment of many excellent laws, enforced with a\nresolute authority. The tactions of the nobles, their dangerous com-\nbinations, and their domineering tyranny over their dependents, the\ngreat sources of the people s miseries, were firmly restrained, and\nmost severely punished. But these wholesome innovations, while\nthey procured to James the affections of the nation at large, excited\nthe odium of the nobility, and gave birth to a conspiracy, beaded\nby the earl of Athole, the king s uncle, which terminated in the\nmurder of this excellent prince, in the 44th year of his age, A. D.\n1,437.\nO","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0161.jp2"},"162":{"fulltext":"158 M0J3ERJN HISTORY.\n5. His son James II. inherited a considerable portion of the talents\nof his father; and, in the like purpose of restraining the inordinate\npower of his nobles, pursued the same maxims of government, which\nan impetuous temper prompted him, in some instances, to carry to\nthe most blameable excess. The earl of Douglas, trusting to a pow-\nerful vassalage, had assumed an authority above the laws, and a state\nand splendour rival to- those of his sovereign. He was seized, and\nbeheaded without accusation or trial. His successor imprudently\nrunning the same career, and boldly justifying, in a conference, his\nrebellious practices, was put to death by the king s own hand. Thus\nwere the factions of the nobles quelled by a barbarous rigour of\nauthority. To his people James was beneficent and humane, and\nhis laws contributed materially to their civilization and prosperity.\nHe was killed, in the 30th yeai of his age, by the bursting of a can-\nnon, in besieging the castle of Roxburgh, A. D. 1,460.\n6. His son James III., without the talents of his predecessors,\naffected to tread in the same steps. To humble his nobles he be-\nstowed his confidence on mean favourites, an insult which the for-\nmer avenged by rebellion. His brothers Albany and Mar, aided\nby Edward IV. of England, attempted a revolution in the kingdom,\nwhich was frustrated only by the death of Edward. In a second re-\nbellion the confederate nobles forced the prince of Rothsay, eldest son\nof James, to appear in arms against his father. In an engagement\nnear Bannockburn the rebels were successful, and the king was slain\nin the 35th near of his age, 1,488.\n7. James IV., a great and most accomplished prince, whose talents\nwere equalled by his virtues, while his measures of government were\ndictated by a true spirit of patriotism, won by a well-placed confi-\ndence the affections of his nobility. In his marriage with Margaret,\nthe daughter of Henry VII. of England, both sovereigns wisely\nsought a bond of amitv between the kingdoms but this purpose was\nfrustrated in the succeeding reign of Henry VIII. The high spirit of\nthe rival monarchs was easily inflamed by trifling causes of offence\nand France, then at war with England, courted the aid of her an-\ncient ally. James invaded England with a powerful army, which he\nwished to lead to immediate action; but the prudent delays of Surrey,\nthe English general, wasted and weakened his force. In the fatal\nbattle of Flodden the Scots were defeated with prodigious slaughter.\nThe gallant James perished in the fight, and with him almost the\nwhole of the Scottish nobles, A. D. 1,513.\n8. Under the long minority of his son James V., an infant at the\ntime of his father s death, the kingdom was feebly ruled by his uncle\nAlbany. The aristocracy began to resume its ancient spirit of inde-\npendence, which was ill-brooked by a prince of a proud and un-\ncontrolable mind, who felt the keenest jealousy of a high preroga-\ntive. With a systematic policy he employed the church to abuse the\nnobility, conferring all the offices of state on able ecclesiastics. The\ncardinal Beaton co-operated with great zeal in the designs of his\nmaster, and under him ruled the kingdom.\n9. Henry VIII., embroiled with the papacy, sought an alliance\nwith the king of Scots; but the ecclesiastical counsellors of the lat-\nter defeated this beneficial purpose. A war was thus provoked, and\nJames was reluctantly compelled to court those nobles whom it had\nhitherto been his darling object to humiliate. They now determined\non a disgraceful revenge. In an attack on the Scottish border the\nEnglish were repelled, and an opportunity offered to the Scots of","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0162.jp2"},"163":{"fulltext":"MODERJN HISTORY. 159\ncutting off their retreat. The king gave his orders to that end, but\nhis barons obstinately refused to advance beyond the frontier. One\nmeasure more was wanting to drive their sovereign to despair. In a\nsubsequent engagement with the English 10,000 of the Scots deliber-\nately surrendered themselves prisoners to 500 of the enemy. The\nhigh spirit of James sunk under his contending passions, and he died oi\na broken heart in the 33d year of his age, A. P. 1,542, a few days\nafter the birth of a daughter, yet more unfortunate than her father,\nMary queen of Scots.\nSECTION XXX111.\nOF THE ANCIENT CONSTITUTION OF THE SCOTTISH GOVERN-\nMENT.\n1. We have seen that it was a constant policy of the Scottish kings\nto abase the power of their nobles and that the struggle for power\nwas the source of much misery and bloodshed. But this policy was\nnecessary, from the dangerous ambition and lawless tyranny of those\nnobles, who frequently aimed at overturning the throne, and exercis-\ned the severest oppression on all their dependents. The interests,\ntherefore, of the people, no less than the security of the prince, de-\nmanded tne repression of this overweening and destructive power.\nThe aristocracy was, however, preserved, no less by its own strength\nthan by the concurrence of circumstances, and chiefly by the violent\nand unhappy fate of the sovereigns. Meantime, though the meas-\nures which the kings pursued were not successful, yet their conse-\nquences were beneficial. They restrained, if they did not destroy,\nthe spirit of feudal oppression, and gave birth to order, wise laws,\nand a more tranquil administration of government.\n2. The legislative power, though nominally resident in the parlia-\nment, was virtually in the king, who, by his influence, entirely con-\ntroled its proceedings. The parliament consisted of three estates,\nthe nobles, the dignified clergy, and the less barons, who were the\nrepresentatives of the towns and shires.^ The disposal of benefices,\ngave the crown the entire command of the churchmen, who were\nequal to the nobles in number and at least a majority of the com-\nmons were the dependents of the sovereign. A committee, termed\nthe lords of the articles, prepared every^ measure that was to come\nbefore the parliament. r y the mode of its election this committee\nwas in effect nominated by the king. It is to the credit of the Scot-\ntish princes, that there are few instances of their abusing an authority\nso extensive as that which they constitutionally enjoyed.\n3. The king had anciently the supreme jurisdiction in all causes,\ncivil and criminal, which he generally exercised through the medium\nof his privy council; but in 1,425 James 1. instituted the court of ses-\nsions, consisting of the chancellor and certain judges chosen from the\nthree estates. This court was new-modelled by James V., and its\njurisdiction limited to civil causes, the cognizance of crimes being\ncommitted to the justiciary. The chancellor was the highest officer\nof the crown, and president of the parliament. To the chamberlain\nbelonged the care of the finances and the public police to the high\nsteward the charge of the king s household; the constable regulated\nall matters of military arrangement; and the marshal was the king s\nlieutenant, and master of the horse.","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0163.jp2"},"164":{"fulltext":"160 MODERN HISTORY.\n4. The revenue of the sovereign consisted of his domain, which\nwas extensive, of the feudal casualties and forfeitures, the profits of\nthe wardships of his vassals, the rents of vacant benefices, the pecu-\nniary tines for offences, and the aids or presents occasionally given\nby the subject a revenue at all times sufficient for the purposes of\ngovernment, and the support of the dignity of the crown.\n5. The political principles which regulated the conduct of the Scots\ntoward other nations were obvious and simple. It had ever been an\nobject of ambition to England to acquire the sovereignty of Scotland,\nwhich was constantly on its guard against this design of its more potent\nneighbour. It was the wisest policy for Scotland to attach itself to\nFrance, the natural enemy of England an alliance reciprocally court-\ned from similar motives. In those days this attachment was justly\ndeemed patriotic; while the Scots, who were the partisans of Eng-\nland* were with equal justice regarded as traitors to their country.\nIn the period of which we now treat, it was a settled policy of the\nEnglish sovereigns to have a secret faction in their pay in Scotland,\nfor the purpose of dividing and thus enslaving the nation and to this\nsource all the subsequent disorders of the latter kingdom are to be\nattributed.\nSECTION XXXIV.\nA VIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF LITERATURE AND SCIENCE\nIN EUROPE, FROM THE REVIVAL OF LETTERS TO THE\nEND OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY\n1. The first restorers of learning in Europe were the Arabians,\nwho, in the course of their Asiatic conquests, becoming acquainted\nwith some of the ancient Greek authors, discovered and justly appre-\nciated the knowledge and improvement to be derived from them.\nThe caliphs procured from the eastern emperors copies of the an-\ncient manuscripts, and had them carefully translated into Arabic es-\nteeming principally those which treated of mathematics, physics, and\nmetaphysics. They disseminated their knowledge in the course ot\ntheir conquests, and founded schools and colleges in all the countries\nwhich they subdued.\n2. The western kingdoms of Europe became first acquainted with\nthe learning of the ancients through the medium of those Arabian\ntranslations. Charlemagne caused Latin translations to be made from\nthe Arabian, and founded, after the example of the caliphs, the uni-\nversities of Bononia, Pavia, Osnaburg, and Paris. Alfred wth a simi-\nlar spirit, and by similar means, introduced a taste for literature in\nEngland but the subsequent disorders of the kingdom replunged it\ninto barbarism. The Normans, however, brought from the continent\nsome tincture of ancient learning, which was kept alive in the monas-\nteries, where the monks were meritoriously employed in transcrib-\ning a few of the ancient authors, along with the legendary lives of\nthe saints.\n3. In this dawn of literature in England appeared Henry of Hunting\nton and Geoffrey of Monmouth, names distinguished in the earliest\nannals of poetry and romance John of Salisbury, a moralist Wil-\nliam of Malmesbury, annalist of the history of England before the\nreign of Stephen Giraldus Cambrensis, known in the fields of hist","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0164.jp2"},"165":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 1G1\nry, theology, and poetry Joseph of Exeter, author of two Latin epic\npoems on the Troian war, and the war of Antioch, or the crusade,\nwhich are read with pleasure even in the present day.\n4. But this era of a good taste in letters was of short duration.\nIne taste for classical composition and historical information yielded\nto the barbarous subtleties of scholastic divinity taught by Lombard\nand Abelard, and to the abstruse doctrines of the Roman law, which\nbegan to engage the general attention from the recent discovery of\nthe pandects at Amalphi, 1,137. The amusements of the vulgar\nin those periods were metrical and prose romances, unintelligible\nprophecies, and fables of giants and enchanters.\n5. In the middle of the thirteenth century appeared a distinguish-\ned genius, Roger Bacon, an English friar, whose comprehensive mind\nwas failed with all the stores of ancient learning who possessed a\ndiscriminating judgment to separate the precious ore from the dross,\nand a power ol invention fitted to advance in every science which was\nthe object of his study. He saw the insufficiency of the school phi-\nlosophy, and first recommended the prosecution of knowledge by ex-\nperiment and the observation of nature. He made discoveries of\nimportance in astronomy, optics, chemistry, medicine, and mechanics.\nHe retormed the kalendar, discovered the construction cf telescopic\ng asses forgotten after his time, and revived by Galileo, and has left a\n?lam intimation of his knowledge of the composition of gun-powder,\net this superior genius believed in the possibility of discovering an\nelixir for the prolongation of life, in the transmutation of metals into\ngold, and in judicial astrology.\n6. A general taste prevailed for poetical composition in the twelfth\nand thirteenth centuries. The troubadours of Provence wrote son-\nnets, madrigals, and satirical ballads and excelled in extempore dia-\nlogues on the subject of love, which they treated in a metaphysical\nand Platonic strain. They contended for the prize of poetry at sol-\nemn meetings, where princes, nobles, and the most illustrious ladies\nattended to decide between the rival bards and some of those prin-\nces, as Richard 1. of England, Frederick I. emperor of Germany, are\ncelebrated as troubadours of eminence. Many fragments vet remain\not their compositions.\n7. The transference of the papal seat to Avignon, in the fourteenth\ncentury, familiarized the Italian poets with the songs of the trouba-\ndours, and gave a tincture of the Provencal style to their compo-\nsitions, which is very observable in the poetry of Petrarch and of\nDante. The Divina Comedia of Dante first introduced the machine-\nry ol angels and devils in the room of the pagan mythology, and is a\nwork containing many examples of the terrible sublime. The Son-\nnets and Canzoni of Petrarch are highly tender and pathetic, though\nvitiated with a quaintness and conceit, which is a prevalent feature\nof the Italian poetry. The Decamero ne of Boccacio, a work of the\nsame age, is a master-piece for invention, ingenious narrative, and\nacquaintance with human nature. These authors have fixed the\nstandard of the Italian language.\n8. Contemporary with them, and of rival merit, was the English\nChaucer, who displays all the talents of Boccacio, through the me-\ndium of excellent poetry. The works of Chaucer discover an exten-\nsive knowledge of the sciences, an acquaintance both with ancient\nand modern learning, particularly the literature of France and Italy,\nand, above all, a most acute discernment of life and manners.\n9. Of similar character are the poems of Gower, but of a graver\n2 r 21","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0165.jp2"},"166":{"fulltext":"162 MODERN HISTORY.\ncast, and a more chastened morality. Equal co these eminent men\nin every species of literary merit was the accomplished James I. of\nScotland, of which his remaining writings bear convincing testimony.\nThe doubtful Rowley of Bristol is said to have adorned the fifteenth\ncentury.\n10. Spain at this period began to emerge from ignorance and bar-\nbarism, and to produce a few of those works which are enumerated\nwith approbation in the whimsical but judicious criticism of Cervau\ntes. yjon Quixote, b. 1, c. 6.)\n11. Though poetry attained in those ages a considerable degree\nof splendour, yet there was little advancement in general literature\nand science. History was disgraced by the intermixture of miracle\nand fable yet we find much curious information in the writings\nof Matthew of Westminster, of Walsingham, Everard, Duysburg, and\nthe Chronicles of Froissart and Monstrelet. Philip de Commine*\nhappily describes the reigns of Lewis XI. and Charles VIII. of\nFrance. Villani and Platina are valuable recorders of the affairs of\nItaly.\n12. A taste for classical learning in the fifteenth century led to the\ndiscovery of many of the ancient authors. Poggio discovered the\nwritings of Quintilian and several of the compositions of Cicero,\nwhich stimulated to farther research, and to the recovery of many\nvaluable remains of Greek and Roman literature. But this taste was\nnot generally diffused. France and England were extremely barba-\nrous. The library at Oxford contained only 600 volumes, and there\nwere but four classics in the royal library at Paris. But a brighter\nperiod was approaching. On the fall of the eastern empire, in the\nend of the fifteenth century, the dispersion of the Greeks diffused a\ntaste for polite literature over all the west of Europe. A succession\nof popes, endowed with a liberal and enlightened spirit, gave every\nencouragement to learning and the sciences; and, above all, the\nnoble discovery of the art of printing contributed to their rapid ad-\nvancement and dissemination, and gave a certain assurance of the\nperpetuation of every valuable art, and the progressive improvement\nof human knowledge.\n13. The rise of dramatic composition among the moderns is to be\ntraced to the absurd and ludicrous representation, in the churches,\nof the scripture histories, called in England mysteries, miracles, ana\nmoralities. These were first exhibited in the twelfth century, and\ncontinued to the sixteenth, when they were prohibited by law in\nEngland. Of these we have amusing specimens in Warton s His-\ntory of English Poetry. Profane dnwnas were substituted in their\nplace and a mixture of the sacred and profane appears to have\nbeen known in France as early as 1,300. In Spain the farcical mys-\nteries keep their ground to the present day, and no regular compo-\nsition for the stage was known till the end of the sixteenth century.\nThe Italians are allowed by their own writers to have borrowed\ntheir theatre from the French and English.\nSee Rett s Elements of General Knowledge, vol. L","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0166.jp2"},"167":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 168\nSECTION XXXV.\nVIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF COMMERCE IN EUROPE BEFORE\nTHE PORTUGUESE DISCOVERIES.\n1. Before we give an account of the discoveries of the Portu-\nguese in the fifteenth century, in exploring a new route to India, we\nshall present a short view of the progress of commerce in Europe\ndown to that period.\nThe boldest naval enterprise of the ancients was the Periplus ol\nHanno, who sailed from Carthage to the coast of Guinea, within\nfour or five degrees of the equator, A. C. 570. The ancients did\nnot know that Africa was almost circumnavigable. They had a very\nlimited knowledge of the habitable earth. They believed that both\nthe torrid and frigid zones were uninhabitable and they were very\nimperfectly acquainted with a great part of Europe, Asia, and Af-\nrica. Denmark, Sweden, Prussia, Poland, and the greater part of\nRussia, were unknown to them. In Ptolemy s description of the\nglobe, the 63d degree of latitude is the limit of the earth to the\nnorth, and the equator to the south.\n2. Britain was circumnavigated in the time of Domitian. The\nRomans frequented it for the purposes of commerce and Tacitus\nmentions London as a celebrated resort of merchants. The com-\nmerce of the ancients was, however, chiefly confined to the Mediter-\nranean. In the flourishing periods of the eastern empire the mer-\nchandise of India was imported from Alexandria but, after the con-\nquest of Egypt by the Arabians, it was carried up the Indus, and\ntnence by land to the Oxus, which then ran directly into the Caspian\nsea; thence it was brought up the Wolga, and again carried over land\nto the Don, whence it descended into the Euxine.\n3. After the fall of the western empire commerce was long at a\nstand in Europe. When Attila was ravaging Italy the Veneti took\nrefuge in the small islands at the northern extremity of the Adriatic,\nand there founded Venice, A. D. 452, which began very early to\nequip small fleets, and trade to the coasts of Egypt and the Levant,\nfor spices and other merchandise of Arabia and India. Genoa, Flor-\nence, and Pisa, imitated this example, and began to acquire consider-\nable wealth but Venice retained her superiority over these riva\nstates, and gained considerable territory on the opposite coast of Illyr-\nicum and Dalmatia.\n4. The maritime cities of Italy profited by the crusades, in furnish-\ning the armies with supplies, and bringing home the produce of the\neast. The Italian merchants established manufactures similar to\nthose of Constantinople. Rogero king of Sicily brought artisans\nfrom Athens, and established a silk manufacture at Palermo in 1,130.\nThe sugar cane was planted in Sicily in the twelfth century, and\nthence carried to Madeira, and finally made its way to the West\nIndies.\n5. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the Italians were the\nonly commercial people of Europe. Venice set the first example\nof a national bank in 1,157, which has maintained its credit to the\npresent times. The only trade of France, Spain, and Germany, at\nthis time, was carried on at stated fairs and markets, to which traders\nresorted from all quarters, paying a tax to the sovereigns or the lords","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0167.jp2"},"168":{"fulltext":"164 MODERN HISTORY.\nof the territory. The more enterprising bought a privilege oi ex\nemption, by paying at once a large sum, and were thence called fret\ntraders.\n6. In the middle ages the Italian merchants, usually called Lom-\nbards, were the factors of all the European nations, and were en-\nticed, by privileges granted by the sovereigns, to settle in France,\nSpain, Germany, and England. They were not only traders in com\nmodities, but bankers, or money dealers. In this last business they\nfound a severe restraint from the canon law prohibiting the taking\nof interest and hence, from the necessary privacy of their bargains,\nthere were no bounds to exorbitant usury. The Jews, too, who\nwere the chief dealers in money, brought disrepute on the trade of\nbanking, and frequently suffered, on that account, the most intoler-\nable persecution and confiscation of their fortunes. To guard against\nthese injuries they invented bills of exchange.\n7. The Lombard merchants excited a spirit of commerce, and\ngave birth to manufactures, which were generally encouraged by\nthe sovereigns in the different kingdoms of Europe. Among the\nchief encouragements was the institution of corporations or monop-\nolies, the earliest of which are traced up to the eleventh century\na policy beneficial, and perhaps necessary, where the spirit of indus-\ntry is low, and manufactures are in their infancy but of hurtful con-\nsequence where trade and manufactures are flourishing.\n8. Commerce began to spread toward the north of Europe about\nthe end of the twelfth century. The sea-ports on the Baltic traded\nwith France and Britain, and with the Mediterranean by the staple\nof the isle of Oleron, near the mouth of the Garonne, then possessed\nby the English. The commercial laws of Oleron and Wisbuy (on\nthe Baltic) regulated for many ages the trade of Europe. To pro-\ntect their trade from piracy, Lubec, Hamburgh, and most of the north-\nern sea-ports, joined in a confederacy, under certain general regula-\ntions, termed the league of the hojnse-towns a union so beneficial in\nits nature, and so formidable in point of strength, that its alliance was\ncourted by the predominant powers of Europe.\n9. For the trade of the hanse-towns with the southern kingdoms,\nBruges, on the coast of Flanders, was found a convenient entrepot,\nand thither the Mediterranean merchants brought the commodities\nof India and the Levant to exchange with the produce and manufac-\ntures of the north. The Flemings now began to encourage trade\nand manufactures, which thence spread to the Brabanters but their\ngrowth being checked by the impolitic sovereigns of those prov-\ninces, they found a more favourable field in England, which was des-\ntined to derive from them the great source of its national opulence.\n10. The Britons had very early seen the importance of commerce.\nBede relates that London was frequented by foreigners for the pur-\npose of trade in 614; and William of Malmesbury speaks of it, in\n1,041, as a most populous and wealthy city. The cinque ports.\nDover, Hastings, Hythe, Ronmey, and Sandwich, obtained in that age\ntheir privileges and immunities, on condition of furnishing each five\nships of war. These ports are now eight in number, and send their\nmembers to parliament.\n11. The woolien manufacture of England was considerable in the\ntwelfth century. Henry II. incorporated the weavers of London,\nand gave them various privileges. By a law passed in his reign, all\ncloth made of foreign wool was condemned to be burnt. Scotland\nat this time seems to have possessed a considerable source of wealth,","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0168.jp2"},"169":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 165\nas is evident irom the payment of the ransom of William the Hon,\nwhich was 10,000 merks, equal to 100,0001. sterling of present\nmoney. The English found it difficult to raise double that sum for the\nransom of Richard I., and the Scots contributed a proportion of it.\nThe English sovereigns at first drew a considerable revenue from\nthe custom on wool exported to be manufactured abroad; but becom-\ning soon sensible of the benefit of encouraging its home manufacture,\nthey invited, for that purpose, the foreign artisans and merchants to\nreside in England, and gave them valuable immunities. Edward III.\nwas peculiarly attentive to trade and manufactures, as appears by the\nlaws passed in his reign and he was bountiful in the encouragement\nof foreign artisans. The succeeding reigns were not so favourable.\nDuring the civil wars of York and Lancaster the spirit of trade and\nmanufactures greatly declined; nor did they begin to revive and\nflourish till the accession of Henry VII. In that interval of their de-\ncay in England commerce and the arts were encouraged in Scotland\nby James I. and his successors, as much as the comparatively rude\nand turbulent state of the, kingdom would permit. The herring fish-\nery then began to be vigorously promoted and the duties laid on\nthe exportation of woollen cloth show that this manufacture was then\nconsiderable among the Scots. Glasgow began to acquire wealth\nby the fisheries in 1,420, but had little or no foreign trade till after\nthe discovery of America and the West Indies.\n12. Henry VII. gave the most liberal encouragement to trade and\nmanufactures, particularly the woollen, by inviting foreign artisans,\nand establishing them at Leeds, Wakefield, Halifax, and other places.\nThe navigation acts were passed in his reign, and commercial treaties\nformed with the continental kingdoms for the protection of the\nmerchant-shipping. Such was the state of commerce at tne time\nwhen the Portuguese made those great discoveries which open-\ned a new route to India, and gave a circulation to their wealth over\nmost of the nations of Europe.\nSECTION XXXVI.\nDISCOVERIES OF THE PORTUGUESE IN THE FIFTEENTH\nCENTURY, AND THEIR EFFECTS ON THE COMMERCE OF\nEUROPE.\n1. The polarity of the magnet had been known in Europe as\nearly as the thirteenth century but the compass was not used in\nsailing till the middle of the fourteenth and another century had\nelapsed from that period, while yet the European manners scarcely\nventured out of the sight of their coasts. The eastern ocean was\nlittle known and the Atlantic was supposed to be a boundless ex-\npanse of sea, extending probably to the eastern shores of Asia. In\nthe belief that the torrid zone was uninhabitable, a promontory on\nthe African coast, in the 29th degree of north latitude, was termed\nCape Non, as forming an impassable limit.\n2. In the beginning of the fifteenth century John king of Por=\ntugal sent a few vessels to explore the African coast; and these\ndoubling Cape Non proceeded to Cape Boyador, within two de-\ngrees of the northern tropic. Prince Henry, the son of John, equip-\nped a single ship, which, being driven out to sea, landed on the island","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0169.jp2"},"170":{"fulltext":"166 MODERN HISTORY.\nof Porto Santo. This involuntary experiment emboldened tho\nmariners to abandon their timid mode of coasting, and launch into the\nopen sea. In 1.420 the Portuguese discovered Madeira, where they\nestablished a colony, and planted the Cyprus vine, and the sugar cane.\n3. The spirit of enterprise being thus awakened, prince Henry\nobtained from Eugene IV. a bull granting to the Portuguese the\nproperty of all the countries which they might discover between\nCape Non and India. Under John II. oi Portugal the Cape Verd\nislands were discovered and colonized; and the fleets, advancing to\nthe coast of Guinea, brought home gold dust, gums, and ivory. Hav-\ning passed the equator, the Portuguese entered a new hemisphere,\nand boldly proceeded to the extremity of the continent. In 1,479 a\nfleet under Vasco de Gama doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and,\nsailing onwards beyond the mouths of the Arabian and Persian gulfs,\narrived at Calicut, on the. Malabar coast, after a voyage of 1,500\nleagues, performed in thirteen months.\n4. De Gama entered into an alliance with the rajah of Calicut, a\ntributary of the Mogul empire, and returned to Lisbon with speci-\nmens of the wealth and produce of the country. A succeeding fleet\nformed settlements, and, vanquishing the opposition of the native\nprinces, soon achieved the conquest of all the coast of Malabar.\nThe city of Goa, taken by storm, became the residence of a Portu-\nguese viceroy and the capital of their Indian settlements.\n5. The Venetians, who had hitherto engrossed the Indian trade\nby Alexandria, now lost it for ever. After an ineffectual project of\ncutting through the isthmus of Suez, they attempted to intercept the\nPortuguese by their fleets stationed at the mouth of the Red sea and\nPersian gulf, but were every where encountered by a superior\nforce. The Portuguese made settlements in both the gulfs, ano\nvigDrously prosecuted their conquests on the Indian coast and sea.\nThe rich island of Ceylon, the kingdoms of Pegu, Siam, and Malac-\nca, were speedily subdued, and a settlement established in Bengal.\nThey proceeded onward to China, hitherto scarcely known to the Eu-\nropeans but by the account of a single Venetian traveller, Marco Paolo,\nin the thirteenth century and they obtained the emperor s permis\nsion to form a settlement at Macao, thus opening a commerce with\nthat immense empire, and the neighbouring islands of Japan. In the\nspace of fifty years the Portuguese were masters of the whole trade\nof the Indian ocean, and sovereigns of a large extent of Asiatic\nterritory.\n6. These discoveries produced a wonderful effect on the com\nmerce of Europe. The produce of the spice islands was computed\nto be worth annually 200,000 ducats to Lisbon, The Venetians,\nafter every effort to destroy the trade of the Portuguese, offere J to\nbecome sole purchasers of all the spice brought to Europe, but were\nrefused. Commercial industry was roused in every quarter, and\nmanufactures made a rapid progress. Lyons, Tours, Abbeville, Mar-\nseilles, Bordeaux, acquired immense wealth. Antwerp and Amster-\ndam became the great marts of the north. The former owed itj\nsplendour to the decline of Bruges, which was ruined by civil c )m-\nmotions and the Portuguese made Antwerp their entrepot for tha\nsupply of the northern kingdoms. It continued highly flourishing\ntill the revolt of the Netherlands, in the end of the sixteenth cen turv,\nwhen it was taken by the Spaniards, and its port destroyed by i flock-\ning up the Scheld.\n7. The trade of Holland rose on the fall of Antwerp. Amsterdam","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0170.jp2"},"171":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 167\nbecame considerable after the decline of the hanseatic confederacy\nin 1,428, but rose into splendour and high commercial opulence from\nI he destruction of Antwerp. The United Provinces, dependent on\nindustry alone for their support, became a model of commercial ac-\ntivity to all nations.\n8. Britain felt the effect of that general stimulus which the Por-\ntuguese discoveries gave to the trade of Europe but other causes\nhad a more sensible operation to that end in England. The reforma-\ntion, by suppressing the convents, and restoring many thousands to\nsociety, and the cutting off the papal exactions, which drained the\nkingdom of its wealth, the politic laws passed in the reign of Henry\nV r lll., and the active patriotism of Elizabeth, were vigorous incentives\nto national industry.\n9. From the time of Henry V r lII. to the present, the commerce\nand manufactures of England have been uniformly progressive.\nThe rental of England in lands and houses did not then exceed five\nmillions per annum it is now above eighteen millions. The unman-\nufactured wool of one years growth is supposed to be worth two\nmillions when manufactured, as it now is, by British hands, it is\nworth eight millions. Above a million and a half of hands are em-\nployed in that manufacture alone half a million are employed in\nthe manufactures of iron, steel, copper, brass, lead the linen man-\nufactures of England, Scotland, and Ireland, occupy nearly a million\nand a number not much inferior is employed in the fisheries. It is\npresumable, on the whole, that nearly a fourth of the population oi tin;\nunited kingdoms is actually employed in commerce and manufactures..\n10. The vast increase of the national wealth of Britain appear*\nchiefly, 1, from the increase of population, which is supposed to\nbe nearly five to one (at least in the large cities) since the reign\nof Elizabeth 2, from the great addition made to the cultivated\nlands of the kingdom, and the high improvement of agriculture\nsince that period, whence more than quadruple the quantity of food\nis produced 3, from the increase of the commercial shipping, at\nleast sixfold within the same time 4, from the comparative low rate\nof interest, which is demonstrative of the increase of wealth. The\nconsequences of the diffusion of the commercial spirit are most im-\nportant to the national welfare. From general industry arises afflu-\nence, joined to a spirit of independence and on this spirit rests the\nfreedom of the British constitution, and all the blessings which are\nenjoyed under its protection.\nSECTION XXXVII.\nGERMANY AND FRANCE IN THE REIGNS OF CHARLES V.\nAND FRANCIS I.\n1. We resume the detail of the history of Europe at the beginning\nof the sixteenth century, previously remarking, that the Germanic\nempire continued for above fifty years in a state of languid tranquilli-\nty, from the time of Albert II., the successor of Sigismund, during the\nlong reign of Frederick III., whose son Maximilian acquired, by his\nmarriage with Mary, duchess of Burgundy, the sovereignty of the\nNetherlands. Maximilian was elected Emperor in 1,493; and, by\nestablishing a perpetual peace between the separate Germanic states,\nSaid the foundation of the subsequent grandeur of the empire.","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0171.jp2"},"172":{"fulltext":"168 MODERN HISTORY.\n2. Philip archduke of Austria, son of Maximilian, married Jane, the\ndaughter of Ferdinand and Isabella and of that marriage the eldest\nson was Charles V., who succeeded to the throne of Spain in 1,516,\nand, on the death of his grandfather Maximilian, preferred his claim\no the vacant imperial throne. He had for his competitor Francis I.\nof France, who had distinguished himself by the conquest of the Mil-\nanese, and the adjustment of the contending interests of the Italian\nstates. The German electors, afraid of the exorbitant power both oi\nCharles and of Francis, would have rejected both, and conferred the\nimperial crown on Frederick duke of Saxony but this extraordinary\nman declined the proffered dignity, and his council determined the\nelection in favour of Charles of Austria, 1,519.\n3. Charles V. and Francis I. were now declared enemies, and their\nmutual claims on each other s dominions were the subject of perpet-\nual hostility. The emperor claimed Artois as part of the Nether-\nlands. Francis prepared to make good his right to the Two Sicilies.\nCharles had to defend Milan, and to support his title to Navarre,\nwhich had been wrested from France by his grandfather Ferdinand.\nHenry VIII. of England was courted by the rival monarchs, as the\nweight of England was sufficient to turn the scale, where the power\nof each was nearly balanced.\n4. The first hostile attack was made by Francis on the kingdom of\nNavarre, which he won and lost in the course of a few months. The\nemperor attacked Picardy, and his troops at the same time drove the\nFrench out o»f the Milanese. On the death of Leo X., Charles placed\ncardinal Adrian on the papal throne, 1,521 and by the promise of\nelevating Wolsey, the minister of Henry VIII., to that dignity, on the\ndeath of Adrian, gained the alliance of the English monarch in his war\nagainst France.\n5. At this critical time Francis imprudently quarrelled with his\nbest general, the constable of Bourbon, who, in revenge, deserted\nthe emperor, and was by him invested with the chief command of his\narmies. The imperial generals were far superior in abilities to their\nopponents. The French were defeated at Biagrassa, and Charles\nwas carrying every thing before him in Italy, wfien Francis entered\nthe Milanese, and retook the capital but, in the subsequent battle of\nPavia, his troops were entirely defeated, and the French monarch\nbecame the constable of Bourbon s prisoner, 1 ,525.\n6. Tb.2 emperor made no advantage of his good fortune. By the\ntreaty of* Madrid, Francis regained his liberty, on yielding to Charles\nthe duchy of Burgundy, and the superiority of Flanders and Artois.\nHe gave his two sons as hostages for the fulfilment of these conditions;\nbut the states refused to ratify them, and the failure was compromised\nfor a sum of money.\n7. On the renewal of the war, Henry VIII. took part with France,\nand Charles lost an opportunity of obtaining the sovereignty of Italy.\nThe papal army in the French interest was defeated by the consta-\nble of Bourbon, and the pope himself made prisoner but Bourbon\nwas killed in the siege of Rome, and Charles allowed the pope to\npurchase his release.\n8. After the conclusion of the peace of Cambray, 1,529, Charles\nvisited Italy, and received the imperial diadem from pope Clement\nVII. The Turks having invaded Hungary, the emperor marched\nagainst th«m in person, and compelled the sultan Solyman, with an\nmy of 300,000 men, to evacuate the country. He soon after em-\nked for Africa, to replace the dethroned Muley Hassan in the","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0172.jp2"},"173":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 169\nsovereignty of Tunis and Algiers, which had been usurped by Hay-\nradin Barbarossa and he achieved the enterprise with honour. His\nreputation at this period exceeded that of all the sovereigns of Eu-\nrope, for political ability, real power, and the extent and opulence of\nhis dominions.\n9. Francis was glad to ally himself even with the Turks to cope\nwith the imperialists, and Barbarossa invaded Italy but the troops of\nCharles prevented the co-operation of the French, and separately\ndefeated and dispersed the allied powers, while anotner army of the\nimperialists ravaged Champagne and Picardy.\n10. In the interval of a truce, which was concluded at Nice, for\nten years between the rival monarchs, Charles passed through\nFrance to the Netherlands, and was entertained by Francis with the\nmost magnificent hospitality. He had promised to grant to the French\nking his favourite desire, the investiture of Milan but failing to keep\nhis word, the war was renewed with double animosity. The French\nand Turkish fleets attacked Nice, but were dispersed by the Ge-\nnoese admiral, Andrea Doria. In Italy the French were victori-\nous in the battle of Cerizoles, but drew no benefit from this partial\nadvantage. The imperialists, on the whole, had a decided superior-\nity, and France must have been undone, if the disorders of Germany,\nfrom the contending interests of the catholics and protestants, had\nnot forced the emperor to conclude the treaty of Crepi with Francis,\n1,544. At the same time Francis purchased a peace with Henry\nVIII., who had again taken part with his rival. Francis died soon\nafter, in 1 ,547 a prince of great spirit and abilities, and of a gener-\nous and noble mind, unfortunate only from the necessity of strug-\ngling against a power which overmatched him both in policy and\nin resources.\n1 1 A short time before this period, was founded the order of the\nJesuits by Ignatius Loyola, 1,535. The principle of the order was\nimplicit obedience and submission to the pope. The brethren wer^\nnot confined to their cloisters, but allowed to mix with the world\nand thus, by gaining the confidence of princes and statesmen, they\nwere enabled to direct the policy of nations to the great en.3 of estab-\nlishing the supreme authority of the holy see. The wealth which\nthey accumulated, the extent of their power, and the supposed con-\nsequences of their intrigues to the peace of nations, excited at length\na general hostility to their order and the institution has recently\nbeen abolished in all the kingdoms of Europe.\n12. If Charles V. aimed at universal empire, he was ever at a dis-\ntance from the object ot hia wishes. The formidable confederacy of\nthe prctestants to preserve their liberties and their religion, gave\nhim perpetual disquiet in Germany. He never could form his do-\nminions into a well connected body, from the separate national inter-\nests of the Spaniards, Flemish, and Germans and even the imperial\nstates were divided by their jealousies, political and religious. The\nhostilities of foreign powers gave him continual annoyance. He found\nin Henry II., tfce successor of Francis, an antagonist as formidable as\nhis father, rlis cares and difficulties increased as he advanced in life,\nand at length entirely broke the vigour of his mind, in a state of\nmelancholy despondency he retired from the world at the age of fifty-\nsixy resigning first the kingdom of Spain to his son Philip II., 1,556,\n^nd afterwards the imperial crown in favour of his brother Ferdinand,\nwho was elected emperor on the 24th day of February, 1,558.","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0173.jp2"},"174":{"fulltext":"170 MODERN HISTORY.\nSECTION XXXVIII.\nOBSERVATIONS ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE GERMAN\nEMPIRE.\n1. Previously to the reign of Maximilian I., the Germanic empire\nwas subject to all the disorders of the feudal governments. The\ngeneral diets of the state were tumultuous and indecisive, and their\nconstant wars with one another kept the whole in anarchy and bar-\nbarism. Wenceslaus, in 1,383, endeavoured to remedy those evils\nby the enactment of a general peace but no effectual measures\nwere taken for securing it. Albert II. attempted to accomplish\nthe same end, and had some success. He divided Germany into six\ncircles, each regulated by its own diet but the jealousies of the states\nprompted them constantly to hostilities, which there was no superior\npower sufficient to restrain.\n2. At length Maximilian I. procured, in 1,500, that solemn enact-\nment which established a perpetual peace among (he Germanic\nstates, under the cogent penalty of the aggressor being treated as a\ncommon enemy He established the imperial chamber for the settle-\nment of all differences. The empire was divided anew into ten cir-\ncles, each circle sending its representatives to the imperial chamber,\nand bound to enforce the public laws through its own territory. A\nregency was appointed to subsist in the intervals of the diet, composed\nof twenty members, over whom the emperor presided.\n3. These regulations, however wise, would probably have failed\nof tVieir end, if the influence of the house of Austria, which has for\nthree centuries continued to occupy the imperial throne, had not\nenforced obedience to them. The ambition and policy of Charles\nV. would have been dangerous to the freedom of the German prin-\nces, if the new system of preserving a balance of power in Europe\nhad not made these princes find allies and protectors sufficient to\ntraverse the emperors schemes of absolute dominion. He attained,\nhowever, an authority far beyond that of any of his predecessors.\nThe succeeding emperors imitated his policy but, as they did not\npossess equal talents, they found yet stronger obstacles to their en-\ncroachments on the freedom of the states.\n4. The Germanic liberties were settled for the last time by the\ntreaty of Westphalia, in 1,648, which fixed the emperor s preroga-\ntives, and the privileges of the states. The constitution ofthe em-\npire is not framed for the ordinary ends of government, the prosper-\nity and happiness of the people. It regards not the rights of the\nsubjects, but only the independence of the several princes and its\nsole object is to maintain each in the enjoyment of his sovereignty,\nand prevent usurpations and encroachments on one another s terri-\ntories. It has no relation to the particular government of the states,\neach of which has its own laws and constitution, some more free, and\nothers more despotic.\n5. The general diet has the power of enacting the public laws of\nthe empire. It consists of three colleges, the electors, the princes,\nand the free cities. All such public laws, and all general measures,\nare the subject of the separate deliberation of the electoral college\nand that ofthe princes. When jointly approved by them, the resolu-","height":"3587","width":"2121","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0174.jp2"},"175":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 171\ntion is canvassed by the college of the free cities, and, if agreed to,\nbecomes a placitum of the empire. If approved finally by the em-\nperor, it is a conclusum, or general law. If disapproved, the resolu-\ntion is of no effect. Moreover, the emperor must be the proposer of\nall general laws. Still farther, no complaint or request can be made\nby any of the princes to the diet without the approbation of the\nelector archbishop of Mentz, who may refuse it at his pleasure.\nThese constitutional defects are the more hurtful in their conse-\nquences, from the separate and often contending interests of the prin-\nces, who have all the rights of sovereignty, the power of contracting\nforeign alliances, and are frequently possessed of foreign dominions\nof fargreater value than their imperial territories.\n6. The Germanic constitution has, however, in some respects, its\nadvantages. The particular diets of each circle tend to unite those\nprinces in all matters of national concern, whatever may be the dis-\ncordance of their individual interests. The regulations made in\nthose diets compensate the want of a general legislative power. Be-\nside the circular diets, the electors, the princes, the free cities, the\ncatholics, and the protestants, hold their particular diets, when their\ncommon interests require it and these powers balance one another.\nConsidered, therefore, solely in the light of a league of several inde-\npendent princes and states, associating for their common benefit, the\nGermanic constitution has many advantages; in promoting general\nharmony, securing the rights of its members, and preventing the\nweak from being oppressed by the strong.\nSECTION XXXIX.\nOF THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY AND SWITZERLAND,\nAND THE REVOLUTION IN DENMARK AND SWEDEN.\nI\n1. The age of Charles V. is the era of the reformation of reli-\nion, of the discovery of the new world, and of the highest splen-\nour of the fine arts in Italy and the south of Europe. We shall\ntreat in order of each of these great objects and, first, of the refor-\nmation.\nThe voluptuous taste and the splendid projects of pope Leo X.\ndemanding large supplies of money, he instituted through all the\nchristian kingdoms a sale of indulgences, or remittances from the\npains of purgatory. This traffic being abused to the most shocking\npurposes, Martin Luther, an Augustine friar, ventured to preach\nagainst it, and to inveigh with acrimony against the power which\nauthorized it. He found many willing hearers, particularly in the\nelectorate of Saxony, of which the prince Frederick was his friend\nand protector. Leo X. condemned his tenets by a papal bull, which\nonly increased the zeal and indignation of the preacher. In a book\nwhich he published, entitled the Babykmish Captivity, he applied\nall the scriptural attributes of the whore of Babylon to the papal\nhierarchy, and attacked with equal force and virulence the doctrines\nof transubstantiation, purgatory, the celibacy of the priests, and the\nrefusal of wine to the people in the communion. The book being\ncondemned to the flames, Luther burned the pope s bull and the\ndecretals at Wittemberg, 1,520.\n2. One of the first champions, who took up the pen against Lu-","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0175.jp2"},"176":{"fulltext":"172 MODERN HISTORY.\nther, was Henry VIII, of England whose book, presented to pope\nLeo, procured him the title now annexed to his crown, of defender of\nthe faith. The rest of Europe seemed to pay little attention to\nthese rising controversies. Charles V., studious of the friendship of\nthe pope, took part against Luther, and symmoned him to answer\nfor his doctrines in the diet of Worms. The reformer defended\nhimself with great spiiit, and, aided by his friend the elector, made\na safe escape into Saxony^ where the mass was now universally\nabolished, the images destroyed, and the convents shut up. The\nfriars and nuns returned to the world, and Luther took a nun for his\nwife. Nor did these secularized priests abuse their new freedom,\nfor their manners were decent, and their life exemplary.\n3. Erasmus has justly censured the impolicy of the catholic clergy\nin their modes of resisting and suppressing the new doctrines. They\nallowed them to be discussed in sermons before the people, and em-\nployed for that purpose furious and bigoted declaimers, who only\nincreased and widened differences. They would not yield in the\nmost insignificant triiie, nor acknowledge a single fault and they\npersecuted with the utmost cruelty all whose opinions were not\nagreeable to their own standard of faith. How wise is the counsel o f\nlord Bacon There is no better way to stop the rise of new sects\nand schisms, than to reform abuses, compound the lesser differences,\nproceed mildly from the first, refrain from sanguinary persecutions,\nand rather to soften and win the principal leaders, by gracing and\nadvancing them, than to enrage them by violence and bitterness.\nBac. Mor. Ess. Sect. 1. Ess. 12.\n4. Switzerland followed in the path of reformation. Zuinglius of\nZurich preached the new tenets with such zeal and effect, that the\nwhole canton was converted, and the senate publicly abolished the\nmass, and purified the churches. Berne took the same measures\nwith greater solemnity, after a discussion in the senate which lasted\ntwo months. Basle imitated the same example. Other cantons\narmed in defence of their faith* and in a desperate engagement, in\nwhich the protestants were defeated, Zuinglius was slain, 1,531.\n5. Lutheranism was now making its progress towards the north\nof Europe. Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, were at this time gov-\nerned by Christiern II., the Nero of the north. The Swedes, re*\nluctantly submitting to the yoke, were kept in awe by Troll, arch-\nbishop of Upsal, a faithful minister of the tyrant in all his schemes\nof oppression and cruelty. On intelligence of a revolt, the king\nand nis primate, armed with a bull from pope Leo X., massacred\nthe whole body of the nobles and senators, amidst the festivity of a\nbanquet. Gustavus Vasa, grand nephew of Charles Canutson,\nformerly king of Sweden, escaped from this carnage, and concealed\nhimself in the mines of Dalecarlia. By degrees assembling a small\narmy, he defeated the generals of Christiern, whose cruelties at\nlength determined the united nations to vindicate their rights, by a\nsolemn sentence of deposition. The tyrant fled to Flanders, and\nFrederick duke of Holstein was elected sovereign of the three\nkingdoms but Sweden, adhering to her heroic deliverer, and the\nheir of her ancient kings, acknowledged alone the sovereignty of\nGustavus Vasa, 1,521. The bull of Leo X., and its bloody conse-\nquences, were sufficient to convert Sweden and Denmark to the\ntenets of the reformed religion. Gustavus enjoyed his sceptre many\nyears in peace, and contributed greatly to the happiness and pros-\nperity of nis kingdom.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0176.jp2"},"177":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 173\n6. As early as 1,525, the states of Saxony, Brunswick, Hesse Cas-\nsel, and the cities of Strasburgh and Frankfort, had embraced the\ndoctrines of the reformation. Luther had now a species of spiritual\ncontrol, which he exercised by means of a synod of six reformers.\nHis successful example gave rise to reformers of different kinds,\nwhose doctrines were less consonant to reason or good policy. Two\nfanatics of Saxony, Storck and Muncer, condemned infant baptism,\nand therefore were termed anabaptists. They preached universal\nequality and freedom of religious opinion, but, with singular inconsis-\ntency, attempted to propagate their Joctrines by the sword. They\nwere defeated at Mulhausen, and Muncer died on a scaffold but the\nparty seemed to acquire new courage. They surprised Munster,\nexpelled the bishop, and anointed for their king a tailor named Jack\nof Leyden, who defended the city with the most desperate courage,\nbut fell at length, with his party under the superior force of regular\ntroops. The anabaptists, thus sanguinary in their original tenets\nand practices, have long ago become peaceable and harmless sub-\njects.\n7. The united power of the pope and emperor found it impossi-\nble to check the progress of the reformation. The diet of Spires\nproposed articles of accommodation between the Lutherans and\ncatholics. Fourteen cities of Germany, and several of the electors,\nprotested formally against those articles; and hence the Lutheran\nparty acquired the name of protestants. They presented to the\nassembly at Augsburg a confession of their faith, which is the stand-\nard of the protestant doctrines.\n8. The virtuous lives and conduct of the protestant leaders, com-\npared with those of the higher clergy among the catholics, formed\na contrast very favourable to the progress of the reformation. The\nsolemn manner in which the states of Switzerland, and particularly\nGeneva, had proceeded, in calmly discussing every point of contro-\nversy, aad yielding only to the force of rational conviction, attracted\nthe respect of all Europe. John Calvin, a Frenchman, becoming a\nzealous convert to the new doctrines, was the first who gave them a\nsystematic form by his Institutions, and enforced their authority by\nthe establishment of synods, consistories, and deacons. The magis-\ntracy of Geneva gave these ordinances the authority of law and\nthey were adopted by six of the Swiss cantons, by the protestants oi\nFrance, and the presbyterians of Scotland and England. The ablest\nadvocates of Calvin will find it difficult to vindicate him from the\ncharge of intolerance and the spirit of persecution but these, which\nare vices or defects of the individual, attach not in the least to the\ndoctrines of the reformation, which are subject to the test of reason,\nand can derive no blemish or dishonour from the men who propagat-\ned them, or even from the motives which might influence some of\ntheir earliest supporters. This observation applies more particularly\nto the subject of the ensuing section.\nSee Rett s Elements of General Knowledge, Vol. I.\nP2","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0177.jp2"},"178":{"fulltext":"174 MODERN HISTORY.\nSECTION XL.\nOF THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND UNDER HENRY VIII.,\nA 3 HIsSSUXflSadORS.\n1. Wickliff, in the middle of the fourteenth century, by an at-\ntack on the doctrines of transubstantiation, indulgences, and auricular\nconfession, and still more by a translation of the scriptures into the\nvernacular tongue, had prepared the minds of the people of England\nfor a revolution in religious opinions but his professed followers\nwere not numerous. The intemperate passions of Henry VIII. were\nthe immediate cause of the reformation in England. He had been\nmarried eighteen years to Catharine of Spain, aunt of Charles V.,\nby whom he had three children, one of them, Mary, afterwards queen\nof England when, falling in love with Anna Mullen, he solicited\nClement V1L for a divorce from Catharine, on the score of her for-\nmer marriage to his elder brother Arthur. The pope found himself\nin the painful dilemma of either affronting the emperor, or mortally\noffending the king of England. In hope that the king s passion\nmight cool, he protracted the time by preliminaries and negotiations,\nbut to no purpose. Henry was resolutely bent on accomplishing\nhis wishes. The Sorbonne and other French universities gave an\nopinion in his favour. Armed with this sanction, he caused Cranmer\narchbishop of Canterbury to annul his marriage. The repudiated\nqueen gave place to Anna Bullen. On this occasion Wolsey, the\nminister of Henry, lost the favour of his master, by opposing, as\nwas believed, his darling measure.\n2. Clement VII., from this specimen of the wayward temper of\nHenry, resolved to keep well with the emperor, and issued his bull,\ncondemnatory of the sentence of the archbishop of Canterbury.\nHenry immediately proclaimed himself head of the church of Eng-\nland the parliament ratified his title, and the pope s authority was\ninstantly suppressed in all his dominions, 1,534. He proceeded to\nabolish the monasteries, and confiscate their treasures and revenues,\nelecting out of the latter six new bishoprics and a college. The\nimmoralities of the monks were sedulously exposed, the forgery of\nrelics, false miracles, c. held up to the popular scorn.\n3. Yet Henry, though a reformer, and pope in his own kingdom,\nhad not renounced the religion of Rome he was equally an enemy\nto the tenets of Luther and Calvin as to the pope s jurisdiction in\nEngland. Inconstant in his affections, and a stranger to all humanity,\nhe removed Anna Bullen from the throne to the scaffold, to gratify a\nnew passion for Jane Seymour, a maid of honour, who happily died\nabout a year after. To her succeeded Anne of Cleves, whom he\ndivorced in nine months, to make way for Catharine Howard. She\nunderwent the same fate with Anna Bullen, on a similar suspicion oi\ninfidelity to his bed. His sixth wife, Catharine Parr, with difficulty\nretained her hazardous elevation, but had the good fortune to sur-\nvive the tyrant.\n4. On the death of Henry VIII., 1,547, and the accession of his son\nEdward VI., the protestant religion prevailed in England, and was\nfavoured by the sovereign but he died at the early age of fifteen,\n1 ,553 and the sceptre passed to the hands of his sister Mary, an in-","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0178.jp2"},"179":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 17\ntolerant catholic, and most cruel persecutor of the protestants. In\nher reign, which was of five years duration, above 800 miserable\nvictims were burnt at a stake, martyrs to their religious opinions.\nMary inherited a congenial spirit with her husband, Philip ll of SpaiiL\nwhose intolerance cost him the loss of a third part of his dominions\n5. Mary was succeeded in 1,558 by her sister Elizabeth, the daugh\nter of Anna JBullen, a protestant, the more zealous from an abhor\nrence of the character of her predecessor. In her reign the religion\nof England became stationary. The hierarchy was established in its\npresent form, by archbishops, bishops, priests, and deacons, the king\nbeing by law the head of the church. The liturgy had been settled\nin the reign of Edward VI. The canons are agreeable chietly to the\nLutheran tenets.\nOf the reformation in Scotland we shall afterwards treat under a\nseparate section.\nSECTION XLI.\nOF THE DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST OF AMERICA BY THE\nSPANIARDS.\n1. Among those great events which distinguished the age of Charles\nV. was the conquest of Mexico by Fernando Cortez, and of Peru by\nthe two brothers, Francis and Gonzalo Pizarro. The discovery of\nAmerica preceded the first of these events about twenty-seven years,\nbut the account of it has been postponed, that the whole may be-\nshortly treated in connexion.\nChristopher Columbus, a Genoese, a man of an enterprising spirit,\nhaving in vain^ solicited encouragement from his native state, from\nPortugal, and from England, to attempt discoveries in the western\nocean, applied to Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. Under the patron-\nage of Isabella, as queen of Castile, he was furnished with three\nsmall ships, ninety men, and a few thousand ducats for the expense\nof his voyage. After thirty-three days sail from the Canaries he dis-\ncovered San Salvador, September, 1,492; and soon after the islands\nof Cuba and Hispaniola. He returned to Spain, and brought a few\nof the natives, some presents of gold, and curiosities of the country.\nHe was treated by the Spaniards with the highest honours, and soon\nsupplied with a suitable armament for the prosecution of his discove-\nries. In his second voyage he discovered the Caribbees and Jamaica.\nIn a third voyage he descried the continent of America, within ten\ndegrees of the equator, toward the isthmus of Panama. The next\nyear the geographer Americus followed the track of Columbus, and\nhad the undeserved honour of giving his name to this continent.\n2. The inhabitants of America and its islands were a race of men\nquite new to the Europeans. They are of the colour of copper. In\nsome quarters, as in Mexico and Peru, the Spaniards are said to have\nfound a flourishing empire, and a people polished, refined, and luxu-\nrious in others, man was a naked savage, the member of a wander-\ning tribe, whose sole occupation was hunting or war. The savages\nof the continent were characterized by their cruelty to their enemies,\ntheir contempt of death, and their generous affection for their friends.\nThe inhabitants of the islands were a milder race, of gentler manners,\nand less hardy conformation of body and mind. The larger animals,\nas the horse, the cow, were unknown in America.","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0179.jp2"},"180":{"fulltext":"176 MODERN HISTORY.\n3. Those newly-discovered countries were believed to contain in\nexhaustible treasures. The Spaniards, under the pretence of reli\ngion and policy, treated the inhabitants with the most shocking inhu-\nmanity. The rack, the scourge, the faggot, were employed to con\nvert them to Christianity. They were hunted like wild beasts, or\nburnt alive in their thickets and fastnesses. Hispaniola, containing\nthree millions of inhabitants, and Cuba, containing above 600,000,\nwere absolutely depopulated in a few years. It was now resolved to\nexplore the continent and Fernando Cortez, with eleven ships and\n617 men, sailed ibr that purpose from Cuba in 1,519. Landing at\nTabasco, he advanced, though with a brave opposition from the na-\ntives, into the interior of the country. The state of Tlascala, after\nineffectual resistance, became the ally of the Spaniards. On the ap-\nproach of the Spaniards to Mexico, the terror of their name had pav-\ned the way for an easy conquest.\n4. The Mexican empire, though founded little more than a century\nbefore this period, had arisen to great splendour. Its sovereign, Mon-\ntezuma, received the invaders with the reverence due to superior\nbeings. But a short acquaintance opened the eyes of the Mexicans.\nFinding nothing in the Spaniards beyond what was human, they were\ndaring enough to attack and put to death a few of them. The in-\ntrepid Cortez immediately marched to the palace with fifty men,\nand putting the emperor in irons, carried him off prisoner to his\ncamp where he afterwards persuaded him to acknowledge himself\na vassal of the king of Castile, to hold his crown of the king as his\nsuperior, and to subject his dominions to the payment of an annual\ntribute.\n5. Velasquez, governor of Cuba, jealous of Cortez, attempted to\nsupersede him, by despatching a superior army to the continent but\nCortez defeated his troops, and compelled them to join his own ban-\nners. In an attack by the Mexicans for the rescue of their sovereign,\nMontezuma, having offered to mediate between them and their ene-\nmies, was indignantly put to death by his own subjects. The whole\nempire, under its new sovereign, Guatimozin, was now armed against\nthe Spaniards and while the plains were covered with their archers\nand spearmen, the lake of Mexico was filled with armed canoes. To\noppose the latter the Spaniards built a few vessels under the walls of\ntheir city, and soon evinced their superiority to their feeble foe on\nboth elements. The monarch was taken prisoner by the officers ot\nCortez, and was stretched naked on burning coals, because he refus-\ned to discover his treasures. Soon after a conspiracy against the\nSpaniards was discovered^ and the wretched Guatimozin, with all the\nprinces of his blood, were executed on a gibbet. This was the last\nblow to the power of the Mexicans; and Cortez was now absolute\nmaster of the whole empire, 1,525.\n6. In the year 1,531 Diego D Almagro and Francis Pizarro, with\n250 foot, 60 horse, and 12 small pieces of cannon, landed in Peru, a\nlarge and flourishing empire, governed by an ancient race of mon-\narchs named Incas. The Inca Atabalipa receiving the Spaniards with\nreverence, they immediately required him to embrace the christian\nfaith, and surrender all his dominions to the emperor Charles V., who\nhad obtained a gift of them from the pope. The proposal being mis-\nunderstood, or received with hesitation, Pizarro seized the monarch\nas his prisoner, while his troops massacred 5,000 of the Peruvians on\nthe spot. The empire was now plundered of prodigious treasures in\ngold and precious stones; and Atabalipa, being suspected of conceal-","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0180.jp2"},"181":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 177\na part from his insatiable invaders, was solemnly tried as a crimi-\nand strangled at a stake.\n7. The courage of the Spaniards surpassed even their inhumanity.\nD Almagro marched 500 leagues, through continual opposition, to\nCusco, and penetrated across the Cordilleras into Chili, two degrees\nbeyond the southern tropic. He was slain in a civil war between\nhim and his associate Francis Pizarro, who was soon after assassinated\nby the party of his rival. A few years after the Spaniards discover-\ned the inexhaustible silver mines of Potosi, which they compelled\nthe Peruvians to work for their advantage. They are now wrought\nby the negroes of Africa. The native Peruvians, who are a weakly\nrace of men, were soon almost exterminated by cruelty and intoler-\nable labour. The humane bishop of Chiapa remonstrated with suc-\ncess to Charles V. on this subject and the residue of this miserable\npeople have been since treated with more indulgence.\n8. The Spanish acquisitions in America belong to the crown, and\nnot to the state they are the absolute property of the sovereign,\nand regulated solely by his will. They consist of three provinces^\nMexico, Peru, and Terra Firma and are governed by three vice-\nroys, who exercise supreme civil and military authority over their\nrespective provinces. There are eleven courts of audience for the\nadministration of justice, with whose judicial proceedings the vice-\nroys cannot interfere and their judgments are subject to appeal to\nthe royal council of the Indies, wnose jurisdiction extends to every\ndepartment, ecclesiastical, civil, military, and commercial. A tribu-\nnal in Spain, called Casa de la Contratacion, regulates the departure\nof the fleets, and their destination and equipment, under the contro-\nof the council of the indies,\n9. The gold and silver of Spanish America, though the exclusi/e\nproperty of the crown of Spain, has, by means of war, marriages jf\nprinces, and extension of commerce, come into general circulatift t\nand has greatly increased the quantity of specie, and diminished\nvalue of money over all Europe.\nSECTION XLII.\nPOSSESSIONS OF THE OTHER EUROPEAN NATIONS IN AMER\nICA. THE UNITED STATES.\n1. The example of the Spaniards excited a desire in the othei\nnations of Europe to participate with them in the riches of the new\nworld. The French, in 1,557, attempted to form a settlement on\nthe coast of Brazil, where the Portuguese had already established\nthemselves from the beginning of the century. The colony was\ndivided by faction, and was soon utterly destroyed by the Portu-\nguese. It is one of the richest of the American settlements, both\nfrom the produce of its soil, and its mines of gold and precious\nstones.\n2. The Spaniards were in possession of Florida when the French\nattempted to colonize it in 1,564, without success. The French\nestablished a settlement in Acadie in 1,604, and founded Quebec in\nCanada in 1,608. But these settlements were perpetually subject to\nattack from the English. In 1,629 the French had not a foot of\nterritory in America. Canada has been repeatedly taken by the\n23","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0181.jp2"},"182":{"fulltext":"173 MODERN HISTORY.\nEnglish, and restored, by different treaties, to the French but since\nthe peace of 1,763 it has been a British settlement. The French\ndrew their greatest advantages from the islands of St. Domingo,\nGuadaloupe, and Martinico. From their continental possessions 01\nLouisiana, and the settlements on the Mississippi, which they have\nnow lost, they never derived any solid benefit.\n3. The Dutch have no settlement on the continent of America,\nbut Surinam, a part of Guiana and, in the West-Indies, the islands\nof Currassoa and St. Eustatius. The Danes possess the inconsidera-\nble islands of St. Thomas and Santa Cruz.\n4. The British have extensive settlements on the continent of\nAmerica, and in the West-India islands. England derived her right\nto her settlements in North America from the first discovery of the\ncountry by Sebastian Cabot in 1,497, the year before the discovery\nof the continent of South America by Columbus but no attempts\nwere made by the English to colonize any part of the country till\nnearly a century afterward. This remarkable neglect is in some\nmeasure accounted for by the frugal maxims of Henry VII., and the\nunpropitious circumstances of the reigns of Henry VIII., of Edward VI.,\nand of the bigoted Mary reigns peculiarly adverse to the extension\nof industry, trade, and navigation.\n5. In 1,585 sir Walter Raleigh undertook to settle a colony in Vir-\nginia, so named in honour of his queen but his attempts were fruit-\nless. Two colonies, destined for settlement, were successively sent\nover to the Virginian territory but the first was reduced to great dis-\ntress, and taken back to England by sir Francis Drake the second*\nleft unsupported, could never afterward be found.\n6. In 1,606 king James granted a patent for settling two planta-\ntions on the main coasts of North America. Dividing that portion\nof the country, which stretches from the thirty-fourth to the forty-\nfifth degree of latitude, into two districts nearly equal, he granted\nthe southern^ called the first colony, to the London company, and\nthe northern, called the second, to the Plymouth company. On\nthe reception of this patent several persons of distinction in the Eng-\nlish nation undertook to settle the southern colony; and in 1,607 the\nfirst permanent colony was settled in Virginia.\n7. The first settlement in the northern district was made at Ply-\nmouth in 1 ,620, by a number of puritans, who, having a few years\nbefore left England, to liberate themselves from the oppressions of\nthe episcopal hierarchy, had found a temporary asylum in Holland.\nIn 1,629 the patent of Massachusetts was confirmed by king Charles\nI. and in the following year a large body of English non-conformists\nsettled that territory. The settlement of Connecticut was begun in\n1,636 by emigrants from Massachusetts. The settlement of Provi-\ndence, in Rhode Island, was begun the same year by Roger Wil-\nliams, a clergyman, who, for his refusal to submit to the control of\nthe government of Massachusetts, in religious matters, had been ex-\niled from that colony. New York, originally settled by the Dutch,\nand by them called New Netherlands, was taken from them by the\nEnglish in 1 ,664, at which time it was subjected to the British crown,\nand settled by English colonists. New Jersey was settled in 1,667,\nprincipally by quakers from England. The charter of Pennsylvania\nwas given in 1,681 by king Charles II. to William Penn and a set-\ntlement was begun the same year by a colony consisting principally\nof quakers. The patent of Maryland was given bv king Charles I.\nto lord Baltimore in 1,632; and two years afterward the colony was","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0182.jp2"},"183":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 179\nsettled by a body of Roman catholics from England. The charter\nof Carolina was granted by Charles II. to the earl of Clarendon and\nseveral associates in 1,663; and that colony was soon after settled by\nthe English. In 1,729 the province was divided into two distinct\ngovernments, one of which was called North, and the other\nSouth Carolina. The charter of Georgia was given in 1,732 by king\nGeorge II. to a number of persons in England, who, from motives of\ngatriotism and humanity, projected a settlement in that wild territory.\ny this measure it was intended to obtain, first, possession of anexten\neive tract of country to strengthen the province of Carolina to\nrescue a great number of people in Great Britain and Ireland from\nthe miseries of poverty to open an asylum for persecuted protes-\ntants in different parts of Europe and to attempt the conversion and\ncivilization of the natives. Under the guidance of general Ogle-\nthorpe a colony was settled here in 1,733. Nova Scotia was settled\nin the reign of James 1. The Floridas were ceded by Spain to Great\nBritain at the peace of 1,763; but they were reduced by the arms\nof his catholic majesty during the American war, and guaranteed to\nthe crown of Spain by the definitive treaty of 1,783.\n8. All the British colonies in North America were subject to the\ngovernment of Great Britain from the time of their settlement un-\ntil the year 1,775. Opposition to certain measures of the British\nparliament, the tendency of which, was to claim for the king and\nparliament of Great Britain, a right to tax colonies, that did not send\nrepresentatives to parliament, and were therefore hostile to rights and\nliberties, that had been enjoyed and exercised by the colonies from\ntheir origin, having induced the government to send troops to Amer-\nica to enforce submission to their laws, hostilities commenced in\nApril, 1,775. In 1,776 the American congress declared the United\nStates independent. In September 1,783, a definitive treaty of peace\nwas concluded, by which his Britannic majesty acknowledged the\nUnited States of America to be free, sovereign, and independent\nstates. In 1,789 the government of these states was organized, con-\nformably to the federal constitution and George Washington, who\nhad been commander in chief of the revolutionary army, was inaugu-\nrated the first president.\n9. The British colonies in America, and the United States, are\ngreatly inferior to the Spanish American colonies in natural riches,\nas they produce neither silver nor gold, nor cochineal yet they\nare in general of fertile soil, and considerably improved by industry.\nThey afford auprofitable market for European manufactures. Canada\nfurnishes for exportation wheat, flour, flax-seed, lumber, fish, potash,\noil, ginseng, furs, pelts, and various other commodities. The pro-\nduce of the West India islands (Jamaica, Barbadoes, St. Christopher s,\nAntigua, the Granadas, and other islands), in sugar, coffee, cocoa,\nrum, molasses, cotton, and other articles, is of very great value to\nthe mother country. The northern states in tlie federal union fur-\nnish masts, ship timber, lumber, potash, furs, pelts, fish, beef, pork,\nbutter, cheese, rye, and maize; the middle states, flour, maize,\nflax-seed, peas, deer skins, and other pelts and the southern states,\nrice, flour, indigo, cotton, tobacco, pork, live oak, tar, pitch, and\nturpentine.","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0183.jp2"},"184":{"fulltext":"130 MODERN HISTORY.\nSECTION XBLH.\nOF THE STATE OF THE FINE ARTS IN EUROPE IN THE AGE\nOF LEO X.\n1. In enumerating those great objects which characterized the\nend of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth century, we\nremarked the high advancement to which the fine arts attained in\nEurope in the age of Leo X. The strong bent which the human\nmind seems to take, in certain periods, to one class of pursuits in\npreference to all others, as in the age of Leo X., to the hne arts of\npainting, sculpture, and architecture, may be partly explained from\nmoral causes such as the peaceful state of a country, the genius or\ntaste, and the liberal encouragement of its sovereigns, the general\nemulation that arises where one or two artists are of confessed emU\nnence, and the aid which men derive from the studies and works of\none another. These causes have doubtless great influence, but do\nnot seem entirely sufficient to account for the fact. The operation\nof such causes must be slow and gradual. In the case of the fine\narts, the transition from obscurity to splendour was rapid and instan-\ntaneous. From the contemptible mediocrity in which they had re-\nmained for ages, they rose at one step to the highest pitch of excel-\nlence.\n2. The arts of painting and sculpture were buried in the west un-\nder the ruins of the Roman empire, j^hey gradually declined in\nthe latter ages, as we may perceive by the series of the coins of the\nlower empire. The Ostrogoths, instead of destroying, sought to\npreserve the monuments of taste and genius. They were even the\ninventors of some of the arts dependent on design, as the composition\nof Mosaic. But, in the middle ages, those arts were at a very low\nebb in Europe. They began, however, to revive a little about the\nend of the thirteenth century. Cimabue, a Florentine, from the\nsight of the paintings of some Greek artists in one of the churches,\nbegan to attempt similar performances, and soon excelled his models.\nHis scholars were Ghiotto, Gaddi, Tassi Cavillini, and Stephano Fio-\nrentino and they formed an academy at Florence in 1,350.\n3. The works of those, early painters, with some fidelity of imita-\ntion, had not a spark of grace or elegance and such continued to be\nthe state of the art till toward the end of the fifteenth century, when\nit arose at once to the summit of perfection. Raphael painted at\nfirst in the hard manner of his master Perugino but soon deserted\nit, and struck at once into the noble, elegant, and graceful in short,\nthe imitation of the antique. This change was the result of genius\nalone. The ancient sculptures were familiar to the early painters,\nbut they had looked on them with cold indifference. They were\nnew surveyed by other eyes. Michael Angelo, Raphael, and Leo-\nnardo da Vinci, were animated by the same genius that formed the\nGrecian Appelles, Zeuxis, Glycon, Phidias, and Praxiteles.\n4. Nor was Italy alone thus distinguished. Germany, Flanders, and\nSwitzerland, produced in the same age artists of consummate merit.\nBefore the notice of these we shall briefly characterize the schools\nof Italy.\n5. First in order is the school of Florence, of which the most em-\ninent master was Michael Angelo, born in 1,474. His works are","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0184.jp2"},"185":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 181\ncharacterized by a profound knowledge of the anatomy of the human\nfigure, perhaps chiefly formed on the contemplation of the ancient\nsculptures. His paintings exhibit the grand, the sublime, and terri-\nble but he drew not from the antique its simple grace and beauty.\n6. The Roman school was founded by Raphael d Urbino. born in\n1 ,483. This great painter united almost every excellence ot the art.\nIn invention, grace, majestic simplicity, forcible expression of the\nEassions, he stands unrivalled, and far beyond all competition. He\nas borrowed liberally, but without servility, from the antique.\n7. Of the school of Lombardy, or the Venetian, the most eminent\nartists were Titian, Giorgione, Corregio, and Parmeggiano. Titian\nis most eminent in portrait, and in the painting of female beauty.\nSuch is the truth of his colouring, that his figures are nature itself.\nIt was the testimony of Michael Angelo to the merits of Titian, that,\nif he had studied at Rome or Florence, amidst the master-pieces of\nantiquity, he would have eclipsed all the painters in the world. Ti-\ntian lived to the age of a hundred. Giorgione, with similar merits,\nwas cut off in the flower of his youth. Correggio was superior in\ncolouring, and in the knowledge of light and shade, to all who have\nf receded or followed him. This knowledge was the result of study,\nn other painters those effects are frequently accidental, as we ob-\nserve that they are not uniform. Parmeggiano imitated the graceful\nmanner of Raphael, but carried it to a degree of affectation.\n8. Such were the three original Italian schools. The character of\nthe Florentine is grandeur and sublimity, with great excellence ot\ndesign, but a want of grace, of skill in colouring, and effect of light\nand shade. The character of the Roman is equal excellence of de-\nsign, a grandeur tempered with moderation and simplicity, a high\ndegree of grace and elegance, and a superior knowledge, though not\nan excellence, in colouring. The character of the Venetian is the\nperfection of colouring, and the utmost force of light and shade,\nwith an inferiority in every other particular.\n9. To the school of Raphael succeeded the second Roman school,\nor that of the Caraccis, three brothers, of whom Annibal was the\nmost famous. His scholars were, Guercino, Albano, Lanfranc, Dom-\nenichino, and Guido. Of these eminent painters the first and last\nwere the best The elegant contours of Guercino, and the strength\nsweetness, and majesty of Guido, are the admiration of all true judges\nof painting.\n10. In the same age^ the Flemish school, though of a quite differ-\nent character, and inferior to the Italian, shone with great lustre.\nOil painting was invented by the Flemings in the fifteenth century\nand, in that age, Heemskirk, Frans Floris, Quintin Matsys, and the\nGerman Albert Durer, were deservedly distinguished. Of the Flem\nish school, Rubens, though a painter of a much later age, is the\nchief ornament. His figures, though too corpulent, are drawn with\ngreat truth and nature. He possesses inexhaustible invention, and\ngreat skill in the expression of the passions. Switzerland produced\nHans Holbein, a painter of great eminence in portrait, and remarka-\nble for truth of colouring. From his residence at the court of Henry\nVIII. there are more specimens of his works in Britain than of any\nother foreign painter. Holland had likewise its painters, whose chief\nmerit was the faithful representation of vulgar nature, and perfect\nknowledge of the mechanism of the art, the power of colours, and\nthe effect of light and shade.\n11. With the art of painting, sculpture and architecture were like\nQ","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0185.jp2"},"186":{"fulltext":"182 MODERN HISTORY.\nwise revived in toe same age, and brought almost to perfection,\nThe universal genius of Michael Angelo snone equally conspicuous\nin all the three departments. His statue of Bacchus was judged by\nRaphael to be the work of Phidias or Praxiteles. The Grecian ar-\nchitecture was first revived by the Florentines in the fourteenth cen-\ntury and the cathedral of Pisa was constructed partly from the ma-\nterials of an ancient Greek temple. The art arrived at perfection in\nthe age of Leo X., when the church of St. Peter s at Rome, under\nthe direction of Bramante, San Gallo, Raphael, and Michael Angelo,\nexhibited the noblest specimen of architecture in the world.\n12. The invention of the art of engraving on copper by Tomaso\nFiniguerra, a goldsmith of Florence, is dated about 1,460. From Ita-\niy it travelled into Flanders, where it was first practised by Martin\nSchoen of Antwerp. His scholar was the celebrated Albert Durer,\nwho engraved excellently both on copper and on wood. Etching on\ncopper by means of aquafortis, which gives mOre ease than the stroke\nof the graver, was discovered by Parmeggiano, who executed in that\nmanner his own beautiful designs. No art underwent, in its early\nstages, so rapid an improvement as that of engraving. In the course\nof 1 50 years from its invention it attained nearly to its perfection\nfor there has been little proportional improvement in the last century,\nsince the days of Audran, Poilly, and Edelinck.\n13. The art of engraving in mezzotinto is of much later date than\nthe ordinary mode of engraving on copper. It was the invention of\nprince Rupert about 1,650. It is characterized by a softness equal\nto that of the pencil, and a happy blending of light and shade, and is\ntherefore peculiarly adapted to portrait, where those requisites are\nmost essential.\n14. The age of Leo X. was likewise an era of very high literary\nsplendour but of the distinguished writers of that period we shall\nafterwards treat, in a connected view of the progress of literature\nand the sciences during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.\nSECTION XL1V.\nOF THE OTTOMAN POWER IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.\n1. From the period of the taking of Constantinople, in the middle\nof the fifteenth century, the Turks were a great and conquering\npeople. In the sixteenth century, Selim I., after he had subdued\nSyria and Mesopotamia, undertook the conquest of Egypt, then gov\nerned by the Mamelukes, a race of Circassians, who had seized the\ncountry in 1,250, and jsut an end to the government of the Arabian\nprinces, the posterity of Saladin. The conquest of Egypt by Selim\nmade little change in the form of its government. It professes to\nown the sovereignty of the Turks, but is in reality still governed by\nthe Mameluke beys.\n2. Solyman (the magnificent) son of Selim, was, like his prede-\ncessors, a great conqueror, The island of Rhodes, possessed by the\nknights of St. John, was a darling object of his ambition. These\nknights had expelled the Saracens from the island in 1,310. Soly-\nman attacked Rhodes with 140,000 men and 400 ships. The Rho-\ndia/i knights, aided by the English, Italians, and Spaniards, made a\nnoble defence j but, after a siege of many months, were forced to\ncap:iulate and evacuate the island* in 1,522. Since that time Rhodes","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0186.jp2"},"187":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 183\nias been the property of the Turks The commercial laws of the\nancient Rhodians were adopted by the Romans, and at this day are\nthe foundation of the maritime jurisprudence of all the nations of\nEurope.\n3. Solyman subdued the greater part of Hungary, Moldavia, and\nWalachia; and took from the Persians Georgia and Bagdat. His\nson Selim II. took Cyprus from the Venetians in 1,571. They ap-\nplied to the pope for aid, who, together with Philip II. of Spain, enter-\ned into a triple alliance against the Ottoman power. An armament of\n250 ships of war, commanded by Philip s natural brother, Don John\nof Austria, was opposed to 250 Turkish gallies in the gulf of Le-\npanto, near Corinth and the Turks were defeated, with the loss of\n150 ships and 15,000 men, 1,571. This great victory was soon after\nfollowed by the taking of Tunis by the same commander.\n4. But these successes were of little consequence. The Otto-\nman power continued extremely formidable. Under Amurath II. the\nTurks made encroachments on Hungary, and subdued a part of Per-\nsia. Mahomet III., though a barbarian in his private character, sup-\nported the dignity of the empire, and extended its dominions. The\nOttoman power declined from his time, and yielded to that of the\nPersians under Schah-Abbas the great, who wrested from the lurks\na large part of their late-acquired dominions.\nSECTION XLV.\nSTATE OE PERSIA AND OTHER ASIATIC KINGDOMS IN THE\nSIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES.\n1. The great empire of Persia, in the end of the fifteenth century,\nunderwent a revolution on account of religion. IldV Jar or Sophi, a\nreligious enthusiast, established a new sect of Mahometans, which\nheld Ali to be the successor of Mahomet instead of Omar, and abol-\nished the pilgrimages to Mecca. The Persians eagerly embraced a\ndoctrine which distinguished them from their enemies the Turks;\nand Ismael, the son of Sophi, following the example of Mahomet,\nenforced his opinions by the sword. He subdued all Persia and Ar-\nmenia, and left this vast empire to his descendants.\n2. Schah-Abbas, surnamed the great, was the great-grandson of\nIsmael Sophi. He ruled his empire with despotic sway, but with\nmost able policy. He regained the provinces which had been\ntaken by the Turks, and drove the Portuguese from their settlement\nof Ormuz. He rebuilt the fallen cities of Persia, and contributed\ngreatly to the introduction of arts and civilization. His son Schah-\nSesi reigned weakly and unfortunately. In his time Schah-Gean, the\ngreat Mogul, deprived Persia of Candahar; and the Turks took Bag-\ndat in 1,638. From that period the Persian monarchy gradually de-\nclined. Its sovereigns became the most despicable slaves to their\nown ministers and a revolution in the beginning of the eighteenth\ncentury put an end to the dynasty of the Sophis, and gave the throne\nto the Afghan princes, a race of Tartars.\n3. The government of Persia is almost as despotic as that of Tur-\nkey. The sovereign draws a small yearly tax from every subject,\nand receives likewise stated gifts on particular occasions. The\ncrown is hereditary, with the exclusion of females but the sons of\nV.","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0187.jp2"},"188":{"fulltext":"184 MODERN HISTORY.\na daughter succeed in their course. There is no other rank\nsia than that annexed to office, which is held during the mona\npleasure. The national religion is the Mahometan, as reformed\nSophi. The sect of the Guebres preserve the religion of Zoroaster,\nas contained in the Zendavesta and Sadder, and keep alive the sacred\nfire. JtPart I., Sect. XI.)\n4. The poetry of the Persians displays great fancy and luxuriance\nof imagery. The epic poet Firdousi is said to rival the various\nmerits of Homer and Ariosto and the writings of Sadi and Hafez,\nboth in prose and poetry, are admired by all who are conversant in\noriental literature.\n5. Tartary. From this vast tract of country sprang those con-\nquerors who produced all the great revolutions in Asia. Tartary is no\nmore than a vast desert, inhabited by wandering tribes, who follow\nthe life of the ancient Scythians. The Turks, a race of Tartars\noverwhelmed the empire of the caliphs. Mahmoud, a Tartar, con-\nquered Persia and great part of India in the tenth century. The\nTartar Gengiscan subdued India, China, Persia, and Asiatic Russia, in\nthe beginning of the thirteenth century. Batoucan, one of his sons,\nravaged to the frontiers of Germany. Tamerlane, the scourge of\nthe Turks, and the conqueror of a great part of Asia, was of the\nrace of Gengiscan. Babar, great-grandson of Tamerlane, subdued\nall the country between Samarcand and Agra in the empire of the\nMogul. The descendants of those conquerors reign in India, Persia,\nand China.\n6. Thibet. The southern part of Tartary, called Thibet, exhibits\nthe phenomenon of a kingdom governed by a human being called\nthe Dalai Lama, or Great Lama, whose divinity is acknowledged\nnot only by his own subjects, but over China and a part of India.\nThis supposed god is a young man, whom the priests educate and\ntrain to his function, and in whose name they in reality govern the\nkingdom.\nSECTION XLVI.\nHISTORY OF INDIA.\n1. The earliest accounts of this great tract of civilized country\nare those of Herodotus, who lived about a century before Alexander\nthe great; and it is remarkable that the character given of the people\nby that early writer, corresponds perfectly with that of the modern\nHindoos. He had probably taken his accounts from Scylax of Cari-\nandria, whom Darius Hystaspes had sent to explore the country.\nBut till the age of Alexander, the Greeks had no particular knowl-\nedge of that extraordinary people. Alexander penetrated into the\nPanjab, where his troops refusing to proceed, he embarked on the\nHydaspas, which runs into the Indus, and thence pursued his course\nfor above 1,000 miles to the ocean. The narrative given by Arrian\nof this expedition was taken from the verbal accounts of Alexander s\nofficers and its particulars agree yet more remarkably than those of\nHerodotus with the modern manners of the Hindoos.\n2. India was visited by Seleucus, to whose share it fell in the par-\ntition of Alexander s empire; and Antiochus the great, 200 years","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0188.jp2"},"189":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 186\nafterward, made a short expedition thither. It is probable too that\nsome small intercourse subsisted between the Greek empire of Bac-\ntriana and India but, till the fifteenth century, no European power\nthought of forming any establishment in that country. From the age\nof Alexander down to the period of the Portuguese discoveries there\nhad constantly been some commercial intercourse between Europe\nand India, both by sea and across the desert.\n3. The Mahometans, as early as A. D. 1,000, had begun to estab-\nlish an empire in India. Mahmoud, a Tartar, conquered a great\npart of the country, and established his capital at Ghazna, near the\nsources of the Indus, extirpating, wherever he came, the Hindoo\nreligion, and establishing the Mahometan in its stead. Mohammed\nGori, in 1,194, penetrated to Benares; and one of his successors\nfixed the seat of his empire at JDelhy, which has continued to be the\ncapital of the Mogul princes. The sovereignty founded by Mah-\nmoud was overwhelmed in 1,222 by Gengiscan, as was his empire in\nthe following century by Tamerlane, whose posterity are at this day\non the throne of the Mogul empire.\n4. The Mogul empire was, even in the beginning of the 18th cen-\ntury, the most powerful and nourishing of all the Asiatic monarchies.\nThe emperor Aurengzebe, the son of Schah-Gean though a mon-\nster of cruelty, and a most despotic tyrant, enjoyed a life prolonged\nto a hundred years, crowned with uninterrupted prosperity and suc-\ncess. He extended his empire over the whole peninsula of India\nwithin the Ganges.\n5. The dominion of the Mogul is not absolute over all the coun-\ntries which compose his empire. Tamerlane allowed the petty\nSrinces, rajahs or nabobs, to retain their territories, of which their\nescendants are at this day in possession. They pay a tribute to the\ngreat Mogul, as an acknowledgment of his sovereignty, and ob-\nserve the treaties agreed to by their ancestors; but they are in\nother respects independent princes.\n6. Bengal became a part of the Mogul s empire by conquest in the\nend of the sixteenth century, and was commonly governed by a son\nof the great Mogul, who had under him several inferior nabobs, the\nformer princes of the country. Such was its condition when the\nBritish East India company, between 1,751 and 1,760, conquered and\nobtained possession of that kingdom, together with Bahar and\npart of Orissa, a large, populous, and most flourishing country, con-\ntaining above ten millions of inhabitants, and producing an immense\nrevenue and these territories have since that period received a con-\nsiderable addition. The East India company has the benefit of the\nwhole commerce of the Mogul empire, with Arabia, Persia, and\nThibet, as well as with the kingdoms of Azem, Aracan, Pegu, Siam,\nMalacca, China, and many of the oriental islands.\nThe fixed establishments of the British in the country of Indostan\nhave afforded opportunity of obtaining much instructive knowledge\nrelative to the ancient state of that country, of which we shall give\na short sketch in the following section.\n%2 34","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0189.jp2"},"190":{"fulltext":"186 MODERN HSITORY.\nSECTION XbVli\nANCIENT STATE OF INDIA. MANNERS, LAWS, ARTS,\nSCIENCES, AND RELIGION OF THE HINDOOS.\n1. The remains of the ancient knowledge of the Hindoos have\nbeen preserved by a hereditary priesthood, in the Sanscrit language,\nlong since extinct, and only known to a few of the Bramins. The\nzeal of some learned Europeans has lately opened that source of in-\nformation, whence we derive the most interesting particulars of this\nextraordinary people, perhaps the first cultivators of the sciences,\nand the instructers of all the nations of antiquity. We shall briefly\nnotice their singular division into casts, their civil policy, laws, prog-\nress in the arts and sciences, and religion.\n2. The whole body of the people was divided into four orders, or\ncasts. The highest cast, that of the Bramins, was devoted to religion\nand the cultivation of the sciences to the second belonged the pres-\nervation of the state they were its sovereigns and its magistrates\nin peace, and its soldiers in war; the third w r ere the husbandmen and\nmerchants; and the fourth the artisans, labourers, and servants.\nThese are inseparable distinctions, and descend from generation to\ngeneration. Moreover, the individuals of each class follow invariably\nthe profession of their forefathers. Every man, from his birth,\nknows the function allotted to him, and fulfils with ease and satisfac-\ntion the duty which he cannot avoid. Hence arises that permanence\nof manners and institutions which so singularly characterizes this\nancient nation.\n3. This classification is an artificial arrangement, which could have\noriginated only from the mind of a legislator among a polished peo-\nple, completely obedient to government. It is therefore a proof of\nthe highly civilized state of the Hindoo nation in the most remote\nperiods of antiquity.\n4. The civil policy of the Hindoos is another proof of their ancient\ncivilization. At the time of Alexander the great, India was divided\ninto large and powerful kingdoms, governed by sovereigns whose do-\nminion was not absolute, but controlled by the superior authority of\nthe Bramins. A system of feudalism has ever prevailed in India.\nThe rights to land flow from the sovereign, to whom a certain duty\nis payable by the class of the husbandmen, who transmit their posses-\nsions to their children under the same tenure. Strabo and Diodorus\nremarked three classes of officers among the Indians one class whose\ndepartment was the regulation of agriculture, tanks, highways;\nanother which superintended the police of the cities a third which\nregulated the military department. The same policy prevails at this\nday under the Hindoo princes.\n5. The jurisprudence of Hindostan is an additional proof of great\nantiquity and civilization. The Ayen-Akbery, and still more the\ncompilation of Hindoo laws from the ancient Sanscrit records, made\nby order of Blr. Hastings, contain the jurisprudence of a refined and\ncommercial people, among whom law had been a study and profes-\nsion.\n6. Many monuments exist in India of the advanced state of the use-\nful and elegant arts in the remotest periods of antiquity. The aiv\n°A9nt pagodas, of vast extent and magnificence, whether cut in the","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0190.jp2"},"191":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 187\nsolid rock, as in Elephanta and Saisette, or in the open air, as at\nChilambrum and Seringham the sumptuous residences of the Brah-\nmins; and the ancient hill fortresses, constructed with prodigious\nstrength and solidity, evince a great advancement in the arts. The\nresort of the most polished nations of antiquity to India for cotton\ncloths, fine linen, and works in metal and ivory, proves these manu\nfactures to have been superior to all known at that time in Europe.\n7. The late translations from the Sanscrit of several ingenious\ncompositions of high antiquity, as the dramatic piece Sacontala, the\nHitopadesa, a series of moral apologues and fables, the Mahabaral r\nan epic poem, composed above 2,000 years before the Christian era,\nall concur in proof of a similar advancement in literature. We have\nreason to believe from such works as are of a philosophical nature,\nthat there is scarcely a tenet of the Greek philosophy which has not\nbeen antecedently the subject of discussion among the Bramins of\nIndia.\n8. The numeral ciphers first introduced into Europe by the Ara-\nbians were, as those authors confess, borrowed from the Indians.\nAbove a century ago, the French mathematicians evinced, by the\nevidence of a Siamese manuscript, containing tables for calculating\nthe places of the heavenly bodies, the astonishing advancement\nmade by this ancient people in the science of astronomy. A set of\nastronomical tables obtained lately from the Bramins by M. Gentil\ngoes back to an era termed Calyougham, commencing 3,102 years\nbefore the birth of Christ These tables are used by the modern\nBramins, who are quite ignorant of the principles on which they\nhave been constructed. M. Bailly has proved that they are the\nsame as those employed by the moderns, with which the Greeks and\nChaldeans were utterly unacquainted.\n9. Lastly, from the religious opinions and worship of the Hindoos\nwe must draw the same conclusion as from all the preceding facts.\nOne uniform system of superstition pervades every religion of India,\nwhich is supported by the most sagacious policy, and by every thing\nthat can excite the veneration of its votaries. The Bramins, elevat-\ned above every class of men, and exclusively acquainted with the\nmysteries of that religion, which it is held impious for any other class\nto attempt to penetrate the implicit reliance on the authority of\nthese Bramins; the ceremonies of their worship, adapted to im-\npress the imagination and to affect the passions all concurred to forti-\nfy this potent superstition, and to give its priests a supreme ascen\ndancy over the minds of the people. But those priests, enlightened\nas they were, rejected that false theology. Their writings demon-\nstrate that they entertained rational and elevated conceptions with\nregard to the Supreme Being, and the support of the universe.\n10. On the whole, there is a high probability that India was the\ngreat school from which the most early polished nations of Europe\nderived their knowledge of arts, sciences, and literature.\nPersons who want more particular information respecting India\nare referred to Maurice s Indian Antiquities, and Tennant s Indian\nRecreations.","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0191.jp2"},"192":{"fulltext":"188 MODERN HISTORY.\nSECTION XLVI11.\nOF CHINA AND JAPAN.\n1. As we proceed eastward in the survey of the Asiatic continent,\n.he great empire of China next solicits our attention. In the end of\nthe tenth century, China, Persia, and the greater part of Ir \\a were\nruled by the Tartar descendants of Gengiscan. The Tartar family\nof Yven, who conquered China, made no change in its laws and sys-\ntem of government, which had been permanent from time immemo-\nrial. Of this family there reigned nine successive monarchs, without\nany attempt by the Chinese to throw off the Tartar yoke. The\nodious and contemptible character of the last of these sovereigns at\nlength excited a rebellion, which, in 1,357, drove the Tartars from\nthe throne; and the Chinese, for 276 years, obeyed their native\nprinces. The Tartars, taking advantage of an insurrection in one of\nthe provinces, invaded China in 1,641, and made an easy conquest.\nThe emperor^ shut himself up in his palace, and, after putting to\ndeath all his family, finished the scene by hanging himself. The\nsame Tartars occupy the throne of China at this day, and observe\nthe same wise policy of maintaining inviolate the Chinese laws, poli-\ncy, and manners. Of these we shall give a brief account in the sub-\nsequent section.\n2. The emnire of Japan was discovered by the Portuguese about\nthe middle ol the sixteenth century. The open and unsuspicious\ncharacter of this industrious and polished people led them to en-\ncourage the resort of foreigners to their ports and the Spaniards,\nafter they had obtained the sovereignty of Portugal, carried on a\nmost beneficial trade to the coasts of Japan. The emperor zeal-\nously promoted this intercourse, till the insatiable ambition of the\nSpaniards gave him alarming conviction of its danger. Under the\npretence of converting the Japanese from idolatry, a vast number\nof priests was sent into the country and one half of the people\nwere speedily set at mortal variance with the other. It now be-\ncame necessary to prohibit this work of conversion by an imperial\nedict. However a tree trade was allowed till 1,637, when a con-\nspiracy of the Spaniards for dethroning the emperor and seizmg the\ngovernment was discovered. An edict was issued for the expulsion\nof all the Spaniards and Portuguese, who resisted till they were\noverpowered by force of arms. Since that period all the European\nnations have been excluded from the ports of Japan. The Dutch\nonly, who had been the discoverers of the conspiracy of the Span-\niards, are allowed the privilege of landing on one of the small islands,\nfor the purposes of trade, after making oath that they are not of the\nPortuguese religion.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0192.jp2"},"193":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY.\nSECTION XLIX.\nOF THE ANTIQUITY OF THE EMPIRE OF CHINA. STATE\nOF THE ARTS AND SCIENCES, MANNERS, GOVERNMENT,\nLAWS.\n1. The antiquity of this vast empire, and the state of its govern-\nment, laws, manners, and attainments in the arts and sciences, have\nfurnished an ample field of controversy. Voltaire, Raynal, and other\nwriters have given to the Chinese empire an immense antiquity, and\na character ot such high civilization and knowledge of the sciences\nand arts at a very remote period, as to be utterly irreconcilable to the\nstate and progress of man as described in the books of Moses. On\nthe other hand, it is probable that the desire of invalidating those\nopinions has induced other writers of ability to go to an opposite ex-\ntreme; to undervalue this singular people, and to give too little\nweight to any accounts which we have received either of the dura-\ntion of their empire, of the economy of their government and police,\nor of their attainments in the arts and sciences. Amidst this contra-\nriety of sentiments we shall endeavour to form such opinion as ap-\npears most consonant to the truth.\n2. The panegyrists of the Chinese assert that their empire has\nsubsisted above 4,000 years, without any material alteration in its\nlaws, manners, language, or even fashion of dress in evidence of\nwhich they appeal to a series of eclipses, marking contemporary\nevents, all accurately calculated, for 2,155 years before the birth of\nChrist. As it is easy to calculate eclipses backwards from the pres-\nent day to any given period of time, it is thus possible to give to a\nhistory, fictitious from beginning to end, its chronology of real\neclipses. This proof therefore amounts to nothing, unless it were\nlikewise proved that all those eclipses were actually recorded at the\ntime when they happened; but this neither has been nor can be\ndone for it is an allowed fact, that there are no regular historical\nrecords beyond the third century before the christian era. The\nE resent Chinese are utterly ignorant of the motions of the celestial\nodies, and cannot calculate eclipses. The series mentioned has\ntherefore in all probability been calculated by some of the Jesuits.\nto ingratiate themselves with the emperors, and flatter the national\nvanity. The Jesuits have presided in the tribunal of mathematics\nfor above 200 years.\n3. But if the authentic annals of this empire go back even to the\nthird century before Christ, and record at that time a high state of\ncivilization, we must allow that the Chinese are an ancient and early\npolished people, and that they have possessed a singular constancy\nin their government, laws, and manners. Sir William Jones, no\nbigoted encomiast of this people, allows their great antiquity and\nearly civilization, and, with much apparent probability, traces their\norigin from the Hindoos. He appeals to the ancient Sanscript records,\nwhich mention a migration of certain of the military class termed\nChinas, from India to the countries east from Bengal. The stationa-","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0193.jp2"},"194":{"fulltext":"190 MODERN HISTORY.\n4. The government of China is that of an absolute monarchy.\nThe patriarchal system pervades the whole, and binds all the mem-\nbers of this vast empire in the strictest subordination. Every father\nis absolute in his family, and may inflict any punishment short oi\ndeath upon his children. The mandarin of the district is absolute,\nwith the power of life and death over all its members: but a capital\nsentence cannot be inflicted without the emperor s approbation.\nThe emperor s power is absolute over all the mandarins, and every\nsubject of the empire. To reconcile the people to this despotic\nauthority, the sovereign alone is entitled to relieve the wants of the\npoor, and to compensate public calamities, as well as the misfortunes\nof individuals. He is therefore regarded as the father of his people,\nand even adored as a benevolent divinity.\n5. Another circumstance which conciliates the people to their\ngovernment is, that all honours in China are conferred according to\nmerit, and that chiefly literary. The civil mandarins, who are the\nmagistrates and judges, are appointed to office according to their\nmeasure of knowledge and mental endowments. No office or rank\nis hereditary, but may be aspired to by the meanest of the people.\nThe penal laws of China are remarkably severe but their execu-\ntion may be remitted by the emperor. The judicial tribunals are\nregulated by a body of written laws of great antiquity, and founded\non the basis of universal justice and equity. The emperor s opinion\nrarely differs from the sentences of those courts. One tribunal\njudges of the qualifications of the mandarins another regulates the\nmorals of the people, and the national manners a third is the tribu-\nnal of censors, which reviews the laws, the conduct of the magis-\ntrates and judges, and even that of the emperor himself. These tri\nbunals are filled by an equal number of Chinese and Tartars.\n6. It has been observed that the sciences have been stationary in\nthis empire for many ages. They are at this day extremely low,\nthough far beyond the attainments of a barbarous people. The\nlanguage of China seems to oppose the prosecution of speculative\nresearches. It has no regular inflections, and can with difficulty\nexpress abstract ideas. We have remarked the ignorance of the\nChinese in mathematics and astronomy. Of physics they have no\nacquaintance beyond the knowledge of apparent facts. They never\nascend to principles, nor form theories. Their knowledge of medi-\ncine is extremely limited, and is blended with the most contemptible\nsuperstition. Of anatomy they know next to nothing and in sur-\ngery they have never ventured to amputate a limb, nor to reduce a\nfracture.\n7. The state of the useful and elegant arts has been equally sta-\ntionary as that of the sciences. Many ages ago they had attained\na certain point of advancement, which they have never exceeded.\nThe Chinese are said to have manufactured glass for 2,000 years\nyet at this day it is inferior in transparency to the European, and is\nnot used in their windows. They are reported to have known gun-\npowder from time immemorial but they never employed it in artil\nlery or fire-arms till they were taught by the Europeans. They are\nsaid to have invented printing in the age of Julius Caesar, yet they\nknow not the use of moveable types, and print from blocks of wood.\nWhen first shown the use of the compass in sailing, they affirmed\nthat they were well acquainted with it, but found no occasion to em-\nploy it. The art of painting in China is mere mechanical imitation,\nwithout grace, expression, or even accuracy of proportions. Of the","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0194.jp2"},"195":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 191\nrules of perspective they have not the smallest idea. In sculpture,\nas in the figures of their idols, the Chinese artists seem to delight in\ndistortion and deformity. Their music is not regulated by any prin-\nciples of science. They have no semitones, and their instruments\nare imperfect and untunable. The Chinese architecture has variety,\nlightness, and sometimes elegance but has no grandeur, nor sym-\nmetrical beauty.\n8. In some of the arts the Chinese have attained great excellence.\nIn China agriculture is carried to the highest pitch of improvement.\nThere is not a spot of waste land in the whole empire, nor any land\nwhich is not highly cultivated. The emperor himself is the chief\nof the husbandmen, and annually holds the plough with his own\nhands. From the high state of agriculture, and the modes of\neconomizing food, is supported the astonishing population of 333\nmillions, or 260 inhabitants to every square mile of the empire.\nThe gardening of the Chinese, and their admirable embellishment\nof rural nature, have of late been the object of imitation in Europe,\nbut with far inferior success. The manufacture of porcelain is an\noriginal invention of this people j and the Europeans, though ex-\ncelling them in the form and ornament of the utensils, have never\nbeen able to attain the excellence of the material.\n9. The morals of the Chinese have furnished a subject both of\npraise and censure. The books of Confucius are said to contain an\nadmirable system of morality. But the principles of morals have\ntheir foundation in human nature, and must, in theory, be every\nwhere the same. The moral virtues of a people are not to be esti-\nmated from the books of their philosophers. It is probable that the\nmanners of the superior classes are in China, as elsewhere, much\ninfluenced by education and example. The morals of the lower\nclasses, are said to be extremely loose, and their practices most dis-\nhonest. They are regulated by no principle but selfish interest,\naid restrained only by the fear of punishment.\n10. The religion of the Chinese is different in the different ranks\not society. There is no religion of the state. The emperor and\nthe higher mandarins profess the belief of one Supreme Being,\nChangti, whom they worship by prayer and thanksgiving, without\nany mixture of idolatrous practices. They respect the lama of\nThibet as the high-priest or prophet of this religion. A prevalent\nsect is that of Tao-sse, who believe in the power of magic, the agency\nof spirits, and the divination of future events. A third is the sect of\nFo, derived from India, whose priests are the Bonzes, and whose\nfundamental doctrine is, that all things rose out of nothing, and must\nfinally return to nothing that all animals are first to undergo a series\nof transmigrations and that as man s chief happiness is to approach\nas near as possible to a state of annihilation in this life, absolute idle-\nness is more laudable than occupation of any kind. A variety of\nhideous idols is worshipped by this sect.\n11. The Chinese have their sacred books entitled Kings as the\nYking, Chovking, c. which, among some good moral precepts, con-\ntain much mystery, childish superstition, and absurdity. These are\nchiefly resorted to for the divining of future events, which seems the\nultimatum of research among the Chinese philosophers. The obser\nvation of the heavenly bodies is made for that purpose alone. The\nchanges of weather, the performance or omission of certain cere-\nmonies, the occurrence of certain events in particular times and\nplaces, are all believed to have their influence on futurity, and are","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0195.jp2"},"196":{"fulltext":"192 MODERN HISTORY.\ntherefore carefully observed and recorded. The rules by which\nthose omens are interpreted are said to have been prescribed by the\ngreat Confucius, the father of the Chinese philosophy, 500 years be-\nfore the christian era.\n12. We conclude, on the whole, that the Chinese are a very re-\nmarkable people that their government, law*, policy, and knowl-\nedge of the arts and sciences, exhibit unquestionable proofs of great\nantiquity and early civilization that the extraordinary measure of\nduration assigned to their empire by some modern writers rests on\nno solid proofs that their government, laws, manners, arts, and\nscientific attainments, are not deserving of that superlative praise\nwhich has been bestowed on them.\nSECTION L.\nM. BAILLY S THEORY OF THE ORIGIN OF THE SCIENCES\nAMONG THE NATIONS OF INDIA.\n1 The striking resemblance in many points of character between\nthe Chinese and the ancient Egyptians, has led to the conjecture,\neither that they were originally the same people, one being a col-\nony of the other, or have had, at some remote period, such inter-\ncourse, either by conquest or by commerce, as to occasion a recipro-\ncal communication of manners and the knowledge of arts and sciences.\nM. de Mairan has remarked the following points of similarity. The\nEgyptians and the Chinese had the same permanence of manners,\nand abhorrence of innovations they were alike remarkable for the\nrespect entertained by children to their parents they were equally\naverse to war they had the same general superficial knowledge of\nthe arts and sciences, without the ability to make great attainments\nthey both, in the most ancient times, used hieroglyphics the Egyp-\ntians had a solemn festival, called the feast of the lights; the Chinese\nhave the feast of the la7ite?-ns; the features of the Chinese are said to\nresemble the ancient Egyptian statues certain characters engraven\non an Egyptian bust of lsis were found to belong to the Chinese lan-\nguage.\n2. M. Bailly has taken a wider range of observation, and from a\nreview of the manners, customs, opinions, and attainments of the\nIndians, Persians, Chinese, Chaldeans, and Egyptians, has discovered\nmany circumstances of similarity between all those nations, equally\nremarkable as the foregoing. He has thence formed the singular\nhypothesis, that the knowledge common to all those nations has been\nderived from the same original source, a most ancient and highly\ncultivated people of Asia, of which every trace is now extinct. If we\nfind, says he, in the scattered huts of peasants, fragments interspersed\nof sculptured columns, we conclude for certain that they are not the\nwork of the rude peasants who reared those huts, but that they arc\nthe remains of a magnificent building,- the work of able architects,\nthough we discover no other traces of the existence of that building,\nand cannot ascertain its precise situation.\n3. The sciences and arts of the Chinese have been stationary for\n2,000 years. The people seem never to have availed themselves\nof the lights of their ancestors. They are like the inhabitants of a\ncountry recently discovered by a polished people, who have taught","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0196.jp2"},"197":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 193\nthem some of their arts, and left their instruments among them.\nThe knowledge which they possess, seems to have been imported,\nand not of original growth, for it has never been progressive.\n4. The Chaldeans were an enlightened people at the commence-\nment of the Babylonish empire, 2,000 years before the Christian era.\nThey were astronomers, and understood the revolutions of the ce-\nlestial bodies. The Chaldeans were probably the remains of this\nindent people. The Bramins of India believe in the unity of God,\nand the immortality of the soul but with these sublime tenets they\nintermix childish absurdities. They derived the former from wise\ninstructers the latter were the fruit of their own ignorance. The\nSanscrit, a copious and elegant language, and the vehicle of all the\nIndian knowledge and philosophy, has been a dead tongue for thou-\nsands of years, and is intelligible only to a few of the Bramins. It\nwas probably the language of that great ancient people.\n5. The coincidence or similarity of customs concurs to establish\nthe belief of an original nation. The custom of libation was com-\nmon to the Tartars and Chinese, and to the Greeks and Romans.\nAll the Asiatic nations had festivals of the nature of the Roman satur-\nnalia. The tradition of the deluge is diffused among all those nations.\nThe tradition of the giants attacking heaven is equally general.\nThe doctrine of the metempsychosis was common to the Egyptians,\nGreeks, Indians, Persians, Tartarians, and Chinese. The religion of\nall those nations is founded on the profound but erroneous doctrine\nof the two principles, a universal soul pervading all nature, and\ninert matter on which it acts. A conformity in a true doctrine is no\nproof of mutual communication or concert but it is ingeniously re-\nmarked, that a conformity in a false doctrine comes very near to such\na proof.\n6. The Egyptians, Chaldeans, Indians, Persians, and Chinese, all\nplaced their temples fronting the east, to receive the first rays of the\nsun. Hence the worship of the sun has been the religion ot the an-\ncient people from which these are descended. All these nations had\na cycle, or period of sixty years, for regulating their chronology.\nThey all divided the circle into 360 degrees; the zodiac into twelve\nsigns and the week into seven days. The Chinese, Indians, and\nEgyptians designed the seven days of the week by the names of the\n*even planets ranged in the same order. The long measures of the\nindent nations had all one common origin.\n7. These singular coincidences, says M. Bailly, can be exclained\nonly upon three suppositions 1, that there was a free communica-\ntion between all those ancient nations 2, that those circumstances\nof coincidence are so founded in human nature, that the most un*\nconnected nations could not fail to hit upon them or, 3, that they\nhave been all derived from a common source. He rejects the two\nformer suppositions, as contrary, in his opinion, to fact, and adopts\nthe last.\n8. The precise situation of this great ancient people, M. Bailly does\nnot pretend to fix with certainty; but offers probable reasons for\nconjecturing that it was about the 49th or 50th degree of north lati-\ntude, in the southern regions of Siberia. Many of the European\nand Asiatic nations attribute their origin to that quarter, which thence\nappears to have been extremely populous. Nitre, a production\nfrom animal substances, is more abundant there than in any other\nregion. The observations of the rising of the stars, collected by\nFtolcmv, must have been made in a climate where the longest day\nR 25","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0197.jp2"},"198":{"fulltext":"194 MODERN HISTORY.\nwas sixteen hours, which corresponds to the latitude of 50 degrees.\nNo European nation in that latitude understood astronomy in those\nearly periods. The veneration of the Indians and Chinese for the\nLama of Thibet is a proof that the religion of those nations originat-\ned in that quarter.\n9. But does that region exhibit any traces of having been ever\ninhabited by a polished people Here the theory of M. Bailly seems\nto be least supported by proof. He observes, that ancient mines\nhave been discovered in those parts of Siberia, which have, been\nwrought to great extent in a period beyond all record or tradition\nthat ancient sepulchres have been found, in which there were orna-\nments of gold of skilful workmanship but the facts specified are so\nfew as to warrant no positive inference.\n10. This theory is an amusing specimen of the author s ingenu-\nity but it has not the force to draw our assent to his conclusions.\nWe have noticed it as specifying many curious facts relative to the\nmanners and attainments of the ancient nations, and as furnishing\nstrong evidence of the common origin of mankind. The nations\nabove mentioned, though many of them remote from one another,\nwere all connected, as links of a chain, by proximity whence it is\neasy to conceive that knowledge should diverge from a centre io\na very distant circumference. M. Bailly has given no reasonable\nground for fixing that centre in the position which he has assigned\nto it.\nSECTION LI.\nREIGN OF PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. REVOLUTION OF THE\nNETHERLANDS, AND ESTABLISHMENT OF THE REPUBLIC\nOF HOLLAND.\n1. After a short survey of the Asiatic kingdoms, we return to the\nhistory of Europe in the sixteenth century.\nIn the time of Philip II., the successor of Charles V., the balance\nof power in Europe was sustained by Spain, France, England, and\nGermany, all at this time highly flourishing and respectable, either\nfrom the talents of their sovereigns, or their internal strength. Eliz-\nabeth, Henry II., and Philip II., were all acute and able politicians\nthough the policy of Philip partook more of selrisn craft, and had\nless of the manly and heroic, than that of either of his rival mon-\narchs. Philip was at this time sovereign of Spain, the Two Sicilies,\nMilan, and the Netherlands. He had likewise, for a few years, the\npower of England at his command, by his marriage with Mary, the\nelder sister and predecessor of Elizabeth.\n2. Pope Paul IV., jealous of the power of Philip, formed an alli-\nance with Henry II. of France to deprive the Spaniards of Milan\nand the Two Sicilies. Phi4ip, with the aid of the English, defeated\nthe French at St. Quintin in Picardy, and hoped from this signal vic-\ntory, to force the allies into a peace but the duke of Guise recov-\nered the spirits of the French, by the taking of Calais from the Eng-\nlish, which they had now possessed for two hundred years. Anoth-\ner great victory, however, obtained by Philip near Gravelines,\nbrought on the treaty of Catteau-Cambresis in 1,559, by which the\nFrench surrendered to Spain no less than eighty-nine fortified towns\nin the Low Countries and in Italy.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0198.jp2"},"199":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 195\n3. Philip, now at ease from foreign disturbances, began to be dis-\nquieted on the score of religion. An intolerant bigot by nature, he\nresolved to extirpate every species of heresy from his dominions.\nThe Netherlands, an assemblage of separate states, were all subject\nto Philip, under various titles and he had conferred the government\nof Holland, Zealand, Friesland, and Utrecht, on William, prince of\nOrange, a count of the German empire. The Lutheran and Calvin\nistic opinions had made great progress in those quarters and Philip,\ndetermining to repress them, established the inquisition with plenary\nEowers, created new bishops, and prepared to abrogate the ancient\niws, and give the provinces a new political institution. These inno-\nvations created alarm and tumult; and the duke of Alva was sent into\nFlanders to enforce implicit submission.\n4. The inquisition began its bloody work, and many of the prin-\ncipal nobility of the provinces were its victims. The minds of the\npeople were completely alienated, and a chief was only wanting to\ngive union to their measures. The prince of Orange, who was\nunder sentence of the inquisition, found no difficulty to raise an army;\nand having easily reduced some of the most important garrisons,\nhe was proclaimed stadtholder of Holland and Zealand in 1,570.\nEighteen thousand persons perished by the hands of the executioner\nin the course of the duke of Alva s government, which was of five\nyears duration. His place was supplied by Requesens, a man of hu-\nmanity, but bound to obey his inhuman master, who, on the death of\nRequesens, sent his own brother don John of Austria, to endeavour\nto regain the revolted states but the attempt was fruitless. The\nwhole seventeen provinces had suffered alike from the tyranny of\ntheir sovereign but particular jealousies prevented a general union,\nand only seven of them asserted their independence, by a solemn\ntreaty formed at Utrecht, on the 23d of January, 1,579,- by which it\nwas agreed that they should defend their liberties as one united\nrepublic that they should jointly determine in matters of peace and\nwar, establish a general legislative authority, and maintain a liberty\nof conscience in matters of religion. These seven united provinces\nare, Guelderland, Holland, Zealand, Friesland, Utrecht, Overyssel,\nand Groningen. William prince of Orange was declared their chief\nmagistrate, general, and admiral, by the title of Stadtholder.\n5. Philip vented his indignation by a proscription of the prince of\nOrange, offering 25,000 crowns for his head and he compassed his\nrevenge for this illustrious man was cut off by an assassin in 1,584.\nHis son Maurice was elected stadtholder in his room, and sustained\nhis important office with great courage and ability. With a slender\naid from Elizabeth of England, who delighted to traverse the plans of\nPhilip, this infant commonwealth accomplished and secured its inde-\npendence, which it maintained till its recent subjugation\n6. The other ten provinces, whose discontents were expressed\nonly by murmur and complaint, were soothed by a new charter from\nPhilip confirming their privileges; while at the same time he took\nevery possible measure to prevent any attentat on their part to\nthrow off the yoke.","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0199.jp2"},"200":{"fulltext":"V\n196 MODERN HISTORY.\nSECTION LI1.\nOF THE CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED\nPROVINCES.^\n1. The treaty of confederation of the Seven United Provinces,\nframed in 1,579, and solemnly renewed in 1,583, is declared to be,\nby its nature, indissoluble. Each province thereby preserved its\nown laws, magistrates, sovereignty, and independence. They form,\nhowever, one body politic, having renounced the right of making\nseparate alliances or treaties, and established a general council, with\npower of assembling the states, and regulating the common affairs of\nthe republic. The assembly of the states-general was originally held\nonly twice a year, but became afterwards a perpetual council.\n2. In all matters which regard not the general interest of the na-\ntion, each of the states or provinces is in itself a republic, governed\nby its own laws and magistrates, and possessing a supreme legislative\nauthority. The deputies from each of the towns form the council of\nthe province, in which is vested its separate government and these\ndeputies are regulated by the instructions of their constituents. The;\nvotes of the majority of deputies decide in the provincial council iv»\nall matters which regard not the general interest of the nation\n3. The great council of the states-general always met in assembly\nat the Hague, and is composed of the deputies from the seven prov-\ninces, of which Holland sends three, Zealand and Utrecht two, and\nthe others one each deputy being regulated by the council of his\nprovince. A majority of voices is here decisive, unless in the great\nquestions of peace, war, and alliance, in which unanimity is requisite.\nThe disadvantage of this constitution is the delay and difficulty in\nthe execution of public measures. All the towns and all the nobles\nof a province must deliberate and instruct their deputy, before the\nstates-general can take the matter under consideration. This, great\ndefect is partly corrected by the power and influence of the stadt-\nholder.\n4. The stadtholder is commander in chief of the sea and land\nforces, and disposes ot all the military employments. He presides\nover all the courts of justice, and has the power of pardoning crimes.\nHe appoints the magistrates of the towns, from a list made by them-\nselves receives and names ambassadors, and is charged with the ex-\necution of the laws. He is supreme arbiter in all differences between\nthe provinces, cities, or other members of the state.\n5. William, the first stadtholder, did not abuse these high powers\nnor did his successors, Maurice and Henry-Frederick. But under\nWilliam II. the states became jealous of an exorbitant authority in\ntheir chief magistrate, and on his death the office was for some time\nabolished. In that interval the republic was almost annihilated by\nthe arms of Lewis XIV. and, sensible of their error, they restored\nthe office of stadtholder in the person of William III., who retrieved\nthe fortunes and honour of his country. In gratitude for his services,\nthe dignity was made hereditary in his family, a solecism in the gov\nernment of a republic. On the death of William without issue, the\noffice was once more abolished for twenty years, when it was again\nrestored, declared hereditary in the family of Orange, and descendi-\nble even to the issue of a daughter. The only restrictions are, that","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0200.jp2"},"201":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 197\nthe succeeding prince shall be of the protestant religion, and neither\nking nor elector of the German empire.\nSECTION LIII.\nREIGN ON PHILIP II. CONTINUED.\n1. The loss of the Netherlands was in some degree compensated\nto Philip II. by the acquisition of the kingdom of Portugal. Muley\nMahomet, king of Fez and Morocco, dethroned by his uncle Muley\nMoluc, solicited the aid of don Sebastian king of Portugal to regain\nhis throne. Sebastian landed with an army in Africa, but was de-\nfeated by the Moors and slain and the contending Moorish princes\nperished! in the same engagement. Sebastian was succeeded by his\ngrand-uncle don Henry, who died after a reign of two 5; ears. The\ncompetitors for the crown were don Antonio prior of Crato, and\nPhilip II., paternal and maternal uncles of the last sovereign. Philip\ndefeated his rival in a decisive engagement at sea, and, without fur-\nther opposition, took possession of the throne of Portugal, 1,580.\n2. Elizabeth of England had warmly espoused the cause of the\nrevolted Netherlands, and her admiral sir Francis Drake had taken\nsome of the Spanish settlements in America. To avenge these in-\njuries, the invincible armada, of 150 ships of war, 27,000 men, and\n3,000 pieces of cannon, was equipped by Philip for the invasion of\nEngland. The English fleet, of 108 ships, attacked them in the\nnight, and burnt and destroyed a great part of the squadron. A\nstorm, which drove them on the rocks and sands of Zealand, com-\npleted their discomfiture, and only 50 shattered vessels, with 6,000\nmen returned to Spain, 1,588.\n3. The restless spirit of Philip II. was engaged at the same time in\nthe reduction of the Netherlands, the project for the invasion oi\nEngland, and the dismembering of the kingdom of France. The\nlast scheme was as ineffectual as the two former. It was defeated at\nonce by the conversion of Henry IV. to the catholic religion. The\npolicy of Philip had nothing in it great or generous. His restless\nambition was fitted to embroil Europe but he had not the judgment\nto turn the distresses which he occasioned to his own advantage.\nIn his own kingdoms, as in his domestic life, he was a gloomy and in-\nhuman tyrant. Yet, from the variety and magnitude of his designs,\nthe power by which they were supported, and the splendour of his\ndominion, the character of Spain was high and respectable in the\nscale of the nations of Europe.\nSECTION LIV.\nSTATE OF FRANCE IN THE END OF THE SIXTEENTH CEN-\nTURY UNDER HENRY II., FRANCIS II., CHARLES IX., HENRY\nID., AND HENRY IV-\n1. The reformed religion had made the greater progress in\nFrance from the impolitic persecution which H sustained from\nHenry II., the son and successor of Francis I., who, though he aided\nthe protectants of Germany in resisting the despotism of Charles V.,\nshowed no* mercy to their brethren in nis own kingdom.","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0201.jp2"},"202":{"fulltext":"198 MODERN HISTORY.\n2. On the death of Henry II. the conspiracy of Amboise was plan\nned by the prince of Conde, for the destruction of the duke of Guise,\nwho ruled the kingdom under Francis II., and to whose intolerance\nand cruelty the protestants attributed all their calamities. Guise\nowed his ascendancy chiefly to the marriage of his niece, Mary\nqueen of Scots with the young monarch and the detection of this\nconspiracy, the massacre of its principal leaders, and the barbarous\npunishment of all who partook in it, while they confirmed his power,\nserved only to increase the rancour of the contending parties.\n3. Francis 11. died after a reign of one year, 1,560, and was suc-\nceeded by his brother Charles IX., a boy of ten years of age. The\nqueen-mother, Catharine de Medicis, who had no other principle but\nthe love of power, was equally jealous of the influence of the\nCondes and the Guises. An ecclesiastical assembly, held by her de-\nsire at Poissy, gave toleration to the protestants to exercise their\nworship through all France, without^ the walls of the towns. The\nzeal or the imprudence of the duke of Guise infringed this ordinance,\nand both parties flew to arms. The admiral Coligni commanded the\ntroops of the protestants, who were aided by 10,000 Germans from\nthe Palatinate. Philip of Spain, to increase the disorders, sent an\narmy to the aid of the catholics.\n4. The horrors of civil war were aggravated by murders and\nassassinations. The duke of Guise was the victim of the frantic zeal\nof an enthusiast. After many desperate engagements, with various\nsuccess, a treacherous peace was agreed to by the catholics and\nColigni, with the chiefs of the protestant party, were invited to\ncourt, and received by the queen-mother and her son with the most\nextraordinary marks of favour among the rest Henry of Navarre,\nto whom the young monarch had given his sister in marriage. Such\nwere the preparatives to the infernal massacre of St. Bartholomew.\nOn the night of the 23d of August, 1,572, at the ringing of the matin\nbell, the catholics made a general massacre of all the protestants\nthroughout the kingdom of France. Charles IX., a monster of\ncruelty assisted in the murder of his own subjects.\n5. Amid those horrors Henry duke of Anjou, brother of Charles\nIX., was elected king of Poland but had scarcely taken possession\nof his throne, when he was called to that of France by the death\nof its execrable sovereign, 1,574. The weakness of the new mon\narch, Henry III., was unfit to compose the disorders of the kingdom.\nEqually bigoted and profligate, he became the scorn of his subjects,\nand the dupe of the contending factions.\n6. The protestant party was now supported by the prince o£\nConde and young Henry of Navarre, descended from Robert of\nBourbon, a younger son of Lewis IX. The duke of Aiencon, the\nking s brother, had likewise joined their party. The catholics., to\naccumulate their strength, formed a bond of union, termed the lect{r ue\nnominally for defence of the state and its religion, but in reality for\nusurping all the powers of government, and suppressing the protes-\ntant faith. Of this dangerous association Henry III., with the weakest\npolicy, declared himself the head, and thus the avowed enemy of\none half of his subjects. He saw his error when too late, and,\ndreading the designs ©f the duke of Guise, and his brother the cardinal\nof Lorraine, whose authority had superseded his own, he base ly rid\nhimself of his fears by procuring their assassination. This vicious\nand contemptible tyrant, after a reign of fifteen years, was assas f iniitc4","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0202.jp2"},"203":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 19\nby Jaques Clement, a jacobin monk, from the frenzy of fanaticism,\n1,589.\n7. The next heir of the crown was Henry of Navarre, who had\nbeen educated a protestant by his mother, the daughter of Henry\nd Albert king of Navarre. At the age of sixteen he had been declared\nhead of the party of the Huguenots his uncle the prince of Conde\nand the admiral Coligni acting as his lieutenants. His first military\nenterprises were unsuccessful. Invited to Paris, at the peace ot\n1,572, to marry the sister of Charles IX., he narrowly escaped from\nthe massacre of St. Bartholomew, but remained three years a prison-\ner. On the death of Charles he again took the field against the\narmy of the league, which he defeated in the battle of Coutras,\n1,587, and still more signally in that of Arques, 1,589. After the\ndeath of Henry 111., he won the celebrated battle of lvry and,\nbeing acknowledged sovereign of France by all but the party of the\nleague, then in possession of Paris, he laid siege to the city, which\nmust have capitulated if Philip II. had not sent succours. Religion was\nthe sole cause of the disunion of France, and the only obstacle to\nthe acknowledgment of Henry s title by the greater part of his sub-\njects. By the earnest persuasion of Rosni (duke of Sully), a protes-\ntant, Henry was prevailed on to declare himself a catholic. He ab-\njured at St. Denis, and was crowned king at Chartres, 1,594. He\nsoon after took possession of Paris but it took him several years,\nboth of war and negotiation, before he gained the whole of his king-\ndom, exhausted as it was, and ruined by civil discord.\n8. The subsequent life of this excellent prince was devoted to the\nreparation of those misfortunes. After forcing Philip II. to conclude\nthe advantageous peace of Vervins, 1,598, his whole attention was\nbestowed on the improvement of his kingdom, by reforming its laws,\nregulating, its finances, encouraging agriculture and manufactures,\nenlarging and embellishing the cities, and finally by successfully\nreconciling the partisans of the contending religions. In all his bene-\nficial schemes, he found an able assistant in his minister the duke of\nSully, who has beautifully depicted the life and character of his mas-\nter. In his memoirs we see not only the great designs, but the pri-\nvate virtues, the engaging and amiable manners of this illustrious\nman, who while he was the arbiter of the contending powers ol\nEurope, was the indulgent father of a happy people.\n9. The period of the splendour and happiness of France was ol\nshort duration. Henry IV., worthy to be immortal, was assassinated\nat the age of fifty-seven, May 4, 1,610, by Ravaillac, an insane fanat-\nic. At the time of his death, he meditated the great project of a\nperpetual peace between the states of Europe, a design highly char-\nacteristic of the benevolent mind of its author. But the weaknesses of\nmankind, and the impossibility of reasoning with nations as with wise\nindividuals, must certainly have rendered this design impracticable at\nthat period.\nSECTION LV.\nHISTORY OF ENGLAND AND OF SCOTLAND IN THE REIGNS\nOF ELIZABETH AND MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS.\n1. Elizabeth, daughter of Henry VIII., by Anna Bullen, succeeded\nto the throne on the death of her sister Mary, 1,558 and England","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0203.jp2"},"204":{"fulltext":"200 MODERN HISTORY.\nattained a high degree of splendour, under the rule of this great and\npolitic princess, whose talents enabled her to pursue the true interests\nof her people, while her vigorous and intrepid mind led her to take\nan important part in maintaining the balance of power in Europe.\nWhile she encouraged at home every useful art and manufacture,\nshe colonized a great part of North America, supported the infant\nrepublic of Holland against its tyrannical enemy, humbled the pride\nof Spain in the defeat of its invincible armada, and assisted Henry IV.\nin the recovery of his kingdom. It was her fortune to have the aid\nof most able ministers, and her merit to place her confidence in their\ncounsels.\n2. If Elizabeth had been equally endowed with the virtues of the\nheart as with the powers of the mind, she would have shone the\nmost illustrious character in the annals of modern Europe. Her\nconduct to her cousin Mary queen of Scots has fixed an indelible\nstain on her character. Mary, the daughter of James V., and great\ngrand-daughter of Henry VII., educated in France, and married,\nwhen very young, to the dauphin, afterwards Francis II., had im-\nprudently assumed the arms and title of queen of England, by the\npersuasion of her maternal uncles the Guises. The pretence was\nthe illegitimacy of Elizabeth, declared by Henry VIII., on his divorce\nfrom Anna Builen. This false step laid the foundation of all the\nmiseries of the queen of Scots.\n3. The reformation was at this time going forward in Scotland\nwith the most ardent zeal. The earls of Argyle, Morton, Glencairn,\nand others, its chief promoters, had, by their own authority, suppress-\ned the worship of the mass over a great part of the kingdom.\nThe catholic bishops, by an ill-judged persecution of the reformers,\ngreatly increased the number of their proselytes. They began to\nmuster their strength, and, headed by John Knox, a disciple of Cal-\nvin, a virtuous man, but of the most furious and intemperate zeal,\nthrew down the altars and images, expelled the priests, and demol-\nished the churches and monasteries. The protestants were now\nacting in arms, and in open defiance of government and the queen\nmother, Mary of Guise, attempted, by the aid of French troops, to\nreduce her subjects to submission. They applied for aid to Elizabeth\nthe protestant queen of England, who sent an army and a fleet to their\nassistance. The death of the queen-mother wasfollowed by a capit-\nulation, by which it was agreed that the French should evacuate\nScotland, and that Mary should renounce all pretension to the crown of\nEngland. The protestant religion, under presbyterian forms, was\nnow established in the room of the catholic.\n5. In this situation of Scotland, Mary, at the age of eighteen, on\nthe death of her mother, and of her husband Francis II., returned\nto her hereditary kingdom having fortunately escaped an English\nfleet, which Elizabeth had despatched to take her prisoner on her\npassage. Her misfortunes began from that hour. Her protestant\nsubjects regarded their catholic queen with abhorrence, and looked\nup to her enemy Elizabeth as their support and defender. That\nartful princess had secured to her interest the very men on whom\nthe unsuspecting Mary placed her utmost confidence, her bastard\nbrother the earl of Murray, the earl of Morton, and secretary Leth\nington. The views of Murray aimed at nothing less than his sister s\ncrown, and the obstacles which opposed his criminal ambition served\nonly to render his attempts more daring and flagitious.\n5. The marriage of Mary with her cousin lord Darnley, son of the","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0204.jp2"},"205":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 201\nearl of Lennox, who stood in the same relation to Elizabeth, was not\nagreeable to that princess. Encouraged by Elizabeth s ministers,\nRandolph and Cecil, Murray formed a conspiracy to seize and impris-\non Mary, to put to death her husband, and usurp the government\nand on the detection of his designs, attempted to support them by\nopen rebellion. Defeated, exiled, pardoned, and loaded with benefits\nby his injured sovereign, he persevered in the same atrocious pur-\nposes, till he at length accomplished them.\n6. The spouse of Mary had incurred her resentment by his vices\nand follies. Taking advantage of the weakness of his mind, Mur-\nray, Morton, and Lethington, had rendered him jealous of the par-\ntiality of Mary for her foreign secretary, the aged Rizzio, and en-\ngaged him in the barbarous act of murdering this ill-fated wretch\nat the feet of the queen, to whose garment? he clung for protection.\nThe purpose of this shocking outrage was to procure the abortion\nof Mary, then big with child, and possibly her death or, if she\nshould survive, to alienate completely her affections from her hus-\nband, and thus to render her suspected of the design which they\nhad projected of cutting him off by assassination. In the latter pur-\npose they succeeded. The house which Darnley inhabited was blown\nup by gunpowder his body was found strangled near the place, and\na report immediately prevailed, that Mary had been accessory to his\nmurder.\n7. A most imprudent step, to which she was conducted by the\nsame band of traitors, gave countenance to this suspicion. At the\nearnest recommendation of Morton and some of her chief nobility,\nshe married the earl of Bothwell, a man openly stigmatized as erne\nof the murderers of her husband. He had, it is true, been absolved\n■»n trial for that crime, and had by force made himself master of her\nperson. The plans of Murray and his associates, successful to the\nutmost of their wishes, were now ripe for consummation. On the\npretext of the queen s guilt of murder and adultery, she was confined\nby Murray in the castle of Lochleven, and there compelled to resign\nher crown into the hands of her unnatural brother, who was to govera\nthe kingdom as regent during the minority of her infant son, now\nproclaimed king by the title of James VI., 1,567. Bothwell escaped\nbeyond sea, and died in Denmark.\n3. A great part of the nation reprobated those infamous proceed-\nings. Mary escaped from her confinement, and at the head of an\narmy gave battle to the rebels at Langside but, being defeated, she\nfled for shelter to the north of England. Elizabeth, who had secretly\nencouraged all the machinations of her enemies, had now gained a\ngreat object of her ambition she had in her hands a hated rival, and,\nby her support of Murray and his party, the absolute command oi\nthe kingdom of Scotland. Yet policy required some show of\nfriendship and humanity to the queen of Scots, who claimed, as a\nsuppliant, her protection and aid. She professed her desire to do\nher justice, but first required that she should clear herself of the\ncrimes alleged against her. To this Mary agreed, with the intrepid-\nity of conscious innocence. In a conference held for that purpose,\nMurray openly stood forth as the accuser of his sister and queen,\nappealing to certain letters said to have been written by her to Both*\nwell, plainly intimating her guilt. Copies of these letters were pro-\nduced. Mary demanded the originals, boldly declaring them to be\nthe forgeries of her enemies but they were never produced. She\nretorted on Murray and Morton the charge of Darnley s murder,","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0205.jp2"},"206":{"fulltext":"202 MODERN HISTORY.\nand the conference was broken off at the command ot the queen of\nEngland, who detained Mary in close imprisonment.\n9. The ungenerous policy of Elizabeth was condemned by her\nown subjects. The duke of Norfolk, the first of her nobility, and,\nthough a protestant, favoured by the catholic party m England,\nsecretly projected to marry the queen of Scots. The discovery of\nhis views having given alarm to Elizabeth, brought that ill-fated\nnobleman to the block, and hastened the doom of the unfortunate\nMary. Worn out with the miseries of her confinement, she private-\nly solicited the aid of foreign princes for her deliverance. Her\ncause was espoused by all the catholics of England and some of the\nmost intemperate of these had formed a plot to deliver her from\ncaptivity, and to place her on the throne, by the murder of Eliza\nbeth. This dangerous conspiracy was discovered, and its authors\ndeservedly suffered death. The schemes of Mary for her own de-\nliverance were held presumptive of her acquiescence in the whole of\nthe plot. Though an independent sovereign, she was brought to\ntrial before a foreign tribunal which had already decreed her fate\nand, being condemned to suffer death, she was beheaded at Fother-\ningay castle, 1,587, in the forty-iifth year of her age, and the nine\nteenth of her captivity in England. Previously to this event, Murray\nhad fallen the victim of the private revenge of a gentleman whom he\nhad injured Lethington poisoned himself in prison, to escape the\nsentence of his enemies and Morton, some time regent of the king-\ndom, was afterwards tried and suffered death for his concern in the\nmurder of Darnley.\n10. We have mentioned the formidable preparations of Philip II.\nfor the invasion of England, and their disastrous issue in the total\ndestruction of the invincible armada. The English, in their turn,\nmade descents on the Spanish coasts and the glory of the nation\nwas nobly sustained by those great admirals, Raleigh, Howard.\nDrake, Cavendish, and Hawkins. The earl of Essex distinguished\nhimself in those expeditions, and won the favour of Elizabeth, both\nby his prowess and personal accomplishments. The death of Lei-\ncester, her former favourite, and of her minister Burleigh left Essex\nunrivalled in her affections, and of chief authority in the direction of\nher councils. Haughty, and impatient of control, he disgusted the\nnobles and his failure in quelling a rebellion in Ireland gave them\nground to undermine him in the favour of his sovereign. In the mad-\nness of inordinate ambition, he proposed to possess himself of the\nperson of the queen, and compel her to remove his enemies, and\nacquiesce in all his measures. This treasonable enterprise brought\nhim to the scaffold, 1,600.\n1 1. From that time Elizabeth fell into profound melancholy, and soon\nafter died in the seventieth year of her age, 1,603, having named for\nher successor James VI. of Scotland. Her talents were great, and\nthe firmness of her mind was unequalled but her private char-\nacter was tarnished by cruelty, hypocrisy, and an insatiable desire\nof admiration. Her maxims of government were despotic, and she\nhad little regard for the liberties of her people, or the privileges of\nher parliaments, to whom she never allowed the liberty of disputing\nher commands. The actual government of England in those days\nwas little different from an absolute monarchy.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0206.jp2"},"207":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 90s\nSECTION LVI.\nHISTORY OF GREAT BRITAIN IN THE REIGNS OF JAMES I,\nAND CHARLES I\n1. James VI. of Scotland succeeded by hereditary right to the\nthrone of England, thus uniting the two crowns a prince of consid-\nerable learning and talents, but of little vigour of mind or political\nenergy. He became unpopular from his notions of an uncontrollable\nprerogative, to which unwisely proclaiming his title, he provoked\nhis subjects to question it. The current of public opinion was now\nstrongly turned to an extension of the rights of the subject, and to a\nretrenchment of the powers of the crown and during this reign the\nseeds were sown of that spirit of resistance on the part of the peo-\nple, which was destined in the next to overturn the constitution.\n2. Domestic events were such as chiefly distinguished the reign\nof James I. A conspiracy was discovered in 1,603 for subverting\nthe government, and placing the king s cousin, Arabella Stuart, on\nthe throne, in which the lords Cobham and Grey, and Sir Walter Ra-\nleigh were principally concerned. The two former were pardoned,\nand Raleigh was condemned, but reprieved. On the ground of his\ninfringement of the peace with Spain, by unwarrantably attacking\none of her American settlements, he was beheaded on his former\nsentence, after an interval of fifteen years.\n3. Another conspiracy followed, of a still more dangerous nature.\nthe gunpowder treason a plot of the catholics to destroy at one\nblow the king and the whole body of the parliament, 1,604. It was\ndiscovered from a circumstance of private friendship, on the very\neve of its accomplishment; and the principal conspirators suffered\ncapital punishment. The public indignation now raged against the\ncatholics and the humanity of James, which sought to mitigate this\nfury, was as ungenerously as absurdly construed into a favour which\nhe entertained for their religious principles.\n4. It was a peculiar weakness of the king to attach himself to\nundeserving favourites. Such was Carre earl of Somerset, who had\nno other recommendation but a handsome person, and who, after\nseveral years exercise of all the insolence of power, fell into dis-\ngrace, on conviction of his concern in an infamous murder. His\nplace was supplied by Villiers, afterwards duke of Buckingham, a\nman devoid of every talent of a minister and odious to all ranks\nof the state. He planned a journey cf Charles prince of Wales into\nSpain to court the infanta, and by his folly and insolence frustrated\nthe treaty on the brink of its conclusion.\n5. Elizabeth, the daughter of James, was married to the protestant\nelector Palatine, who was dispossessed of his electorate by the empe-\nror Ferdinand II., for imprudently accepting the crown of Bohemia,\ntill then an appanage of the empire. James was urged by parlia-\nment to a war in defence of his son-in-law, which touched the nation\nboth as a point of honour and as the cause of the protestant interest.\nHe sent a feeble armament, which was of no service, the only mili-\ntary enterprise of his reign. His favourite project was a complete\nunion of the kingdoms of England and Scotland a measure which,\nhowever beneficial, the mutual prejudices of the two nations were as","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0207.jp2"},"208":{"fulltext":"204 MODERN HISTORY.\nyet too violent to bear. As a preparatory step, the episcopal hie-\nrarchy was introduced into Scotland but this served only as the\nincentive of future commotions. James I. died in 1625, in the 59th\nyear of his age, and the 22d of his reign over England.\n6. On an impartial estimate of the character of the succeeding\nmonarch, Charles I., it may be allowed, that this unfortunate prince\nwould have reigned with high popularity, if the nation in his reign\nnad entertained the same opinions of the regal prerogative, of the\npowers of parliament, and of the liberty of the subject, which had\nprevailed for the two preceding centuries. But it was his lot to\nmount the throne at that critical period when the public opinion had\nundergone an entire revolution on those topics and, with many\nexcellent endowments both of head and heart, he wanted that po-\nlitical prudence which should have taught him to yield to the ne-\ncessity of the times.\n7. Charles was offended with his first parliament, on their refusal\nof adequate supplies for the war in support of his brother-in-law, the\nelector Palatine. Engaged to his allies, the king, dissolving the par-\nliament, issued warrants for borrowing money of the subject. A new\nparliament was found equally uncomplying, and evinced its jealousy\nof the king by the impeachment of his minister, Buckingham. Charles\navenged the insult by imprisoning two members of the house of com-\nmons. A dissension thus begun was continually aggravated by new\ncauses of offence. The levying of money from the subject was en-\nforced by billeting soldiers on those who refused to lend to the crown\nand some were even imprisoned on that account. A war was under-\ntaken against France, by Buckingham s instigation, a sufficient cause\nof its unpopularity and it ended in a fruitless attempt on Rochelle.\nThe king again dissolved his parliament, 1,626.\n8. A new parliament exhibited a spirit of determined reformation.\nA Petition of Right was passed by both houses, which declared the\nillegality of raising money without their sanction, or of enforcing\nloans from the subject, annulled all taxes imposed without the consent\nof parliament, and abolished the exercise of the martial law and\nCharles was obliged, with much reluctance, to give his assent to\nthis great retrenchment of prerogatives, sanctioned by the usage of\nthe most popular of his predecessors.\n9. The taxes of tonnage and poundage had usually been contin-\nued from one reign to another. On this ground the king conceived\nthat he was warranted to levy them without a new grant; and a\nmember of the house of commons was imprisoned on refusal to pay\nthem. This arbitrary measure excited an outrageous ferment in\nthat assembly, and the consequence was a new dissolution, of the\nparliament, 1,629.\n10. It was now a measure of necessity to make peace with Francs\nand Spain. The king persevered in levying the tonnage, poundage,\nand ship-money; and high fines were imposed for various offences,\nwithout trial, by authority of the star-chamber. The legality of\nthe tax of ship-money was disputed by John Hampden, who was\ncondemned by the court of exchequer, contrary, as was generally\nthought, to justice and the laws of the realm.\n11. Those discontents were increased by religious enthusiasm.\nCharles, by the advice of Laud, archbishop of Canterbury, had relax\ned the penalties against catholics, and countenanced some innova-\ntions in the ceremonials of church worship, preludes, as they wero\ntermed, to the popish idolatries. He had likewise imprudently at-","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0208.jp2"},"209":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 20b\ntempted to introduce the liturgy ot the church of England among the\nScots. These measures excited in Scotland very general discontent,\nand produced the most violent commotion. A bond, termed the Na-\ntional Covenant containing an oath of resistance to all religious inno-\nvations, was subscribed in Scotland by all ranks and conditions and\nin a general assembly at Glasgow the episcopal hierarchy was sol-\nemnly abolished, 1,638. To maintain this violent procedure the\nScots reformers took up arms, and, after seizing and fortifying the\nmost important places of strength in the kingdom, boldly marched\ninto the heart of England.\n12. It was now absolutely necessary to assemble a parliament, and\nthe king at length saw that the torrent was irresistible, and resolved,\nthough too late, to yield to it. A bill passed for abolishing the ton-\nnage and poundage without consent of parliament, and received the\nroyal assent. Monopolies of every kind were abolished. A parlia-\nment was agreed to be summoned every third year. Unsatisfied\nwith these concessions, the commons impeached the earl of Strafford,\nthe king s first minister, of high treason, together with Laud, arch-\nbishop of Canterbury, who were charged, as the chief counsellors of\nthe crown, with a design of subverting the laws and constitution of\nthe realm. The fate of Strafford, whose trial by his peers would\nhave terminated in his acquittal, was secured by a bill of attainder,\nto which the king was, with the greatest reluctance, forced to give\nhis assent. The commons seized that moment of anguish to ob-\ntain his consent to a decisive measure, a bill which rendered the\nparliament perpetual, by declaring that it should not be dissolved nor\nadjourned except by its own decree, 1,641. Strafford and Laud were\nboth beheaded.\n13. This last measure of the commons evinced a determined pur-\npose to overturn the constitution. Their proceedings hitherto had\nthe show of justice, and most of them might be vindicated on the\nprinciples ot true patriotism. But from this period their conduct\nwas treason to their country and its government. The last bill de-\nstroyed the equal balance of the constitution of England, and every\nsubsequent measure was a step towards its annihilation.\n14. The Irish catholics took advantage of those disorders, and,\nwith the purpose of assuming the entire command of that kingdom,\nand shaking off its dependence on England, attempted, in one day to\nmassacre all the protestants in Ireland. To extinguish this horrible\nrebellion Charles consigned to the parliament the charge of the war,\nwhich they interpreted into a transference to them of the whole mil-\nitary powers of the crown. Under this authority a great force was\nlevied, and supplied with arms from the royal magazines.\n1 5. The bishops having complained that their lives were in danger\nfrom the populace, and having protested against the proceedings of\nthe lords in their absence, were impeached of treason by the com\nmons, and committed to the Tower. The patience of Charles was\nexhausted. He caused five of the commons to be impeached, and\nwent in person to the house to seize them a breach of the privilege\nof parliament, for which he found it necessary to atone by a humili-\nating message.\n16. A new bill of the commons, naming the commanders of all the\nfortified places, who should be responsible to parliament alone, was\nunderstood to be a declaration of war. The next step was to assume\nthe whole legislative power, by declaring it a breach of privilege to\ndispute the law of the land promulged by the lord3 and commons.\n3","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0209.jp2"},"210":{"fulltext":"206 MODERN HISTORY.\nBut the lords were merely a name, being entirely under the control\nof the commons.\n17. The sword was now to decide the contest. The royal cause\nwas supported by a great proportion of the landed interest, all the\nfriends of the established church, and all the catholics in the king-\ndom. On the side of the parliament were the city of London and\nmost of the greater towns, with all the dissenters and sectaries. The\nfirst campaign was favourable to the royalists, who defeated the par-\nliamentary forces at Worcester and Edgehill, but lost the battle of\nNewbury.\n18. The parliament now entered into a strict confederacy with\nthe Scots, both in the articles of politics and religion; and the Solemn\nLeague and Covenant, a new bond more specific in its objects than\nthe former, and more treasonable in its purpose, was framed at Edin-\nburgh, for the purification of both churches, the reformation of both\nkingdoms, the maintenance of the privileges of king and parlia-\nment, and bringing to justice all malignants. In consequence of this\nconfederacy, 20,000 Scots, took the field to co-operate with the forces\nof the parliament.\n19. At this time Oliver Cromwell commanded a regiment of\nhorse under Fairfax, general of the parliament but in reality direct-\ned all the measures of the army. In Scotland the royal cause was\nfallantly sustained by the marquis of Montrose; but all was lost in\nEngland by the defeat at Naseby, in 1,645. The troops of the roy-\nalists being entirely dispersed, the king threw himself into the hands\nof the Scots, who basely delivered him up to the commissioners of\nparliament, from whom he was taken by Cromwell s orders, and con-\nducted to the army, which was now master of the kingdom. Crom\nwell entering London assumed an absolute control over the parlia-\nment, and imprisoned all who disputed his authority. Charles escap-\ning from his confinement, fled to the isle of Wight but was there de-\ntained a prisoner in Carisbrook castle.\n20. The parliament, suffering under this military usurpation, were\nnow sincerely desirous of terminating a miserable anarchy by a\ntreaty with the king, and, after a long negotiation, all terms were\nfinally adjusted. Charles agreed to resign to parliament the military\npower, the disposal of all the offices of state, and the right of creat-\ning peers without the consent of parliament: he agreed to abolish\nthe episcopal hierarchy, and to establish the presbyterian discipline.\nTh.ese concessions the parliament accepted by a majority of suffra\nges, and declared them to be a sufficient basis for the settlement of\nthe kingdom. Cromwell instantly surrounded the house of commons,\nand, excluding all but his own partisans (about sixty in number), a\nsecond vote was passed, rescinding the former, and declaring it\ntreason in a king to levy war against his parliament. A court of\njustice was then appointed to try the king for this act of treason.\nThe house of lords, having unanimously rejected this decree, were\nimmediately voted, by this junto of independents, to be a useless\nbranch of the constitution.\n21. Charles Avas brought to trial, and, refusing to acknowledge the\nauthority of his judges, was condemned to suffer death. He was\nbeheaded on the 30th of January, 1,649. The arbitrary proceedings\not this monarch in the beginning of his reign were certainly suffi-\ncient to justify that resistance on the part of the people which at\nlength produced its effect, in confining the regal authority within its\njust bounds, and securing the rational liberties of the subject. But","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0210.jp2"},"211":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 207\nfrom the period when this end was attained, resistance ceased to be\nlawful. Its further operations were criminal in the extreme. The\nsubsequent usurpations of the commons can no more be justified on\nany constitutional principle, than the murder of the king can be de-\nfended on the score of legality, justice, or humanity.\nSECTION LVII.\nTHE COMMONWEALTH OF ENGLAND.\n1 The parliament of Scotland had taken no part in these lattei\nscenes, and had formally protested against the trial of the king. On\nhis death they proclaimed Charles II. their sovereign, but on the ex-\npress condition of his signing the covenant, and ratifying their con-\nfession of faith. Ireland recognised him without any conditions.\nThe heroic marquis of Montrose landed in the north of Scotland with\na few foreign troops, and attempted to reduce the party of the cove-\nnanters, and to establish the legal authority of the king, independent\nof the servile restrictions with which they had fettered it. Being\nattacked by a much superior force, he was defeated, and betrayed\ninto the power of his enemies, who put him to death by the hands\nof the executioner, 1,650 displaying in the circumstances of his\npunishment all the insolence of cruelty which distinguishes revenge\nin the meanest of souls. Charles retired to Scotland, and was obliged,\nhowever reluctantly, to acquiesce in all the terms that were imposed\non him.\n2. Cromwell, with 16,000 men, marched into Scotland against the\nroyalist covenanters, whom he defeated in the battle of Dunbar. He\nthen followed the royal army, which retreated into England, and\ndestroyed it in the decisive battle of Worcester, September 3, 1,651.\nCharles fled in disguise through the western and southern counties,\ntill he found an opportunity of escaping to France and Cromwell\nreturned in triumph to London.\n3. The republican parliament formed and executed great designs.\nA war with Holland was most ably maintained on both sides by three\ngreat naval commanders, Blake, the British admiral, and Van Tromp\nand de Ruyter, the Dutch admirals but the advantage was greatly\nin favour of the English, who took above 1,600 Dutch ships. The\nparliament, elated by these successes, justly conceived that, while\nthe nation was thus powerful at sea, the army was an unnecessary bur-\nden, and determined to reduce it. To prevent this measure, Crom-\nwell framed a remonstrance of the army, demanding the election of\na new parliament. This remonstrance being disregarded, he entered\nthe house of commons, which he had surrounded with his troops, and\ndeclaring the parliament dissolved by his authority, forcibly turned\nthe members out of doors. The republic of England, which had\nsubsisted four years and three months, was thus annihilated in one\nmoment, April 20, 1,653.\n4. It was necessary, however, that there should be the appearance\nof a parliament. A few mean persons, of fanatical character, were\nchosen by Cromwell s partisans, from the different counties of Eng-\nland, with five from Scotland, and six from Ireland, to hold their func-\ntion for fifteeen months. This assembly, termed Barebone s par liar\nwent, from its leading member, a leather-seller, became the scorn of\nthe public, and was dissolved, by its own vote, after five months.","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0211.jp2"},"212":{"fulltext":"208 MODERN HISTORY.\n5. The government was now vested in the council of officers,\nwho nominated Oliver Cromwell lord protector of the three king-\ndoms, invested him with the power of making peace, war, and alli-\nance, and authorized a standing army of 30,000 men to be kept up\nfor the support of government. His administration was despotic,\nvigorous, and spirited. He maintained the honour of the nation in\nthe war with the Dutch, compelling them to yield the honour of the\nflag, and to compensate to the India company all its losses. He was\nsuccessful likewise in his negotiations with France and Spain. But\nin his domestic government he was traversed by his parliaments,\nwhom it cost him a continual struggle, and even violence, to keep in\norder. One parliament, properly prepared, voted him the regal\ntitle, which, by the council of his best friends, he was forced, most\nunwillingly, to refuse. In recompense of this self-denial, the parlia\nment confirmed his title of protector, with a fixed revenue, and de-\ncreed his right of appointing a successor. He was king in all but\nthe name.\n6. By consent of parliament Cromwell appointed a house of lords;\nbut all the ancient peers declined the proffered honour. He was\nforced to choose peers from the commons and thus he lost the ma-\njority in the lower house. His temper soured with disappointment,\na prey to chagrin, and in continual fear of assassination, he fell at\nlength into a mortal disease, and died in the fifty-ninth year of his age.\nSeptember 3, 1,658.\n7. Richard Cromwell, son of Oliver, succeeded to the protectorate\nby his father s appointment. He was a man of weak understanding\nand facile temper, utterly unfit for his hazardous situation, which\naccordingly he maintained only for a few months, resigning his office\non the 22d of April, 1,659. His brother Henry, viceroy of Ireland,\nimmediately followed his example. The family of the Cromwells,\nwhicn the talents of one man had elevated above the sovereigns of\ntheir country, returned to its original obscurity.\n8. The remains of that nominal parliament which had put the king\nto death, termed, in derision, the rump, was now dissolved by the\ncouncil of officers. Of these every aspiring individual had his own\nseparate views of ambition. Intrigue, cabal, and anarchy, were univer-\nsal; and the nation, looking forward with horror to a series of calam-\nities, began earnestly to desire the restitution of its ancient govern-\nment. George Monk, commander of the army in Scotland, judged\nthose symptoms favourable for restoring the exiled monarch to the\nthrone of his ancestors. Marching his army into England, he declar-\ned his resolution to bring about the election of a free parliament,\nwhich all men knew to be synonymous with the restoration of the\nking. It was of course violently opposed by the republican party,\nwho even attempted to excite a new civil war; but they were forced\nat length to acquiesce in the measure. A free parliament was assem-\nbled, and a message was presented from Charles, offering a full in-\ndemnity, complete liberty of conscience, and payment of all arrears\nto the army. The message was received with transports of joy, and\nCharles II. was proclaimed king on the 29th day of May, 1,660,","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0212.jp2"},"213":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 209\nSECTION LVI1I.\nTHE REIGNS OF CHARLES II. AND JAMES II.\n1. The nation, without imposing any terms on their new sove-\nreign, trusted implicitly to his good dispositions. Charles was humane\nana complacent, but indolent, luxurious, and prodigal; and therefore\nwas neither able to support the national honour abroad, nor to com-\nmand obedience and respect to his domestic government. The sale\nof Dunkirk was a measure offensive to the pride of the nation. A\nwar with Holland, supported at a vast expense, and maintained irc\nmany desperate but indecisive engagements, was attended finally\nwith no material benefit. By the treaty of Breda, concluded in 1,667,\nNew York was secured to the English, the isle of Polerone to the\nDutch, and Acadia in North America to the French.\n2. The sale of Dunkirk, and the unsuccessful issue of the war?\nattributed to the counsel of the earl of Clarendon, procured the dis-\ngrace and banishment of that illustrious man, 1,667. The peace was\nscarcely concluded with Holland, when England joined with her and\nSweden in a triple alliance, to oppose the progress of the arms of\nLewis XIV. in the Low Countries; and that object being attained by\n1he treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1,668, the French monarch gained\nthe English over to his interest in a new war against the Dutch,\nwhich brought their republic to the brink of destruction.\n3. The domestic administration of Charles was embroiled from\nvarious causes, originating in the personal character and dispositions\nof the sovereign. He trusted to profligate and worthless counsellors.\nHis arbitrary notions of government, and the partiality which he\nshowed to the catholics, gave perpetual alarm and uneasiness to a\ngreat proportion of his subjects. Complaints resounded from every\nquarter; and the parliament required a test-oath, abjuring popery,\nfrom all persons in public employment. On refusal to take this oath,\nthe king s brother, James duke of York, was deprived of his office\nof high admiral.\n4. Titus Oates, a worthless impostor, pretended to have discov-\nered a plot of the catholics for assassinating the king, burning Lon-\ndon, massacring the protestants, and placing the duke of York on\nthe throne. Another villain, named Bedloe, joined his evidence\nto that of Oates and on their perjured testimony, afterward fully\nexposed, a few miserable priests suffered death. A new test was\nimposed, which excluded all papists from both houses of parliament.\nThe treasurer Danby was impeached for advising the last peace with\nFrance, though it was proved that he had acted by his sovereign s\norders and a bill passed the house of commons, excluding the duke\nof York from the succession to the crown. A more important bill\nfor the general liberty, the act of habeas corpus was the work of the\nsame session of parliament. (Sect. LIX., 14.)\n5. The distinguishing epithets of whig and tory were now first\nknown the former, the opposers of the crown, against the latter,\nits partisans and each party, as in all factions, carried its principles\nto an extreme. The whigs., predominant in the next parliament,\nraged with fury against the catholics, and insisted on the king s assent\nto the bill for the exclusion of his brother. His only expedient was\nto dissolve the parliament, but he found their successors equally vic-\nS? 27","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0213.jp2"},"214":{"fulltext":"210 MODERN HISTORY.\nlent After various fruitless attempts to conciliate their favour to his\nmeasures, a dissolution of this parliament ensued, the last which\nCharles assembled.\n6. But the great cause of dissatisfaction remained. The duke of\nYork was at the bottom of all the measures of government. A con-\nspiracy was formed by Shaftesbury, Russel, Sydney, and the duke of\nMonmouth, natural son of the king, on the pretence of vindicating\nthe national liberties. It was discovered by one of the associates,\nand Russel and Sydney suffered capital punishment. The detection\nof this conspiracy strengthened the authority of the sovereign. The\nduke of York, was restored to his office of high admiral, and tacitly\nacknowledged as the successor to the crown. Charles II. died on\nthe 6th of February, 1,685, in the 55th year of his age, and the 25th\nof his reign.\n7. The duke of York succeeded to the throne by the title ot\nJames II. His reign was short and inglorious. He was the instru\nment of his own misfortunes, and ran headlong to destruction. The\ncatholics at this time were not the hundredth par*t of the nation,\nyet James was weak enough to make the desperate attempt of sub\nstituting the popish faith in room of the protestant. Discarding the\nnobility from his councils, he was directed solely by Romish priests.\nIn the very outset of his reign he expressed his contempt of the au-\nthority of parliament, and a firm purpose to exercise an unlimited\ndespotism.\n8. The duke of Monmouth, having excited a new rebellion, was\ndefeated, made prisoner, and beheaded and the most inhuman\nrigour was exercised in the punishment of all his partisans. The\nparliament was in general submissive to the king s will, which for a\nwhile met with no opposition nor control. A declaration was pub-\nlished, establishing full liberty of conscience in matters of religion\nand several bishops, who refused to publish it in their diocesses,\nwere committed to prison. A catholic president was appointed to\none of the colleges at Oxford. An ambassador was sent to the pope,\nand a papal nuncio received in London. The catholics openly boast-\ned that theirs would soon be the religion of the state.\n6. James had three children Mary, the wife of the stadtholder\nWilliam prince of Orange Anne, married to prince George of Den-\nmark and James, an infant. The stadtholder had considered his\nright to the crown of England as certain before the birth of this\ninfant, and, after that event, projected still to gain it by arms or in-\ntrigue the infatuation of the king and the general discontent of the\npeople giving him the most flattering invitation. James was inform-\ned of those views of his son-in-law, but would give them no credit,\ntill actually apprized of his landing with an army, November 15th\n1,688.\n10. The principal nobility and officers immediately joined the\nstandard of the prince of Orange; and James was at once abandoned\nby his people, ministers, favourites, and his own children. Leaving\nLondon in disguise, he was discovered and brought back by the pop-\nulace but the prince of Orange wisely favoured his escape, and he\nfound means a few days after, to convey himself to France.\n11. The throne being declared vacant, it was proposed in a con-\nvention-parliament, that the crown should be settled on the princess\nMary and her issue, her husband governing as regent, whom failing,\non the princess Anne. The stadtholder declining the office of regent,\nit was finally resolved to confer the crown on the prince and prin-","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0214.jp2"},"215":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 211\ncess of Orange, the former to have the sole administration of the\ngovernment.\n1 2. To this settlement was added a declaration fixing the rights of\nthe subject and the royal prerogative. Of this the most important\narticles are the following. The king cannot suspend the laws, nor\ntheir execution he cannot levy money without consent of parlia-\nment; the subjects have right to petition the crown; a standing\narmy cannot be kept up in time of peace but by consent of parlia-\nment elections and parliamentary debate must be free, and parlia-\nments must be frequently assembled, c. Such was the final settle-\nment of the British government at the great era of the revolution.\nAt this period, when the constitution became fixed and determined,\nwe finish the sketch of the history of our own country.\nSECTION LIX.\nON THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION.\n1 The rudiments of the constitution of England may be traced aa\nfar back as the Norman conquest. William distributed a great pro-\nportion of the lands among his Norman followers, subjecting these,\nas well as the Anglo-Saxons who retained their property to the feu-\ndal tenures, and thus extinguishing at once the ancient liberties of the\npeople. England was divided into 60,215 military fiefs, all held\nof the crown, under the obligation of the vassal s taking arms for\nhis sovereign whenever required. In the continental kingdoms of\nEurope, as in France, the feudal system arose by slow degrees, nor\nwas there of consequence the same union of the fabric as in\nEngland. The feudal lords were independent of one another, ever\nat variance from their mutual pretensions, and often owning but a\nvery slender allegiance to the crown. Their vassals suffered from\noppression, and often struggled for their freedom but those efforts\nbeing partial produced no consequence favourable to the liberty of\nthe nation. In England all were oppressed by the enormous weight\nof the crown it was a common grievance, and produced at times a\nviolent effort for the general liberties of the people.\n2. The forest-laws imposed by the conqueror (Sect. XV., 2, 11.)\nwere a grievance felt by the whole nation, as rendering every man s\nproperty precarious, and subject to the arbitrary encroachments of\nthe crown. It was no wonder that the barons and their vassals should\ncordially unite to rid themselves of so intolerable a hardship. Henry\nI. found it necessary to conciliate his subjects, by mitigating the most\nrigorous of the feudal laws. A greater advance was made under\nHenry II., by the institution of the trial by jury. But John impru-\ndently resisting this natural progress toward a rational freedom, was\nsoon compelled into those important concessions, the Charta de Foresta\nand Magna Cliarta. From that time the constitution of England was\nthat of a limited monarchy, whatever we may judge of the actual\ngovernment, which was often most arbitrary and despotical.\n3. The next memorable era in the progress of the English consti-\ntution was the reign of that weak prince Henry III., when the par-\nliament received a new form, bv the admission of the representatives\nof the people, the deputies of the counties and boroughs. (Sect.\nXXII., 2.) His successor Edward I. acknowledged their authority\nin obtaining all his subsidies, and ratified a new law which declared,","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0215.jp2"},"216":{"fulltext":"212 MODERN HISTORY.\nthai no tax should be levied without the consent of lords and com-\nmons. Tne Magna Charta was confirmed no less than eleven times\nin the course of this reign.\n4. Thus the constitution continued advancing till its progress was\nsuspended by the civil wars of York and Lancaster. The rights of\nboth prince and people seemed then to be entirely forgotten; and\nthe race of Tudor found no resistance from parliament to their vigor-\nous and despotic sway. The talents of Elizabeth, and the high\ncharacter which her government sustained with foreign powers, ex-\ntinguished all domestic disquiets, while the predominant feeling was\nthe maintenance of the power and dignity of the crown.\n5. But under the succeeding prince, when his power and dignity\nwere abased by his own weakness, the nation began to awake from\nits lethargy and that spirit of opposition, which in this reign con-\nfined itselt to complaints, in the next broke forth with alarming vio-\nlence. Charles I., endowed with superior energy of character, acted,\nas he conceived, on a principle of duty, whicli obliged him to main-\ntain the prerogative of his predecessors, and to transmit it unimpaired\nto his posterity but he was imprudent in exerting with rigour an\nauthority which he wanted ultimate resources to support. He was\ncompelled to sign the Petition of Rights, a grant more favourable to\nliberty than Magna Cliarta. The true patriots were satisfied with\nthis concession, which conferred the most ample constitutional free-\ndom. But the popular leaders made patriotism the cloak of insatia-\nble ambition; and advanced in their demands with every new com-\npliance. The last appeal was made to the sword, and the contest\nended in the destruction of the constitution.\n6. The despotism which succeeded, and the fluctuation of power\nfrom the long parliament to the protector, and finally to the leaders\nof a standing army, afforded demonstrative evidence how vain was\nthe project of a republic, under which the demagogues had masked\ntheir designs. Weary of anarchy, the nation returned with high\nsatisfaction to its former constitution, a limited monarchy.\n7. New encroachments under Charles II. produced new limita-\ntions and the act of Habeas Corpus gave the utmost possible security\nto personal liberty. The violent and frantic invasion of the consti-\ntution by James II., banished himself and his posterity from the\nthrone, and produced a new and solemn contract between the king\nand the people. Regarding, therefore, the revolution as the final\nsettlement of the English constitution, we shall endeavour briefly to\ndelineate the chief features of that great political structure.\n8. The constitution of Great Britain may be viewed under two\ndistinct heads, the legislative power, and the executive power the\nlast comprehending the prerogative of the crown.\nThe power of legislation belongs to parliament, whose constituent\nparts are, the king, lords, and commons. The house of lords con-\nsists of the temporal peers of England, and of the spiritual, or the\ntwo archbishops and twenty-four bishops. To these, since the\nunions with Scotland and Ireland, are added sixteen delegates from\nthe peerage of the former kingdom, and thirty-two from the latter.\nThe house of commons consists of the deputies or representatives\nof the counties and principal towns and boroughs of England, and\nthe two universities, amounting in all to 513 members; to whom,\nsince the unions, are added 45 from Scotland and 100 from Ireland.\nThese deputies are chosen by the freeholders who possess a prop-\nerty yielding a certain yearly rent. The chancellor generally pre-","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0216.jp2"},"217":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 211\nsides in the house of lords the speaker is president in the house o!\ncommons.\n9. The king is the most essential component part of parliament,\nbecause he alone has the power to convoke, prorogue, and dissolve\nit. He has likewise a negative on all its acts, which are invalid\nwithout his approbation and each house has a negative on the de-\ncrees of the other. It is likewise competent to the king to propose\nany measure to be laid before the parliament.\n10. All questions regarding public affairs and national measures\nmay originate in either house of parliament, except grants of money,\nwhich must always take their rise in the house of commons, and\ncannot be altered, though they may be rejected, by the lords. Any\nmatter must be primarily discussed in that house in which it origi-\nnates, and, until it is there decided, cannot be received by the other\nhouse, unless a conference should be demanded. A bill refused by\neither house is utterly void; and a bill passed by both houses is void,\nif refused by the king\n11. The executive power of government is vested in the king.\n(1.) The first branch of his office is the administration of justice.\nThe judges of all courts of judicature are the king s substitutes.\nHe is the prosecutor of all crimes, and has the power of pardoning\nand suspending the execution of all sentences. (2.) He is the foun-\ntain of all honour, the giver of all titles and dignities, and the dis-\nposer of all the offices of state. (3.) He is the superintendant of\ncommerce, and has the power of regulating weights and measures,\nand of coining money. (4.) He is the head of the church, and\nnames the archbishops and bishops. (5.) He is commander in\nchief of all the sea and land forces, and can alone equip fleets, levy\narmies, and appoint all their officers. (6.) He has the power of mak-\ning war, peace, and alliance, and of sending and receiving ambassa-\ndors. (7.) He is above the reach of all courts of justice, and is not\nresponsible to any judicature for his conduct in the administration of\ngovernment.\n12. These high powers of the sovereign, which, at first sight,\nwould seem to render him an absolute monarch, are thus admirably\ncontrolled. The king is dependent on parliament for all subsidies,\nwithout which he can neither maintain his fleets and armies, nor pay\nthe salaries of officers. The parliament indeed settles a revenue on\nthe king for life, but this is merely sufficient for the maintenance of\nhis household, and for supporting a proper dignity of establishment\nAs the king s revenue must be renewed by parliament at the begin-\nning of every reign, it is in their power to withhold it till all abuses\nshall be remedied. At those periods therefore the constitution may\nbe brought back to its first principles, and all encroachments f the\nprerogative may be restrained.\n13. The king can never reign without a parliament. It must by\nlaw be assembled once in three years, on a notice of forty days\nbefore its meeting. Though the king is the head of the church, yet\nhe cannot alter the established religion, nor frame ecclesiastical\nregulations. These must be made by the assembly of the clergy. The\nking cannot interfere in the ordinary administration of justice, nor\nrefuse his consent to the prosecution of crimes. He may pardon\noffences, but cannot exempt the offender from pecuniary compensa-\ntion to trie party injured. He cannot alter the standard of money,\neither in weight or alloy. He cannot raise an army without the con-\nsent of parliament and, though a moderate standing force is kept up","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0217.jp2"},"218":{"fulltext":"*14 MODERN HISTORY.\nwith their consent, yet the funds for its payment require an annual\nrenewal by parliament. Though the sovereign is not amenable to\nany judicature, yet his ministers are responsible for all the measures\nof government, and are impeachable by the commons at the bar ol\nthe house of lords, for every species of misconduct or misdemeanour.\nThe freedom of parliamentary discussion is secured, because no\nmember can be questioned for any opinions or words, except in that\nhouse of parliament in which they were uttered.\n14. The personal security and the rights of the subject are fur-\nther guarded by these three peculiarities of the British constitution,\nthe habeas corpus, trial by juries, and the liberty of the press^ By\nthe act of habeas corpus, every prisoner must be brought before a\njudge, the cause of his detainer certified, and the judge is authorized\nand bound to discharge him, if the cause of his imprisonment be in-\nsufficient or illegal. The violation of this statute is punishable by the\nhighest penalties. The habeas corpus may be suspended in times of\ndanger to the state, as during the existence of a conspiracy or rebel-\nlion. Though this act does not extend to Scotland, yet the subjects ot\nthat part of the united kingdoms are equally secured by their own\nlaws. (Statute 1,701, c. 6.)\n15. All crimes must be tried by a jury of twelve men in England\nand Ireland, and fifteen in Scotland. The prisoner has a right of\nchallenging or objecting to the jurors and (except in Scotland), with-\nout showing any cause, he may challenge twenty successively in or-\ndinary cases, and thirty-five in cases of treason. The jury are judges\nboth of the law and the fact nor has the opinion of the court any\nweight in their decision, but such as they choose to give it.\n16. The liberty o( the press is a guardian of the constitution, be-\ncause it is competent for any individual to convey to the public his\nopinion of the whole conduct of government, and the merits of its con-\nductors to canvass every counsel of state, and to examine every pub-\nlic measure thus forcibly restraining all ministers and magistrates\nwithin the limits of their duty. It is further the guardian ofinjured\ninnocence, and the redresser of all wrongs that evade the cognizance\nof law. Yet this most valuable right, if unrestrained, would be the\nsource of the greatest mischief. If it were allowable with impunity\nto assail the established government, to convulse society, to dissem-\ninate atheism, to injure the reputation, or to endanger the life and\nproperty, of individuals, by false accusations, there would be an end\nof all liberty and civil happiness. The liberty of the press consists\nin this, that there is no examination of writings previous to the print-\ning and publishing of them but, after publication, such writings as\noffend in any of the above particulars are punishable by law, on trial\nof the offence by jury. Thus the public is properly constituted the\njudge and censor of all writings addressed to itself.\n17. Such are briefly the outlines of the admirable fabric of the\nBritish constitution. Esto perpetua {may it exist for ever\nSECTION LX.\nOF THE PUBLIC REVENUE OF GREAT BRITAIN.\n1. The property belonging to the crown of Great Britain, which\nwas anciently very great, and fully adequate to the maintenance of\ngovernment, consisted of domain-lands, the first fruits and tenths of","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0218.jp2"},"219":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 215\nchurch-benefices, the rents of vacant bishoprics and abbeys, the prof-\nits of military tenures, fines imposed in courts of justice, forfeitures,\nc. From alienations made by the sovereigns, and retrenchments of\ntheir prerogative, the property of the crown is now become so in-\nconsiderable, that the king may be regarded as entirely dependent\non the people for the support of his dignity, and the means of carry-\ning on the business of the state. The public revenue, destined for\nthese two purposes, arises now from the subsidies granted by the\npeople. The supplies are voted by the commons, and the means\nof furnishing them, by taxes proposed by the chancellor of the\nexchequer, must receive their sanction.\n2. Of these taxes some are annual, as the land tax and malt tax\nothers are perpetual, as the customs, excise, salt duty, post-office\nduty, stamps, house and window tax, duties on servants, hackney\ncoaches, pensions, c. The customs are a tax paid by the merchant\non all imported and exported commodities the excise is an inland\nimposition, laid sometimes on the consumer, and sometimes on the\nretail seller.\n2. The produce of these taxes is, in the first place, destined to\nthe payment of the interest of the national debt, and afterward to\nthe ordinary support of government.\nThe national debt arose soon after the revolution, when it was\nthought hazardous to impose annual taxes equal to the annual ex-\npense of government, and more expedient to borrow large sums for\nthe immediate service of the state, raising annually no more than\nto pay the interest of that debt. The same system has been since\npersevered in so that the national debt, which a century ago was\n16 millons, is now above 300 millions. To pay the interest of this\nenormous sum the produce of the taxes (excepting the malt and\nland tax) are primarily destined and as somewhat more is annually\nraised than the interest of the debt and the maintenance of govern-\nment demand, the surplus constitutes a sinking fund for paying off\nthe principal of the debt.\n4. The produce of the taxes, originally separate funds, is now\nthrown into two or three capital funds; one of which is mortgaged\nby parliament for the maintenance of the king s household and the\ncivil list, namely, the salaries of officers of state, judges, and ambas-\nsadors, private expenses, pensions, c.\n5. Notwithstanding the little prospect of an extinction of the\nnational debt, government maintains its credit, and will always find\nlenders, because ttie terms granted are beneficial, and the security is\ntransferable so that a lender can thus always obtain payment of his\nprincipal sum, and frequently make gain by the transference. The\nvalue of stock rises and falls from various occasional causes, as na-\ntional prosperity, or the reverse, plenty or scarcity of money, quan-\ntity of public debt. On this variation is founded the practice ol\nstock-jobbing, that is, either buying and selling actual property in the\npublic funds, which is a lawful speculation, or gaming and wagering\non the price of stock, which is an illicit but common practice. The\npractice of stock-jobbing, even by the transference of actual proper-\nty, and far more by gaming on that which is fictitious, is prejudicial\nto commerce and manufactures, by engrossing a great part of the\nnational wealth, repressing industry, encouraging fraud, and often\ntempting to the most treacherous and dangerous devices for raising\nand sinking the funds.","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0219.jp2"},"220":{"fulltext":"216 MODERN HISTORY\nSECTION LXL\nHISTORY OF FRANCE UNDER LEWIS XIII.\n1. France, which under Henry IV. had risen from a state of miser-\nable anarchy to high prosperity and splendour, sunk, upon his death,\ninto weakness, faction, and disorder. Mary of Medici, regent in the\nminority of her son Lewis XIII., a weak woman, and of restless am-\nbition, disgusted the nobility by her partiality for her Italian courtiers\nConcini, her first minister, created marshal d Ancre, became so uni\nversally odious, that he was openly murdered in the Louvre, and\nhis body torn to pieces. The queen was removed from Paris, and\nkept for two years a prisoner at Blois, till relieved by the duke\nd Epernon, to serve his own purposes of ambition. The queen s party\nwas at war with that of her son, and the whole kingdom in a state of\nanarchy.\n2. The genius of cardinal Richelieu, who was now brought into\npower by Mary of Medici, soon effected a wonderful change. He\nreconciled the mother and her son, soothed the contending factions,\nand, on the king s assuming the government, directed every public\nmeasure to the complete re-estabiishment of the power and dignity\nof the monarchy. The party of the Calvinists, alienated by perse-\ncution, attempted to throw off their allegiance, and to establish an in-\ndependent state, of which Roche lie was to be the capital. Richelieu\nbargained with the Dutch to furnish a fleet for subduing their prot-\nestant brethren, and the Dutch now fought as keenly for the catho-\nlic religion as they had lately fought for the protestant. The Eng-\nlish sent a fleet to the aid of the people of Rochelle, who for a year\nmaintained a most obstinate siege against the French troops, com-\nmanded by the cardinal in person. They were at length forced to\nsurrender. Rochelle and all the other protestant cities of France\nwere stripped of their privileges, and their fortifications were de\nstroyed. Thus Calvinism was for ever crushed in France.\n3. Lewis XIII., though a weak prince, saw his advantage in en-\ntering into all the great designs of his minister. Richelieu infiu\nenced the politics of all Europe and the power of Austria was\nattacked in Germany, Flanders, Spain, and Italy. His talents were\nequally displayed in active war, in foreign negotiation, and in his\ndomestic arrangements. Yet at this very time a formidable cabal\nwas undermining him, Mary of Medici was jealous of the man\nwhom she had raised and the duke of Orleans, the king s brother,\nsought to supplant him in power. Richelieu, with astonishing intre-\npidity of mind, repressed this conspiracy. Fortified by the king s\nauthority he seized the marshal de Marillac, one of his most danger\nous enemies, at the head of his army and tried and put him to\ndeath by a lawless stretch of power. Orleans, apprehensive of a\nsimilar fate, fled from the kingdom and Mary of Medici, arresto.d\nand removed from court, ended her career of ambition in voluntary\nexile at Brussels. Orleans, supported by the duke de Montmorency\nattempted a rebellion but their army was defeated, and Montmo-\nrenci executed for treason. The queen had taken part with the\nenemies of the cardinal, who imprisoned her confessor, and seized\nand examined her papers. Anne of Austria was very near sharing\nthe fate of Mary of Medici","height":"3561","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0220.jp2"},"221":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 211\n4. Amidst all this turbulence of foreign war and state cabal, Riche-\nlieu cultivated literature, encouraged the sciences, instituted the\nFrench academy, and composed pieces for the theatre. The admin\nistration of Richelieu, though turbulent from faction and civil war\nwas, on the whole, extremely glorious for France and sowed the\nseeds of its splendour in the succeeding reign of Lewis XIV. The\ndeath of this great minister, in 1,642, was soon after followed by the\ndeath of his sovereign Lewis XIII., in 1,643.\nSECTION LXI1.\nSPAIN UNDER PHILIP III. AND PHILIP IV. CONSTITUTION OF\nPORTUGAL AND OF SPAIN.\n1. From the death of Philip II. Spain declined in power, and, not-\nwithstanding its great sources of wealth, the national finances were\nin the utmost disorder. Philip III. was forced to conclude a peace\nwith the Dutch, and to restore to the house of Nassau its confiscated\nestates. With a weak and despicable policy he expelled from his\nkingdom all the Moors, who were the most industrious of its inhabi-\ntants, 1,610. This depopulation, with that already produced by its\nAmerican colonies, rendered Spain a lifeless and enervated mass.\nPhilip was entirely under the influence of his minister the duke of\nLerma.\n2. The national weakness and disorders increased under Philip IV.,\nwho, equally spiritless as his father, was implicitly ruled by his min-\nister Olivarez. His reign was a continued series of miscarriages and\ndefeats. The Dutch seized Brazil; the French invaded Artois;\nCatalonia revolted to France and Portugal shook off its yoke, and\nbecame an independent kingdom.\n3. No revolution was ever e fleeted with such ease and celerity\nas that of Portugal. The people were disgusted with the rigorous\nand impolitic administration of Olivarez. The duke of Braganza,\ndescended from the ancient kings of Portugal, had the command of\nthe army. Instigated by the ambition of the duchess, and seeing the\nspirit ol the nation favourable to his views, he caused himself to be\nproclaimed king at Lisbon. The Spanish guards were attacked and\nrouted, and the chief partisans of the government put to death by\nthe populace. All the principal towns followed the example of the\ncapital, and soon after all the foreign settlements. From that era,\n1,640, Portugal became an independent sovereignty, after having\nbeen sixty years an appanage of the kingdom of Spain.\n4. The government of Portugal approaches to an absolute mon-\narchy. The consent of the states or cortes, consisting of clergy,\nnobility, and commons, was formerly necessary to the imposition of\ntaxes, and the settlement of the succession to the crown. But this\nassembly, convoked only by the royal mandate, has for a long time\nceased to meet. The ordinary business of government is transacted\nby the king and his council of slate, which is appointed by himself.\nThe revenue of the crown aris- s from its domains, including the\nfamily estates of Braganza from the duties on exports and imports,\nfrom the taxes, and from a stated proportion of the gold brought from\nBrazil. The state of the commerce and manufactures of Portugal\nis extremely low. Though the soil and climate are favourable to\ncultivation, yet the agriculture of the kingdom is much neglected.\nT 23","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0221.jp2"},"222":{"fulltext":"218 MODERN HISTORY.\n5. The reigns of Philip IIT. and IV. of Spain, though an ora of\nnational humiliation, derived some tame from the state of literature.\nDramatic composition, poetry, romance, and even history, were\ncultivated with great success. But these pursuits are in some sod\nthe amusements of indolence, which was the predominant character\nof the people. This character may have arisen from two souices.\nThe torrent of wealth poured in from America retarded, in the lower\nclasse«, domestic industry and manufactures, while it increased the\npride of the gentry, and made them disdain all occupation and the\ndespotism of the government strongly repressed all enterprise and\nactivity in the people.\n6. The constitution of Spain, of which the sovereignty was in an-\ncient times elective, is now that of an absolute monarchy. The\ncrown is hereditary; though at different times, as in 1,619 and 1,713,\nthere has been a new limitation of the succession made by the mon-\narch. The Cortes, or states of the kingdom, limited in former times\nthe power of the sovereign but Charles V. annihilated their author-\nity, by depriving the nobility and clergy of their seat in those as-\nsemblies. The remaining members, the deputies of the towns, are\nentirely under the control of the monarch. The king s council, or\nConsejo Real, is the organ of government but no department of the\nstate has any constitutional power to regulate the will of the prince.\nSECTION LX11I.\nAFFAIRS OF GERMANY FROM THE ABDICATION OF CHARLES\nV. TO THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA.\n1. To preserve the connexion of the affairs oi Germany with\nthose of the other kingdoms of Europe, we must return to the period\nof the abdication of Charles V., when the empire was distracted\nby the political factions and quarrels of its independent princes, and\nby the contending sects of the catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinists.\nFerdir-arid vainly attempted to reconcile those factions, and to unite\nthe tnree religions. Maximilian II. had still less power to effect this\nobject than his predecessor; nor was the state of affairs cSianged\nduring the succeeding reigns of Rodolphus II. and Matthias. A civil\nwar of thirty years duration reduced the empire to extremity\nUnder Ferdinand II., a zealous catholic, the protestant states of Bo-\nhemia, which had suffered under the government of Matthias, con-\nferred their crown on the elector Palatine. Ferdinand, in revenge,\ndeprived him both of his crown and electorate.\n2. The protestant cause was declining fast in Germany, and every\nthing seemed to indicate success to the schemes of Ferdinand for its\nentire annihilation, when it received new vigour from the interven-\ntion of Gustavus Adolphus king of Sweden. This great prince de-\nfeated the imperial generals, and carried the protestant banners trium-\nphantly through Germany. The emperor was completely humbled,\nand the elector Palatine was on the eve of restoration to his domm\nions, when the heroic Gustavus was slain in the battle of Lutzen,\n1.632. The war was successfully prosecuted by the Swedish gener\nals, while cardinal Richelieu harassed the house of Austria both in\nGermany and Spain.\n3. In the succeeding reign of Ferdinand 111., the protestants of","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0222.jp2"},"223":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 219\nGermany found the most active support both from the Swedes and\nthe French. The emperor was forced to conclude the peace of\nWestphalia in 1,648 and these powers dictated the terms. By this\ncelebrated treaty all disputes were settled between the contending\nprinces of the empire, and also between the contending religions\nthe Swedes were indemnified for the charges of the war, and ac-\nquired Pomerania, Stettin, Wismar, and other provinces, and their\nsovereign the dignity of prince of the empire its chief posses-\nsions were restored to the Palatine family the king of France was\nmade landgrave of Alsace and an equal establishment of the three\nreligions was decreed. This salutary peace laid the foundation of\nthe future greatness and prosperity of the German empire.\nSECTION LX1V.\nFRANCE UNDER LEWIS XIV.\n1. On the death of Lewis XIII. in 1,6$3, his son Lewis XIV. suc-\nceeded to the throne in the fifth year of his age. Europe, as we\nhave seen, was in a most turbulent state and France, under the ad-\nministration of Richelieu, acted a conspicuous part in exciting those\ngeneral commotions. The queen mother Anne of Austria, appointed\nregent by the states, chose for her minister the cardinal Mazarin, an\nItalian, and from that circumstance odious to the people. The Span-\niards, taking advantage of the king s minority and the popular dis-\ncontents, made an attack on Champagne but were defeated in a\nseries of engagements by the great Conde. The marshal de Tu-\nrenne shared with him the palm of glory. The peace of Westpha-\nlia composed those differences.\n2. At this very time the commotions of the Frondt broke out in\nParis. The jealousy of Mazarin s power, felt by the nobility, the\nunpopularity of his measures, the disorder of the finances, and the\noppression of new taxes, inflamed the nation and the intrigues of\nthe coadjutor, afterwards cardinal de Retz, blew the flame into a\ncivil war. The parliament of Paris took part with the rebels, who\nwere headed by the prince of Conti, the dukes of Longueville and\nBouillon, and the chief nobility. The queen and the Royal family\nremoved to St. Germain s, and the ministerial party besieged Paris.\nTurenne, who at first supported them, was gained over by the\nrebels. The women, who are always concerned in the disturbances\nof France, acted a conspicuous part in those of the Fronde. A short\npacification ensued but the imprudent violence of Mazarin soon re-\nnewed the disorders. At length the parliament of Paris assumed\nthe right of banishing this unpopular minister, who retired to the\nimperial dominions; but his influence continued to regulate the\nmeasures of state.\n3. A change ensued on the king s coming of age, 1,652. De\nRotz and Orleans, the chief promoters of the rebellion, were ban-\nished, and Mazarin resumed his station as minister. Conde had\njoined the Spaniards in an attack on the French Netherlands, but\nwas overmatched by Turenne, who revenged this insult by the taking\nof Dunkirk and several fortified towns under the Spanish govern-\nment. By convention with Cromwell, Dunkirk had been ceded to\n(lie English, and afterwards sold to France by Charles II., as has been\nrelated.","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0223.jp2"},"224":{"fulltext":"220 MODERN HISTORY.\n4. The war with Spain ended in 1 ,659, by the peace of the Py\nrenees. Many cessions were made on both sides, but France kept\nRoussillon and part of Artois. It was stipulated that Lewis XIV.\nshould marry the infanta, daughter of Philip IV., but should renounce\nall right which might thence open to the crown of Spain.\n5. The treaty of the Pyrenees gave peace to the south of Europe.\nThe wars in the north between Sweden, Poland, and Denmark,\nwhich arose after the abdication of Christina of Sweden, were termi-\nnated in the year following by the treaty of Oliva. Christina, a sin\ngular, but not a great woman, held the sceptre of Sweden for twen-\nty-two years after the death of her father, Gustavus Adolphus. At\nlength, tired of the cares of government, and affecting a passion for\nliterature and philosophy, she resigned the crown to her cousin,\nCharles X., in 1,654. Soon after this event Casimer king of Poland\nwas induced by age and sickness to abdicate the throne, after an hon-\nourable reign.\n6. Mazarin died in 1,661, and Lewis XIV. entered on a vigorous\nand splendid career. The iinances, w hich from the time of Henry IV.\nhad been in extreme disorder, were admirably regulated by Colbert;\nand the commerce and manufactures of the kingdom, wisely en-\ncouraged by government, were soon in the most flourishing situation.\nThe canal of Languedoc joined the bay of Biscay and the Med-\niterranean the principal sea-ports were enlarged and fortified and\nthe internal police of the kingdom was regularly and strictly enforc-\ned. At the same time the arms of France aided England against the\nDutch, Germany against the Turks, and Portugal against Spain.\n7. On the death of Philip IV., Lewis, pretending that Spain had\nfailed in payment of the dowry of his queen, besieged and took Lisle,\nwith several other fortified towns of Flanders and in the next cam-\nEaign made himself master of Franche-Comte. Lewis marched with\nis armies, but the glory of these conquests was owing to Turenne\nand Vauban. The triple alliance formed by England, Holland, and\nSweden, checked this career, and brought about the treaty of Aix-\nla-ChapeUe, 1,668, by which Lewis, though he retained Flanders,\nrestored Franche-Comte, and confirmed the peace of the Pyrenees.\n8. The strength and prosperity of the kingdom continued to\nincrease under the able administration of Colbert and Louvois. The\ncivil factions of Holland between the stadtholder and the party of\nthe De Wits, tempted Lewis to undertake the conquest of that coun\ntry. England, Germany, and Sweden, favoured his views. He\noverran the provinces of Utrecht, Overyssel, and Guelderland, and\nadvanced almost to the gates of Amsterdam, when the Dutch inun\ndated the country by letting in the sea, and the French were forced\nto retreat.\n9. The confederate powers now became jealous of the ascendan-\ncy of Fiance and the prince of Orange had sufficient influence\nwith England, and both branches of the house of Austria, to obtain\ntheir alliance in aid of the republic. The arms of Lewis, however,\ncontinued to be successful, and the peace concluded at Nimeguen,\nin 1,678, was much to the honour of France. Franche-Comte was\nassured as a part of her dominions, and Spain allowed her right by\nconquest to a great proportion of the Netherlands.\n10. Notwithstanding the peace, Lewis, with the most culpable\ninsincerity, seized Strasburg, and secretly assisted the Hungarians\nand Turks in their attack on the imperial dominions. Vienna must\nhave fallen into the hands of the Turks, if it had not been seasonably","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0224.jp2"},"225":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 221\nrelieved by the victorious arms of John Sobieski king of Poland, in\n1,683.\n11. One of the weakest and most impolitic measures of Lewis\nXIV 7 was the revocation of the edict of Nantes, granted by Henry\nIV. for the toleration of the protestants. While their worship was\nsuppressed, their churches demolished, and their ministers banished,\nthe protestant laity were forbidden, under the most rigorous penal-\nties, to quit the kingdom, 1,685. France, however, by this measure,\nlost above 500,000 of her most industrious and useful subjects and\nthe name of Lewis XIV. was execrated over a great part of Europe.\nNot long after this time a similar excess of intolerant bigotry pre-\ncipitated James II. from the throne of Britain, and forced him to seek\nan asylum from the monarch of France.\n12. William prince of Orange, the inveterate enemy of Lewis,\nbrought about the league of Augsburg, 1,686; and the war was\nrenewed with France by Germany, Spain, England, and Holland.\nThe French arms were still successful. Luxemburg defeated\nWilliam in the battles of Steenkirk and Nerwinden; Noailles was\nvictorious in Spain; and an army of 100,000 French ravaged the\nPalatinate, and took many of the most important towns on the Rhine.\nThis was the crises of the glory of Lewis, whose fortunes were to\nsustain the most mortifying reverse.\n1 3. Those various and most extensive military enterprises, how\never flattering to the pride of the monarch, had been attended with\nenormous expense, and no solid advantage to the nation. The\nfinances had fallen into disorder after the death of Colbert, and a\npeace was absolutely necessary. By the treaty of Ryswick, concluded\nin 1 ,697, Lewis restored to Spain all the conquests made in the two\nlast wars, several towns to the emperor, the duchy of Lorraine to its\nduke, and acknowledged the right of William to the crown of Eng-\nland.\n14. The succession of the kingdom of Spain, on the expected\ndeath of Charles II., without issue, was now the object of political\nintrigue. The emperor and the king of France had the only natural\nright of succession but William 111., of England, from the dread\nof such an increase of power to either, proposed a treaty of partition\nof the Spanish dominions, at home and abroad, between the elector\nof Bavaria, the dauphin, and the emperor s second son. Charles II.\nchose rather to make his own destination, and appointed by will thai\nthe duke of Anjou, second son of the dauphin, should inherit Spain\non whose death without issue, it should devolve on the archduke\nCharles, youngest son of the emperor.\n1 5. On the death of Charles the duke of Anjou succeeded to the\nthrone of Spain, in virtue of this settlement. The emperor, the\nking of England, and the Dutch, proposed to separate from his\ncrown the Spanish dominions in Italy. In this enterprise prince\nEugene, son of the count de Soissons, commanded the imperial\ntroops, an illustrious renegado from France, of great prowess and\nmilitary skill.\n16. James II. of England died in 1,701 at St. Germain s, and Lewis\ngave mortal offence to the government of that country by acknowl-\nedging the title of his son. On the death of king William in the\nyear following war was declared by England, Holland, and the em-\npire, against I ranee and Spain. Lewis XIV. was now in the decline\nof life. He had lost the ablest of his ministers and his greatest gen-\nerals. The finances of the kingdom were exhausted. The armies\nT2","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0225.jp2"},"226":{"fulltext":"222 MODERN HISTORY.\nof his enemies were commanded by Eugene and the duke of Marl\nborough, the ablest generals of the age, and supported by the treas-\nures of the united powers. Savoy and Portugal joined this formidable\nconfederacy, to overwhelm both branches of the house of Bourbon,\nand place the emperor s son on the throne of Spain.\n17. Marlborough took Venlo, Ruremonde, and Liege. Eugene\nand Marlborough defeated Tallard and Marsin, with the elector of\nBavaria, in the signal battle of Blenheim, 1,704- England and Hol-\nland attacked Spain by sea and land. Catalonia and Valencia were\nsubdued in six weeks. Gibralter was taken by the English, and\nhas ever since remained in their possession. In the battle of Kami-\nlies, Marlborough defeated Villeroy,and left 20,000 dead on the field.\nThe contest, at first doubtful in Italy-, ended alike disastrously for the\nhouse of Bourbon. The archduke Charles was in the mean time\nproclaimed king at Madrid and Philip V. had serious thoughts of\nabandoning Spain, and establishing his dominion in America. But\nthe successes of the duke of Berwick, natural son of James II., recov-\nered for a while his desponding spirit, and even prompted his grand-\nfather Lewis to avenge himself on England, by aiding the bold but\ndesperate enterprise of establishing the pretended James on the\nthrone of Britain.\n1 8. But France and Spain were daily losing ground. The pope\nhad acknowledged the title of the archduke Charles the English\nseized the Mediterranean islands and Lewis, fallen from all his\nproud pretensions, humbly entreated a peace, which was refused,\nunless on the condition of dethroning his grandson with his own arms.\nHe maintained for a while this unequal contest, and was at length\nforced to propose terms equally humiliating the cession of all his con\nquests in the Netherlands and on the Rhine the acknowledgment of\nthe archduke s title to the crown of Spain and a promise to give no\naid to his grandson. But these terms were refused, and the inhuman\ncondition still insisted on, that he should assist in dethroning his\ngrandson. A last exertion was made in Spain under the duke of\nVendome, at the head of a prodigious army and the victory ob-\ntained by the French at Villa-vitiosa restored Philip V. to the throne\nof Spain. His competitor, the archduke, soon after became em-\nperor, on the death of his elder brother.\n19. The intrigues of the cabinet of queen Anne, and the coming\nin of a tory ministry, changed the politics of Europe. It was re-\nsolved to make peace with France and Spain, and the treaty was\nconcluded at Utrecht in 1,713. It was stipulated that Philip king\nof Spain should renounce all eventual right to the ciown of France,\nand his brother to the crown of Spain. The Dutch obtained an ex-\ntension of frontier, and the emperor a great part of Spanish Flanders.\nThe English gained from Spain, Gibraltar and Minorca, and from\nFrance, Acadia, Newfoundland, and Hudson s Bay, with the demolition\nof the harbor of Dunkirk, in the following year, a peace was con-\ncluded at Rastadt between France and the empire.\n20. The conclusion of this peace after an honourable war, was\nthe most memorable event in the reign of queen Anne, if we except\nthe union of the two kingdoms of England and Scotland, in 1 ,706, which\nwas brought about by the negotiation of commissioners mutually\nchosen, to secure the rights of each kingdom in the best manner for\ntheir mutual benefit. It was stipulated that both should be represent\ned by one parliament (Sect. LIX., 8), that they should have the\nsame privileges with respect to commerce, and that each kingdom","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0226.jp2"},"227":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 223\nshould retain its own laws and established religion. The succession\nto the crown was limited to the house of Hanover. Queen Anne\ndied on the 30th of July, 1,714. Lewis XIV. died on the 1st of\nSeptember, 1,715, in the 78th year of his age. He was a prince of\ngreat vigour of mind, of good talents, though unimproved by educa-\ntion, of dignified yet amiable manners. His greatest fault was inor-\ndinate ambition, to which he sacrificed the real interests of his people.\nIt was his highest honour, that he discerned and recompensed every\nspecies of merit. France was in his time equally illustrious by the\ngreat military talents of her generals, and by the splendour of liter-\nature and ofthe arts and sciences.\nSECTION LXV.\nOF THE CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE UNDER THE MONAR-\nCHY.\n1. It is necessary for understanding the history of France, that\nwe should have some acquaintance with its former monarchical con-\nstitution we shall therefore briefly trace the progress of the gov-\nernment under the different races of its sovereigns. The regal pre-\nrogative was extremely limited under the Merovingian princes.\n(Sect. II., III.) The general assembly of the nation had the right of\nelecting the sovereign, and the power of legislation. Under the\nCarlovingian race the authority acquired by Pepin and Charlemagne,\nsunk to nothing in the hands of their weak posterity and though\nthe crown had ceased to be elective, the regal dignity was a mere\nshadow. The power of the state had passed into the hands of a\nturbulent aristocracy, ever at variance among themselves, and uniting\nonly to abase the crown and to oppress the people.\n2. Under the third or Capetian race the crown acquired more\nweight, and many of the sovereigns exerted a proper spirit in re-\nstraining the power of the nobles, and in punishing their lawless\noutrages. To balance the weight of the aristocracy Philip the fair\nintroduced the third estate to the national assemblies, which for\nabove four centuries had consisted only of the nobles and clergy.\nThe chief power of the state began now to shift to the scale of the\nmonarch. The national assembly interfered rather to ratify than to\ndecree and in the fifteenth century the right of legislation was under-\nstood to reside wholly in the crown. The right of taxation seemed\nto follow of course. The assemblies or states-general were now\nrarely convened, and from the reign of Lewis XIII. were discontinued.\n3. But another power gradually rose in the state, which in some\nmeasure supplied the function of the assemblies in limiting the royal\nprerogative. The parliaments were originally the chief courts ot\njustice in the territory where they were established. The parlia-\nment of Paris naturally claimed a higher respect and dignity than\nthe parliaments of the provinces and, acquiring a right of appeal\nfrom their decrees, was considered as the paramount jurisdiction,\nand the depository of the laws of the kingdom. The sovereigns of\nFrance, on first assuming the powers of legislation and taxation, pro-\nduced their edicts to be registered in the court of the parliament of\nParis, and frequently consulted with its members on momentous\naffairs of state, as in questions of peace, war or alliance. Thus the","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0227.jp2"},"228":{"fulltext":"224 MODERN HISTORY.\nnation began to regard the parliament of Paris as a body whicu\nshared the powers of government with the monarch. In the lattei\nreigns the parliament availed itself of that general opinion, and made\na bold stand in opposing any arbitrary stretches of the king s author\nity, by refusing to verify and register his edicts.\n4. But as this power of the parliament was in reality a usurpation,\nit was constantly a subject of dispute. The members of this court\nwere in no sense the representatives of the people, nor vested with\nany portion of the constitutional authority of the national assemblies.\nThey were in the king s nomination, removable by him at pleasure,\nand even subject to entire annihilation as a body at his command.\nEven without so violent a remedy, the sovereign could at any time\nfrustrate their opposition to his will, by personally appearing in the\nhall of parliament, and commanding his edict to be registered.\n5. Yet a power thus easily defeasible had its advantages to the\nstate, and operated as a considerable restraint on the royal authority.\nConsidering itself as the guardian of the public liberty, it remonstrat-\ned against all arbitrary encroachments of the crown, and by giving\nalarm to the nation, furnished an opposition sufficiently powerful to\nobtain its ends. The provincial parliaments, though they likewise\nregistered the royal edicts, never assumed any similar authority.\nThey were only the chief courts of civil judicature.\n6. The king of France was therefore to be considered as an ab-\nsolute monarch, w r hose authority was in some degree limited by the\nconsuetudinary regulations of the state, and could not easily become\nentirely despotic and tyrannical. The crown was hereditary, bu 1-\ncould not descend to a female, nor to a natural son. The royal rev\nenue was partly fixed and partly arbitrary. The fixed revenue com-\nprehended the royal domains, the duties on wines and salt, the land\ntax, capitation tax, and gift of the clergy the other arose from all\nother taxes which the monarch thought fit to impose, and from the\nsale of offices. Most of these duties were leased out to the farmers-\ngeneral.\n7. The Gallican church, though catholic, and acknowledging\nthe spiritual authority of the pope, had greatly abridged his ancient\nprerogatives within the kingdom. The assembly of the church\ndeclared, in 1,682, that no temporal sovereign could be deposed by\nthe pope, nor subjects absolved from their allegiance it decreed the\nsubjection of the pope to the councils of the church, and denied his\ninfallibility when in opposition to the canons of those councils. The\npope had no power to levy money in France without the royal\nlicense. In short, the ecclesiastical authority was in all repects sub-\nordinate to the civil.\nSECTION LXV1\nOF PETER THE GREAT, CZAR OF MUSCOVY, AND CHARLES\nXII., KING OF SWEDEN.\n1. Two most illustrious men adorned the north of Europe in the\nlatter part of the age of Lewis XIV., Peter the great of Muscovy,\nand Charles XII. of Sweden.\nRussia is said to have received the light of Christianity in the\ntenth century, but its history is utterly unknown till the middle of","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0228.jp2"},"229":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY, 225\nthe fifteenth. At that period John Basilowitz redeemed the empire\nfrom its subjection to the Tartars, and extended its limits. His suc-\ncessors maintained a considerable splendour as sovereigns but their\ndominions were uncultivated, and their subjects barbarians. Alexis\nMichaelowitz, father of Peter the great, was the first who published\na code of laws. At the end of the sixteenth century Siberia was\nadded to the empire, which till that time had been bounded by the\nlimits of Europe.\n2. Peter, the youngest son of the emperor Alexis, became mas\ni.er of the empire in 1,689, by setting aside a weak elder brother,\nand banishing a factious sister who had seized the government. He\nwas uneducated, and his youth had been spent in debauchery but\nhis new situation immediately displayed his talents, and gave birth to\nthe wisest plans for the improvement of a barbarous people. The\narmy and navy demanded his first attention. He began by breaking\nthe turbulent militia of the Strelitzes, and by degrees formed a regu\nlar army of 12,000 men on the strictest model of discipline. He em\nployed some Dutchmen to build a small fleet, and made the first ex-\nperiment of his arms in taking Azof from the Turks in 1,696.\n3. Having gained the little instruction which he possessed from\nforeigners, Peter resolved to travel in search of knowledge. Ap-\npointing Le Fort, an able Genevese, his ambassador, he travelled\nas a private person in his suite through Germany to Holland, and\nstudied the art of ship-buiiding, by working in the docks with his\nown hands. Thence he passed to England, and in a similar manner\nacquired the knowledge of every art fitted for the improvement of\nhis kingdom. The relative sciences were cultivated with the same\nardour and success and in sixteen months he returned to Moscow to\nreduce those important acquirements into practice.\n4. Regiments were raised and trained to exercise on the German\nmodel the finances arranged and systematized the church re-\nformed by new canons and regulations; the partriarchate abolish-\ned and a much abused civil and criminal jurisdiction taken from\nthe clergy. It was necessary to carry this reform even to the abo-\nlition of the national dress, and the suppression of ancient usages\nand habits of life, innovations reluctantly submitted to, but enforced\nby absolute power.\n5. While this great genius was thus employed in new-modelling\nand polishing a barbarous empire, a competitor arose to dispute with\nhim the sovereignty of the north, and to divide the admiration of\nEurope. Charles XII. succeeded to the throne of Sweden in 1,695,\nat fifteen years of age a prince whose singular heroism of character\nand extraordinary achievements have ranked him with the greatest\nconquerors of antiquity. The situation of his kingdom speedily\nbrought his genius into display. Russia, Poland, and Denmark, joined\nin a league to seize and divide his dominions. The attack was\nbegun by the Danes on Holstein, while the king of Poland invaded\nLivonia, and the czar, Ingria. Charles immediately landed an army\non Zealand, at the gates of Copenhagen, and in six weeks forced the\nking to purchase the safety of his capital and kingdom, by laying\ndown his arms, and making full indemnity to the duke of Holstein.\nHe now hastened into Ingria, and at the battle of Narva defeated\n60,000 of the Russians, and took 30,000 prisoners. Such was the\nfirst campaign of Charles XII., then a boy of seventeen.\n6. Poland was destined to receive a more humiliating chastise-\nment. Charles reducedCourland and Lithuania.penetrated into the\n29","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0229.jp2"},"230":{"fulltext":"226 MODERN HISTORY.\nheart of the kingdom, and subdued the capitals of Warsaw and Cra-\ncow. He then assembled the states, declared king Augustus de-\nposed, and signified his pleasure that Stanislaus, his own dependant,\nshould be elected sovereign of Poland. The factions of the king-\ndom aided this revolution, and the will of Charles was complied\nwith. The deposed king retired to his electoral dominions of\nSaxony.\n7. A negotiation begun with the czar was abruptly terminated by\nCharles, who declared that he would negotiate only at Moscow.\nEntering the Russian dominions with 45,000 men, he was in the way\nof executing his threat, when he was induced, by a treacherous\npromise of aid from the Cossacks, to march through the Ukraine in\nthe depth of winter. His army was wasted by fatigue and famine,\nwhen he was encountered by the czar at Pultowa and the fate of\nRussia, Sweden, and Poland, hung upon that battle. Charles was\nentirely defeated 9,000 Swedes tell in the field, and 14,000 were\ntaken prisoners, 1,709. Augustus was restored to the throne of\nPoland, and the czar took possession of Finland and Livonia.\n8. With the wreck of his army, reduced to 1,800 men, Charles\nretreated into the Turkish dominions, and formed a camp near Ben-\nder. He endeavoured to prevail upon the grand seignior to arm\nagainst the czar, and succeeded after a long negotiation. Two hun-\ndred thousand Turks took the field, and the czars army, far inferior\nin number, was surrounded, and, after ineffectual resistance, forced\nto capitulate to the grand vizier. The news of this capitulation de-\nstroyed all the hopes of Charles and his subsequent conduct seems\nthe result of frenzy. The grand seignior having intimated his de-\nsire that the Swedes should quit his territories, Charles fortified his\ncamp, and declared that he would defend it to the last extremity.\nAfter every means ineffectually tried to make him alter this resolu-\ntion, he was attacked by the Turkish army, and taken fighting sword\nin hand amidst a massacre of his troops.\n9. In the mean time the czar and the king of Denmark were rav\naging Sweden. Charles returned in disguise with two of his officers,\nto his own dominions, and immediately conceived the design of\nwresting Norway from Denmark. Failing in the outset of this enter-\nprise, he was persuaded by Gortz, his prime minister, to attempt to\ndethrone George II., to seize a part of his continental dominions^and\nto place the pretender James on the throne of England. This\nproject was concerted between Gortz and Alberoni, prime minister\nof Philip V. The czar joined in the scheme, and made peace with\nSweden but an unforeseen event broke all their measures. In be-\nsieging the Norwegian fortress of Frederickshall, Charles was killed\nby a canron-ball, on the 11th of December, 1,718.\n10. Sweden gained by the death of Charles a reformation of her\ngovernment, and a salutary limitation of the arbitrary power of the\nsovereign. His sister Ulrica succeeded to the throne, and raised to\nit her husband, Frederick landgrave of Hesse-Cassei. The states\nmade peace with all the hostile powers. The czar was now engaged\nin a war with Persia, in the view of obtaining the command and\ncommerce oi the Caspian. This object he accomplished, and gained,\nby cession from the sophi, three provinces of the Persian empire.\nPeter the great died January 28, 1,725, and was succeeded by the\nczarina Catherine, formely a Livonian captive, who possessed merit\nequal to her elevated station. His only son, Alexis Petrowitz, had\nbeen condemned to lose his life for treason, and the mode of his","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0230.jp2"},"231":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 227\ndeath, which immediately followed his condemnation, is unkntwn.\nRussia owes to Peter the great all those beneficial improvements\nwhich have raised her, within the period of a century, from barba-\nrism and obscurity, to the highest rank among the powers of Europe.\nSECTION LXVII.\nA VIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE AND LITERATURE\nIN EUROPE, FROM THE END OF THE FIFTEENTH TO THE\nEND OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.\n1. We have seen how much literature and the sciences were in-\ndebted to the art of printing for their advancement and dissemination\ntoward the end of the fifteenth century. (Sect. XXXIV., 12.)\nFrom that period classical learning, criticism, poetry, and history,\nmade a rapid progress in most of the kingdoms of Europe. Philos-\nophy did not keep pace with literature. The dogmas of Aristotle\nhad kept possession of the schools till the seventeenth century, and\nhad engrafted themselves even on the doctrines of theology. It\nrequired a superior genius to dissipate the mist of error, and to\nbreak the fetters on all advancement in useful science. Such was\nthe great Bacon lord Verulam, the most profound philosopher, and\nperhaps the most universal genius, that any age has produced. We\nfind in his works an estimate of the actual attainments in all the\nsciences, a catalogue of the desiderata in each department, and a\ndetail of the methods best suited to prosecute improvement and new\ndiscoveries. In fine, we owe to Bacon the sure method of advanc-\ning in knowledge by experiment and the observation of nature,\ninstead of system and conjecture.\n2. The philosophy of Bacon produced its effect only by slow de-\ngrees. Gassendi, though he exposed the doctrines of Aristotle, was\nstill a theorist, and attempted to revive the atomic system of Epicu-\nrus. Des Cartes followed in the same track, and reared a whimsical\ntheory of the universe, produced, as he supposed, by the fortuitous\ncombination of atoms, moving in vortices through the immensity of\nspace a theory recommended by the ingenuity with which it was\nsupported, and its apparently solving many ot the phenomena ol\nnature. A century before Copernicus had published his system ol\nthe planets, which, though condemned by the church, was received\nby Des Cartes and the best philosophers.\n3. Galileo, in 1,609, constructed telescopes (Sect. XXXIV., 5),\nand discovered the satellites of the larger planets, Jupiter and Saturn,\nand their motions, for which he was rewarded by imprisonment, as a\nsupporter of the Copemican heresy. Kepler investigated the laws\nwhich regulated the motions of the planets, and the analogy between\ntheir distances from the sun and periodical revolutions. The discov-\neries in astronomy led to improvements in navigation, and a great ad-\nvancement of geometry in all its branches. Napier, in 1,614, abridg-\ned calculation by the invention of logarithms. The Toricellian ex-\nperiments determined the weight of the atmosphere. In 1,616\nHarvey discovered the circulation of the blood.\n4. The Royal Society, which originated from private meetings of\nthe English philosophers, was incorporated by Charles II., in 1,662»\nand has greatly contributed to the advancement of the sciences and","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0231.jp2"},"232":{"fulltext":"228 MODEHJN HISTORY.\nuseful arts. The Royal Academy of Sciences was instituted in 1,666\nby Lewis XIV. Similar institutions were founded in most of the coun-\ntries of Europe among which there is a communication of science,\nand a laudable emulation excited by the publication of their transac-\ntions.\n5. In the end of the seventeenth century arose the immortal Newton,\nwho, by exhausting the most important discoveries of the laws of na\nture, has rendered it impossible for posterity to eclipse his fame. He\nhad discovered, before the age of twenty-four, the theory of universal\ngravitation, a principle which solves the chief phenomena of nature,\nand connects and regulates the whole machine of the universe. His\ntheory of light and colours is the foundation of the whole science of\noptics, and his Principia the basis and elements of all philosophy.\n6. Locke, the contemporary of Newton, successfully applied lord\nBacon s mode of investigation to the study of the human mind and,\nutterly rejecting the systems of the old philosophers, examined the\nsoul by attending to its operations. From the simple fact that all\nknowledge is progressive, and that an infant gains its ide«as gradually\nthrough the medium of its senses, he drew the general conclusion,\nthat there are no innate ideas in the mind, but that all are either im-\nmediate perceptions conveyed by the senses, or acts of the mind re-\nflecting on those perceptions a conclusion which has been obstinate-\nly controverted, chiefly by drawing from it false consequences, but\nwhich has never yet been shaken.\n7. The progress of literature in the sixteenth and seventeenth\ncenturies was equally remarkable with that of science and philoso-\nphy. Trissino was the first of the moderns who composed an epic\npoem in the language of his country, LP Italia liberata da Goii, and\nthe first Italian who wrote a regular tragedy, Sophonisba. Of merit\nmuch superior to the epic poem of Trissino is the Lusiad of the\nPortuguese Camoens, a work abounding with passages of high poetic\nbeauty, and displaying a sublime imagination. In the end of the six-\nteenth century Spain produced the Araucana of Ercilla, an epic poem\nof great inequality of merit, but frequently exhibiting novelty oi\nfigures and bold conceptions. The subject is a revolt of the Peru-\nvians against the Spaniards.\n8. But the principal epic poems of this age are the Orlando Fw\nrioso of Ariosto, and the Gierusalemme Liberata of Tasso the former\na work most irregular in its plan, most unconnected and desultory in\nits conduct most extravagant and absurd in the characters of its per-\nsons, but displaying alternately every excellence of poetry in the\nvarious departments of the descriptive, comic, satiric, moral, and\nsublime. The Gierusalemme of Tasso, cf a regular plan and perfect\npolish in its structure, has been frequently brought in comparison\nwith the equally highly finished poem of the JLneid nor does the\nItalian surfer much in the comparison. There is a romantic charm\nboth in the incidents and characters of his poem, which must ever ren-\nder it a favourite with all readers of genuine taste.\n9. From the time of Tasso the genius of epic poetry lay dormant\nfor a century, till the days of Milton for the Fairy Queen of Spenser\nis rather a romantic allegory than an epic poem. The Paradise Lost,\ncompared with the great poems of antiquity, is more irregular and\nless perfect as a whole than the Iliad, JLneid, and Odyssey but ex-\nhibits, in detached parts, more of the sublime and beautiful than any\nof them. It has been well remarked, that the inequality of this poem\narises in a great measure from the nature o£ the subject of which","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0232.jp2"},"233":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 229\nsome parts are the most lofty which can enter into the human mind,\nand others could only have been supported h- a laborious elegance\nand polish, which the author s genius could not stoop to bestow.\n10. Lyric poetry was cultivated in the sixteenth century, in Italy,\nFrance, and England, but with no great success. The less poems of\nAriosto and Tasso have no tincture of the genius displayed in their\ngreater works. Chiabrera is perhaps the only lyric poet of this\nperiod that merits distinction. In France, Ronsard and Bellay imi-\ntated Petrarch with all his false wit, but without his passion. Marot,\nnowever, in the naivete and easy vein of his humour, is justly ac-\ncounted the master of La Fontaine. In the beginning of the seven-\nteenth century French versification received a considerable polish\nfrom the compositions of Racan, and yet more from those oi Mal-\nherbe and toward the end of that century lyric poetry was cultivat-\ned with high success by La Farre, Chapeile, and Bachaumont, Chau-\nlieu and Gresset.\n11. The English lyric poetry of the sixteenth century, of Spenser,\nSurrey, Harrington, Sydney, and even Shakespeare, is harsh and\nunharmonious nor is much improvement discernible till the time of\nCowley and Waller. The merit of Cowley as a lyric poet was too\nhighly prized in his own age, and is underrated in ours. With all his\nfalse wit, pedantry, and obscurity, he is often both sublime and\npathetic in no moderate degree. The lyric ode in the third book of\nthe Davideis has few parallels in the English language. As a prose\nwriter, Cowley shines in that age with superior excellence. Waller\nis more polished and harmonious than any of the preceding or con-\ntemporary poets, but his wit is quaint, and his elevation too frequent\nly bombast.\n12. Dry den, in the end of the seventeenth century, carried lyric\npoetry to perfection. His Ode on St Cecilia s day surpasses all the\nlyric compositions both of ancient and modern times. He shines\nconspicuously as a satirist, possessing the keen and caustic wit, with-\nout the indelicacy, of Juvenal or Horace. His versions from Chau-\ncer and Boccacio are easy and spirited, and display a happy talent\nfor poetical narrative. His numerous dramatic pieces, though exhib-\niting both invention and poetic beauty, are deficient in true passion,\nand in the just delineation of character.\n13. At the end of the sixteenth century the drama in Europe be-\nan to furnish a rational entertainment. At that period, Lope de\nega and Calderona in Spain, and Shakespeare in England, produced\nthose pieces, which, though irregular and stained with blemishes,\nare at this day the admiration of their countrymen. The Spanish\nplays of that age have been a rich mine for succeeding dramatists,\nboth among the French, Italians, and English. The merits of Shakes-\npeare are familiar to every person of taste. Ignorant of the rules\nof his art, he is the pure child of nature, und thus exhibits often her\ncaprices and absurdities but these are redeemed by the most trans-\ncendent beauties. The old English drama is, with all its irregular\nities, incomparably superior to the modern, both in touching the pas\nsions and in displaying just views of human character. The persons\nare more discriminated by various and appropriate features, and the\nnicer shades of nearly resembling characters are thus more distinctly\nmarked. The mixture of the comic and tragic in the same plot,\nthough condemned by modern practice, is a great source of pleasure\nin the pieces of Shakespeare and his contemporaries nor is there any\ntiling in such a mixture but what is consonant to nature. To a per-\nv","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0233.jp2"},"234":{"fulltext":"230 MDBKllN HISTORY*\nson of true taste it will be found often to heighten, by contrast, the\ncapital emotion to be excited.\n14. The compositions for the French stage, in the end of th»\nseventeenth century, are strictly conformable to dramatic rules;\nand many of those pieces are models of a correct and polished taste.\nThe morality of the French drama of that age and the next is in gen-\neral purer than ours but their pieces are deficient in the nice delin-\neation of character, and in the power of exciting the passions.\nCorneille and Racine brought the French tragedy to its highest ele-\nvation as Moliere the comedy. Corneille has more grandeur and\nsublimity than his rival, who excels him in the tender and pathetic.\nThe comedies of Moliere, highly amusing in the present time, were\nmore particularly valuable in the age when they were written, and\nhad a sensible effect in correcting its prevailing follies the pedantry\nof the ladies, the ignorance and quackery of the physicians, and the\npride and arrogance of the French noblesse. The last of the emi-\nnent dramatists who adorned France in the seventeenth century was\nthe elder Crebillon, who drew many sublime and impassioned scenes\nfrom the source of terror and who, in all his works, was as emi-\nnently the friend of virtue as his worthless son has been the pander\nof vice.\n15. The most eminent historians of the sixteenth century are,\nDe Thou, Davila, and Machiavel. De Thou has written the annals\nof his own time, from 1,545 to 1,607, with great judgment, and in\nmost elegant Latin composition. The history of Davila, the annals\nof the civil wars of France in the time of the league, though the\nwork of a partisan, is composed with no common degree of candour\nand impartiality. In .he beginning of the sixteenth century Machia-\nvel wrote his History of Florence, of which the style is classical and\nthe matter well arranged, but too much interrupted by reflections and\npolitical discussions. In the seventeenth century Bentivoglio com-\nposed his History of the Civil Wars of Flanders, with the most ac-\ncurate knowledge of his subject, persi icuity of narrative, and ele-\ngance of style. Among the English historians in the beginning of\nthat period Raleigh is the most distinguished though his History of\nthe World is, in point of style, inferior to the judgment shown in the\narrangement of the matter. In the latter part of the seventeenth\ncentury, Clarendon s History of the Rebellion is a work of the high-\nest merit, whether we consider the authenticity of the facts, the deep\nknowledge of human nature displayed in the delineation of the\ncharacters, or the grave and manly eloquence of the style. If, in\nthe opposition of political opinions, he has been deemed too partial\nin defence of his sovereign, even his adversaries have admitted his\nperfect integrity, and entire conviction of the rectitude of the cause\nwhich he supports.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0234.jp2"},"235":{"fulltext":"HISTORY OF THE JEWS.\nSECTION I.\nA GENERAL VIEW OF THE HISTORY OF MANKIND IN THE\nPRIMEVAL AGES.\n1. In contemplating those great outlines of history, the memorable\nand important events which have determined the condition of man-\nkind, and rendered the aspect of the moral and intellectual world\nsuch as we now view it, we shall find abundant subjects for observa-\ntion and reflection. In many cases we shall be obliged to have re-\ncourse to conjecture, founded on different degrees of probability\nand some of those probabilities may be so corroborated by general\nexisting circumstances as to amount almost to certainty.\n2. Of the primeval state of mankind we know little from historical\ninformation, and can form an opinion of it only from conjecture\nfounded on the nature of things. From the extremely slow progress of\ncivilization it is reasonable to suppose that men must have existed a\nlong time before they began to write the history of such transactions\nand events as they deemed most important. All their care and atten-\ntion would at first be employed in providing the means of supplying\ntheir physical wants, and of rendering their existence tolerable. In\nthat state of simple nature they would not think of transmitting an ac-\ncount of their actions to posterity, and could hardly have any oc-\ncurrences worth recording. Here our knowledge of human nature\nand of human wants will supply the deficiency of history. From\nthe experience of our own wants, and of the means of supplying them,\nwe may infer almost with certainty, that habitations would be built as\na shelter from the inclemency of the weather: and in fact we find\nthis to be the case in all those countries which are at present occupied\nby savages. In process of time some attention would be given to\nthe cultivation of the soil, to make the earth produce such vegetables\nas were fit for the food of man. The arts most essential to the com-\nfortable existence of the human species would be invented before\nthe use of letters.\n3. From all these circumstances we may reasonably suppose that\nthe first rude sketch of history would be the traditionary tales de-\nlivered from father to son through successive generations and these\nin reality constitute the basis of the first historical records. Such are\nthe fabulous relations of the first historians among the Greeks, It\nappears that the Greeks had adopted the historical legends of the\nEgyptian priests, who were accustomed to cover their religion and\nlearning with the mystical veil of allegory and that in many cases\nthey mistook the Egyptian mode of allegorizing the early periods of\nhistory, and have presented to posterity an absurd and monstrous\ntissue of fabulous narrative of kings who never reigned, and of heroes\nf celestial descent","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0235.jp2"},"236":{"fulltext":"232 MODERN HISTORY.\n4. Superstition being natural to man before the mind is enlightened\nby philosophy, it is no wonder that the writings of the first historians\ncontain many relations of the communication of gods and demi-gods\nwith mankind, and of the frequent interference of supernatural\nagents in human affairs. The vivid imaginations of the early Greek\nauthors, heated with superstition, and unrestrained by philosophy,\nexpanded into wild exuberance, and fabricated the most absurd and\nridiculous tales. Hence the period of time which elapsed between\nthe establishment of political and civil society in Greece, and the\nTrojan war may be justly denominated the fabulous age and indeed\nmost part of what is related concerning that war, has evident marks\nof fiction stamped upon it for all the historical accounts of it are\noriginally founded on the poems of Homer. No writings can claim\nthe title of an authentic history of Grecian affairs before the Per-\nsian wars. The histories of all other heathen nations were not less\nfabulous and absurd thar. those of the Greeks and indeed all that\nwe know concerning them has been transmitted to us through the\nmedium of Greek writers.\n5. When we consider the general state of the world in the early\nages, with respect to political, commercial, and literary communica-\ntion, however we may amuse ourselves with perusing the accounts\ntransmitted to us of the transactions of remote antiquity, reason tells\nus that they are nothing but fiction or historical romance. Until\nthe Greeks (who were the inventors, or at least the improvers of\narts and sciences) had attained a considerable degree of civilization\nand opulence, and had begun to cultivate the arts of conveniency,\nluxury, and elegance, little credit is due to profane history. This\nperiod cannot be fixed long before the first Persian war, which hap-\npened about 503 years before the birth of Christ. For inibrmation\nrelative to the state of mankind, and the events which occurred\nbefore that period, we must have recourse to the writings of the\nJews.\n6. This consideration naturally leads us to turn our attention to\nthose ancient records of the Jews, which have always been deemed\nsacred by them, and of which the authenticity has been acknowl-\nedged by the generality of mankind, who have perused them with\ndue attention. The Jewish annals are the most ancient of all that\nhave been transmitted to us, and the most intrinsically rational and\nprobable. They likewise contain a series of transactions and events\nequally curious and interesting. In them we find the only rational\naccount of the creation of the world, and the beginning of things;\nof the dispersion of mankind, and the origin of ancient nations.\nSECTION II.\nSUMMARY VIEW OF JEWISH HISTORY.\n1. The Israelites, or ancient Jews, were those distinguished peo-\nple, who were favoured by the immediate care of the Almignty,\nand conducted by his especial guidance to Judea, a place of resi-\ndence promised to their remote ancestors. In consequence of their\nobstinacy, idolatry, and wickedness, and more particularly for the\nrejection of their Messiah, they were subdued by the Romans, after\nsustaining a siege ir their metropolis, Jerusalem, unparalleled in the","height":"3587","width":"2108","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0236.jp2"},"237":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 233\nannals of history for its distresses, calamities, and slaughter. Jerusa-\nlem was reduced to ruins, the Jewish government was totally sub-\nverted, and the surviving people were dispersed over most parts ot\nthe world. Their descendants still remain unmixed with the rest\nof mankind, and are marked by their original features of national\npeculiarity they adhere with the most zealous attachment to the\nreligion of their forefathers, and cherish the hoj es of restoration to\ntheir former prosperity and country by means of a glorious and tri-\numphant Deliverer.\n2. They preserve, with the most watchful care, the sacred books\nof their ancient writers. And astonishing, very astonishing it is to\nobserve, that in the prophetical parts of these sacred books are contained\nall the events before mentioned of their extraordinary history. Their\nparticular conduct, and the vicissitudes of their national affairs, were\npredicted by their prophets, and more, especially by Moses, their\ngreat law-giver, in the infancy of the world, at the vast distance of\nthirty-three centuries from the present times. The accomplishment\nof these predictions bears the fullest and most striking evidence to\nthe truth and inspiration of their prophets, and illustrates the dis-\npensations of Providence to his chosen people.\n3. These sacred books contain likewise predictions the most exact\nof the character, office, and actions of the Messiah of the Jews, the\ngreat Law-giver of the christians, the appointed Saviour of the world.\n4. Such interesting circumstances as these, in addition to the pe-\nculiar nature of the Jewish polity, considered as a divine institution,\nthe curious manners and customs, and the memorable actions of the\ndescendants of Abraham, the most ancient people of whom we h?ve\nany authentic accounts, combine to place these books first in order\nof importance, as in order of time. If we consider the great antiqui-\nty, the subjects, and the characters of the writers, of these books, and the\nplace which they occupy in the order of general history, particular-\nly as they stand connected with the christian revelation, they will be\nfound to deserve our very earnest attention.\nSECTION III.\nTHE ANTIQUITY OF THE SCRIPTURES.\n1. No writings of any other nation can be brought into competi-\ntion, in respect of antiquity, with those of the Jews. In proof of\nthis assertion it may be remarked, that Moses lived more than a\nthousand years before the age of Herodotus, who is reputed the\nfather of Grecian history. As another proof of the priority of the\nJews to the Greeks, it appears by the confession of the Greek wri-\nters, that they received the letters of their alphabet from the Phoe-\nnicians and there are very suflicient grounds for believing that the\nPhoenicians derived the art of writing from the Jews. The learned\nand acute Porphyry, who was an equal enemy both to Jews and\nchristians, and much attached to the learning of Greece, candidly\nacknowledged that Moses, and the prophets who immediately suc-\nceeded him, flourished nearly a thousand years before any of the\nGreek philosophers.\n2. The books which compose the canon of the Jewish scriptures\nhave the concurrence of all antiquity in favour of their originality.\nThey were delivered to the Hebrews in their own language, with\nU2 30","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0237.jp2"},"238":{"fulltext":"234 MODERN HISTORY.\nevery mark of genuineness, by the persons whose names fhey bear\nand those persons, by recording contemporary events, constantly\nappealed to well known proofs of their regard to truth. The pro-\nphetical books in particular contain the evidences of their inspira-\ntion, as well as of the integrity and piety of their authors. The ex-\nternal proofs are clear and strong, as well as the internal in conse-\nquence of which all these books have always been preserved with\nine greatest care, and have been held in the highest veneration.\n3. It is no less curious than important to remark the traditions\npreserved in the pagan world, which confirm the truth of the Pen-\ntateuch, or the five books written by Moses. The Chaldeans pre-\nserved the history of their Xisurus, who was the Noah of Moses.\nThe Egyptians asserted that Mercury had engraved his doctrine\nupon columns, which had resisted the violence of a deluge. The\nChinese historians record that Peyrun, a mortal beloved and protect-\ned by the gods, saved himself in a vessel from the general inundation\nThe Hindoos say that the waters of the ocean spread over the surface\nof the earth, except one mountain to the north that one woman\nand seven men saved themselves on this mountain, with certain\nplants anl animals. They add, in speaking of their god Vishnou, that\nat the deluge he transformed himself into a fish, and conducted the\nvessel which preserved the relics of the human race. This vessel\nis likewise a subject of tradition in the northern parts of the world.\nSulivan s View of Nature, Letter 67.\n4. That the sacrifice of animals was necessary to appease the\noffended gods, was a religious tenet very general and veiy ancient.\nThe account of the long lives of the patriarchs is confirmed by wri\nters of various countries. Their primitive manners, and their\nmode of performing sacrifices, and offering prayers to the great Au\nthor of nature on the summits of mountains, and in the retirements\nof groves, agree with the descriptions of Homer, and many other\nearly writers. Zoroaster, the great teacher of the ancient Persians,\nderived from the books of Moses the first principles of his religion,\nhis ceremonial laws, his account of the creation, of the first parents\nof mankind, of the patriarchs, and particularly of Abraham, whose\npure religion he professed to restore.\n5. In the attributes and characters of the heathen gods may be\nfound allusions to the ancient expressions of the Hebrew scriptures.\nIn the customs, laws, and ceremonies of many other nations may be\ntraced a resemblance to the Mosaical institutions. In the accounts\nof the deities of the Pagans, and the early heroes and benefactors of\nmankind, particularly in those which adorn the pages of Grecian\nhistory, are represented many of the patriarchs and illustrious per-\nsons of scripture. Many principles of the most eminent philoso-\nphers, many fictions of the most celebrated poets, both of Greece\nand Rome, and many institutions of the most renowned heathen law-\ngivers, cannot fail, by their circumstances of resemblance, to direct\nour attention to the great legislator of the Jews. The most venera-\nble and ancient traditions of the world seem to contain the parts of\none original and uniform system, which was broken by the disper-\nsion of the primeval families after the deluge, and corrupted by the\nrevolution of ages. They were the streams which tlowed through\nthe various countries of the earth, from the great source of Mosa-\nical history.*\nSee Stillingfteet, b. iii, c. 5 Bryant s Mythology Maurice s Indian\nAntiquities Raleigh s History of the World, p. 71.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0238.jp2"},"239":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 235\n6. Josephus, the Jewish historian, flourished in the reign of the\nemperor Vespasian. He was a person of great learning and emi-\nnence, and conducted his inquiries with singular diligence, industry,\nand care. He corroborates the testimony of the sacred writers, and\nillustrates their truth as he not only gives a regular detail of the most\nremarkable transactions of the Jews, but introduces considerable\nnotices of all those people, with whom they formed alliances, or car-\nried on wars. In his treatise against Apion he exposes the contra-\ndictions which occurred in the Egyptian, Chaldean, and Phoenician\nrecords vindicates the authority of the Jewish scriptures describes\nthe care which was taken in their preservation and states their\nsuperior pretensions, more particularly in point of antiquity, to the\nrespect and reverence of mankind.*\nSECTION IV.\nTHE SUBJECTS OF THE BOOKS, AND CHARACTERS OF THE\nWRITERS.\n1. The subjects of the books of the Old Testament are truly\nwonderful and striking, and of such a nature as to surpass all monu-\nments of profane learning, equally in importance as in antiquity\nOf all parts which compose the sacred canon, none are more curious\nthan Genesis, the first book written by Moses because it contains a\nsketch of the earliest history of mankind. There stand recorded\nthe creation of the world and its inhabitants, the fall of our first pa-\nrents from their state of innocence and happiness, and their banish-\nment from the garden of Eden the repeated and signal promises of\na future restorer of the lost blessings of mankind the history of the\npatriarchs, honoured by the revelations of Jehovah the description\nof the general deluge the dispersion of the progenitors of the hu-\nman race over all the earth the adoption of a particular family to\nperpetuate the remembrance, and establish the worship of the true\nGod, and their prosperous settlement in Egypt. Instances indeed are\nmentioned of early depravity, and of the violence of the passions,\nattended with suitable punishments yet society appears under its\nsimplest form in point of manners, and we discern no traces of the\nluxury and false refinement of subsequent times.\n2. In the books of the Jews is recorded an account of the descen-\ndants of Israel a race of men selected from all others, and favoured\nwith successive revelations of the divine will. Here are shown the\ninstances of their fidelity, perverseness, and disobedience; their\nglory and triumphs their disgraces, and their subjection to foreign\npowers. Here is seen the superintendance of a divine and especial\nProvidence watching over innocence, suspending wrath, and taking\nthe most signal vengeance upon unrepented offences. Here are\ndeveloped the failings of the most virtuous persons, and the obdurate\nwickedness of confirmed sinners. Here are displayed the mixed\ncharacters even of the most excellent men, the eminent examples ol\nfaith and piety, of courage and patience, in the conduct of Abraham,\nLot, Job, Joseph, Moses, David, Hezekiah, Josiah, and Daniel\nRett s Interpreter of Prophecy, vol. i, p. 200. Lardner, vol. vii, p.\n30, 259, c.","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0239.jp2"},"240":{"fulltext":"236 MODKRN HISTORY.\nAnd most interesting is it to observe, that the knowledge of the\none true God was communicated to this people, and preserved by\nthem alone that they had the most sublime ideas of his nature\nand attributes; that a magnificent temple was erected to his honour;\na regular service was instituted holy ceremonies were performed;\nan order of priests of one particular family was consecrated a pure\nworship was established by his express command, and regulated by\nhis particular laws. Thus were the Jews enlightened by a knowl-\nedge of the true object of divine worship and thus were the purity\nand holiness of their religious ordinances conducted, at a time when\nall other nations presented a wide scene of gross superstition and\nmental darkness when the rest of the human race, and even the\nmost intelligent and polished nations of Egypt and Greece, showed\nthe most abject degradation of their nature, by prostrating them-\nselves before idols of their own workmanship and abused the evi-\ndence of sense, and the faculty of reason, by imputing to wood and\nstone the attributes of divine power.\n3. We see likewise a succession of prophets raised up among the\nJews, to communicate the divine will, to warn them of evils, and to\nannounce to them blessings to come. These holy men, ever obedi-\nent to the call of Heaven, rose superior to all worldly considerations\nand with a spirit of intrepidity and independence, which clearly\nshowed that Heaven was the source of their reliance, they executed\ntheir sacred commissions, unawed by the threats of kings, or the\nresentment of the people. They foretold remote events in times\nwhen they appeared most improbable ever to take place, and when\nno human foresight, and no calculation of chances, could guide them\nto the discovery of the particular affairs, which fulfilled their pre-\ndictions. Moses, in a long and most interesting detail of threats and\npromises, foretold the exact manner in which his people were ordain-\ned to be happy or miserable, according as they followed or disobeyed\nthe divine laws. At a subsequent period, when Jerusalem was laid\nin ruins, and the Jews were groaning under the sorrows of the Baby-\nlonish captivity, Isaiah solemnly addressed Cyrus by his name, more\nthan a hundred years before his birth, as the deliverer of Israel, and\nthe new founder of the Holy City* When Babylon was shining in\nthe meridian of its glory, and its monarchs ruled over all the nations\nof the east with the most despotic sway, the same prophet predicted\nthe total subversion of their empiie, and the complete desolation of\ntheir vast metropolis. That all these and numerous other predictions\nwere exactly verified by the events, are truths confirmed by the evi-\ndence of profane as well as sacred history.\n4. The same inspired prophets had a much more grand and im-\nportant object in view, than to declare the future dispensations of\nProvidence to one nation in particular; for they announced, in terms\nat first dark and mysterious, but progressively more clear and cir\ncumstantial, the future birth of a Messiah, a glorious king, a divine\nlegislator, who was to abolish the sacrifices and religious institutions\nof the Jews, and to proclaim and establish a general law for the\nobservance and happiness of all mankind. Here the evangelists ccn*\ntribute their aid to illustrate the declarations of the prophets, and\nunite the history of the Old with that of the New Testament, in\nthe most close and indissoluble bonds of union.\nIsaiah, B. C. 757. Cyrus, B. C. 589. Rett s Interpreter of Prophecy,\nvol. i. p. 130","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0240.jp2"},"241":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 237\n5. The historical books of scripture, considered from the time of\nthe giving of the law to Moses to the reformation in the worship and\ngovernment by Nehemiah, after the Babylonish captivity, contain a\nsummary account of the Jewish affairs for a period of eleven centu-\nries.* They were evidently not intended to give a complete detail\nof national transactions, as their writers had a more sublime and im-\nportant end in view. To illustrate the prophecies, by relating cir-\ncumstances whicli existed at the time when they were uttered, and\nto show their accomplishment to record various revelations of the\ndivine will, and to describe the state of religion among the Hebrews,\nand the various dispensations of Providence, in public as well as in\nprivate occurrences, seem to have been their chief objects. Hence\nit is that the chain of history is sometimes broken into detached parts,\nand its detail is interrupted by a recital of private transactions. The\nbooks of scripture occasionally assume the form, and comprise the\nbeauties of a very interesting kind of biography. Of this nature are\nthe several accounts of Job, Ruth, and Esther but they are far from\nbeing unconnected with the principal design of the sacred writers\ninasmuch as they show that the same divine Providence which presid-\ned over the nation at large, extended its particular care to individ-\nuals, and that the examples of private virtue were inseparable from\nthe great interests of public welfare and happiness.\n6. The Israelites, for many ages separated from the rest of man-\nkind by their peculiar institutions, were little acquainted with com-\nmerce, and made small advances in those arts, which, with a refine-\nment, and a diversity of employments, introduce luxury and corrup-\ntion of manners. They were governed by equal laws, and possessed\nnearly equal property. They admitted no hereditary distinction of\nrank, except in favour of the regal tribe of Judah, and the sacer-\ndotal family of Levi. Their occupations from the earliest times were\nof the most simple kind, and consisted in pasturage and agriculture.\nTo guide the plough, and tend the flock, were employments which,\nrecommended by the innocence of primeval manners, and dignified\nby length of time, were exercised by kings, prophets, and generals.\nMoses was called from feeding his flock, to conduct the Israelites to\nthe promised land Elisha forsook the plough, to be invested with\nthe mantle of prophecy and Gideon left the threshing floor, to lead\nthe army of his country to battle.\n7. The country of Judea presented a scene diversified by fruit-\nful vallies, barren rocks, and lofty mountains, and was watered by\nnumerous streams. It produced the palm-tree, the balsam, the vine,\nthe olive, the fig, and all the fruits which abound in the more tem-\nperate regions of Asia. From the labours of the field, and from cul-\ntivating the vine, the attention of the Israelites was regularly called\nby religious worship, which was intimately blended with the civil\nconstitution of the state. The splendour of their public services, the\npomp and magnificence of their rites and ceremonies, the stated re-\ncurrence of their various festivals and sacrifices, the sabbath, the\npassover, the celebration of the sabbatical year, and the jubilee and.\nmore than all, the constant experience of divine interposition, filled\ntheir minds with the most awful and grand ideas, and gave them the\ndeepest impressions of the majesty, power, goodness, and justice of\nGod.\nMoses, B. C. 1,571. Nehemiah, B. C. 546. Gray s Key to the Old\nTestament, p. 124.","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0241.jp2"},"242":{"fulltext":"238 JEWISH HISTORY.\n8. These were the circumstances which, combining to form their\nnational manners, had the greatest influence upon their writings.\nThe historical style is marked by the purest simplicity of ideas, oc-\ncasionally raised to a tone of elevation. In the works of Moses there\nis a majesty of thought, which is most strikingly expressed in plain\nand energetic language. In the prophetical writings the greatest\nsplendour and sublimity of composition are conspicuous. They are\nenriched by those glowing images, and raised by that grandeur of\ndiction, which charm the classical reader in the most admired pro-\nductions of Greece and Rome. The royal psalmist is eloquent, dig-\nnified, and pathetic. All the beauties of composition unite in Isaiah,\nsuch is the majesty of his ideas, the propriety, beauty, and fertility\nof his imagery, and the elegance of his language, employed upon the\nnoblest subjects which could possibly engage our attention. Jere-\nmiah excels in those expressions of tenderness, which excite, with\nthe most pleasing enthusiasm, the feelings of compassion.\n9. By such peculiar beauties of composition are recommended\nthe most interesting details of events, and the most faithful deline-\nations of characters. The great Creator calls all things into ex-\nistence with his omnipotent word. The first parents of mankind,\ninnocent and happy, are blessed with his immediate converse, and\nenjoy the blooming groves of Paradise. Joseph, the pious, the\nchaste, and the wise, after having undergone great afflictions, and\nrising by his extraordinary merit to an office of the highest honour\nin the court of Pharaoh, discovers himself in a manner the most\npathetic to his repentant brethren, and is restored to his aged and\naffectionate father, whom he invites into Egypt to share his pros-\nperity. The children of Israel, guided by the divine Power, which\nveils its glory in a cloud, pass safely through the Red Sea, in which\nthe host of the impious Pharaoh are overwhelmed. Upon the sum-\nmit of Mount Sinai Moses receives the two tables of the command\nments, amid the thunder, lightning, clouds, and darkness, which\nobscure the great Jehovah from his eyes. The royal psalmist sings\nthe wonders of creation, the powers of his God, and his own de-\nfeats and triumphs. The peaceful and prosperous Solomon, whose\nrenown was extended over all the east, rears the structure of the\nmagnificent temple and amid the multitudes of his adoring sub-\njects consecrates it to the service of the one true God, in a prayer\nwhich equally attests his wisdom and his piety. In the visions of\nfuturity Isaiah beholds the deliverance of the chosen people the\ncomplete destruction of the great empire of Babylon, by which\nthey were enslaved and the promised Messiah, the Saviour of\nmankind, sometimes depressed by want and sorrow, and sometimes\narrayed in the emblems of divine majesty and power. He predicts\nthe final recal of the Jews to their native land, and the wide diffu-\nsion of the christian faith. Jeremiah sinks a weeping mourner over\nthe ruins of his native city, deplores its calamities, and consoles his\ncountrymen by expressly declaring, that they should never cease\nto be a nation to the end of the world. Daniel explains to Bel-\nshazzar the mystic characters inscribed upon the walls of his palace,\nand views, in his wide prospect of future times, the fates of the four\ngreat empires of the world. Cyrus, long before announced by\nIsaiah, as the great subverter of the Babylonish empire, and the\nrestorer of the glory of Jerusalem, publishes his decree for the\nrestoration of the captive Jews and the holy city and temple\nrise from their ruins with new grandeur and magnificence. The","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0242.jp2"},"243":{"fulltext":"JEWISH HISTORY. 239\nJews are settled and reformed by the pious care of Nehemiah, and\nthe canon of the scriptures is closed by Malachi. This last of the\nprophets enjoins the strict observance of the law of Moses, till the\ngreat Precursor should appear, in the spirit of Elias, to announce\nthe approach of the Messiah, who was to establish a new and an\neverlasting covenant.*\n10. Such are a few of the interesting circumstances contained in\nthe books of the Old Testament, which engage our attention, charm\nour imagination, and gratify our curiosity, while they confirm oui\nbelief in the great evidences of revelation. In all these works\nwe may remark the bright truths of religious instruction, shining\nCorth amid the venerable simplicity of the most ancient history a\noistory unrivalled for the grandeur of the ideas which it conveys,\nthe liveliness of its descriptions, and the number of its beautiful and\nsublime images.\n11. In these books of sacred history there is an impartiality ot\nnarrative, which is an undoubted characteristic of truth. If we\nread the Lives of Plutarch, or the History of Livy, we soon dis-\ncover that these writers composed their works under the influence\nof many prejudices in favour of their respectives countries. A veil\nis thrown over the defects of their heroes, but their virtues are\nplaced in a strong light, and painted in vivid colours. In the scrip-\ntures, on the contrary, both of the Old and the New Testament, the\nstrictest impartiality prevails. The vices of David, Solomon, and\ntheir successors, are neither concealed nor palliated. There is no\nostentation of vanity, no parade of panegyric virtue charms with\nher native beauty, and vice requires no disguise to conceal her de-\nformity. The characters of persons are sketched, and the effects of\nthe passions are represented without reserve or concealment; and\nthe moral to be drawn from each description is so obvious, as to ac-\ncount for the frequent omission of remarks and applications. The\nabject condition of the Jews, when prohibited the use of weapons of\nwar by the victorious Philistines their relapses into idolatry, their\nperverseness of disposition, and their various defeats and captivities,\nwith every circumstance of private as well as public disgrace, are\nrecorded without palliation or reserve. Always rising superior to\nthe motives which induce other authors to violate the purity and de-\ngrade the majesty of truth, these writers keep one great and most\nimportant end constantly in view, and show the various methods by\nwhich the providence of God effected his gracious designs how he\nproduced good from evil, and employed the sins and follies of man-\nkind as the instruments of his gracious purposes\n12. An acquaintance with the affairs of the Jewish nation forms\nthe first link in the chain cf ancient records. Thus we may observe\nthe connexion which subsists between the branches of sacred and\nprofane history. We place the works of pagan writers in their\nproper situation, and give them additional value, by making them\nsubservient to the cause of religion, and instrumental in the illustra-\ntion of revealed truth. If the student is not called upon by profes-\nsional inducements to read the scriptures in their original languages,\nhe may rest contented with translations; and it seems to be a well-\nFor these very impiessive passages of the Bible, see Gen. i, ii, xliv,\nxiv Exod. xiv, xx the Psalms 1 Kings viii Isaiah ii, vi, ix, x, xi, xiv,\nxxviii, xxxii, xl, xliii, lx, lxi, lxiii, lxv, and more particularly liii La-\nment, i, c. Daniel v, vii Ezra vii Nehem. xiii Malachi iii. iv.","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0243.jp2"},"244":{"fulltext":"240 JEWISH HISTORY.\nfounded opinion among the learned, that he may rely with confidence\nupon the general fidelity of our English version.\nSECTION V.\nOF THE ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD.\n1. An authentic account of the creation of the world, and of the\nprimitive state of mankind is to be found only in the bible. There\nwe are informed by Moses, the most ancient of all historians, that in\nthe beginning God created the earth, the celestial bodies, and all\nthings both animate and inanimate that he created one man and one\nwoman, named Adam and Eve, and placed them in a garden or para-\ndise, situated in the land of Eden. According to the best chronoio-\ngers the creation of the world was accomplished in the year 4,004\nA. C. Adam and Eve soon transgressed the commands of God, and\nwere therefore expelled from their delightful abode.\n2. Adam and Eve had two sons, whose names were Cain and Abel.\nCain, the elder, was a husbandman, and Abel was a shepherd. Cain\nwas of a vicious, Abel of a virtuous disposition. Hence the worship\nof Abel was more acceptable to the Lord than that of Cain. Insti-\ngated by envy and malice, Cain killed his brother when they were\ntogether in the field. For this atrocious crime he was severely pun-\nished by the Lord, and became a fugitive and a vagabond upon the\nearth.\n3. After the murder of Abel, another son, named Seth, was born\nto Adam. From this time the descendants of Adam multiplied rapid-\nly, and at length spread over the face of the earth.\n4. One of the most remarkable circumstances of the former world\nis the longevity of the people. Adam lived 930 years, Seth 912\nyears, Jared 962 years, Methuselah 969 years, Noah 950 years.\n5. In process of time mankind became so wicked that the Lord\nwas resolved to destroy them by a delude. Amid the general cor-\nruption and depravity of the human race one virtuous man was found.\nNoah, the son of Lamech, zealous for the reformation of men, be-\ncame a preacher of righteousness to the degenerate and vicious\npeople among whom he lived, and employed both his council and au-\nthority to reclaim them but in vain. And God commanded Noah to\nbuild a great ship, called an ark, and to put in it his wife, his three\nsons and their wives, and also a few males and females of every spe-\ncies of living things, that they might be saved from the general del-\nuge which would shortly overwhelm the whole earth, and extirpate\nall creatures. The flood continued 150 days, and then gradually sub-\nsided. Noah and his family, and all the animals, went out of the\nark (2,343 A. C.) and in process of time they multiplied and spread\nover the surface of the earth, as we now see them.\n6. Of the literary and scientific attainments of the antediluvians\nwe know very little. From the Mosaic account they do not appear\nto have been great. Moses has briefly informed us what was the\norigin of various customs and arts, and has recorded the names of\ntheir inventors. Lamech the son of Cain gave the first example of\npolygamy. Cain built the first city, and introduced the use of\nweights and measures. One of Cain s grandsons was the father of\nsuch as dwell in tents, and of such as have cattle. Jubal invented\nmusic; Tubal Cain the arts of forging iron, and of casting brass;\nand a woman called Naamah the arts of spinning and weaving,","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0244.jp2"},"245":{"fulltext":"JEWISH HISTORY.\nTheir religious rites were few and simple. They worshipped God\nby prayer, and sacrifices of certain animals.\nSECTION VI.\nFIRST AGES AFTER THE DELUGE.\n1. The remembrance of the three sons of Noah, the first foun-\nders of the nations of the earth after the deluge, has been preserved\namong the several nations descended from them. Japhet peopled\nthe greater part of the west, and continued long famous under the\nname of Japetus. Ham was reverenced as a deity by the Egyptians,\nunder the title of Jupiter Hammon. The memory of Shem has\nalways been venerated by his descendants, the Hebrews, who de-\nrived their name from his son Heber.\n2. Except the building of the tower of Babel no event of impor-\ntance occurs in the history of Moses during the space of nearly\n1,100 years from the deluge to the call of Abraham. About 100\nyears after the deluge the descendants of Noah were become nu-\nmerous at the foot of Mount Ararat, and in the plain of Shinaar, ex-\ntending along the banks of the Euphrates and the Tigris. They\nfound that the country was not extensive enough to contain them\nmuch longer, and therefore that they must separate. They agreed\nto build a very high tower, which might be a signal of union, if they\nshould ever desire to return to their native country. When they had\nraised the tower to a certain height, the workmen suddenly perceiv\ned that they did not understand the words of one another, and that\nall spoke different languages. Consequently it was impossible to\ncontinue the work, and the people dispersed in different directions.\nHence the origin of different languages, and the dispersion of the\nhuman race over the habitable globe.\n3. Soon after this memorable event, Nimrod, a vjcAs^I sjnd impe-\nrious man, built the city of Babel, or Babylon, and laid the founda\ntion of the first great empire, called the Babylonian, which was\nafterwards so famous in the history of the Jews.\nSECTION VII.\nOF THE JEWS.\n1. The Jews derived their origin from Abraham, the son of Terah,\nthe tenth in lineal descent from Shem the son of Noah. The de\nscendants of Shem spread from Armenia, where the ark is supposed\nto have rested after the deluge, to Mesopotamia, and thence into\nChaldea, where Abraham was born. As Abraham was appointed tj\nbe the progenitor of a great and distinguished nation, God separated\nhim from the other descendants of Shem, by causing Terah to re-\nmove from Chaldea into the country of Haram, near the borders of\nMesopotamia, where he died. Abraham intended to settle in Haram.\nbut in obedience to the will of God, he removed into the land of\nCanaan, which was appointed to be the inheritance of his posterity.\nFrom tnis period commences a long series of events, which are re-\ncorded in the book of Genesis, and are represented as immediately\ndirected by the Lord.\n2. After Abraham arrived in Canaan, his first care was to erect an\nX 31","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0245.jp2"},"246":{"fulltext":"242 JEWISH HISTORY.\naltai for the worship of God, who appeared to him, and confirmed\nthe promise which he had before made to him, to give the country\nto his children. When he had lived some time in Canaan, a fam-\nine compelled him to remove his family into Egypt, (1,916 A. C),\nwhere he resided till the famine ceased, and then returned. His\nwife Sarah, when she was advanced in years, brought him a son,\nwho was called Isaac. When Isaac grew to man s estate he married\nRebecca, who was afterward the mother of Jacob. In process of\ntime Jacob had ten sons, who were the fathers of ten tribes. By the\neommand of the Lord, Jacob took the name of Israel, and hence his\nposterity were called Israelites, or the children of Israel.\n3. Joseph, the ninth son, was the favourite of his father, which\nexcited the jealousy and hatred of his elder brothers, who sold him\nto some merchants, and told Jacob that he had been devoured by\nwild beasts. The merchants carried their slave into Egypt, and\nsold him to Potiphar, an officer of king Pharaoh s guard, 1,724 A.\nC. Joseph served Potiphar with such diligence and fidelity, that he\nsoon committed to him the care of his domestic affairs.\nThe wife of Potiphar repeatedly attempted to seduce Joseph into\nthe gratification of her amorous propensities but her immodest ad\nvances being rejected with disdain, she was incensed, and malicious-\nly accused him of an attempt to violate her chastity. On this false\naccusation he was immediately thrown into prison, but was soon\nliberated by the king. Such is, in all ages and in all countries, the\nvindictive disposition of a lascivious woman, whose allurements have\nbeen neglected or resisted. The disappointed wanton prosecutes,\nwith everlasting enmity, the innocent object of her carnal desires\n4. Joseph, being skilful in the interpretation of dreams, was intro-\nduced to Pharaoh king of Egypt, who was perplexed by two dreams\nwhich he could not explain. Joseph interpreted his dreams, which\npredicted abundant products of the earth for seven years, and after\n*vard a dreadful famine for seven years. He was released from pris-\non, and appointed to conduct the affairs of Egypt under Pharaoh.\n5. In consequence of the famine with which Canaan was afflicted\n(as it had been foretold), Jacob and his family removed into Egypt,\n1,702 A. C. Joseph assigned them a residence in the land of Goshen,\na fertile country fit for pasturage, situated between the Nile and the\nRed Sea. In this happy country the descendants of Jacob increased\nand flourished, and became so numerous and prosperous that at\nlength the envy and fears of the Egyptians began to be excited\nagainst them. To check their prosperity rigorous measures were\npursued by the rulers of Egypt. Their lives were imbittered by\nhard service, and all their male children were ordered to be drowned\nat their birth.\n6. Till the time of their residence in the land of Goshen, the He-\nbrews had led a pastoral life, and had not been subject to any regular\nform of government. Children were obedient to their parents, and\nservants to their masters. Religion appeared in its most simple and\namiable form. One God, the Creator and Governor of the world,\nwas worshipped without images, and without an established priest-\nhood. Equal purity in faith and worship, in principle and practice,\nprevailed among the people. But in proportion as wealth and\nluxury increased, the religion of the Hebrews became more sensual.\nLike all eastern nations they were prone to the worship of the heav-\nenly bodies. Priestcraft employed images, and the delusive artifices\nof superstition to attract the devotion of the people.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0246.jp2"},"247":{"fulltext":"JEWISH HISTORY. 243\n7. The history of the Hebrews, during the patriarchal ages, is\nrelated in the first book of Moses, with simplicity, minuteness, and\napparent fidelity. There we read a description of ancient customs\nand manners in the lives of the patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and\nJacob. The story of Joseph and his brethren has been always\nadmired for the simplicity of the language, and the affecting cir-\ncumstances which it exhibits. As the numerous facts and incidents\nin the early periods of the history of the Hebrews are familiar to\nevery reader, and are besides of little importance in the political\nannals of the nation, it seems superfluous to enter into a detail of\nthem. We shall therefore next present a compendious view of the\nhistory of the Hebrews from the period of their departure out of\nEgypt, 1,487 A. C.\n8. After much oppression and suffering, God raised up a deliverer\nof his chosen people, who rescued them from a state of cruel servi-\ntude, and brought them out of the land of bondage. This deliverer\nwas Moses, the most distinguished personage of ancient times, born\n1,567 A. C. In consequence of Pharaoh s inhuman decree, Moses\nwas exposed by his mother on the banks of the Nile, and was found\nby the king s daughter, who compassionately adopted him, and thus\nsaved his life. Before their departure from Egypt, and in their long\nand tedious journey of forty years through the wilderness, many\nextraordinary and supernatural events are recorded in the Bible, and\nascribed to the miraculous interposition of the Lord in behalf of his\npeople. During their wanderings in the desert, they received from\ntheir illustrious guide, with many other signal proofs of divine favour,\na system of religion and laws, under the sanction of God.\n9. The Mosaic code, though the most ancient that has been trans-\nmitted to posterity, contains the best maxims of legislative wisdom.\nIt is an admirable summary of our various duties to God and man\nand it enforces the observance of those duties by the powerful mo-\ntives of gratitude, hope, and fear. It directs our adoration to one\nGod, the author of all blessings commands us to reverence his holy\nname and denounces dreadful vengeance against those who shall\ntransfer to idols, or to the creature, that worship which is due only\nto the Creator. To prevent the neglect of those sacred obligations,\nit ordains a Sabbath every week, to be set apart for rest, and for pious\nmeditation on the works and the beneficence of God. Four of the\nstatutes of the Mosaic code comprehend the principles of universal\niurisprudence. 1. ITiou shalt not kill. 2. Thou shalt not commit adul-\ntery. 3. Thou shalt not steal. 4. Thou shalt not bear false witness.\nThey have formed the basis of criminal law in all civilized nations,\nand are essential to the good order of society. They conclude with\nan dmonition against avarice, the incentive to the commission of all\noffences.\n10. While Moses lived in Egypt he must have remarked the bane-\nful effects of the abuse of unlimited power entrusted to priests. He\ntherefore wisely separated the sacerdotal jurisdiction from the civil.\nThe ministers of religion were not allowed to interfere in secular\naffairs. Their duties were confined to the worship of God and\ntheir civil authority extended no farther than to take cognizance of\nsuch offences or trespasses as were immediately connected with re-\nligious worship. The care and direction of all secular concerns were\ncommitted to the elders of the people, who administered justice un-\nder the control of a supreme magistrate emphatically styled a\njudge. In the judge was vested all power civil and military. It ap-","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0247.jp2"},"248":{"fulltext":"244 JEWISH HISTORY.\npears however that the high priest at length invaded the military\nprerogative of the judge.\n11. Sensible of the ignorance and perverseness of the people\nunder his care, Moses omitted no precepts nor instructions which\nhe thought might tend to inform their minds, to regulate their con-\nduct, to correct their vicious propensities, and to promote their wel-\nfare and security. He prescribed rules for their diet, for the preser-\nvation of their health, and for the treatment and cure of those\ndiseases to which they were most liable. Having conducted the\nIsraelites through many dangers and difficulties within sight of the\npromised land, and appointed Joshua his successor, Moses died in\n1.447 A. C.\nSECTION VIII.\nTHE HISTORY OF THE HEBREWS DURING THE GOVERNMENT\nOF THE JUDGES.\n1 This period ig extremely turbulent and sanguinary j a period\nof barbarism, ignorance, and anarchy. We know not certainly how\nthe judges were chosen, nor what was the extent of their power\nThey appear to have been military chiefs, for they commanded\narmies, and some of them acquired fame by successful expeditions\nagainst the enemies of their country.\n2 The chiefs or rulers of the Syrian kingdoms, principalities, or\ntownships, had chosen no common leader, or generalissimo, nor\ndigested any regular plan of defence against the Hebrews, who had\nbeen long hovering on the frontiers of Syria, and betrayed hostile\nintentions consequently many of these petty states on both sides\nof the river Jordan were subdued, and the inhabitants massacred,\nbefore any league was formed for their mutual defence. At lergth\nthey became apprehensive of utter destruction from their fierce\nand cruel invaders, and a general alliance was concerted among the\nremaining kings and chiefs of the country between the Jordan and\nthe Mediterranean sea. Joshua twice attacked the combined army\nunexpectedly, and defeated it with great slaughter. Most of the in-\nhabitants, except those who resided in impregnable cities on the sea\ncoast, were put to the sword, or compelled to flee from the ven-\ngeance of their enemy. Their possessions were divided among\nthe tribes of Israel and thus the victorious Hebrews conquered\nand occupied the southern parts of Syria, called J udea or Canaan,\nand still known by the name of Palestine. Joshua having on many\noccasions received miraculous assistance in the perilous conquest of\nCanaan, and in the execution of the arduous and important offices of\na government of incessant activity and energy, died in 1,439 A. C.\nleaving the Israelites in the quiet enjoyment of the country which\nthe Lord had formerly promised to Abraham and his posterity.\n3. After the conquest of Canaan the Hebrews did not continue\nlong to observe and obey the institutions of Moses. They fell into\napostacy and confusion. They were alternately harassed by intestine\ncommotions, and reduced to temporary bondage by the nations which\nthey had before conquered. Wnen relieved from the miseries of a\nforeign yoke, they commonly became subject to the more grievous\noppressions of domestic tyranny. But in the various changes of their","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0248.jp2"},"249":{"fulltext":"JEWISH HISTORY. 245\nmanners and fortunes, it is remarkable that some of their gross-\nest idolatries, and severest afflictions, happened when the civil power\nand the authority of the priesthood were exercised by the same\nperson.\n4. After the death of Joshua the Israelites were governed by elders\nabout 20 years. Then followed an anarchy of about 1 8 years, during\nwhich they were engaged in many successful and unsuccessful wars,\nand were often reduced to servitude.\nAfter the government of the Hebrews had continued with little\ninterruption, about 295 years, under twelve successive judges, in the\nform prescribed by Moses, Eli, the high-priest united in his person\nthose powers and functions which, before his accession to the\nsupreme magistracy, had been kept distinct. Eli appears to have\nbeen equally incapable of discharging the civil, the military, and the\nreligious duties of his high offices. The people fell into idolatry,\nand were subjugated by an ancient nation called the Philistines. In\na great battle with the Philistines the army of the Hebrews was\nrouted with dreadful slaughter, and the two profligate sons of Eli\nwere killed. The news of this disaster put an end to the life of Eli,\nafter he had governed the Israelites forty years.\n5. The next and last judge of the Hebrews was Samuel the\nprophet, 1,112 A. C. He brought back the people to a sense of their\nduty, and soon restored the departed glory of Israel by a great vic-\ntory over the Fhilistines. They now recovered their liberty, and\nthe cities which had been taken from them in former wars. Samuel\nwas indefatigable in the administration of justice. When age had\nrendered him incapable of executing his laborious duties, he united\nhis two sons with him in the administration of the government.\nBut their evil conduct offended the people, who complained to Sam-\nuel that his sons were not worthy to succeed him as judges. They\ndemanded a king to govern them. Samuel therefore assembled the\npeople, and explained to them the extreme danger of changing their\nancient form of government to that of a monarchy but in vain.\nThey persisted in their resolution, and a man named Saul was ap-\npointed the first king of the Hebrews, after the government by\njudges had subsisted, with some intermission, about 356 years, from\nJoshua to Saul.\nSECTION IX.\nRETROSPECT OF THE GOVERNMENT OF THE HEBREWS.\n1. The advancement of Saul to the regal dignity was the second\nchange made in the constitution given by Moses. The common*\nwealth was originally a theocracy and the people acknowledged\nno other king but God. They paid respect to the priests, as the\nsuperintendents of his worship and they obeyed the judges, as\nthe interpreters of his laws, and the delegates of his power. The\nsuccession to the priesthood was fixed, being made hereditary in\nthe family of Aaron. The office of ruler, or judge, being apparent-\nly left to the appointment of God, and determinable neither by the\nchoice of the people, nor by lineal descent, gave access to disturbance*\nviolence, and intrigue. Moses prevented any public commotion by\nnaming and consecrating a successor to himself.\nX2","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0249.jp2"},"250":{"fulltext":"$46 JEWISH HISTORY.\n2. After the death oi J oshua intestine divisions, or rather a spirit\nof licentiousness and rapine, threw the nation into a state of anarchy\nand confusion. As this disunion and civil disorder exposed them to\nthe invasions of the adjacent states, miiitary talents and success were\nregarded as infallible proofs of divine favour, and conferred upon any\nperson so distinguished, the title and authority of judge. Gideon\nobtained many signal victories over the Philistines, the inveterate\nenemies of the Hebrews, and enriched his soldiers with plunder.\nOut of gratitude for his services, the people offered to make him\nand his posterity their rulers. Though he declined the name of\njudge, yet he retained the power, and appropriated to himself the\nmost valuable part of the spoils of his enemies. His natural son\nAbimelech succeeded to the office of judge by force and violence.\nSacred history does not inform us how the next two judges obtained\ntheir dignity. After them the supreme power was committed to one\nof Gilead s illegitimate issue, on account of his valour and military\ntalents. Thus the office of judge continued to fluctuate till it was\nannexed to the high priesthood in the person of Eli, as has been re-\nlated. The death of his two vicious sons interrupted the succession\nin his line. The office was lastly conferred on Samuel, whose un-\njust and rapacious sons were thought unworthy to succeed him. The\npeople having received no permanent benefits from the administra-\ntion either of judges or of priests, resolved to appoint a king to goverr\nthem. This political innovation was the result of levity and impa\ntience rather than of mature deliberation. It neither gave stability to\nthe new government nor prevented the evils of the old.\nSECTION X.\nREGAL GOVERNMENT OF THE HEBREWS.\n1. The reign of Saul began about 1,091 A. C. He was a shep-\nherd of lofty stature. The beginning of his reign was auspicious,\nand distinguished by a complete victory gained over the Ammonites,\nwhich made him popular among his subjects. But he incurred the\ndispleasure of Samuel, the prophet, and his whole reign of 40 years,\nwas a continued scene of foreign or domestic troubles. Being de-\nfeated in a battle with the Philistines in 1,051 A. C, he killed him-\nself.\n2. Two candidates preferred their claim to the vacant throne,\nIsh-bosheth, Saul s son, founded his pretensions on the right of im-\nmediate descent, and was supported by many of the tribes. David,\na young shepherd, was famous for killing, with a stone thrown from\na sling, a Philistine named Goliath, a man of gigantic size and\nstrength. He had likewise been privately anointed by Samuel\nbefore the death of Saul and his title, as of divine appointment,\nwas therefore acknowledged by the powerful tribe of Judah. A\ncivil war ensued, which lasted above seven years, and was terminat-\ned by the assassination of Ish-bosheth. All the tribes now submit-\nted to David, and the kingdom became hereditary in his family,\nthough the right of succession was still unsettled, and was transfer-\nable from one branch to another at the will of the reigning sover\neign. This appears from Solomon s succession to the throne in\npreference to his elder brother.\n3. The reign of David is illustrious and interesting. He enlarged","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0250.jp2"},"251":{"fulltext":"JEWISH HISTORY. 247\nthe bounds of Palest ne by conquest, took Jerusalem, which he made\nthe capital of his dominions, and enriched himself and his subjects\nwith the spoils of his enemies. He revived among the people an\nattachment to religion by the institution of solemn ceremonies and\nhe introduced a taste for the arts, by inviting into the country able\nmechanics and artists for the completion of the grand edifices which\nhe erected.\n4. The latter part of David s reign was unfortunate. The king-\ndom was ravaged by pestilence, famine, and disastrous wars. His\nmind was harassed by domestic misfortunes. Some of his sons were\ndisobedient and wicked. His favourite son Absalom raised a rebel-\nlion with a design to dethrone his father; but was defeated and slain.\nDavid caused his son Solomon to be crowned in 1,011 A. C, and died\nin 1,010 A. C, having reigned seven years and a half over Judah,\nand 33 years over all Israel.\n5. The reign of Solomon presents a splendid view of the kingdom\nof Israel in the height of its prosperity, felicity, and glory, enjoying\nall the blessings of tranquillity in such a manner, and tor such a\nlength of time, as it never experienced in any former or subsequent\nperiod. It directed the councils of all the petty states between the\nEuphrates and the Mediterranean and held the balance of power\nbetween the two great monarchies of Egypt and Assyria. Com-\nmerce flourished in a degree which, at that early period of the world,\nmust appear extraordinary. The fleets of Israel, under the direc-\ntion of Tyrian mariners, traded to the land of Ophir, which some\nsuppose to be a district in Ethiopia, on the eastern coast of Africa.\nTo this country they probably went by the Red Sea By their lu-\ncrative voyages they augmented the wealth of the nation, which\nDavid had already enriched by the spoils of war. But this agreea-\nble and prosperous condition did not continue long. Solomon, elated\nby uniform prosperity, set no bounds to his magnificence and luxury,\nand laid heavy taxes on the people to enable him to support his pro-\nfuse expenditure. These burdensome imposts created disaffection\nin the minds of his subjects, and toward the end of his reign gave\nrise to a powerful faction, at the head of which was a haughty and\nimpetuous young man called Jeroboam.\n6. The most remarkable event in the reign of Solomon is the\nbuilding of a magnificent temple at Jerusalem, which was completed\nm about seven years. The plan had been formed by David, and\nmaterials, workmen, and money, provided for its execution. This\nwas probably the most superb and costly fabric that has been erected\nin ancient times.\nThe wisdom of Solomon is proverbial. The books of Proverbs\nand Ecclesiastes are ascribed to him, either as the author or col-\nlector and abound with precepts and maxims that are applicable to\nevery condition of life. But notwithstanding the superior knowl-\nedge for which Solomon was so justly celebrated, he appears to have\nbeen immersed in sensual pleasures. He had 700 wives of different\ncountries and religions^ beside 300 concubines The allurements of\nthose voluptuous women led him into effeminacy, and the excess-\nive indulgence of the animal passions, and into the neglect of his\nimportant duties to God and his people and their influence and su-\nperstitions at length drew him into idolatry. This illustrious and\nrenowned monarch reigned 40 years, and died in 971 A. C, without\nleaving any memorial of his power.\n7. With Solomon expired the grandeur and the tranquillity of the","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0251.jp2"},"252":{"fulltext":"248 JEWISH HISTORY.\nHebrews. Upon the accession of his son Rehoboam to the throne\nthe faction of Jeroboam broke out into open rebellion, and terminat-\ned in the revolt of the ten tribes from their allegiance to the house\nof David. The tribes of Judah and Benjamin continued loyal to\ntheir lawful sovereign. The revolted tribes elected Jeroboam for\ntheir king, and the monarchy was split into the two separate king-\ndoms of Israel and Judah, 971 A. C.\n8. The policy of Jeroboam produced a religious as well as a po-\nlitical separation. While the kings of J udah held the temple where\nthe sacrifices were offered, and whither all the people were obliged\nto resort at stated times, they would always have an ascendancy\nover the kingdom of Israel. Jeroboam therefore thought it neces-\nsary to adopt some measures to prevent the frequent visits of his\nsubjects to Jerusalem, the metropolis of the kingdom of Judah.\nThe priests, the Levites, and all who were concerned in the ministry\nof religion, were firmly attached to the house of David and Jero-\nboam supposed that they would naturally exert the inliuence which\nreligion gave them over the minds of the people, to alienate their\naffection from his governments and to bring thern back to their alle-\ngiance to their lawful sovereign. To prevent the obvious conse-\nquences of the continuance of his subjects in religious communion\nwith the house of David and kingdom of Judah, Jeroboam sacrificed\nthe interest of religion to his political motives. He built a new\ntemple, and instituted a new priesthood and thus produced a new\nschism among the followers of the Mosaical laws, which was never\nextinguished. Soon after this separation, the religion of the ten\ntribes under Jeroboam, deviating more and more from the original\ninstitutions of Moses, became a mixture of Judaism and Pagan idol-\natry.\n9. After this memorable epoch in the history of the Israelites we\nfind little more in their annals than such transactions and events as\nconstitute the ordinary subjects of political records. The kingdom\nof Judah adhered with inflexible attachment to princes of the house\nof David but usurpations in the kingdom of Israel were common.\nThe history of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah during a period of\nalmost 400 years, till the burning of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnez-\nzar, may, with the exception of a few intervals, be called the an-\nnals of disunion, vice, wars, massacres, servitude, famine, and pesti-\nlence. In this long period of general wickedness and misery, one\nof the most remarkable events is a great battle fought between\nJeroboam and Abijam the successor of Rehoboam. The army of\nthe former consisted of eight hundred thousand men, that of the\nlatter of four hundred thousand. Jeroboam was defeated, and five\nhundred thousand of his men were killed in the battle.*\n10. At last the kingdom of the ten tribes was extinguished. The\npeople were transported into Assyria, and dispersed into different\nparts of the country, whence they never returned. The common\npeople who were left in Canaan were intermixed with strangers\nand from that mixture of different nations sprung the motley race,\nwhich were afterward known by the name of Samaritans. The\nsad catastrophe of the kingdom of Israel is described by the proph-\nets in very pathetic terms. The infants and pregnant women were\nmurdered with horrid barbarity. The men, who had not been slain\nin battle, nor had not escaped by flight, were dragged into bondage,\nThe limits of this work do not admit a particular history of the gene-\nrally uninteresting reigns from this period to the Babylonish captivity.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0252.jp2"},"253":{"fulltext":"JEWISH HISTORY. 249\nand their country was divided among the colonies of the conquerors.\nThis event happened about 720 A. C., after the kingdom had sub-\nsisted about 254 years.\n-11. The tottering kingdom of Judah still continued to enjoy a\nprecarious existence invaded at different times by the Babylonians,\nrendered tributary, and finally subjugated its metropolis and temple\nrazed to their foundations by that mighty conqueror Nebuchadnez-\nzar, 584 A. C. and all the principal persons, and the must skilful\nartists of every kind, removed to Babylon. Thus ends the kingdom\nof Judea, after it had subsisted 468 years from the beginning of the\nreign of David, and 388 years from the separation ot Judah and the\n:en tribes.\nSECTION XL\nRESTORATION OF THE JEWS TO THEIR LIBERTY AND\nCOUNTRY.\n1 The privation of liberty, and the miseries of bondage seem to\nhave brought the people of Israel and J udah to a sense of their past\ntransgressions. Unable to resist the power of man, they now placed\ntheir sole confidence in the goodness and mercy of God. Neither\npromises nor threats could induce them to abandon their duty, and\nworship the idols of the heathens.\n2. After they had been in captivity 70 years, Cyrus, king of Persia,\nhaving conquered Babylon, set them at liberty, and issued a decree,\nby which they were permitted to return to their own country, and\nto rebuild Jerusalem and the temple, 543 A. C. He restored to\nthem all the sacred utensils which Nebuchadnezzar had taken away\nfrom the temple. He laid down a plan of the new temple, and\nordered that the expense of erecting it should be paid out of the\nroyal treasury. All who desired it were allowed to remain in their\npresent places of residence, and to contribute as much as they pleas-\ned to the holy edifice.\nIt may be proper to observe in this place, that the Israelites who\nreturned from the captivity of Babylon were then and ever after-\nward called Jews, because the tribe of J udah was the most power-\nful of all the tribes of Israel, and indeed almost the only one which\nwas considerable after their restoration to their liberty and country\n3. Many of the Israelites chose to remain at Babylon. Those\nwho returned to Palestine began the work of the temple with alac-\nrity and vigour. Its progress suffered a temporary obstruction\nthrough the intrigues of their enemies, and the caprice of Cyrus s\nimmediate successors. But in the beginning of the reign of Darius,\nthe decree of Cyrus in favour of the Jews was ratified, and many\nnew clauses were added for their effectual assistance and security.\nA particular charge was given to the governors of Syria and Sama^\nria, not only to prevent any further obstruction of the work, but also\nto furnish supplies out of the tribute of those provinces for carrying\nit on with greater expedition and it was declared that all persona\nwho should act contrary to these instructions would be punished with\ndeath.\n4. Darius continued to manifest his favour for the Jews, during\nthe remainder of his long reign. Their privileges were confirmed\nto them by his son Xerxes. Their interest was still greater with\n33","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0253.jp2"},"254":{"fulltext":"250 JEWISH HISTORY.\nArtaxerxes, the Ahasuerus of scripture, through the influence of his\nqueen Esther, a Jewess, and also through the services of her uncle\nMordecai, who had discovered and frustrated a conspiracy against the\nking s life. From Artaxerxes, Ezra obtained very liberal donations,\nto be applied to the service of the temple and full powers to gov-\nern the Jews as the divine will should direct. The like commission\nwas also granted to Nehemiah, who rebuilt the walls of Jerusalem,\nand reformed many abuses both civil and religious.\nAfter these two we find no more governors of Judea, which prob-\nably became subject to the governor of Syria, from whom the high-\npriests might immediately derive their authority. In this prosperous\nstate were the Jews about 420 years before the christian era.\n5. From this time we may ascribe most of the misfortunes which\nbefel the Jewish nation to men who aspired at the sacerdotal dignity\nthrough ambition and avarice more than zeal for religion. For\nwhole centuries the office of high-priest was the chief object of men s\nambition. The candidates purchased the office from the Syrian gov-\nernors, and retained it by means of money. Hence they oppressed\nthe people with taxes that they might fulfil their pecuniary engage-\nments. There was no energy among this degraded people, no dig-\nnity among the great, no foresight, no thought of pursuing proper\nmeasures against foreign invasion.\n6. About 328 A. C. Alexander the great besieged Tyre, and was\nincensed against the Jews, because they had refused to supply his\narmy with provisions during the siege. After the capture of Type\nhe marched to Jerusalem with the intention of punishing the Jews\nfor their disobedience of his orders. Jaddua the high-priest was\nordered in a dream to meet the threatening conqueror in his pontifi-\ncal robes, at the head of all the priests in their proper habits, and\nattended by the rest of the people dressed in white garments.\nAlexander was struck with this religious pomp, and approaching\nthe high-priest with awful respect, embraced him with a religious\nkind of veneration. He told his attendants, who expressed surprise at\nhis submissive behaviour, that he did not pay this profound respect to\nthe high-priest, but to the God whose minister he was. Alexander\nthen went to Jerusalem, and offered sacrifice in the temple to the\nGod of the Jews. Upon his departure he granted to the Jews the\nfreedom of their country, laws, and religion, and exempted them\nfrom paying tribute every seventh year. During his whole reign\nthey enjoyed great tranquillity but with him expired the prosperous\nstate of their country. Judea was successively invaded and subdued\nby the Syrians and Egyptians, and the people were reduced to bon-\ndage.\n7. The Jews kept their sabbath so rigidly that they wou !d not\nfight on that day, nor even defend themselves although attacked by\nan enemy. Ptolemy king of Egypt, having invaded Judea, took ad-\nvantage of this religious impediment. He entered Jerusalem on the\nsabbath-day without resistance, and carried away to Egypt a hundred\nthousand captives, 316 A. C.\nAfter this time the Jews became the victims of foreign and domes-\ntic wars, and of horrid massacres.\n8. About 198 A. C. Antiochus the great, king of Syria, took\nJerusalem, plundered the temple, sold 40,000 Jews to the neigh-\nbouring nations, and established paganism throughout Judea. Tbe\nsacrifices ceased, and there scarcely existed any external signs of\nreligion.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0254.jp2"},"255":{"fulltext":"JEWISH HISTORY. 251\nThis persecution roused the resentment and provoked the resist-\nance of a priest named Mattathias, and his five sons surnamed Mac-\ncabeus. They all retired into the wilderness, and were soon joined\nby a sweat number of Jews who wished to avoid idolatry and religious\npersecution. An army was raised, of which the command was given\nto the eldest son of Mattathias, named Judas Maccabeus.\nThe deliverance of the Jews from the tyranny and oppression of\nthe Greeks, by the uncommon talents, bravery, and patriotism of\nJudas Maccabeus, is an achievement as glorious perhaps as any per-\nformed by the most illustrious heroes of Greece and Rome. Having\ngained many signal victories, and delivered his country from bondage\nand idolatry, he was at last slain in battle, 157 A. C.\n9. The brothers of Judas, pursuing their advantages with perse-\nverance and exertion, established the independence of their country,\nand changed its republican government to a vigorous and flourishing\nmonarchy.\n10. John Hyrcanus, son of Simon Maccabeus, uniting in his person\nthe offices of high-priest and generalissimo of the army, and possess-\ning all the talents requisite for the pontifical, the military, and the\nregal offices, vanquished the enemies of his country, and firmly estab-\nlished his government. His sons assumed the title as well as the\npower of kings and the high-priesthood remained in his family,\nthough not in the person of the monarch. The descendants of Hyr-\ncanus are distinguished, in the history of the Jewish nation, by the\nappellation of the Asmonean dynasty, which continued about 126\nyears.\n11. The unlucky dissensions of this family terminated ultimately\nin the conquest of Judea and the capture of Jerusalem by Pompey\nthe great, and the subjection of the Jewish nation to the Romans,\n59 A. C.\n12. After this event the Jewish monarchy was re-established by\nthe favour and under the protection of the Romans, who placed\nHerod the great, the son of Antipater, on the throne of David\nThis prince demolished the old temple of Jerusalem, and rebuilt\nit in a very magnificent manner. He reigned with great splendour,\nbut with singular despotism and tyranny. He possessed great abili-\nties, but was cruel and unjust both in his public and private transac-\ntions. His public life exhibits a continued scene of battles, massa-\ncres, and violence. He died in the first year of the birth of Christ,\nor the fourth of the vulgar era.\nThe reign of Herod was distinguished by a memorable event,\nwhich has proved more important in its consequences than any that\nhas occurred since the creation of the world, the bird of Jesus Christ,\nthe author of the christian religion.\n13. Soon after the death of Herod, Judea was reality reduced\nto a Roman province, and the governors were appointed by the\nemperors of Rome. In this condition it remained till the final ex-\ntinction of the Jewish nation in the year of Christ 75, or of the vul-\ngar era 72.\nThe rapine and cruelty ot Floras, governor of Judea, caused a\nrebellion of the Jews, in which 150,000 persons are said to have\nperished, G9 of Christ, or A. D. 6G.\nThe violent and sanguinary factions among the Jews destroyed in-\ncredible numbers of people of all ranks.\n14. At length the Jewish nation was extinguished by the Romans,\nand its metropolis reduced to ashes by Titus the Roman general","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0255.jp2"},"256":{"fulltext":"252 JEWISH HISTORY.\nThe last siege of Jerusalem was attended with scenes of carnage,\nfamine, disease, and desperation, far more horrible than any to be\nfound in the annals of human wickedness and misery. During the\ncalamitous progress of the siege, Titus displayed many instances of\nnumanity toward the sufferings of the besieged, and of his solicitude\nfor the preservation of the city and temple but in vain. Their\ndoom was predestinated by the irrevocable degree of the Almighty.\nThe magnificent temple of the Jews perished in the general wreck\nof the nation, and not one stone was left upon another, 75 of Christ,\nor A. D. 72.\nAccording to a moderate calculation the number of persons who\nperished by violent deaths during the last war in Judea amounted to\nmore than one million four hundred thousand, besides many who died\nof grief and famine.\nSince that time the descendants of those who survived the dissolu\ndon of the Jewish nation have been wandering about the world,\nthe objects of hatred and contempt rather than of kindness and com\nmiseration. In all countries where they have been permitted to\nreside, they have been excluded from the participation of certain\npolitical privileges vyhich the people of those countries enjoy.\nSECTION XII.\nTHE STATE OF LEARNING AND COMMERCE AMONG THE\nJEWS.\n1. Of all the interesting prospects which history opens to our\nview, the progressive advancement of the human mind, in the im-\nprovement of its faculties, is the most agreeable, and the most\nworthy of our attention and regard. The brilliant and destructive\nexploits of conquerors may dazzle for awhile; but the silent labours\nof the student and the artist, of the architect and the husbandman,\nwhich embellish the earth and convert it into a paradise, confer per-\nmanent benefits on mankind, and promote their prosperity and hap-\npiness. The arts and sciences distinguish the civilized man from the\nsavage and the investigation of their origin and progress would\nconstitute the noblest attribute of history. How unfortunate it is,\nthat the ancient historians have almost neglected so interesting and\npleasing a subject. All the knowledge which we can obtain concern-\ning the origin and progress of learning must be gleaned from uncon-\nnected fragments and scattered notices, laboriously collected from\na multifarious and confused mass of trivial particulars.\n2. The period of the scriptural history includes the whole space\nof time from the creation of the world to the subversion of the\nBabylonian monarchy, or about 3,457 years. During this long sue*\ncession of ages a great variety of political, civil, and religious in-\nstitutions had been invented the human mind had been much im-\nproved in some countries agriculture had been skilfully practised\nthe surface of the earth had been adorned with large cities and\nstately edifices. Of these interesting subjects, {ew particulars have\nbeen faithfully transmitted to posterity, except such as relate to Jew-\nish laws and institutions, some scattered hints respecting ancient\ncommerce, and some excellent specimens of writing in the Prophets\nand Psalms. In those venerable monuments of antiquity, the sacred\nwritings, we trace the Israelites from the patriarchal ages, through\nthe turbulent times of barbaric ignorance, to a considerable degree","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0256.jp2"},"257":{"fulltext":"JLWISH HISTORY. 253\nof civilization arn^ refinement. Of their civil and religious institu-\ntions we have a clear and explicit account of their knowledge of\nthe arts and sciences we possess little information. The Jews do not\nseem to have been a scientific or philosophical nation in any period\nof their history. They appear to have been sufficiently skilful in\nthe arts of necessity and conveniency but not to have made much\nproficiency in those of luxury and ornament Some admirable speci-\nmens of literature are presented in the scriptures, especially in the\nwritings of the Prophets, and in the Psalms. In the historical books\nwe observe plainness of style and conciseness of narrative, and un-\ncommon perspicuity in the didactical pieces. The writings of the\nprophets are chiefly poetical, very different, and all originals. Most\nf them display sublime sentiments, expressed with energy of diction,\nand decorated with oriental imagery.\n3. In the patriarchal ages commerce was so far known and exer-\ncised that gold and silver were used as the medium by which it was\nregulated. In the tumultuous times which succeeded the patriarchal\nwe obtain very little information concerning the state of commerce.\nWe have no reason to think that commerce was ever in a flourishing\nstate among the Jews. In times of remote antiquity the mechanic\narts and various kinds of manufactures had made considerable prog-\nress in some countries. This is manifest from the curious and rich\nmaterials of the tabernacle and of the high-priest s garments. The\nIsraelites, no doubt, brought from Egypt much of their knowledge\nof arts, sciences, and literature for the Egyptians had, from time\nimmemorial, been gradually advancing in learning a;.d civilization;\nand, during the greater part of the period now under contemplation,\nwere famous for the excellence of their civil policy, the extent and\nEopulation of their cities, the magnificence of their public edi-\nces, and the flourishing state of agriculture. In all these respects\nthe Egyptians were distinguished above all the contemporary nations\nof antiquity.\nCONCLUSION.\n1. In taking a retrospective view of the various nations whicn\nhave successively appeared and flourished upon the grand theatre\nof this World, and have at length vanished and sunk into oblivion,\ntheir rise, progress, and decline, arrest our attention, and excite our\ncuriosity and compassion. The ignorance, avarice, wickedness, and\nambition of mankind may be assigned as the general causes of the\ndissolution of nations. Many of those kingdoms and states once so\ngreat and flourishing have not only disappeared, but even their names\nand all remembrance of them must have perished, if they had not\nbeen preserved and perpetuated in the historical records of scrip-\nture. In them, however, we behold the transitory and fading splen-\ndour of all human glory, and a diminutive picture of every thing\nwhich the world calls great as eminence of genius and learning,\nmilitary honour and fame, extent of power and dominion, political\nwisdom, the faculty of eloquence. Finally, we draw this sad conclu-\nsion, that history is little more than a dismal record of the crimes\nand the calamities of the human race\nFor a very copious and useful chronological table of the history of\nthe Bible see Calmet s Dictionary of the Bible, vol. II. This table is an\nepitome of the historyt f the Jews, and will be particularly useful to\ntheological students.\ny","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0257.jp2"},"258":{"fulltext":"","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0258.jp2"},"259":{"fulltext":"ELEMENTS\nGENERAL HISTORY,\nANCIENT AND MODERN;\nBEING A CONTINUATOMt,\nTERMINATING AT THB\nDEMISE OF HIS MAJESTY KING GEORGE I1L, l£t\nBY THE REV. EDWARD NARES, D. D.\nRegius Professor of Modern History in the University of Oxford.\nCONCORD, N. H.\nPUBLISHED BY JOHN F. BROWN.\n1837.","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0259.jp2"},"260":{"fulltext":"ADVERTISEMENT.\nAs the learned author of the Elements of General History, pro-\nfessor Ty tier, (by courtesy lord Woodhouselee,) lived until the year\n1,813, it is much to be regretted that he did not bring his history\ndown to a later period.\nIn the present volume nothing further has been attempted than to\ncontinue the history from the point at which the professor left it, in\nthe same concise style, and with as much attention to the original\nmethod and design, as could be rendered consistent with the extraor-\ndinary nature of the facts and incidents to be recorded.\nTo this end it has been found necessary to carry on the history of\nGreat Britain and Ireland from the period of the death of queen\nAnne;\nThat of the Southern Continental States of Europe, from the end\nof the reign of Louis XIV\nAnd that of the Northern States from the death of Charles XII.\nof Sweden, and Peter the First of Russia","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0260.jp2"},"261":{"fulltext":"PART THIRD.\nMODERN HISTORY.\nSECTION 1.\nFRANCE FROM THE DEATH OF LEWIS XIV. 1,715, TO THE\nPEACE OF VIENNA, 1,738.\n1. The last years of the very long and splendid reign of Lewis\nXIV. were clouded by many severe domestic misfortunes, and a\ngreat change in the sentiments and manners of the sovereign and hfe\ncourt. A mystical religion became the vogue, accompanied with a\ngravity of demeanour approaching to prudery. The amiable Fene-\nlon fell into these errors, which were countenanced by madame de\nMaintenon, who had been privately married to the king, and seems\nto have possessed his confidence in a high degree.\n2. On the king s demise (see Sect. LXIV.) the crown descended\nto his grandson, Lewis XV., an infant, only five years old. In a\nvery short space of time, losses had occurred in the royal family, so\nstrange and unexpected, as to afford ground for suspicion, greatly\nto the prejudice of the duke of Orleans, nephew of Lewis XIV.\nThree heirs to the crown, the Dauphin, his son the duke of Bur-\ngundy, and his grandson the duke of Bretagne, had all died within\nthe short space of eleven months, during the years 1,711, 1,712,\nleaving, to intercept the claims and pretensions of the duke of Or-\nleans, only the duke of Berry and one infant, apparently of a feeble\nand delicate constitution, and whose own lite had also been in dan-\nger. The king of Spain had been previously compelled, according\nto the spirit of the celebrated treaty of the Pyrenees, formally to\nrenounce his claims to the succession, notwithstanding his near rela-\ntionship to the crown of France. Lastly, the duke of Berry died.\nMay 1,714, at the early age of 18.\n3. Fortunately for the reputation of the duke of Orleans, (who,\nthough of loose morals, seems to have possessed too generous a\nheart for such base deeds), the infant dauphin not only lived to be\ncome king, but to survive the duke himself, many years. Nor were\nthe suspicions which had been raised by the sudden deaths of so\nmany heirs to the crown, strong enough to prevent the nation repos-\ning the highest confidence in the duke, by suffering the kingly power\nto pass into his hands, as sole regent, during the minority though\ncontrary to the express appointment of the late king, who is said\nto have wisely observed, when for form s sake he executed his will\nthat it would have but little weight with the people, or the parlia\nment, as soon as his eyes were closed. The nation willing v accedeo\nY2 33","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0261.jp2"},"262":{"fulltext":"253 MODERN HISTORY.\nto the disposition of the parliament, in setting aside the claims of the\nillegitimate princes, whom the will of Lewis XIV. favoured; and\nthe duke of Orleans was careful to fix that body in his interest, by\npromising to restore to it its full power of remonstrance, which had\nbeen greatly restrained during the preceding reign.\n4. Lewis XIV. had left his kingdom so incumbered with debt, and\nbo surrounded by mortified, jealous, and exasperated neighbours,\neager to recover what had been taken from them during the trium-\nphant wars of that monarch, that it became an object of the highest\nimportance to the regent, for the nation s sake, as well as his own, to\nmaintain peace as far as he could with foreign states. To this end,\nthough contrary to any former course of things, he prudently endea-\nvoured to form alliances with the courts of St. James s and Vienna.\nIn the former case the advantages were similar and mutual. By the\ntreaty of Utrecht, England stood engaged to secure the French\ncrown to the regent, in case Lewis XV. should die without issue\nand to keep her steady to this engagement, it was easy for the duke\n10 comply with the wishes of the whig government of England, in\nwithholding all encouragement from the pretender.\n5. However pacific the views of the regent might be, Spain\nseemed to present an obstacle to the repose and tranquillity of Eu-\nrope, There a minister of a very different disposition had obtained\nthe chief management of affairs, who appeared bent upon disturbing\nboth the French and English governments, in order to recover what\nhad been taken from Spain by the treaty of Utrecht, especially in\nItaly to deprive the duke of Orleans of the regency, in favour of\nthe king his master, and to seat the pretender on the throne of Great\nBritain, with the aid of Russia and Sweden. Such were the plans oi\nthe celebrated Mberoni originally the son of a gardener afterwards\nin the lowest stations in the church of Placentia, but who had raised\nhimself, by an extraordinary display of genius and talent, to the high-\nest degree of credit and influence at the court of Philip V., with the\nexalted rank of cardinal.\n6. These movements indeed on the part of Spain, were not in\nthemselves altogether unfavourable to the views of the regent in\nbetter securing to him the good will of England and Austria, always\nprepared to be jealous of too close an intimacy between the courts\nof Paris and Madrid. Some historians have even gone so far as to\nsuppose it to have been a settled contrivance to impose on the former\ntwo courts, but certainly without sufficient grounds.\n7. It seems to have been a great oversight in the negotiations at\nUtrecht, not to have endeavoured more effectually to reconcile the\ncourts of Austria and Spain. The former, after the treaty, remained\njealous of the occupation of the Spanish throne by Philip while\nthe latter could not fail to be aggrieved and offended at being made\nto contribute to the indemnification of Charles VI., by a very consid-\nerable dismemberment of its dominions, without any suitable or\nadequate remuneration.\n8. To counteract the projects of Alberoni, the regent entered into\nan alliance with England and the United States entirely sacrificing\nto the former the interests of the pretender, who was to be sent out\nof France. But the Spanish minister was not to be deterred by this\ntriple alliance and confederacy against him, Having watched his op-\nportunity of a war between the emperor of Germany and the Porte,\nhe suddenly commenced hostilities; and, with no small degree of\ntreachery, in the course of the years 1,717 and 1,718, succeeded in","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0262.jp2"},"263":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 259\nwresting from Austria the island of Sardinia, and from the duke of\nSavoy that of Sicily, thus violating, in the most direct and glaring\nmanner, the solemn treaty of Rastadt, so lately concluded. In con-\nsequence of these proceedings, and in order to remedy, as it would\nseem, the defects and omissions of the original convention, Austria\nwas admitted a party to the alliance between France, England, and\nHolland, with a view to bring about a reconciliation between the\nemperor and Spain, upon the basis of the following arrangement\nthat the former should renounce all claims to the Spanish throne in\nfavour of Philip, while the latter should surrender to the emperor the\nNetherlands, the duchy of Milan, and the kingdom of Naples, as-\nsigned to him by the treaty of Utrecht and the quadruple alliance.\nThat the duke of Savoy should yield Sicily to Austria, receiving in\nexchange the island of Sardinia from Spain and tr at the eldest son\nof Philip by his second marriage, don Carlos, should be secured in\nthe reversion of the duchies of Parma and Placentia, and the grand\nduchy of Florence, to be holden as male fiefs under the emperor,\nand on no occasion whatever to be united to the crown of Spain.\n9. There never was a period perhaps in which it would have\nbeen more difficult to unravel the policy of these several courts. It\nwas certainly a strange thing for the emperor to agree, in any man-\nner, to admit the Spaniards into Italy, of which he had so much reason\nto be distrustful much more to assist in doing so. While those verv\nterms, which were undoubtedly introduced to gratify the Spanish\nminister, in this particular respect, so far from securing the ready\nconsent of the court of Madrid, only induced it to make fresh efforts.\nThe predominance of France and England, however, soon became\nso conspicuous, as to compel Philip to subscribe to the articles of the\nalliance, and even to dismiss his favourite minister, the cause of all\nthe grievances of which the allied powers had to complain. In\n1,720 iVustria took possession of Sicily, and Victor Amadeus II. trans-\nferred the seat of his government to the island of Sardinia.\n10. In the month of December, 1,723, in the 50th year of his age,\nthe regent duke of Orleans died very suddenly in a lit of apoplexy.\nHe was a prince of shining talents, and of great taste and spirit but\ndissolute in his habits of life to a most disgraceful pitch of extrava-\ngance. He did not indeed suffer his pleasures and licentious connex-\nions to interfere greatly with the discharge of his public duties, but\nthey tarnished his fame, and in all likelihood shortened his life. He\nhad the misfortune in his youth to be put into the hands of a most\nunprincipled tutor, the Abbe Dubois, who continued with him to\nthe last year of his life, dying only four months before him, a cardi-\nnal of Rome, and prime minister of France The elevation of this\nprofligate man to such high stations in the church and state, did\nmore mischief to the cause of religion and morality, than the person-\nal vices of the regent, who, amidst a thousand foibles, had some great\nand brilliant qualities.\nNeither Austria nor Spain were satisfied with what had been done\nfor them, and strong remonstrances were prepared on the part of the\ndukes of Parma and Placentia, the grand duke of Tuscany, and the\npope, against the grants in reversion to the Infant of Spain. At-\ntempts were made to reconcile the two courts more effectually by a\ncongress, summoned to meet at Cambray, in the year 1,724, under\nthe joint mediation of France and England, but ineffectually in\n1,729 another, but more private attempt, had better success it was\nundertaken by a very singular and eccentric character, the baron, or","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0263.jp2"},"264":{"fulltext":"260 MODERN HISTORY.\nduke, de Ripperda, Dutch minister at the court of Madrid, who suc-\nceeded so far, through his own intrigues, and the venality of the im\nperial court, as to give umbrage to the governments of France and\nEngland the latter soon saw the necessity of guarding, by a coun-\nter-treaty, framed at Hanover, against the eifects of Ripperda s in\nterposition.\n11. Secret articles were said to be signed and executed, to recov-\ner for Spain the fortress of Gibraltar and the island of Minorca, to\nseat the pretender on the throne of Great Britain, to forward the\nemperors views with regard to the Ostend East India Company,\nand to cement the alliance by marriages which would have kid a\nfoundation for the reunion of the Austrian and Spanish dominions\nunder one sovereign. Ripperda himself is said to have communicat-\ned these secret articles to the English government he was made to\npay dear for his treachery.\nAs the empress of Russia had acceded to the treaty of Vienna,\nconcluded by Ripperda, and France and England had taken steps to\nsecure Holland and Prussia on their side, Europe seemed to be\nthreatened with another general war, but the timely death of the\nempress, in 1,727, and the defection of Prussia, gave a turn to affairs,\nand left room for the renewal of the congress of Uambray, transferred\nin the year 1,728, to Soissons, where fresh endeavours were made\nto establish a solid and permanent peace. As the emperor, however,\ninsisted on the accession of all the contracting powers, to the Prag-\nmatic Sanction, which was to secure to his heirs general the undi-\nvided succession to all his territories and dominions, the other courts\nwithdrew; and in November, 1,729, concluded at Seville in Spain a\nseparate treaty, in which it was agreed, between France, England,\nand Spain, to support the pretensions of the Infant to the duchies of\nParma, Placentia, and Tuscany. To this treaty Holland was soon\nafter brought to accede, on the condition that her rights should be\nprotected against the new East India Company, established by the\nemperor at Ostend, which was considered as contrary to the treaty\nof Westphalia, and manifestly injurious both to England and the\nUnited States. The treaty of Seville was settled so totally without\nthe concurrence of the emperor, that his name was not even men-\ntioned in it which, as might be reasonably expected, gave great\noffence. In the year 1,731, however, England, and in 1,732 Holland,\nacceded to the wishes of the emperor, in regard to the Pragmatic\nSanction, on condition that the archduchess, who should succeed to\nthe empire, should not marry any Bourbon, or other prince or po-\ntentate, capable of disturbing the peace of Europe. The Ostend\nCompany was given up the Infant don Carlos took possession of the\nduchies of Parma and Placentia on the death of the last of the Far-\nnese family, and the grand duke of Tuscany acknowledged him as\nhis heir. A treaty between England, Holland, and the empire, call-\ned the second tioaty of Vienna, was signed and executed at the latter\nplace, which may be said to have terminated all the differences aris-\ning out of the Spanish succession, by which the greater part of Eu-\nrope had been kept in a state of agitation for the space of thirty\nyears.\nWhile these things were in agitation, Victor Amadeus, embarrass.\ned, as it is said, with the counter engagements he had entered into\nwith Austria and Spain, thought fit to resign his crown to his son,\nCharles Emmanuel, but soon repenting of what he had done, pre-\npared to reascend his abdicated throne this rash and injudicious steo","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0264.jp2"},"265":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. £61\nwas the cause of his imprisonment, and probably of his death, which\nHappened in November, 1,732.\n12. In 1,733, France became involved again in a war, both the\norigin and end of which had something remarkable in them. The\nthrone of the elective kingdom of Poland becoming vacant by the\ndemise of Augustas of Saxony, two competitors appeared on the\nstage the son of the deceased king, and Stanislaus Lescinsky, who\nhad with great credit previously occupied it through the interposi-\ntion of Charles Xll. of Sweden, (see Sect. LXV1.) and whose daugh-\nter was married to Lewis XV. The emperor of Germany, the\nCzarina, and the king of Prussia, espoused the cause of the former\nFrance supported the latter, and commenced hostilities against the\nemperor, by detaching the king of Sardinia from his interests, and\noccupying Lorrain, whose duke was engaged to marry the emperoi s\ndaughter. But the principal seat of war was in Italy, where the\nFrench, Spanish, and Sardinian combined troops obtained many ad-\nvantages, and ultimately succeeded in seating don Carlos, duke of\nParma, c., on the throne of the Two Sicilies, to which he had been\nparticularly invited by the Neapolitans. The Austrian court had\nbeen very supine, in not guarding better against the manifest de-\nsigns of the queen of Spain, mother of don Carlos. He was crown-\ned king by the title of Charles the third, July 3, 1,735. Naples\nwas subdued in 1 ,734, and Sicily in the year following. During this\ncontest, the celebrated prince Eugene, though then past seventy\nyears of age, had the command of the imperial army on the Rhine\nDut he had great cause to be offended with the situation in which he\nwas placed the French being stronger England not to be roused\nto assist him, through the pacific views of the minister Walpole and\nhaving, both at court and in the army, many rivals and secret ene-\nmies. His only consolation was, the extreme and enthusiastic at-\ntachment of the soldiers, the very remembrance of which, as he\nfeelingly acknowledges in his own memoirs, often afterwards drew\ntears from his eyes.\n13. Matters were brought to an accommodation, through the medi-\nation of the maritime powers, (who, undoubtedly, appear in this\ncase to have been guilty of misleading the emperor,) by a conven-\ntion signed at Vienna, in November, 1,738. By this treaty some\nvery extraordinary appointments took place. Stanislaus, the depos-\ned king of Poland, father-in-law to the king of France, obtained,\nkeeping his kingly title, the duchies of Lorrain and Bar, to revert to\nFrance after his death, which did not take place till the year 1,766.\nIn exchange for what was thus bestowed upon Stanislaus, the duke\nof Lorrain obtained the grand duchy of Tuscany, the reversion of\nwhich had been guaranteed to the Infant don Carlos, but who was,\nby the same treaty, acknowledged king of the Two Sicilies, surren-\ndering in his turn to the emperor, his two duchies of Parma and Pla-\ncentia; Vigevano and Novaro were given to the king of Sardinia;\nand to the emperor, the Milanese, the Mantuan, and Parma.\nOn the conclusion of the peace, France acceded to the Pragmatic\nSanction. The kings of Spain and Sardinia showed some reluctance\nto agree to the terms of the treaty, but were induced to sign it in the\ncourse of the year 1,729. It is certainly verv remarkable, that, in\neonsequence of a dispute about the crown of Poland, not only the\nemperor should have lost almost all his possessions in Italy, but\nFrance should have been able to recover a province of which she\nbad been deprived for the space of nearly a thousand years, and so","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0265.jp2"},"266":{"fulltext":"262 MODERN HISTORY.\nsituated as to render it one of the most splendid and gratifying acqui\nsitions she could possibly have contemplated.\nSECTION II.\nENGLAND FROM THE ACCESSION OF THE HOUSE OF HAN-\nOVER, 1,714, TO THE END OF THE REIGN OF GEORGE THE\nFIRST, 1,727.\nh Queen Anne was no sooner dead, [Part II. Sect. LXIV. 20.]\nthan steps were taken for the immediate acknowledgment of her suc-\ncessor, George Lewis, elector of Brunswick Luneburg, pursuant to\nthe several acts of parliament, for securing the protestant succession,\nin exclusion of the pretender, the house of Savoy, and, in fact, every\ncatholic branch of the royal family of England many of whom\nwere more directly in the line of inheritance than the protestant\ndescendants of James the first, in whom the crown was now vested\nnot, however, without due regard to that hereditary line which may\nbe said to have occupied the throne from the time of Egbert. The\nlate union with Scotland, 1,706, [see as above] was calculated to sup-\npress any general desire, on the part of the people there, to place\nthemselves again under a distinct sovereign.\n2. The accession of George I., to judge from the addresses of the\ntwo houses of parliament, and the general tranquillity manifested in\nall parts of the three kingdoms, at the time of his proclamation,\nwould seem to have been acceptable to the nation at large Nor\nwas the French king long before he openly acknowledged his right\nand title to the crown of Great Britain, though the sincerity of his\ndeclarations in favour of a protestant succession, and the exclusion\nof the aoi\\3e of Stuart, was not too confidently relied upon. The\nstates of Holland were, probably, entirely cordial, both in their ex-\npressions of congratulation, and promises of support, according to\nexisting engagements to that effect, as guarantees of the Hanoverian\nsuccession. From the king of Prussia, and various other princes and\nstates of Germany, his majesty also received the strongest assuran-\nces of support yet so little are these courtesies to be trusted, that\nit is more than probable, from circumstances since come to light,\nfhat at this very moment, with regard to the continental states in\ngeneral, he had more enemies than friends.\n3. His entrance into his new. dominions, however, September,\n1,714, was hailed in a manner that could not fail to be extremely\ngratifying to the king, though it soon became manifest, and could not\nwell have been otherwise, that there were many secret heart-burn-\nings and disappointed hopes, to prevent that perfect unanimity which\nwas most desirable on an occasion so important. The tories, some\nof whom had evidently been tampering with the pretender, during\nthe last years of the queen s reign, were greatly discomfited, and\nin a very marked manner discountenanced by the king himself. The\nwhigs enjoyed a triumph. The pretender s friends in general stood\nconfounded, not only by the low estate of his cause, but by the per-\nplexity of their own feelings, with regard to his more direct heredi-\ntary claims to the crown. In this dilemma, it is not to be wondered\nthat several should refuse to take the oaths of allegiance and abju-\nration. Scotland also, in part at least, bewailed its lost independency","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0266.jp2"},"267":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 263\nby the act of union, which some were forward to have dissolved\nagain and the papists, being very numerous in Ireland, rendered\nthe peace of that kingdom constantly precarious.\n4. The persou, manners, and deportment of the new sovereign,\nwere not such as immediately to conciliate his British subjects but\nhe was by no means destitute of kingly virtues and accomplishments\nof a more solid and important description. Having delivered the\nministerial government of the realm into the hands of the whigs, it was\nnot long before serious proceedings were entered into, by the new\nadministration, against the authors and advisers of the late peace and\ntreaty of Utrecht and articles of impeachment for high treason ex-\nhibited against the earl of Oxford, viscount Bolingbroke, the duke of\nOrmond, earl of Strafford, and others. The duke of Ormond, and\nlord Bolingbroke, absconded the earl of Oxford, with greater mag-\nnanimity, stood upon his defence, and though imprisoned for a con-\nsiderable time, was finally acquitted. Under a pretence of the\nchurch being in danger, which seems to have been adopted as a sort\nof watch-word by the tory party and Jacobites, (for so the adherents\nof the pretender were called,) riots and tumults took place in many\nparts of the kingdom in consequence of which, the king was em-\npowered by parliament (1,715,) to raise fresh forces, and the habeas\ncorpus act was suspended, for the more speedy apprehension and de-\ntention of suspected persons.\n5. In Scotland, however, notwithstanding great precautions to the\ncontrary, a rebellion actually broke out in the month of August,\n1,715, headed by the earl of Mar, late secretary of state for that\nkingdom and in September, the pretender s standard was erected\nat a place called Brae Mar, though the pretender himself did not ar-\nrive in Scotland till the December following before which time a\nsevere action had taken place at Dunblain, between the contending\narmies, commanded on the side of the English by the duke of\nArgyle and on the side of the Scotch by the earl of Mar. The\npretender, on reaching the shores of Scotland, was received with\nregal honours, and addresses were presented to him from many cor-\nporate bodies even his coronation was fixed to take place on the\n23d day of January. But during the course of these transactions,\nthe chief officers of his army, as soon after appeared, were but too\nwell convinced of their perfect inability to terminate the contest\nsuccessfully, many things having fallen out to the disappointment of\ntheir hopes; particularly the death of Lewis XIV., who, notwith-\nstanding his protestations in favour of the house of Hanover, had\nsecretly favoured their cause. The English army, besides, since the\nbattle of Dunblain, had been considerably reinforced, by Dutch as\nwell as English troops. This being the case, as we learn from an ac-\ncount given by the earl of Mar himself, they felt compelled to abandon\ntheir enterprise for the present; and in order to check the pursuit\nof the enemy, eager to seize the person of the pretender, they per-\nsuaded the latter to leave the kingdom again, and return to France\nthe earl of Mar himself accompanying him. They were followed,\nafterwards, by many leaders of the rebels, who, in a most extraordi-\nnary manner, escaped the English vessels stationed to intercept their\nEassage but some of those, who had previously fallen into the\nands of the English, as the earl of Derwentwater, and ethers, were\nimpeached, and pleading guilty, executed. Many escaped by an act\nof grace. Thus was the rebellion, in a great measure, subdued i\ncongratulatory addresses poured in upon the sovereign, and a day or","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0267.jp2"},"268":{"fulltext":"264 MODERN HISTORY.\npublic thanksgiving was appointed to be observed throughout the\nkingdom.\n6. The whigs, however, apprehending that their opponents, in a\nnew parliament, might regain their ascendancy, and oe able to carry\ninto execution their projects against the existing government, brought\nin a bill, (since called the septennial bill,) for enlarging the continu-\nance of parliament, whereby the term was extended from three to\nseven years, unless sooner dissolved by the king, and to begin with\nthe parliament then chosen and assembled a most important meas-\nure, and accidentally originating with a party more friendly in repute\nto the rights and liberty of the people than the step itself would\nseem to imply. Abstracted from all temporary or party considera-\ntions, it may justly be regarded as a very delicate and important\npoint in politics, to determine either a maximum or minimum, with\nregard to the duration of such elective assemblies as the English\nhouse of commons. Frequent elections being essentially necessary\nto preserve the people from any gross neglect of their interests by\ntheir representatives, or any unconstitutional encroachment on their\nliberty, as well as to remedy abuses but too frequent elections, hav-\ning evidently the ill effect of keeping up party divisions, feuds, and\nanimosities, interrupting business, and lessening the confidence of\nforeign states in the measures of government. Too frequent elec-\ntions, besides, by bringing independent candidates so much the\noftener into a contest with the treasury, (for government must have,\nand will always endeavour to exert, a powerful influence,) may in\ntime deter such persons from a conflict so disadvantageous; unless,\nin short, government influence in elections should be entirely done\naway, the more frequently they recur, the more they will harass\nand weaken private independence. (See Burke s works.) It was\nundoubtedly a bold step for any parliament, chosen under the popu\nlar triennial act of king William, to enlarge its own continuance nor\nwas it ill urged by a member of the house of peers, as an argument\nagainst the bill, that, if the existing house of commons continued\nthemselves beyond the time for which they were chosen, they were\nno more the representatives of the people, but a house of their own\nmaking. The whigs, however, had this excuse, that the proposed\nmeasure was calculated to suppress a rebellion, or prevent the re-\nnewal of one not raised, like other rebellions, under a pretence of\nliberty, but, in their eyes, clearly tending towards slavery, in the\nestablishment of a catholic prince, and the destruction of the prot-\nestant interests, both in church and state. It was well that they as-\nsigned any limit to their continuance, since a mere repeal of the\ntriennial act would have left the term undefined. The bill was final-\nly passed, after much opposition in the lower house, and a strong\nprotest on the part of many lords in the upper, by a majority in the\ncommons of 264 to 121 and it has continued the law of parliament\never since.\n7. In the year 1,717, an unpleasant dispute occurred, affecting the\nchurch, and which seems to have terminated the sittings of convo-\ncation. Dr. Hoadley, bishop of Bangor, gave occasion to it, by a\nsermon preached before the king, March 31, on The Nature of\nthe Kingdom of Christ, and by a publication entitled, a Preserva-\ntive against the Principles and the Practices of the Non-jurors.\nThe bishop had been a warm friend to the revolution, and many of\nthe principles he asserted were undoubtedly directed rather against\npopery than our own establishment while, in opposition to the jure","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0268.jp2"},"269":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 265\ndivtno pretence of the tories, he declaimed violently against every\nabuse of authority, at the hazard of impairing all church discipline,\nrogating from the regal supremacy in causes ecclesiastical, and\nannulling the force of all civil sanctions whatsoever in matters of\nreligion on these grounds the convocation took the matter up, but\nwithout much effect. It was dissolved in the midst of the controver-\nsy, and has never sat to do business since. Those who chiefly at\ntacked the bishop in print, were Dr. Snape of Eton, dean Sherlock,\nDr. Cannon, (who undertook to vindicate the proceedings of convo-\ncation,) Dr. Potter, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, and Mr.\nWilliam Law. Perhaps no antagonist entered the lists, with more\ndecorum of manners, or integrity of disposition, than the latter, who,\nin several letters addressed to the bishop, plainly proved that, how-\never innocent his intentions might be, his arguments and expressions\nplainly tended to the subversion of all church authority, and the en-\ncouragement of a most fatal indifference to every particular form of\nworship and belief. Which, considering the high situation he held\nin the church, and the duties attached to that station, could not but\nappear in the light of an abandonment of those principles, which\nalone could have placed him there. Such, however, was the state\nof parties at the time, that the bishop was advanced to a higher post\nin the church, and some of the most forward of his opponents dis-\nmissed from their employments about the court.\nI). In 1,718 George the first became a party to the celebrated\nquadruple alliance, formed to counteract the plans and projects of the\nSpanish minister Alberoni, (Sect. I. 8.) who, while his views were\nchiefly directed towards his native country, Italy, managed to involve\nalmost the whole of Europe in contests and jealousies, exceedingly\nperplexing, and inimical to the peace and tranquillity of many states.\nDistant as Sweden was, geographically, from the seat and object of\nhis manoeuvres, yet, in order to prevent any interruption from Eng-\nland, he had nearly instigated the celebrated Charles XII. to invade\nthe latter country, for the purpose of restoring the pretender to the\nthrone of his ancestors. His agents and accomplices, however,\nwere fortunately detected in time to prevent the rupture between\nthe two courts. George I. was no favourite, either with the Swedish\nmonarch, or his celebrated competitor, the czar of Muscovy.\n9. The chief object of the quadruple alliance, as has been before\nhinted, was to reconcile and adjust the rival claims and pretensions\nof the courts of Vienna and Madrid. Alberoni had endeavoured,\nduring the war between the emperor and the Turks, to get posses-\nsion of Sardinia, Sicily, and other places, for the sons of the queen\nof Spain, a princess of Parma, his native country. He had proposed,\nin short, to recover for Spain all that had been conceded and surren-\ndered by the treaty of Utrecht. (Part II. Sect. LX1V.) The intei-\nference of England, in sending a fleet to the Mediterranean, to sup-\nport the rights of the emperor, according to treaty, at the very mo\nmerit when the Spanish forces were prepared to invade Sicily and\nthe kingdom of Naples, exceedingly exasperated the cardinal min-\nister, and induced him to heap reproaches on the British govern-\nment for their precipitate proceedings, pretending that the Spaniards\nhad in every instance manifested a favourable disposition towards\nEngland though nothing was more notorious than that her mer-\nchants had been scandalously ill-treated by them, and her minister\nat Madrid overwhelmed with complaints to that effect. The latter,\nindeed, stated afterwards in the house of commons, that he had pre-\nZ 34","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0269.jp2"},"270":{"fulltext":"266 MODERN HISTORY.\nsented, at the least, five-and-twenty memorials to the court of Spain\nupon the subject, without redress and notwithstanding all these in-\ndignities, and to evince the desire of his government not too precipi-\ntately to commence hostilities, had communicated to the Spanish min-\nister the numbers and force of the English fleet before it sailed, in\norder to convince him of its superiority, and deter him from the\nmeasures he had in view. The defeat of the Spanish fleet, off Sicily,\nby admiral Byng, August 1,718, ruined all the projects of Alberoni;\nhe soon after fell into disgrace, and was precipitated from the exalted\nstation he had attained to by the strength of his genius; which, what-\never his enemies might allege, certainly bespoke a keen and vigi-\nlant statesman, and an able minister, as far as regarded the interests\nof the country he served, both foreign and domestic.\n10. Though so severe an action had taken place in the Mediter-\nranean, between the English and Spanish fleets in the month ol\nAugust, war was not formally declared at London till the close of\nthe year 1,718, (Dec. 29 between which period and the final dis-\ngrace and retirement of the Spanish minister, he had attempted\ntwo measures of deep revenge, one en the power and person of the\nduke of Orleans, regent of France, and the other on the govern-\nment of George I. of England, by an invasion of his dominions in\nfavour of the pretender, and under the direction of the expatriated\nduke of Ormond. It is remarkable that these projects were severally\ndetected by the French regent and British monarch, in time to admit\nof their warning each other of the danger in which they were re-\nspectively placed, and of offering the assistance which the cases re-\nquired,\n11. The war so suddenly and unexpectedly excited between\nGreat Britain and Spain, was in no long course of time brought to\nan issue very honourable and glorious to the former admiral Byng\nwith his fleet in the Mediterranean, having so managed matters as\nfully to accomplish all the purposes of his mission, putting the em-\nperor into possession of Sicily, and the duke of Savoy of Sardinia,\nunder circumstances of peculiar difficulty and embarrassment, owing\nto the obstinacy, backed by the bravery of the Spaniards, the hin-\ndrances arising from a succession of governors at Naples, and the\nloss of time in the necessary communications with his own cour-\nand that of Vienna. No man, perhaps, ever discharged so delicate\nand arduous a commission, with more applause en the part of his\nown country and her allies, or with fewer complaints and less obloquy\non the part of his opponents. The latter indeed, in this case, rather\njoined in the commendations so liberally bestowed on him by his em-\nEloyers, at the termination of the short but vigorous contest. When\ne waited on the king at Hanover, his majesty is said, very justly, to\nhave observed to him, that he had found out the secret of obliging\nhis enemies as well as his friends; alluding to the very honourable\nterms in which the Spaniards had expressed themselves concerning\nhim, both as an officer and negotiator. He was most deservedly ad-\nvanced to the peerage, by the title of viscount Torrington, and had\nother appropriate honours bestowed upon him. Towards the close\nof the year 1,719, the king of Spain acceded to the terms of the\nquadruple alliance; his minister, on the urgent and joint demands\nof the king of England, the emperor, and regent of France, having\nbeen previously dismissed, and banished the kingdom of Spain.\n12. In the course of the year 1,719, a bill was brought into par-\niament by the ministry, for limiting the number of the peers. It","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0270.jp2"},"271":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 267\noriginated with Lord Sunderland, who is said to have had in view to\nrestrain the power of the prince oi Wales, whom he had offended,\nwhen he should succeed to the throne. After much debate, and it is\nsupposed almost entirely through the influence of Sir Robert Wal-\npole, it was rejected by a large majority, 269 to 177.\n13. In 1,720 the king was much occupied in affording protection\nand support to the protestant interests abroad, and in endeavouring\nto restore peace and tranquillity amongst the northern states. Swe-\nden, Denmark, Prussia, and Poland, reaped the fruits of his media-\ntion but the czar resisted his proposals, and, for some time, contin-\nued to act against Sweden, in defiance of the combined operations ot\nthat country and England. He at last, however, consented to accept\nthe mediation of France, and peace was established between Russia\nand Sweden, by the treaty of Nystadt, 1,721.\n14. Nothing occurred in this reign more disastrous in its conse-\nquences, or more sirange and extravagant in its origin and progress,\nthan the celebrated South Sea scheme, whereby, though immense for-\ntunes were rapidly made by some, many individuals were ruined,\nand public credit alarmingly shaken. The details of this curious\nspeculation and bubble (as it has been but too justly denominated,)\nit would be exceedingly uninteresting to enter into, in a work like\nthe present, and they are easily to be found elsewhere but such an\ninstance of public infatuation, illusion, and credulity, was only to be\nmatched by the Mississippi scheme, projected by Law, during the\nregency in France, which had a similar effect, and which was most\nprobably the model from which Sir John Blunt, the projector of the\nSouth Sea scheme, took the hint. The French system has been sup-\nposed to have had something more substantial in it, with respect to\nthe exclusive trade to Louisiana. But the South Sea scheme had\ncertainly commercial advantages attached to it. The two schemes,\nit must be admitted, supply the most useful lesson to all wise states,\nnot to tamper with the public credit, or countenance such suspicious\nprojects for though both these adventures set out with very plau-\nsible pretences of public benefit, and a certainty of relieving, rather\nthan distressing, the credit of the nation, their course and progress\nsoon became such as to excite the most lively apprehensions in all\nconsiderate minds, of the consequences which actually ensued es-\npecially in England.\n15. The politics of Europe were in a very perplexed state, to-\nwards the close of the reign of George I., owing to two treaties,\nof which some account has been given in another place, but which\nwere very important to the English nation. These were the trea-\nties of Vienna and Hanover, the former of which took place in\nApril, and the latter in September, 1,725. By the former, the em-\nperor and Spain were supposed secretly to have bound themselves\nto procure the restitution of Gibraltar and Port Mahon, to the latter\npower to aid the pretender, and to further the interests of the Os-\ntend East India Company, which had given umbrage to England,\nHolland, and France. By the latter treaty, England was able to\nsecure on her side, against the projects oi Austria and Spain, the\nkings of Prussia and Sweden, and the states of Holland but as this\naid was very slowly and reluctantly promised, and, in one instance,\nsoon abandoned, the state of affairs would have been very alarming,\nbut for the encouragement given by parliament, which was so effec-\ntual, that though considerable preparations for war took place on the\npart of almost aU the nations concerned, articles of peace, through","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0271.jp2"},"272":{"fulltext":"268 MODERN HISTORY.\nthe mediation of France, were agreed upon in May, 1,727, and ao\ncepted by the imperial court and Spain j by these the charter of the\nOstend company was suspended for a certain period, and the siege\nof Gibraltar, which had actually commenced, and been carried on\nfor four months, raised and abandoned,\n16. George I. died at Osnaburgh, on his way to his electoral do\nminions, June 11, 1,727, with the reputation of an honest and generous\nprince. He was brave in the field, and wise in council having had\nmany arduous negotiations on his hands, which he commonly con-\nducted to a favourable issue not often, however, without large sub-\nsidies. His own measures were generally defensive and preventa-\ntive. He was fortunate in the state of things, at the period of Queen\nAnne s death, and in the removal of Lewis XIV., and Charles XII. of\nSweden, both of whom were personally unfriendly to him, and cer-\ntainly had projects on foot for the restoration of the Stuart family.\nKing George constantly manifested a disposition to govern according\nto the laws and constitution of the kingdom. And it has been observ-\ned to his credit, that the nation not only improved in wealth and\ncredit during his reign, but enjoyed a greater degree of tranquillity\nat home, and a longer duration of peace abroad, than during any\nperiod since the time of Queen Elizabeth. At the time of his death\nhe was in the sixty-eighth year of his age.\nSECTION III.\nAUSTRIA (AND GERMANY) FROM THE PEACE OF RASTADT\n1,714, TO THE PEACE OF AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, 1,748.\n1. The affairs of Austria, as incidentally connected with those of\nFrance, Spain, England, Italy, and Prussia, from the year 1,713 to\n1,738, have been already treated of in the preceding sections. It\nmay be necessary, however, to take a brief view of matters, from the\ncommencement of the reign of Charles VI., to the death of that mon-\narch which event, as we shall have to -show, greatly disturbed the\nwhole of Europe, and occasioned the war which was terminated by\nthe peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1,748.\n2. Charles VI., who had borne a conspicuous part in the succession\nwar, as a competitor for the Spanish throne, (Part II. Sect. LXIV.)\nbecame emperor in the year 1,711, on the demise of his elder\nbrother, Joseph I. Though he had declined becoming a party to\nthe treaty of Utrecht, in 1,713, it was not long before he perceived\nhis error, being left alone to support an expensive war. In the fol-\nlowing year, therefore, he received the proposals made to him by\nthe court of Versailles, consented to the opening of conferences, in\nthe month of November, 1,713, and, in the March following, 1,714,\nsigned the treaty of Rastadt, by which he obtained possession of the\nSpanish Netherlands, (except the barrier towns ceded to Holland,)\nNaples, Sardinia, Milan, Frieburg, and Kehl.\n3. But he was very soon disturbed in a part of these acquisitions,\nby the restlessness and jealousy of Spain, already noticed. Great de-\nsigns were formed against his Italian territories Sardinia actually\ntaken from him, in 1,717 Sicily, in 1,718, and further encroachments\nprojected, but for the. timely interposition of the English, under\nadmiral Byng, in the Mediterranean, (Sect. II. 9, 11.) who soon","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0272.jp2"},"273":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 269\nbrought matters to a favourable issue for Austria, with infinite credit\nto himself, both as an officer and a negotiator.\n4. Spain had eagerly caught at the opportunity which presented\nitself of making these attacks upon Austria, while the latter power\nwas engaged in war with Turkey, in aid of the Venetians. The\nTurks, (instigated, it has been said, by the Spanish minister, to\nengage the attention of Austria,) in violation of the treaty of Car-\nlowitz, had taken the Morea from the Venetians, before Austria\ncame to their aid, in the year 1,716; nor, though from that time\nso powerfully assisted, were they able to recover that peninsula.\nCharles VI., however, was not long at variance with the Porte upon\nthis occasion. As early as the year 1,718, through the extraordinary\nskill and valour of prince Eugene, the Austrian commander, things\nwere brought to an issue, and a peace concluded, through the me-\ndiation of England and Holland, at Passarowitz, by which the Turks\nwere allowed to retain the Morea, en ceding to the Venetians some\nfrontier towns in Albania and Dalmatia, while Austria obtained Bel-\ngrade, the Bannat of Temeswar ana Wallachia, as far as the Ahita^\nshe was also able to establish a free commerce in all the harbours of\nthe Black Sea, and of the Danube, as well as with the Persians. The\nearly termination of this war, together with the successes of the\nEnglish on the shores of Sicily, checked the operations of the Span-\niards, and disposed them to agree to the terms of the quadruple al-\nliance. Spain and Austria, however, were not effectually reconciled\ntiil the year 1,725, at which period the emperor was induced to re-\nnounce his pretensions upon Spain and the Indies.\n5. Charles VI. was for a long time deeply occupied in endeavour\ning to preserve his own dominions from such difficulties as Spain had\nbeen involved in, at the beginning of this century, owing to the dis-\nputed succession to the Spanish throne, on the demise of Charles II.\nand in which he had himself been so greatly concerned. He propos-\ned, for this end, by a Pragmatic Sanction, to make it a law, that\nif he should, at the time ot his death, have either sons or daugh-\nters, the hereditary dominions and crowns belonging to the house of\nAustria, should remain united. In failure of such issue, male or fe-\nmale, the daughters of his deceased brother, Joseph, were to succeed;\nand if they died without heirs, the inheritance was to pass to his sis-\nters, and their descendants. When this act was proposed,- at the\ndiet of Ratisbon, it was violently resisted by the electors of Saxony\nand Bavaria, as well as the elector Palatine, but by the treaty of Vien-\nna, 1,731, as well as by previous negotiations at the different courts ot\nEurope, almost every power, except France, was brought to consent\nto the proposed regulations; England and Holland, in particular,\nhaving been gained over by the emperor s agreement to suppress the\new East India Company which he had endeavoured to establish\nAt Ostend. The guarantee of France was not obtained till six years\nafter, in recompense of the transfer of the duchies of Lonaine and\nBar to the latter power, on the demise of Stanislaus, king of Poland,\nwho obtained the government of those countries by the treaty oi\n1.738.\n6. Charles VI. had scarcely succeeded in his great object oi the\npragmatic sanction, before he was engaged in a fresh war with the\nTurks, in virtue of a treaty concluded with Russia, who had com-\nmenced hostilities against the Porte, in 1,736. The war on the\nart of Austria, however, was of very short duration. She had\nost the support ctf her famous general, prince Eugene and hei\nZ2","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0273.jp2"},"274":{"fulltext":"270 MODERN HISTORY.\narmies, on the present occasion, appear to have been ill conducted.\nJealousies and disagreements amongst the superior officers, and a\ngreat want of resources, baffled all their operations. In 1,739, the\nemperor was compelled to submit to the terms of the treaty of\nBelgrade, which was highly advantageous to Turkey. Austria\nsurrendered Servia, with the fortresses of Belgrade and Szabatch\nand Austrian Wallachia, with the fortress of Orsova. By the treaty\nof Belgrade, the Porte also obtained advantages over Russia; but it\nis now known, that this convention was very artfully conducted by\nan agent of the French court, who was instructed not only to prevent\nthe dismemberment of Turkey, by the combined forces of Austria\nand Russia, but to resist the aggrandizement of the former, and\nseparate her, if possible, from her northern ally.\n7. In the year immediately following that in which the treaty of\nBelgrade had restored harmony between the two courts of Vienna\nand Constantinople, so much to the advantage of the latter, Charles\nVI. died, the last heir-male of the Austrian line of princes. Notwith-\nstanding all the care he had taken to secure to his daughter the\nentire hereditary dominions of his family and though almost the\nwhole of Europe had guaranteed the indivisibility of his dominions,\naccording to his wishes, he was no sooner dead than numerous\nclaims were set up, and a war kindled, which may be said to have,\nin its progress, involved every European state. The archduchess,\nMaria Theresa, consort of Francis, duke of Tuscany, according to\nthe terms of the Pragmatic Sanction, (which, however, had been ill\ndrawn up,) succeeded, on the death of her father, to the following\nkingdoms, states, and territories Hungary and Bohemia, Silesia\nand Austrian Suabia, Upper and Lower Austria, Styria, Carinthia,\nCarniola, Burgau, Brisgau, the Low-Countries, Friuli, Tyrol, the\nMantuan, and the Duchies of Milan, Parma, and Placentia.\n8. Unfortunately for the archduchess, Charles VI. had left his\narmy in a bad condition, his finances embarrassed, ai:d, at the time\nof his death, a scarcity almost approaching to famine, prevailed in\nmany parts of his dominions. All these circumstances combined,\nwere calculated to raiso up competitors for different portions of his\nestates. Nor were they at all tardy in advancing their claims. The\nelector of Bavaria pretended to be the proper heir to the kingdom\nof Bohemia. Augustus II., elector of Saxony and king of Poland,\nhaving married the eldest daughter of Joseph 1., elder brother of\nCharles VI., claimed the whole Austrian succession. The king of\nSpain did the same, though upon a more remote title, and entirely\nthrough females. The king of Sardinia made pretensions to the\nduchy of Milan, and Frederic II., of Prussia, to the province of Sile-\nsia.\n9. Many of these several claimants had formally agreed to the\nterms of the pragmatic sanction, and even at first professed the most\nfavourable dispositions towards the archduchess, who had taken quiet\npossession of all that had descended to her hut the times, and the\npeculiar circumstances of the empire, encouraged them to break\nthrough their engagements not, however, altogether without some\npretence of honour and justice as was the case with France. The\nking of France had, as well as the kings of Poland and Spain, pre-\ntended to have derived a right from two princesses, married to Lew\nis XIII. and XIV., to the whole succession but choosing, rather than\nto depend upon these titles, to take the part of the elector of Bava-\nria, he insisted that, in his guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanction, by the","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0274.jp2"},"275":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 2*1\nclause u sine prcejudicio tertii he was fairly left at liberty to espouse\nany claims that should appear to him more just than those of the\narchduchess, queen of Hungary. This clause had, indeed, been in-\ntroduced into some of the acts of guarantee, though not into all.\n10. The most forward and active of the queen s opponents was a\nprince little known till then, Frederic king of Prussia, at that time\nabout twenty-eight years of age. He had succeeded, through the\nprudence of his father, to an army and a treasury of no inconsider-\nable importance both of which he had himself also found time to\nimprove. His movements were sudden, and quite unexpected by\nihe court of Vienna and he soon made known what his demands\nwere, proposing that if they should be granted, he would support\nAustria against other enemies, and assist the queen in placing her\nhusband on the imperial throne. He pretended, indeed, at first, to\nbe only desirous of occupying Silesia, as a friend to the queen but\nthe mask was soon laid aside, and his fixed determination to become\nmaster of Lower Silesia rendered visible to all the world.\n1 1 The queen would consent to the surrender of no part of her\ninheritance, though possibly her refusal in this instance, occasioned\nthe alliance soon afterwards formed between the court of Versailles\nand Frederic, from which she suffered so much. England, it is said,\ncounselled submission in the point of Silesia, foreseeing the conse-\nquences but worse consequences, perhaps, were to be apprehend-\ned, had she complied. It would, in all likelihood, have disposed\nothers to urge their claims with greater importunity.\n1 2. Aided by France and Saxony, the elector of Bavaria, towards\nthe middle of the year 1,741, acquired possession of the kingdom of\nBohemia, and was proclaimed king, and inaugurated with great\nsolemnity; and, on the 12th of February, 1,742, he had the imperial\ndignity conferred on him by the diet of Frankfort, under the title of\nCharles VII., having been chosen, however, when some of the elec-\ntors were disqualified from voting.\n13 Never was there a greater prospect of a total dismemberment\nof the Austrian dominions than at this time. Different parts were\nregularly assigned to the several claimants, and nothing left for the\ndaughter of Charles VI. but the kingdom of Hungary, the province\nof Lower Austria, the Belgian states, and the duchies of Carinthia,\nStyria, and Carniola. Precautions had even been taken to prevent\nher deriving any aid from Russia, by exciting Sweden to declare was\nagainst the latter power. But the spirit of this surprising woman\nwas not to be broken by the powerful combination against her. She\nhad, at the very commencement of her reign, in a singular and ex-\ntraordinary manner, and with consummate wisdom, particularly by\ntaking the ancient oath of king Andrew II., attached to her interests\nthe brave Hungarians. Repairing to them with her infant son, she\nthrew herself entire-iy upon their protection, and, in the most public\nmanner, addressing them in the Latin language, at a special assembly\nof the states, presented her child to them in terms the most pathetic.\nSupported by their valour, and with the help of English and Dutch\nmoney, she baffled all her enemies, and finally dissipated the stoma\nthat so rudely threatened her. It was not, indeed, until Walpole was\nremoved from the English ministry that the queen received any ac-\ntive assistance from the king of England but afterwards, both in\nFlanders and Italy, he was a powerful ally. She also derived some\nsuccours from the king of Sardinia, not, however, very creditably\npurchased with regard to Genoa.","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0275.jp2"},"276":{"fulltext":"272 MODERN HISTORY.\n14. Had the numerous powers first armed against Maria Theresa,\nor intimidated into a state of neutrality, agreed amongst themselves,\nit would have been impossible for the queen to have withstood their\nattacks but, fortunately for her, many stood so directly in a state of\nlivalship towards each other, and France was such an object of sus-\npicion and alarm to almost all the other confederates, that their very\nftrst movements produced jealousies and divisions amongst thorn\nand, what is very remarkable, the earliest who showed a disposition\nto treat with the queen was the king of Prussia, in consequence of\nthe successes of the elector of Bavaria in Bohemia.\n15. The interference of England, in behalf of the queen, did at\nfirst, indeed, only exasperate France, and the other allies of Charles\nVII., and excite them to a more vigorous opposition. But the death\nof the emperor, in the year 1,745, who had derived no happiness,\nbut, indeed, a great deal of misery, from his short exaltation, and his\nson s prudent and wise abandonment of such high dignities, in order\nto secure his quiet possession of his paternal dominions, left the\nqueen at liberty to procure for her husband, Francis, grand duke of\nTuscany, the imperial crown his election to which took place in\nthe month of September of the same year the queen agreeing to\nadmit the young elector of Bavaria to the full possession of his he-\nreditary dominions, and to acknowledge his father, Charles VII., to\nhave been duly invested with the imperial dignity. After some\nsignal successes, the queen s great adversary, the king of Frussia,\nalso came into her terms, having agreed, in a treaty concluded at\nDresden, to acknowledge the validity of Francis s election, on being\nput in possession of Silesia and the county of Glatz, the chief objects\nfor which he had been contending. The elector Palatine was like-\nwise included in this treaty.\n16. The French continued the war in the Netherlands, as well\nas in Italy, and with considerable success but the queen being a\ngood deal disembarrassed by the peace she had been able to con-\nclude with Prussia, had it soon in her power to recover all that\nthe French and Spaniards had acquired in Italy, while the French\nconquests in Flanders and Holland led to the re-establishment of\nthe stadtholdership, and thereby baffled all their hopes of future\nadvantages in those parts. The interference of the empress of\nPtussia, subsidized by England, and, above all, the peculiar situation\nof the king of France, whose finances were almost exhausted, and\nwho had suffered severe losses by sea, tended to bring matters to an\nissue. A congress was opened at Aix-la-Chapelle, which, though\nfather slow in its operations, at last terminated in a peace, concluded\nOctober 7, 1,748, exactly a hundred years after the famous treaty\nof Westphalia, which served for a basis of the negotiations entered into\nupon this occasion. By this convention, as in most other instances of\nthe same nature, there was so general a restitution of conquests, as\nplainly to mark the folly and injustice of having continued the war\nso long. During this contest, in the year 1,743, died the cardinal de\nFlenry, first minister of France, at the very advanced age of ninety.\nHe did not assume the reins of government till he was seventy-\nthree. He had many virtues, but was much more admired by his\ncountrymen for his integrity and disinterestedness, than for energy\nof character, or public spirit.\n17. The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle bringing us, as nearly as can be,\nto the middle of the eighteenth century, it may be well to take a","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0276.jp2"},"277":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 273\nview of Europe at this particular period, and as connected with\nthis celebrated treaty but this must be reserved for a future section.\nSECTION IV.\nENGLAND FROM THE ACCESSION OF GEORGE II. TO THE\nTHRONE, 1,727, TO HIS DEATH, 1,760.\n1. The accession of George II., who came to the throne 1,727, in\nthe 44th year of his age, and in a time of profound peace, was not at-\ntended with such changes as many had expected. Even the minis-\nter himself, sir Robert Walpole, is said to have been surprised at the\nreception he met with from his majesty, on the demise of the late\nking, and at the continuance of the power in his hands. But this is\nnow known to have been owing to the wise and prudent care of\nqueen Caroline, who, at this moment, was found to possess an influ-\nence over her royal consort, which had been by many little suspect-\ned, but which her extreme good sense, and discreet conduct, seemed\nfully to justify. The whigs might justly be considered as the truest\nfriends of the house of Hanover and the protestant church and\ntheir continuance in power at the commencement of a new reign,\nthough very grating to the adverse party, seemed to be extremely\nfavourable to the quiet of the nation.\n2. The good-will which had sprung up, and been encouraged dur-\ning the regency, between the rival courts of Versailles and London,\nwas not materially disturbed during the whole administration of\nWalpole, and his pacific contemporary, cardinal Fleury the queen\nbeing also friendly to peace. But as it is not easy for any peaceable\ngovernment long to escape the encroachments of other states, Spain,\napparently presuming on the forbearance or apathy of the British\nministry, committed great depredations, for a series of years, upon\nthe trade of England with America and the West-Indies, committing\nmany acts of most atrocious cruelty, in addition to their other deeds\nof insult and plunder. Some steps were at length taken to remedy\nthese evils, but the conduct of Spain was so generally resented by\nthe nation, as to render even the convention, by which the disputes\nwere referred to arbitration, extremely unpopular. It being thought,\nby many of all descriptions, not only that the grievances complained\nof had been too long submitted to and endured, and the measures\nhitherto taken to redress them been too tame and submissive, but\nthat nothing less than a war could restore lie lost consequence of\nthe state, or bring such offenders to reason.\n3. The Spaniards, indeed, had defended their conduct in many\nmemorials, pretending that the English were the aggressors, in car-\nrying on a contraband and unlawful trade with their colonies but\nhad this been capable of proof to the extent the Spaniards pretend*\ned, which was certainly not the case, there is no doubt but that they\nsuffered themselves to be hurried into most unjustifiable excesses in\ntheir measures of reprisal, and exceedingly ill-treated both the mer-\nchants and sailors of England. They insisted upon a general right\nof search, on the open seas, and condemned the ships and cargoes,\nupon such frivolous pretences as could not fail to be extremely in-\niurious and oppressive, and quite contrary to existing treaties. In\none instance, a whole fleet of English merchant-ships, at the island of\n3*\nA","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0277.jp2"},"278":{"fulltext":"4 274 MODERN HISTORY.\nTortugas, was attacked by Spaniards, as ii the two nations had been\nat open war\n4. It would be scarcely possible, perhaps, to justify entirely the\nextraordinary forbearance of the British government, for nearly\ntwenty years, during which not only these indignities had been con-\ntinually repeated, but express engagements, and promises to redress\nand abstain from such aggressions in future, notoriously violated.\nThis had been remarkably the case with respect to the stipulations\nof the treaty of Seville, concluded in the year 1,729. There were\nvery warm debates in parliament on the subject, and the ministry\nwere hard pressed to defend themselves from the charge of supine-\nness, gross indifference to the sufferings of the merchants, and the\nhonour of the crown, and, in some instances, even of criminal conniv-\nance. And, indeed, their opponents obtained, at length, this triumph\nover them, that the very convention which was to be the prelimina-\nry of a perfect adjustment of differences, and a surety for the indem-\nnification of the merchants for all their losses, was, like every pre-\nceding treaty and compact, disregarded by Spain, and war obliged\nto be declared before the year was out, to compel her to more\njust and equitable measures. The war, however, was not so success-\nful as to render it clear that the pacific and wary proceedings of the\nBritish minister were otherwise than most prudent and wise, consid-\nering the general circumstances of Europe. Omnia prius expe-\nnd verbis quam armis sapientem decet, is a maxim which has\nbeen applied to the conduct of sir Robert Walpole, by an author,\nnot backward to admit that, on some points, in regard to continental\npolitics, the pacific system was carried too far. The period during\nwhich it prevailed will, certainly, for ever be a remarkable era in\nEnglish history, especially as the reigning sovereign was notorious\nly a soldier, and by no means personally disposed to adopt so inactive\na line of conduct.\n5. Though the people had been clamorous for the war with\nSpain, they were soon dissatisfied with the conduct of it, and that to\nso great a degree, as to compel the minister, sir Robert Walpole,\nthough with considerable reluctance, to resign his appointments\nwhich took place in February, 1,742; the approbation of his sove-\nreign being manifested in his elevation to the peerage, by the title of\nearl of Oxford. He was succeeded by lord Carteret. Sir Robert\nWalpole had been an able, intelligent, and prudent minister a con-\nstant lover of peace, in the w T ay of defence and prevention and\nupon this he prided himself he was of the whig party, which ex-\nposed him much to the rancour, not only of those whose political\nopinions were different, but of many disappointed persons who\nthought with him. By these he was stigmatized as having reduced\ncorruption to a system but by others, this charge was as confidently\nrepelled nor would it be difficult to prove that, though he often spoke\nas if he knew every man s price, he governed, not by corruption,\nbut by party attachments, as his friends and admirers have alleged.\nUpon two great occasions his plans were thwarted by some who\nlived to see and correct their errors, as was the case, particularly,\nTfith Mr. Pitt, in regard to the excise bill, first proposed to the house\nof commons in the year 1,732. There was never, perhaps, a case\nir which party, faction, and ignorance prevailed more over truth,\nand justice, and prudence. The bill was calculated to check ana\ncontrol the most gross and pernicious frauds upon the revenues to\nfavour and encourage, in every possible manner, the fair dealer.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0278.jp2"},"279":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 275\n(and through him the public in general,) and by the savings pro-\nduced in the treasury, materially to lighten the public burthens: yet\ni h a clamour was raised against the measure, from its first sugges-\ntion, as to oblige the minister to abandon it.\n6? The other measure, which brought great odium on this able\nminister of finance, was his trespass on the sinking fund, first estab-\nlished in 1,727, and which he made no scruple to alienate for public\npurposes, as occasion seemed to require. The very name of this\nfund is not equally applicable to all times. At first it arose entirely\nfrom savings, and its perpetual or uninterrupted operation under such\ncircumstances, would appear to have been an indispensable part ot\nits character. It had been calculated as proceeding upon the basis\nof compound interest while new loans and debts, contracted lor\npressing emergencies, were held to burthen the public in the way\nof simple interest* only. But in these days, the whole state ot the\nquestion is changed. The modern sinking fund is not a sinking fund\nof surpluses or savings, but in itself a borrowed fund of great power\nand great utility, occasionally, but plainly at the command of the\npublic, whenever the current expenses cannot be provided for at a\nless cost and, indeed, often beneficially to be applied to such pur-\nEoses, in greater or less proportions, to the avoidance of many\neavy charges of management, high premiums, and new taxes. The\nalienation of the original sinking fund, by sir Robert Walpoie, how\never, has been verv ably defended since, though opposed and resist-\ned, at the time, with a virulence and animosity exceedingly distress-\ning to that minister.\n7. The new administration, which came into power on the resig\nnation of Walpoie, so little answered the expectations ot their\nfriends, deviated so soon from the principles they had avowed, while\nin opposition, and seemed so much more disposed to espouse the\ncause of Hanover, at the expense, and to the loss, of England, in\nuseless subsidies and foreign wars, than to attend to the domestic\ndifficulties under which she was supposed to be labouring, that they\nbecame, in a very short time, quite as unpopular as their predeces-\nsors, and in 1,745, the very year in which Walpoie died, the rebel-\nlion broke out in Scotland.\n8. This attempt against the house of Hanover, undertaken by the\nheir of the Stuart family, in person, was, undoubtedly, an ill-con-\nducted, as it was ultimately an unsuccessful, enterprise though to\ncall it altogether a weak one, would be contrary to historical truth.\nIts commencement, indeed, had all the appearance of the most ro-\nmantic infatuation, but in its progress it became so formidable, as\neven to threaten the capital of England, and the protestant succes-\ntion nor was it subdued without great efforts and exertions on the\npart of the king s forces, so unavailing and disheartening at first, as\nto render the issue of the contest extremely problematical. It was,\nin fact, at the beginning, despised and neglected, by the lords of the\nregency, in the absence of the king, who was then at Hanover, so\nthat time was given for such an accession of friends and adherents t-o\nthe cause of the pretender, while the English army was left without\nany adequate reinforcements, that the rebels not only got possession\nof Edinburgh, after a very severe but most successful action with\nthe English, at Preston Pans, but were able to march, unmolested,\nfar int) England, and even to retreat, in the face of a powerful army,\nunder circumstances peculiarly creditable to the prowess, humanity,\nttud military skill of the Scottish commander.","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0279.jp2"},"280":{"fulltext":"276 MODERN HISTORY.\n9. Had the young prince met with the encouragement he expect-\ned on his march to the south, he might have possessed himself of the\nEnglish, as he had done of the Scotch, capital but his hopes of aid\nwere, considering all things, strangely and cruelly disappointed.\nNot a soul joined him, of any importance, though he had advanced\nnearly to the very centre of the kingdom while the French failed\nto fulfil their engagement of invading the southern parts of the\nisland, in order to divide and occupy the English army, so that his\nretreat became a point of prudence perfectly inevitable, however\nmortifying and grating to the gallant spirit of Charles, who un-\ndoubtedly manifested a strong disposition to proceed against all obsta^\ncles.\n10. The conflict between the two nations, on this occasion, was\ngreatly affected by the religious tenets and principles of the oppos-\ning parties. Had Scotland been entirely catholic, the hopes of the\nStuart family would have been extremely reasonable but it was.\nat this period, divided between the presbyterians and the catholics\nthe Lowlanders being of the former sect, and the Highlanders, gen-\nerally speaking, of the latter. The presbyterians, who had gained\npeat advantages, in the way of toleration, by the revolution, having\nbecome whigs in principle, naturally adhered to the house of Han-\nover, while the catholic Highlanders were quite as fully and as nat-\nurally inclined to support their native prince. Nothing could be\nwiser, perhaps, under these circumstances, than the sending a prince\nof the blood to command the British forces, and, as it happened, no\nofficer of the British army could be more popular than the duke of\nCumberland, at this very period. His royal highness joined the\narmy at Edinburgh, not long after the battle of Falkirk, in which\nthe English, under general Hawley, had recently sustained a check.\nThe duke, indeed, had been expressly recalled from Flanders, to\nsuppress the rebellion, which was, in no small degree, detrimental\nand injurious to the cause of the allies.\n11. The conduct of the son of the pretender was certainly that\nof a brave but inconsiderate young man. Sanguine in his expecta-\ntions beyond what any circumstances of the case would completely\njustify, he, in more instances than one, committed himself too tar, and\nat the very last exposed himself to a defeat, which might, at least,\nhave been suspended or mitigated, if not totally avoided. He made\na stand against the king s forces at Culloden, while his troops were\nin a bad condition for righting, and when it would obviously have\nbeen better policy to have acted on the defensive to have retired\nbefore his adversary, till he had led him Ltito the more impractica\nble parts of the highlands, where all his military means would\nhave been crippled, and a retreat, perhaps, at least, have been\nrendered indispensably necessary but by risking the battle of Cullo-\nden, (April 16, 1,746) he lost every thing. The duke of Cumber-\nland gained a must decisive victory and so completely subdued the\nhopes and spirits of his young opponent, that he never afterwards\njoined his friends, though solicited, and indeed engaged, so to do but\nwandering about the country for a considerable time, with a price of\n£30,000 set on his head, after enduring incredible hardships and\ndifficulties, embarked for France and thus terminated for ever the\nstruggles of that exiled and deposed family to recover its ancient\ndominions. The very remarkable instances of attachment, fidelity,\nand pure hospitality, by which, after the battle of Culloden, the\nunfortunate fugitive was preserved from the hands of his pursuers,","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0282.jp2"},"281":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 277\nsurpass any thing of the kind recorded in history, and reflect indelible\ncredit on the high and disinterested feelings and principles of those\nwho assisted him in his escape.\n12. The most melancholy circumstance attending this rash un-\ndertaking, was the necessity that arose for making examples of those\nwho had abetted it, in order more securely to fix on the throne of\nGreat Britain the reigning family who, having acquired that right\nin the most constitutional manner, could not be dispossessed of it, but\nby an unpardonable violation of the law. Of the excesses committed\nby the English troops after the battle of Culloden, it is to be hoped,\nas indeed it has been asserted, that the accounts are exaggerated:\nbut in the common course of justice, many persons, and some of the\nhighest rank, underwent the sentence of death for high treason,\nwhose crime, through a melancholy infatuation, must in their own\neyes have appeared the very reverse, and whose loyalty and attach-\nment, under different circumstances, and with the law and constitution\non their side, would have deserved the highest praise. Though\nmany of the adherents of the pretender suffered, many of them\nmade their escape beyond sea, and arrived safely at the different\npoitsof the continent. No attempts have since been made by any of\nthe catholic descendants of the royal family of Great Britain to dis-\nturb the protestant succession in the house of Brunswick.\n13. This illustrious house sustained a very unexpected and mel-\nancholy loss, in the year 1,750, by the death of his royal highness\nthe prince of Wales, father of his late majesty who, in consequence\nof a cold caught in his gardens at Kew, died of a pleuritic disorder,\non the twentieth day of March, in the forty-fifth year of his age.\nHe was a prince endowed with many amiable qualities a munificent\npatron of the ails, a friend to merit, and sincerely attached to the in-\nterests of Great Britain.\n14 In the coarse of the year 1,751, a remarkable act was passed\nin parliament, for correcting the calendar, according to the Gregori-\nan computation. It was enacted, that the new year should begin\non the first of January, and that eleven days between the second and\nfourteenth days of September, 1,752, should for that time be omitted,\nso that the day succeeding the second, should be called the fourteenth\nof that month. This change was on many accounts exceedingly im-\nportant, but to persons wholly unacquainted with astronomy, it ap-\npeared a strangely arbitrary interference with the currency and set*\ntied distinctions of time.\n15. Though the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1,748, may be said\nto have restored peace to Europe, the English and French came to\nno good understanding with regard to their remote settlements.\nThe war in those parts involved the interests of the natives or set-\ntlers, as well as of the two courts, and scarcely seems to have fallen\nunder the consideration of the negotiating ministers. In the east and\nin the west many disputes and jealousies were raised, which though\nreferred to special commissioners to adjust, in no long course of time\ninvolved both countries in a fresh war, the particulars of which will\nbe found elsewhere a war which extended to all parts of the globe,\nand continued beyond the reign of George II., who died suddenly\nat Kensington, in 1,760, in the 77th year of his age, and 34th of his\nreign.\n16. George 11. was a prince of high integrity, honour, and vera-\ncity, but of a warm and irritable temper, of a warlike disposition,\nand though for a long time restrained by his pacific minister, sir\nAa","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0283.jp2"},"282":{"fulltext":"278 MODERN HISTORY.\nRobert Walpole, from taking any active part in the disputes of the\ncontinent, yet constantly inclined to do so, from an attachment, very\nnatural, though unpopular amongst his British subjects, to his Ger-\nman dominions. He was greatly under the influence of his queen,\nwhile she lived, whose mild, prudent and conciliating manners,\nto use the words of a very impartial and judicious biographer,\nwere more congenial to the character of the English nation.\nQueen Caroline had indeed many great and splendid virtues though\nof most amiable and domestic habits, she was well versed in the\npolitics of Europe, an,d had considerable literary attainments, which\ndisposed her to be a iriend to learned persons, particularly to many\nmembers of the church, of which several striking and remarkable\ninstances have been recorded. It is sufficient to mention the names\nof Herring, Clarke, Hoadley, Butler Sherlock, Hare, Seeker, and\nPearce. She was the daughter of John Frederick, margrave of\nBrandenburgh Anspach, and was born in the year 1,683. She was\nmarried to his majesty in 1,705, and had issue two sons and five\ndaughters. Her death, which occassioned great grief to her royal\nconsort and family, took place on the 20th of November, 1,733,\nwhen she was in the 55th year of her age.\nSECTION V.\nSTATE OF EUROPE AT THE CONCLUSION OF THE PEACE\nOF AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, 1,748,\n1 By the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle the house of Hanover was\neffectually established on the throne of Great Britain, to the entire\nexclusion of the Stuart family. Though the peace was not popular\nin England, and she was supposed by many to have made too great,\nand in some instances ignominious concessions, yet it was certainly\nfortunate for her that the continental powers confined their views to a\nbalance which did not extend to the sea and thereby left in her\nhands a force, beyond calculation superior to that of the other\ncountries of Europe, and amounting almost to a monopoly of com-\nmerce, credit, and wealth, so as to render her, as it were, the chief\nagent or principal, in all political movements, for the time to come.\nHer prosperity, indeed, had been on the increase, in no common de\ngree, from the accession of the Brunswick family.\n2. Austria lost, by the treaty of 1,748, Silesia and Glatz, the\nduchies of Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla, and some places in\nthe Milanese but she succeeded, and chiefly at the expense of her\nallies, in the article of the. succession. All former treaties were\nformally recognised, which involved indeed other losses to the em-\npire, if compared with the time of Charles V r but the dominions\nof the latter were certainly too extensive, and too detached, to form\na great and stable empire. This, indeed, may be said to have been\nthe case with regard even to the reduced domains of Charles VI.;\nbut his high-spirited daughter, Maria Theresa, was to the last indig-\nnant at the losses she had sustained. She corrected the error into\nwhich she had fallen with regard to Genoa, and which occasioned\ngreat commotions there, by consenting to let the marquisate of Final\nrevert to that republic, whbh had been very arbitrarily given, in\nthe course of the war, as a bribe to the king of Sardinia, and made\na free port, to the evident disadvantage of the Genoese, who had","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0284.jp2"},"283":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 279\noriginally purchased it for a valuable consideration, under the guar-\nantee of Great Britain.\n3. Prussia gained, by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Silesia, and\nthe county of Glatz, which were guaranteed to her by all the con-\ntracting powers and by this accession of territory she was raised\ninto the condition of a power capable of entering into the field ol\naction, as a rival of Austria which might have been foseseen, when\nLeopold erected it into a kingdom, for the express purpose of coun-\nterbalancing the power of France. As it was, the unity of the em-\npire seemed to be dissolved, and a door set open to future revolutions\nin the Germanic body. The character and subsequent achievements\nof Frederick II. contributed greatly to the aggrandizement of his do-\nminions. He was active, bold, fond of glory, and indefatigable. He\nwas brave in the field, and wise in the cabinet. Desirous of shining\nin all that he undertook, he was indefatigable in keeping his army\nconstantly ready for all emergencies, and in repairing the damages to\nwhich his dominions had been subjected by his ambition. He drew\nto him many eminent persons of all countries, of whose society he\npretended to be fond but he oftentimes showed himself to be a\nmost merciless tyrant, a blunderer in political economy, and, if not\nquite an atheist, very lax in his principles of religion.\n4. Holland lost much by the peace, and gained nothing. Some,\nindeed, doubted whether she did not greatly endanger her indepen\ndence, by consenting to make the stadtholdership hereditary in the\nhouse of Orange, and that in favour of the female as well as male\nheirs of the family: but others conceived that this approach to mo-\nnarchical government greatly strengthened the republic and it would\nindeed seem that it had declined much in power and consequence,\nfrom the very period when that office was abolished, in the preced-\ning century. One precaution was adopted with regard to the female\nheirs to the Stadtholdership they were precluded from marrying any\nking, or elector of the empire a precaution which there were, in\nthe history of Europe, sufficient reasons to justify.\n5. Spain obtained, for two branches of her royal family, the king-\ndom of Naples, and the duchies of Parma, Placentia, and Ouastalla:\nthe latter to revert to Austria, that is, Parma and Guastalla, and Pla-\ncentia to Sardinia, should the new duke, don Philip, die without issue,\nor succeed to either of the kingdoms of Spain or Naples. But the\npower of Spain was not much increased, either by land or sea. On\nthe latter, indeed, the English had an overwhelming superiority;\nand, on land, though her armies were brave, they were generally ill\nconducted, and her government too bad to render her respectable\nin the eyes of Europe. Ferdinand VI., indeed, the successor of\nPhilip, who came to the throne just before the conclusion of the\ntreaty, applied himself, with no small degree of credit, to retrieve\nthe character of the nation.\n6. Austria, by seeking an alliance with Russia, had introduced the\nlatter power into the southern states of Europe, and given her consid\nerable weight and consequence, as a counterbalance to her grea*\nrival, France. Scarcely known at the commencement of the century,\nthe movement impressed upon this mighty empire by the extraor-\ndinary genius and vigour of Peter the first, had carried her forward,\nwith a rapid progression so that, by the middle of the century, she\nmight justly be regarded as amongst the most considerable powers oi\nEurope. Her armies were, perhaps, more than semi-barbarous; but\nthey were brave, indefatigable, hardy, and supported by the reli-","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0285.jp2"},"284":{"fulltext":"2») MODERN HISTORY.\ngious principle of predestination; the foundation of a dViperate\nkind of hardihood, seldom to be resisted. Her internal resources\nwere not at all considerable, but they were daily improving. When\nPeter the first came to the crown, her revenues amounted to six\nmillions of roubles; in 1,748 they were nearly quadrupled. Thus\nrapidly advancing, with one arm reaching to the Baltic, and the\nother to the Black sea, it was very obvious to discern that when, by\ngood management, her gigantic body should be duly invigorate\nshe had every chance of becoming a most formiflable power\nAlready had she shown herself such, to a great degree, in the influ\nence she had acquired in Sweden, Denmark, and Poland in he\ncommercial treaties with England, her alliance with Austria, and hei\nwars with the Turks. Her resources and means of improvement\nwere great rivers not only navigable during the summer, but during\nthe winter also, affording, by means of sledges, every opportunity\nof a quick and easy transport of all sorts of commercial goods the\ngreater part of her southern provinces fertile, and requiring little\nculture mines of gold, iron, and copper great quantities of timber,\npitch, tar, and hemp. She had not yet learned to manufacture her\nown productions, or to export them in her own ships, and conse-\nquently to make the most of them but she was in the way to learn\nsuch arts, and when once attained, she had the fairest prospects of\nacquiring a decided superiority, not only in the Baltic, and White\nsea, but on the Black sea and Caspian.\n7. Turkey, at the middle of the eighteenth century, was compar-\natively a gainer by the wars in which she had been engaged. She\nhad taken the Morea from the Venetians, recovered from Austria\nBelgrade, Servia, and some provinces of Transylvania and Wal achia,\nand had hitherto baffled the attempts of Russia, to get absolute pos-\nsession of the Crimea, and of the mouths of the Danube.\n8. France obtained little in point of extent by the treaty of Aix-\nla-Chapelle, but that little was of extreme importance. The posses-\nsion of Lorraine, in addition to Alsace, and several strong forts on the\nRhine, strengthened and completed, in the most perfect manner, her\neastern frontier, and placed her in a most commanding attitude with\nregard to the German states. During the administration of cardinal\nFleury, which lasted till the year 1,743, her marine had been de-\nplorably neglected, while the English had been able to enrich them-\nselves at the expense of the French, particularly by intercepting\nmany valuable convoys, and capturing many ships of her reduced navy.\n9. An author of reputation has proposed to throw the different\nEuropean states, at the conclusion of the peace of 1,748, into the\nfour following classes\n1. Those that having armies, fleets, money, and territorial resour\nse«, could make war without foreign alliances. Such were England\nand France.\n2. Those that with considerable and powerful armies, were de-\npendent on foreign resources. Austria, Prussia, and Russia.\n3 Those that could not engage in war, but in league with other\nstates, subsidized by them, and always regarded in the light of sec-\nondary powers by the large ones. Portugal, Sardinia, Sweden,\nDenmark.\n4. Such as were interested in maintaining themselves in the same\ncondition, and free from the encroachment of others. Switzerland,\nGenoa, Venice, and the German states.\nHolland, Spain, and Naples, being omitted in the above account,","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0286.jp2"},"285":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY, 231\nmight reasonably be thrown into a fifth class, as countries generally\nso connected with England, France, and Austria, as to be constantly\ninvolved in every war affecting either of those countries.\nSECTION VI.\nOF THE SEVEN YEARS WAR, 1,775—1,762.\n1. Though for some short time after the conclusion of the peace\nof Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1 ,748, England and France seemed to enjoy,\nin no common degree, the blessings of peace, and to be upon a foot-\ning of perfect amity with each other, yet it would appear that the\nseeds of a future war were sown in the very circumstances of that\nconvention. England was left in possession of such a preponderating\nforce at sea, while the French marine, through the parsimony or in-\nattention of cardinal Fleury, had fallen into so low a state of depres-\nsion, that it is not to be wondered that all who were interested about\nthe latter, should have their minds filled with jealousy and resentment.\nThis was soon manifested, not only by the vigorous attempts made at\nthis time to restore the marine of France, but in the projects formed\nfor dispossessing the English of their principal settlements in the East\nIndies and America a blow which might have been far more fatal to\nthe English nation, than any leagues or confederacies in favour of the\npretender. To secure the co-operation and support of Spain in these\ndesigns, France had endeavoured, in the year 1,753, to draw the lat-\nter into a family compact, which, though afterwards brought about,\nwas at this time successfully frustrated, by the extraordinary care\nand vigilance of the British minister at Madrid.\n2. The peace established in Europe in 1,748, can scarcely be said\nto have ever been effectually extended to Asia and America. The\nconquests on each side indeed had been relinquished and surrendered\nby that treaty, but in a most negligent manner with respect to limits\nand boundaries and in each of those distant settlements, France at\nthat time happened to have able and enterprising servants, who\nthought they saw, in their respective governments, such means of\naggrandizing themselves and their country, and of thwarting the\nBritish interest, as wer« not to be overlooked or neglected. In the\nEast Indies very extraordinary attempts were made to reduce the\nwhole peninsula of India Proper, in short, the whole Mogul empire,\nunder the dominion of France, by an artful interference in the ap-\npointment of the governors of kingdoms and provinces, the Sovhahr\ndars, Nabobs, and Rajahs. The power of the mogul had been irrevoca-\nbly shaken by Kouli-Khan, in 1,738, from which time the viceroys\nand other subordinate governors had slighted his authority, and, in\na greater or less degree, become independent. The interference of\nthe French was calculated to throw things into confusion, by dispos-\nsessing those who were adverse to them of their governments and\nterritories, and thus compelling them, as it were, to seek succour from\nthe English which ultimately brought the two rival nations of Eu-\nrope into a state of Hostility, not as avowed principals, but as the\nauxiliaries of the different native princes or nabobs. In no long\ncourse of time, things took a turn entirely in favour of the English\nand their allies; the French were baffled in all their projects, every\nplace they possessed taken from them, a suspension of arms agreed\nupon, in 1 ,754, and the French governor, Dupleix, the ambitious and\nA a 2\ni","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0287.jp2"},"286":{"fulltext":"282 MODERN HISTORY.\nenterprising author and fomenter of all the troubles, but who had\nbeen ill-supported by his government at home, recalled from India.\n3. It was at this period that the celebrated Mr. Clive, afterwards\nlord Clive, first distinguished himself, who had not only discernment\nenough to see through and detect all the artifices and designs of\nDupleix, but, though not brought up to the military profession, soon\ndisplayed such skill and courage in conducting the operations of the\narmy, as speedily established his fame, and laid the foundation for his\nfuture elevation and glory.\n4. In America, the boundaries of the ceded provinces not having\nbeen justly defined in the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, the French had\nformed a design of connecting, by a chain of torts, their two distant\ncolonies of Canada and Louisiana, and to confine the English entirely\nwithin that tract of country which lies between the Alleghany and\nApalachian mountains and the sea. No part of this design could be\ncarried on without manifest encroachment on territories previously,\neither by agreement, settlement, or implication, appropriated to\nothers Where the boundaries were not precisely defined, all that was\nnot English or French, belonged to the native tribes, and the only\npolicy that the European colonists had to observe, was to conciliate\nthe friendship, or resist the attacks of these ferocious neighbours. But\nthe scheme the French had in agitation threatened to be extremely\ninjurious to the English colonists giving them, in case of war, a fron-\ntier of fifteen hundred miles to defend, not merely against a race of\nsavages, as heretofore, but against savages supported by disciplined\ntroops, and conducted by French officers.\n5. It was not possible for England long to contemplate these ag-\ngressions and projects without interfering; but her means of resisting\nthem were not equal to those by which the French were enabled to\ncarry them into execution. The English colonies were notoriously\ndivided by distinct views and interests had many disagreements and\ndifferences among themselves, which seemed, for some time at least,\ntotally to prevent their acting in concert, however necessary to\ntheir best interests. The French depended on no such precarious\nsupport, but were united both in their object and operations. Hos-\ntilities, however, did not actually commence till the year 1,755, from\nwhich period the contest in North America was carried on with\nvarious success, between the French and English, severally assisted\nby different tribes of Indians in the course of which, it is more than\nprobable, that sad acts of cruelty may have been perpetrated, and\nboth nations have been to blame in some particulars but it is cer-\ntainly remarkable, that each party stands charged exclusively with\nsuch atrocities by the historians of (he adverse side and while the\nEnglish writers attribute the whole war to the intrigues and en-\ncroachments of the French, the latter as confidently ascribe it to the\ncupidity and aggressions of the English. It is very certain, however,\nthat, before the war actually commenced, the French court made\nsuch strong but insincere professions of amity, and a desire of peace,\nas to deceive its own minister at the court of St. James s, M. de\nMirepoix, who felt himself so ill-treated in being made the tool of\nsuch duplicity and dissimulation, as to cause him to repair to Paris,\nto remonstrate with the administration who had so cajoled him. It\nis necessary to mention these things, where historical truth is the\ngreat object in view.\n6. At the commencement of this contest between France and\nEngland, the former seems to have been most successful on land","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0288.jp2"},"287":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 283\nbut the latter, and to a much greater degree, at sea. Before the\nend of the first year of the war, no less than tnree hundred French\nmerchant vessels, some of them extremely rich, with eight thousand\nsailors, being brought into the English ports and while the rate of\ninsurance in the latter country continued as usual, in France it\nquickly rose to 30 per cent., a pretty strong indication of the com-\nparative inferiority of the latter, as far as regarded her marine, and\nthe safety of her navigation.\n7. But it was soon found expedient by one, if not by both parties,\nto divert the attention from colonial to continental objects a meas-\nure which, as in a former instance, the French writers ascribe\nentirely to England, and the English writers as confidently to France\nbut it is sufficiently clear that the latter first entertained views upon\nthe electorate of Hanover, which gave that turn to the war in gen-\neral. Considering what had passed in the preceding struggle upon\nthe continent, nothing could be more strange than the conduct of the\ndifferent states of Europe on this particular occasion. Instead of\nreceiving assistance from the empress queen, whose cause England\nhad so long and so magnanimously supported, and who was bound\nby treaty to contribute her aid in case of attack, Maria Theresa\nevaded the applications made to her by the court of St. James s,\n(perhaps in rather too high and peremptory a tone,) on the pretence\nthat the war between France and England had begun in America\nand she applied herself with peculiar assiduity to recover, through\nthe aid of Russia, the provinces of Silesia and Crlatz, which had been\nceded to the Prussian monarch.\n8. It has been conjectured that her imperial majesty had been\ngreatly offended at the preliminaries of peace, in 1,748, having\nbeen signed by England without her approbation, and that she was\ncapable of carrying her resentment so far as voluntarily to throw\nherself into the arms of France, without further consideration\nwhile the French king, whose strange course of life had been too\nopenly ridiculed by the king of Prussia, foolishly suffered himself to\nbe cajoled into an alliance with Austria, after three hundred years of\nwarfare, against his former active and powerful ally thereby break-\ning through the wise system of Richelieu, and helping to raise the\nvery power, of whose greatness France had the most reason to be\njealous but Maria Theresa, and her minister, prince Kaunitz, to\nproduce this great change in the policy of France, had stooped to\ndatter and conciliate the king s mistress, the marchioness of Pom-\npadour.\n9. Fortunately for England, however, the conduct of these two\ncourts quickly determined the king of Prussia to form an alliance\nwith the elector of Hanover to stifle ancT forget all former differ-\nences and animosities, and peremptorily to resist the entrance of for-\neign troops into Germany a measure which, though first directed\nagainst Russia, subsidized by England, equally applied to France.\nAn alliance between the kings of Great Britain and Prussia had long\nbeen contemplated by some of the ablest statesmen of the former\ncountry, as the most natural and wisest connexion that could be\nformed to counteract the projects and power of France. Hitherto\nstrong personal jealousies and ill-will on the part of the two sove-\nreigns had prevented any such union, and now it was brought about\nby accident much more, however, to the advantage of Prussia than\nof Great Britain. It had been proposed in England, to subsidize\nRussia, but the negotiations of the former with the king of Prussia,","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0289.jp2"},"288":{"fulltext":"Zti4 MODERN HISTORY.\nwhom the czarina personally disliked^ produced a close but unex\npected union of Russia, Austria, and I ranee not so much against\nEngland, perhaps, as against Prussia, nor yet so much against the\nkingdom of Prussia as against the king himself.\n10. Such was the commencement of what has been termed the\nseven years war. It seemed soon to be forgotten that it was origin-\nally a maritime or colonial war. The whole vengeance of France\nand Austria, in 1 ,757, was directed against the king of Prussia, and\nelectorate of Hanover. The Prussian monarch, relying on his well-\norganized army and abundant treasury, despised the powerful com-\nbination against him, and commenced the war in a most imposing,\nthough precipitate manner, by dispossessing, at the very outset, the\nking of Poland, elector of Saxony, in alliance with Austria, of his\ncapital, of hin whole army, and of his electoral dominions, in a way\nlittle creditable to his character, notwithstanding the strong political\nmotives alleged in his subsequent manifestoes. The situation of\nFrance, by this sudden manoeuvre, was certainly rendered most ex-\ntraordinary. At the commencement of the former war, she had\ndone her utmost to dethrone Augustus, king of Poland, in favour of\nStanislaus, whose daughter had married the French king and she\nhad now just as strong and urgent a reason to assist in restoring Au-\ngustus to his hereditary dominions, the daughter of the latter being\nmarried to the dauphin, and the life of the dauphiness having been\nendangered by the intelligence received of the rigorous treatment of\nher royal parents.\n1 1 It was during the seven years war, that Frederic of Prussia\nacquired that glory in the field which has rendered his reign so\nconspicuous and remarkable. The intended victim, as he had great\nreason to suppose, of an overwhelming confederacy of crowned\nheads, he lost no time in defending himself against their attacks, by\noccupying the territories of those who threatened him, so suddenly\nand arbitrarily indeed, with regard to Saxony, as to give otfence to\nthe greater part of Europe but generally contending with surprising\nsuccess against superior armies, though incessantly summoned from one\nfield of battle to another, by the numerous and divided attacks of his\nopponents nor was there one of all the powers that menaced him.\nwhom he did not find means to humble, and in some instances punish\nmost severely, at tirst, with an impetuosity bordering upon rashness-,\nafterwards, by more wary and circumspect proceedings. In Silesia,\nSaxony, Brandenbourg, Hanover, and Westphalia, he had to contend\nwith the armies of the empire, Austria, Russia, Sweden, France, and\nSaxony 200,000 men are supposed to have fallen annually in these\ncampaigns. Though often worsted, (as must be the case, where no\nconsideration of superior numbers is allowed to operate as a check,) his\ngreat genius was never more manifested, than in the quick reparation\nof such reverses. Otten did his situation appear perfectly desperate,\nboth to friends and enemies, yet as often did he suddenly succeed in\nsome new effort, and in extricating himself from disasters which\nthreatened entirely to overwhelm him; being all the while under\nthe ban of tiie empire, in virtue o[ a decree of the aulic council,\nwhich bound every German circle, in obedience to the imperial\norders, to assist in depriving him of his possessions, dignities, and\nprerogatives. The rapidity of his motions was beyond all example;\nneither danger nor misfortune could dishearten him and had his\nmoderation been but equal to his courage, had he, in all cases, been\nas humane as he was brave, his military character would have","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0290.jp2"},"289":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 2Qb\nstood higher, perhaps, than that of any other commander, ancient or\nmodern.\n12. The army, it must be acknowledged, for some time afforded\nbut little assistance to, ifit did not actually embarrass, the operations\nof Frederic. A formidable force of 38^000 Hanoverian, Hessian,\nand other troops, under the command of the duke of Cumberland,\nhad, in a most extraordinary manner, been reduced, though neither\nbeaten nor actually disarmed, to a state of inactivity, and the king s\nGerman dominions abandoned to the enemy, by a convention the\nmost singular upon the records of history and if actually necessary,\nonly rendered so by the impolitic movements of the commander-in-\nchief, who, instead of endeavouring to join the Prussians, after a\nsharp contest, in which the French had the advat; age, retreated in a\ntotally different direction, merely to keep up, as r sas been supposed\na communication with the place to which the archives and mosi\nvaluable effects of Hanover had been removed,\n13. This convention, indeed, signed at Closter even, September\n8, 1 ,757, was said to have been concluded against ihe wishes of the\nroyal commander himself, and entirely at the instauce and requisition\nof the regency of Hanover. Be this, however, as it may, it was un-\ndoubtedly almost fatal to the king of Prussia, and exceedingly\nhumiliating to England, though ultimately attended with this good\neffect, that it seems to have roused and stimulated both the people\nand government to greater exertions. Unfortunately much of this\ngood spirit and renewed activity was wasted in fruitless attempts on\nthe coast of France, which cost the nation much money, and, as it\nturned out contributed little or nothing to her glory and advantage\nthe demolition of the works at Cherburg, and capture of Belle Isle,\n1,761, which was of use afterwards, as an exchange for Minorca,\nbeing all she had to boast of. To her great and indefatigable ally,\nthe king of Prussia, these expeditions to the French coast could be\nof no use, except in diverting a part at least of the French forces,\nwhich might otherwise have been opposed to him but they had\nscarcely this effect, and though that great minister, Mr. Pitt, after-\nwards lord Chatham, appears to have been the chief promoter of\nthese measures, in opposition to many members of the British\ncabinet, the policy of them, even had they been more successful, has\nbeen pretty generally questioned. Her soldiers, many thought, were\nprincipally wanting in Germany, the grand theatre of military opera-\ntions, to strengthen and give effect to the judicious and bold measures\nof prince Ferdinand, who, being, by the advice, it is said, of the\nPrussian monarch, on the retirement of the duke of Cumberland,\nafter the convention spoken of, placed at the head of the allied\narmy, had succeeded in compelling the French to evacuate Hanover,\nBrunswick, and Bremen. England indeed had been liberal in her\nsubsidies, even to a degree that some thought unwise and extrava-\ngant, and she had been successful in America, Asia, Africa, and gen-\nerally on the ocean. The French navy indeed, was almost annihilat-\ned and her colonies, both in the east and west, had fallen a prey to\nthe English armies even Canada, the source and focus, as it were, of\nthe transatlantic disputes between England and France, was complete-\nly subdued by the armies under the command of Wolfe, Townshend,\nMonckton, Murray, and Amherst, who displayed such zeal, valour,\nand abilities, in the capture of the towns of Quebec and Montreal, as\nhave never been exceeded.\n14. Though prince Ferdinand had driven the French back, it was","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0291.jp2"},"290":{"fulltext":"286 MODERN HISTORY.\ndoubted whether the forces under his command would be sufficient\nto maintain these advantages apprehensions, indeed, were entertain\ned, that he might be reduced to form- another convention as humiliat-\ning as that of Closter-seven. But the genius and valour of this\ngreat prince surmounted the difficulties in which he seemed to be\nplaced, by most judiciously, and with no small art, compelling the\nFrench to come to an engagement, under circumstances peculiarly\nfavourable to the allied army and the battle of Minden, which took\nplace August 1, 1,759, though the subject afterwards of much jealousy\namongst the allies, effectually relieved the electorate of Hanover, and\nthe greater part of Westphalia, from the presence of the French.\n15. It was at this period, August 10, 1,759, that Ferdinand VI.,\nof Spain, died, and was succeeded by his brother, don Carlos, king\nof the two Sicilies, under the title of Charles III., in consequence\nof which succession, and according to the terms of the treaty of\nAix-la-Chapelle, don Philip should have surrendered the duchies of\nParma, Placentia, and Guastalla to Austria and Sardinia, and remov-\ned to Naples, (see Sect. V. 5 but as Charles III. had never acced-\ned to that treaty, he left the crown of the two Sicilies to his third son,\nFerdinand, and don Philip agreed, and was allowed by Austria, to\nretain the three duchies,- the courts of France and Spain having\nmanaged to quist the alarms of Sardinia, in regard to the reversion\nof Placentia.\n16. The removal of don Carlos to Spain, at a time when so many\nadvantages had been gained over the French by the English, at sea\nand in America, justly alarmed the new monarch for his own colonies\nand settlements in those parts and these apprehensions soon became\na reason for his entering into a family compact with France, which\nhad been attempted before, but frustrated by the care and vigilance\nof the British minister. It was in fact entirely arranged and con-\ncluded in the month of August, 1,761, and extended to all the Bour-\nbon princes it was a treaty of mutual and reciprocal naturalization,\nand equality of rights, to the subjects of all the Bourbon states,\nFrance, Spain, the two Sicilies, Parma, and Placentia, with a general\nguarantee of each other s dominions, under all possible circumstances\nexcept one, which was, that Spain should be excused from interfering\nin any quarrels of France, arising out of the treaty of Westphalia,\nunless some maritime power should take part in such disputes, or\nFrance be invaded.\n17. The above clause in the treaty was judged to be so evidently\naimed at England, as to justify an immediate declaration of war\nagainst Spain on the part of the former, which accordingly took\nplace early in the year 1,762 nor was Spain backward in following\nthe example against England, in resentment, as it was alleged, of the\nsupercilious and arbitrary manner, in which the latter had interfered\nwith regard to the family compact.\n18. The first fruits of this extraordinary confederacy were a gross\nattempt upon the independency of Portugal, as an ally of England\nby France and Spain an attempt the most appalling to Portugal,\nhad not her brave and honourable sovereign resolved rather to per-\nish than to submit to tbe terms dictated to him by the combined mon-\narchs. England was in every way bound to give aid and support to\nher ancient and faithful ally, on so trying an occasion and, fortunately,\nher help came so opportunely and so promptly, as to enable the\nking of Portugal to repel the Spaniards, who had not only passed the\nfrontiers, but actually taken several towns. Thus was that monarch","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0292.jp2"},"291":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 28-/\nand his dominions saved from the effects of as wicked and arbitrary\na design as was ever entertained against an independent or neutral\npotentate, and that on the sole ground of his connexion with Eng-\nland at the moment to whose resentmen-t he would of course have\nbeen exposed, had he tamely submitted to the tyrannical demands of\nFrance and Spain. In either case, he seemed to be threatened with\nruin and destruction, had things taken a different turn, from what\nactually came to pass.\n1 9. The hostilities into which Great Britain was driven by this\nunprovoked attack upon Portugal, as well as by the threatening\naspect and spirit of the family compact, which seemed to undo all\nthat had been accomplished by the succession war, were in every\ninstance crowned with success so that in both hemispheres, her arms\nmay be said to have been victorious, and her triumph complete and\nSpain had great cause to rue her short concern in the war, into\nwhich she had been cajoled by France, and which operated as fully\nto the disappointment of the latter power. In the mean while, the\nking of Prussia, who had been brought to the very verge of ruin,\naccording to his own statement and confession, was most unexpect-\nedly relieved by surprising changes in the Russian councils, through\nthe demise of Elizabeth, and accession of Peter III., whose reign in-\ndeed was too short to enable him to render any real assistance to\nthe king of Prussia, in the field, which might have been expected\nfrom the enthusiastic admiration with which his actions were beheld\nby the Russian monarch. But this weak, though benign prince, in\nconsequence of his too extensive plans of reform, and a difference\nwith his empress, was soon removed and though his successor and\nconsort, Catherine the second, did not by any means pay the same\ncourt to Frederic, yet her opposition to him was very slight, and\nsoon terminated by a treaty of peace, in which she was followed by\nSweden.\n20. All these things evidently tended towards a general peace, if\nEngland, who had certainly been the most successful of all the pow-\ners concerned, could be brought to consent to be stopped in her\ncareer of victory and triumph. A change of ministry had, however,\nlaid the foundation for such measures. Mr. Pitt, who was for the\ncontinuance of the war, on some private information, as it has been\nthought, of the progress and terms of the family compact, had re-\nsigned soon after the demise of the king, George II. and lord Bute,\nwho owed his place and power as minister, much more to the per-\nsonal good-will and attachment of the new king, than to the voice\nand favour of the people, foreseeing that it might be difficult for\nhirn to raise either money or men for the prosecution of the war,\n(bounties for recruits, in particular, having risen to an unexampled\nheight,) and having against hirn many important individuals of both\nparties, entered freely into negotiations with France, which were\nbrought to an issue by the peace of Paris, (or Fontainebleau,) 1,763.\n21. This treaty was not popular in England, though, undoubtedly,\nshe reaped the benefit of many remarkable concessions, particularly\nin America, where she acquired, not only 1 he whole province of\nCanada, but part of Louisiana the junction of which two distant\nFrench settlements, to the embarrassment, and possibly, total subjec-\ntion of the English colonies, had been the express occasion of the\nwar; but by many persons it was thought, and perhaps with great\nreason, that England had surrendered too much, considering the\nhigh situation in which she stood, and the advantages that might","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0293.jp2"},"292":{"fulltext":"288 MODERN HISTORY.\nhave been reaped by a little longer continuance of the war ami m\nwhat she both surrendered and retained, an ill and impolitic selec-\ntion it was alleged, had been made of posts and settlements. The\ntreaty of Hubertsburg, by which the war was terminated between\nAustria and Prussia in the same year, 1,763, restored matters, in re-\ngard to those two powers, exactly to their former state, after seven\nmost destructive and expensive campaigns Nothing of territory\nivas lost and nothing gained by either party. England, undoubtedly,\nwas left in the highest state of prosperity at the conclusion of these\ntwo treaties. Her navy unimpared, or rather augmented at the ex-\npense oi the navy of France her commerce extending from one\nextremity of the globe to the other, with an accession of important\nsettlements ceded to her by France in Asia, Africa, and America.\nsp:ction vil\nFROM THE ACCESSION OF GEORGE III. 1,760, TO THE COM\nMENCEMENT OF THE DISPUTES WITH AMERICA, 1,764.\n1. Though a new enemy, for a very short time, was added to tin-\nlist of those who were contending with England and her allies,\nwhen George the second died, by the accession of Spain to the\nfamily compact, and continental confederacy, in 1,761, yet the seven\nyears war, through the exhaustion of the allies of Austria, par\nticularly the Saxons, Poles, and French, may be said to have been\ndrawing to a conclusion, when George 111. ascended the throne of\nGreat Britain, on the demise of his grandfather, October 25, 1,760.\nFor the termination of that war, see Sect. VI.\n2. Much notice was taken of a passage in the king s first speech\nto his parliament, in which he expressed the glory he felt in having\nbeen born and educated in Britain and though some have pretended\nto see in it, a reflection on his royal predecessors, yet it was surely\nwise in the first sovereign of the house of Hanover, who stood clear\nof foreign manners, and foreign partialities, so to bespeak the love\nand attachment of his subjects. It is true, indeed, that England had\nprospered in no common degree from the first accession of that\nillustrious family, but it cannot be denied, that a distaste of foreign\nmanners, as well as a jealousy of foreign partialities, had occasionally\ninterrupted the proceedings of government, and were at all events\ncalculated to keep up, in the minds of the disaffected, a remembrance\nof the breach that had been made in the succession to the throne.\nFourteen years having passed since any attempt had been made to\nrestore the Stuart family, and the condition of that family having\nbecome such, as to render any further endeavours to that effect, ex\ntremely improbable, nothing more seemed wanting to remove all\nremaining prejudices against the Brunswick line of princes, than\nthat the sovereign should be a native of the land he ruled.\n3. In addition to this tie upon his subjects, every thing seemed ta\nconspire, as far as regarded the character, manners, and disposition\nof the young king, to secure to him the attachment of his people\nand to give hopes of a quiet and tranquil reign. One of the very\nfirst acts of which was calculated to impress the idea of his being a\ntrue friend to the liberty of the subject, by rendering the judges\nindependent of the crown. His majesty was married, soon after his\naccession, to the princess Charlotte of Mecklenburgh Strelitz, with","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0294.jp2"},"293":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 289\nwhom he was crowned at Westminster, on the 22d day of Septem-\nber, 1,761.\n4. However promising the appearances both of external and in-\nternal tranquillity might be, at the commencement of the new\nreign, it was not long before the nation became agitated by party\ndisputes and differences, of no small importance. In 1,762, a ques-\ntion arose, which though it led to very distressing tumults, terminat-\ned in the relief of the subject from an arbitrary process, exceedingly\nrepugnant to the spirit of the constitution, and the great charter of\n/British liberty. General warrants, and the seizure of private papers\nwithout sufficient necessity, the legality of which had been disputed,\nin the case of Mr. Wilkes, member for Ailesbury, during which that\ngentlemen displayed considerable fortitude, though certainly with\ngreat failure of respect towards the crown, were declared to be\nillegal by a solemn decree of parliament, 1,765, nor has any attempt\nbeen since made to reinvest the government with so dangerous and\nformidable a power. The question of general warrants, however,\nwas not the only one in which Mr. Wilkes appeared as the champion\nof the people s liberties. Being elected for Middlesex, after having\nbeen expelled the house, he claimed his seat, in defiance of the res-\nolutions of parliament, but was not allowed to sit. Five years after\nwards, he was permitted again to enter the house of commons but\nin this instance the parliament maintained its power of declaring a\nparticular individual disqualified, against the decision of a majority\nof electors a curious point as affecting the constitution, and the\nelective franchise.\n5. Though the courts of Vienna, France, and Prussia, had cause to\nbe tired of the war. in which they had been engaged since the year\n1,755, it is certain that England was in a state to continue it, especial-\nly by sea, when the treaty of Paris, or Fontainebleau, was concluded,\nin 1,763. As long as Mr. Pitt continued a member of administration,\nthe war had been carried on vigorously, and had become exceeding-\nly popular, so that on the resignation of that great minister, in 1,761,\nand the appointment of lord Bute, whose distrust of his own abilities\nto continue it, disposed him to listen to the overtures of France,\ngreat discontents arose. The minister was suspected of harbouring\nin his breast the most despotic principles, and of having inculcated\nthe same into the mind of his sovereign, while yet a youth. He\nwas supposed to possess too exclusive an influence in that quarter;\nand though, in private life, a most respectable nobleman, of great\nworth and probity, learning, and talents, his public measures were\nthe continual theme of obloquy and abuse. Had Mr. Pitt continued\nin office, it is more than probable that the allies might have gained\ngreater advantages on the continent, and the Spaniards been more\nseverely punished for their interference so that the pacific meas-\nures of the new minister, drew upon him the displeasure, if not the\ncontempt, as well of his own countrymen, as of the King of Prussia\nalso who in his writings has inveighed greatly against the prevail-\ning influence of the noble earl at this period, in the cabinet and coun-\ncils of Great Britain.\n6. The riots and tumults excited by the proceedings against Mr.\nWilkes, and the extreme unpopularity of lord Bute, contributed to\nrender the first years of the reign of George III. exceedingly unqui-\net, and to involve his majesty in many unpleasant difficulties, from\nthe addresses, petitions, and remonstrances, which flowed in upon\nhim, often couched in such language as it was impossible not to re-\nBb 37","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0295.jp2"},"294":{"fulltext":"290 MODERN HISTORY.\nseat, and as often insinuating what, perhaps, was not founded on\ntruth for it has never yet been clearly ascertained that the public\nactually suffered from any improper secret influence, or that the\nmeasures of lord Bute, with regard to the peace of Paris, all things\nconsidered, were impolitic or unwise. The worst feature in this\npeace, with regard to England, seems to have been, the failure to\nguard against the effects, in future, of the family compact, which\nwas left in full force. Mr. Pitt had his eye constantly upon this, and,\nhad be continued in power, would, no doubt, have continued the\nwar with spirit and perseverance this great minister had retired\nundisgraced he received a pension indeed for himself, and a peer-\nage for his lady. His politics, to the day of his death, continued\nwidely different from those of lord Bute, and were constantly more\npopular but the great fault of the latter seems to have been, that\nhe engaged in public business, contrary to the bent of his own dispo-\nsition, and was too sensible of his unpopularity, to undertake any\nmeasure that required much public support. All he did, therefore,\nseemed to be managed in the way of private influence, cabal, and\nintrigue.\n7. In addition to the addresses and remonstrances alluded to in the\nforegoing section, the popular fervour and agitation received consid-\nerable encouragement from the letters of an anonymous writer,\nnever yet discovered, a writer who displayed such an extraordi-\nnary knowledge of the proceedings of the court and cabinet, and\nhad the power of expressing himself in a style so vigorous, striking,\nand keenly satirical, as to demand the attention of all parties, and\nconfound the majority of those whom he personally attacked. But\nthe extreme severity of a concealed and unknown accuser, and the\ngross personalities in which he often indulged, not sparing majesty\nitself, threw a cloud over his writings, which can never be done\naway, to the satisfaction of any candid or liberal mind. Though the\nmention of these celebrated letters is rather anticipated in this place,\nas they did not publicly appear till the year 1,769, yet, as they par-\nticularly relate to the foregoing transactions, and state of affairs in\nthe early years of the reign of George III., and long preceded the\nactual commencement of the war with America, the first authors of\nwhich he seemed disposed to screen, a better opportunity of intra*\nducing the subject might scarcely be found. The many fruitless, but\nvery curious attempts that have been made, at various times, to dis-\ncover the real author, have contributed, in addition to the extraordi-\nnary character of the work itself, and the political questions discuss-\ned in it, to prevent its ever sinking into oblivion. The letters of\nJunius, with all their blemishes, will probably never fail to find a\nplace in the libraries of the British scholar, and Brilish statesman.\n8. In the prosecution of this work, it should also be noticed, that a\ngreat constitutional point came under discussion, namely, whether\nui cases of libel, the jury were judges of the law, as well as of the\nfact. In most other cases, no such difficulty seemed to occur. In\ncases of murder, not only the act of killing, but the murderous in-\ntent, was submitted to the decision of the jury and in trials for felony\nof every description, the course was the same. Lord Mansfield, in\nthis case, insisted that the jury had only to decide on the fact of\nfmblication, and that the court was to determine upon the law of\nibel. This has generally been disputed by juries and they have\nfound ways of evading the difficulty, by either themselves referring\nthe law to the judge, by a special verdict, or by pronouncing a gen-","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0296.jp2"},"295":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 291\neral acquittal. Unfortunately, libels are of that description aa con\nstantly to excite those jealousies and suspicions, from which every\ncourt of justice should be free. They affect, also, two of the high\nest privileges of Englishmen, the right of private judgment, and\nthe liberty of the press. In the case of Junius, the point in dispute\nwas by no means so settled as to obviate future differences.\n9. The year 1,764 is memorable for the commencement of the\ndispute between Great Britain and her American colonies but as\nthe history of this contest involves many curious questions of policy;\nas its results, in regard not only to England and America, but to the\nworld in general, were very important and its termination led to a\ntotal separation of the colonies from the mother country, thereby\nestablishing a distinct state and government of European settlers in\nthe western hemisphere, the details of it will be reserved for another\nsection.\nSECTION vm.\nDISPUTES BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN AND HER AMERICAN\nCOLONIES. 1,764—1,783.\n1. The seven years 1 war, terminated by the peace of Paris, or Fon-\ntainebleau, in 1,763, had been begun in America, as has been shown.\n(Sect. VI.) Great Britain, at considerable expense or men and\nmoney, had resisted the encroachments of France on the British\ncolonies, and thereby afforded to the latter, protection, perhaps be-\nyond what any commercial benefits, under the colonial system,\ncould be said fully to compensate. A question therefore arose^\nwhether the colonies might not be called upon to contribute, by di-\nrect taxation, to the relief of the general expenses and burthens of\nthe mother country. The national debt, it was argued by the British\ngovernment, was the debt of every individual in the whole empire,\nwhether in Asia, America, or nearer home.\n2. The question, however, was no sooner started than decided\nby administration chiefly through the influence and on the sugges-\ntion of Mr. George Grenville, then prime-minister, who, in the very\nyear succeeding the peace of Paris, procured the stamp-act to be\npassed, by which the Americans were directly subjected to a tax\nimposed by the British parliament, without their own consent, not\nimmediately applicable to their own wants or necessities, and contrary\nto every former mode of raising money for such purposes. This\nwas certainly sufficient to excite alarm, and lead to questions of pol-\ncy and prudence of power and right of legislation and represen-\ntation never yet so thoroughly discussed or investigated. Hitherto,\nwithout questioning the power, government had forborne from\ntaxing them as a matter of policy and propriety and thus, as it\nwas well said at the time, those two very difficult points, superiority\nin the presiding state, and freedom in the subordinate, had been prac-\ntically reconciled.\n3. The situation of America rendered these questions the more\nimportant and alarming to the mother country, in case of opposition,\nas having been originally peopled from Europe, in a great measure,\nby refugees, exiles, and persons adverse to the governments, which\nthey had left, both in church and state, and well inclined, probably, to","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0297.jp2"},"296":{"fulltext":"292 MODERN HISTORY.\nassert a republican independence. Their legislative assemblies were\nalready of the popular cast, and their feelings and spirits accordant\nIt must also be admitted, that upon the very ground of pecuniary or\nother aids, they had much to allege in respect of their beneficial\nreturns to England, in taking her manufactures, and having assisted\nher in the conquest of Canada. Most unfortunately, the very grants\nwhich had been made by their assemblies, in aid of England, during\nthe last war, were alleged as an argument (a most irritating one, un-\ndoubtedly,) of their ability to pay any imposts the parliament might\nchoose to lay upon them.\n4. As the ministry had decided hastily upon the general question,\nthey seem also to have suffered themselves to be precipitated into\nsome of the worst measures they could have adopted to render their\nnovel demands palatable. Their very first tax, imposed by the\nstamp act of 1,764, though simple in its principle, was ill-suited to\nthe state of America. The mere distribution of the stamps, through\nsuch a variety of different states, involved in it a thousand difficulties;\nand there were provisions in the act itselfj which might, if at all\nabused or neglected, have subjected the people to unheard of vexa-\ntions and oppressions. It is scarcely, therefore, to be wondered that,\non its first promulgation in America, the act should have been re-\nceived with the greatest indignation, and even with defiance.\n5. In the mean time, the cause of the Americans was espoused\nby a strong party at home, a party, so far from being contemptible,\nas to include some of the first persons of the nation, both in rank and\nimportance. The debates in both houses were violent, but the topics\ndiscussed, in every point of view, interesting. The friends of the\nAmericans, if it may be proper now to call them so, obtained and\nswayed, for a very short period, the helm of government. In June,\n1,765, the Grenvilie administration was dismissed, and a new one, at\nthe head of which was placed the marquis of Rockingham, came\ninto power, through the mediation of the duke of Cumberland.\nThey continued in office, however, for little more than one year;\nbut in that short space of time, the stamp-act, which had been to ill\nreceived in America, was formally repealed.\n6. But the grand question relating to the right of taxation was\nby no means determined by this measure a declaratory act was\nparticularly passed at the same time, for maintaining the constitu-\ntional authority of Great Britian, in all cases whatsoever and\nthough there was certainly no design, in those who promoted the\nrepeal, to act upon this authority, by establishing any other tax of\na similar kind, yet the colonists were prepared, as much as ever,\nto dispute the principle, as far as it regarded taxation and their\ncourage and confidence at this time stood high, in consequence of\nthe importance which had been given to them in the last war, and\ntheir emancipation from all dread of the French and Spaniards, by\nthe cession of Canada and the Floridas. In the colony of Virginia\nthe right of taxation was voted to rest entirely in the king, or his\nrepresentative, and the general assembly of the colony. This was,\nundoubtedly, the usual course of things and in this way subsidies to\na considerable amount had been granted to the crown. This prece-\ndent was soon followed by others of the legislative bodies, and\nadopted in the general congress of New York, 1,765.\n7. It was not pretended that the Americans paid no taxes but a\ndistinction was now set up, which there had been no occasion to\ninsist upon before. To external taxation, through the operation of","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0298.jp2"},"297":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 293\nlaws of trade and navigation, enacted in the mother country, they\nwere willing to yield submission they had constantly done so, nor\nwere they now disposed to resist such enactments; but all inter-\nnal duties for raising a revenue, or supporting establishments, were\nheld to be very differently circumstanced. Taxes of this nature\nwere considered as being, in the very language of parliament itself,\ngifts, and grants. None, therefore, it was urged, could give the\nmoney of America but the people of America themselves. If they\nchose to make such grants, they might receive a legislative sanction, a9\nin England but legislation and taxation were distinct things. Tax-\nation, according to the spirit of the English constitution, implying\nconsent, direct or by representation, could not otherwise be rendered\neither legal or just. Local circumstances would render the repre-\nsentation of America, in the British parliament, impracticable;\nand a supposed virtual representation was no less than mockery.\nThe representatives of England, in taxing others, taxed themselves\nalso but this could not be the case in regard to American imposts.\n8. Such were some of the strongest reasons urged against the\nmeasure in general but, as the right of taxation had not been ex-\npressly given up by any part in England, but rather insisted upon in the\ndeclaratory act, no concession short of this seemed likely to do good.\nThe stamp-act had caused an irritation, which no qualified repeal\ncould allay internal taxation was not only resisted as an encroachment\non established rights and usages, but, in resentment of such wrongs,\nattempts were made to hinder the further operation even of exter-\nnal taxation. Non-importation, and non-consumption agreements\nwere soon entered into, and associations formed to methodise and\nconsolidate the opposition to government. A resolution had been\npassed when lord North was minister, promising tc desist from all\ntaxation, except commercial imposts, when-ever any one of the\ncolonial assemblies should vote a reasonable sum, as a revenue, to be\nappropriated by parliament but this had no good effect.\n9. In so embarrassed a state of things, it is not very surprising\nthat the ministry at home should have entertained wrong measures,\nand miscalculated the effects of the plans they were pursuing.\nThe truth of history tends to show that, however they might be\nembarrassed by an active opposition in parliament, that opposition\nfairly forewarned them of the consequences of their meditated pro\nceedings, which came to pass exactly as they had been foretold.\nBut after this demand had once provoked the question of right, and\nthat question had divided the people of both countries into two strong\nparties, things soon fell into that state, in which it became impossible\nto restore affairs to their original condition, either by perseverance\nor concession. Every effort of coercion was resented as an illegal\nencroachment; every conciliatory proposition received as a proof\noi alarm and timidity, and as a pledge of victory and success to fu-\nture opposition.\n10. It has been questioned whether independence was not in the\nview of the Americans fiom the very first stirring of the question,\nor even previously but had this been the case, they would have\nbeen more prepared their addresses to the king and parliament, on\nvarious occasions, after the commencement of the dispute, must have\n6een fallacious to the highest pitch of dissimulation, if they had de-\ntermined against all compromise from the very beginning but, in-\ndeed, the remonstrances and complaints of General Washington, on\nthe ill state of his army, and total want of many essential requisites,","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0299.jp2"},"298":{"fulltext":"294 MODERN HISTORY.\non first taking the command, seem clearly to prove that they were\ndriven to assert their independence by the course of things a large\nportion of their fellow-subjects and countrymen on both sides of the\nAtlantic, judged them to be oppressed, and thus gave a character to\niheir opposition which could not very creditably be forfeited. Upon\nthe whole it may be considered probable that some of the most\nprominent and active leaders of the revolution had very early con-\nceived the design of establishing the independence of their country\nbut that the mass of the people in the colonies, had no such inten-\ntion until after their first successes.\n11. Hostilities did not actually commence till the year 1,775, ten\nyears from the first passing of the stamp-act. In a short time after\nthe passing of that act, it was repealed, as has been stated but in\n1,767 the project of taxing America was revived by Mr. Charles\nTownshend, and from that period to the commencement of the war,\nboth countries were in a state of the greatest agitation. Debates\nran high at home, and in America their gravest proceedings were ac-\ncompanied with such threats of defiance, and such indignant resent-\nment of all innovations, as almost necessarily to bring them under the\nstrong hand of power. But government underrated their means of\nresistance; when brought into a state of union, by the congress,\ntheir force was no longer to be despised all temporizing expedients\nwere at an end, a circumstance ill understood by the ministry at\nhome, who lost much time in endeavouring to retrieve matters, by\nfruitless attempts, sometimes in the way of conciliation, and at\nothers, of ineflicient resistance. Thus, when in 1,770 many com-\nmercial duties were taken oif, which the mother country nad an un-\ndoubted right to impose, the concession was ill received, in conse-\nquence of the single exception of tea, which was continued in order\nto assert the rights and supremacy of Great Britain but this was\ndone in a manner too imperious, and without sufficient force to subdue\nthe resentment it was calculated to excite, at such a moment. At\nthe very breaking out of the war, ministers appear to have been by\nfar too confident of speedily suppressing so formidable an insurrec-\ntion an insurrection which had had time allowed it to organize\nitself, and which had drawn upon it the attention of the whole civ-\nilized world.\n12. The war may be said to have actually commenced cniy on\nthe 14th of April, 1,775, though some English regiments had been\nsent to Boston so early as the year 1,768. In an affair at Lexington,\namounting to no more than a skirmish, the English were completely\nworsted, a circumstance calculated to give spirits to the Americans,\nat a most awful and momentous period. General Washington, who\nhad distinguished himself in the war against the French, and bore a\nmost irreproachable character, was appointed to take the command\nof the American army a post of the utmost responsibility, and re\nquiring talents, temper, and discretion, of no common description.\n13. The sword being drawn, and no hopes remaining of an arnica\nble adjustment of differences between the crown and its transatlantic\nsubjects, now in a state of open revolt and the success of the firs\\\nhostilities having animated the military ardour of the Americans\nthey proceeded, by a solemn declaration of the general congress ai\nPhiladelphia, July 4, 1,776, to declare the thirteen provinces inde\npendent; by which act America may be said to have been divided\nfrom the mother countrv, 294 years after the discovery of that coun\ntry by Columbus 166 from the first settlement of Virginia; and 15t","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0300.jp2"},"299":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 295\nfrom the settlement of Plymouth in Massachusetts Bay. The Amei-\nican Congress exercised its important functions with great energy\nand dignity, and the campaign of 1,776 turned out favourably for the\nAmericans, and highly to the credit of their very able and brave\ncommander.\n14. Whether it were owing to the low opinion entertained by the\ngovernment at home, of the resistance likely to be offered by the\nAmericans, or to a dislike of the cause in which they were engaged\non the part of the British commanders, it is exceedingly certain, that\nthe English army did not obtain the advantages it was supposed it\nmight have done, or proceed as if it were able speedily to crush the\nrebellion that had been raised. The American troops were every\nday improving, and every day deriving encouragement, either from\nunexpected successes, or the inactivity of the armies opposed to\nthem. On the other hand, the English were either indulging in\npleasure, when they should have been in action, or disheartened by\nsudden surprises or repulses, which redounded greatly to the credit\nof their less disciplined, and less organized opponents. In a short\ntime, however, the war became more complicated, and opened a\nscene, which not only involved the continent of Europe in the con-\nflict of the day, but probably led to changes and convulsions, as ex-\ntraordinary and as extensive as ever the world experienced.\n15. In the month of November, 1,776, the celebrated Dr. Franklin\nand Silas Deane had been despatched by congress, to solicit, at the\ncourt of Versailles, the aid and assistance of French troops. Accord-\ning to the former course of things, nothing could be more strange\nthan such an application, at such a court an application from rebel-\nlious subjects, from the assertors of republican independence, to a\ncourt celebrated for the most refined despotism, and ruling a people,\nheretofore the grossest admirers and flatterers of regal power; an\napplication from persons of the simplest habits frugal, temperate,\nindustrious, and little advanced in civilization, to a court immersed in\npleasure, gay, and dissipated, profligate and corrupt, civilized to the\nhighest pitch of courtly refinement, of polished manners, and of\nsplendid luxury lastly, an application from a people who had car\nried their dissent from the church of Rome farther than any protes-\ntants in Europe, to a court still subject to the papal see, a cherished\nbranch of the catholic church.\n16. Extraordinary, however, in all respects, as this American mis-\nsion seems to have been, it met with a cordial and favourable recep-\ntion. Even the queen of France was found to espouse the cause of\nthe revolted subjects of Great Britain, little foreseeing the handle\nshe was giving to many keen observers of her own courtly extrava-\ngance and thoughtless dissipation. The die was soon cast a formal\ntreaty was entered into, acknowledging the independency of Amer-\nica succour and support to a large extent promised, and officers ap-\npointed to conduct the French forces, likely, it would seem, above\nall others, to imbibe the spirit of freedom, which animated the\nAmericans, and to espouse their cause upon principle. They were\nall noble, indeed but in America they were sure to be taught how\nvain were such distinctions, if not supported by public opinion.\n17. The English government was not formerly apprised of this\nunexpected alliance, till the year 1,778, when it received a very\ncurious and insulting notification of it from the French ambassador.\nIt does not appear that the aid thus obtained by the American mis-\nsion, was altogether grateful to the Americans themselves, though ii","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0301.jp2"},"300":{"fulltext":"296 MODERN HISTORY.\nhad the full effect of raising up new and powerful enemies against\nthe mother country, and involving Europe in their cause for\nthrough the French influence, in the year 1,779, Spain joined the\nconfederacy against England, and, in 1,780, Holland. In the mean\nwhile commissioners had been sent from England to America, to\ntreat for peace, but the Americans, insisting on the previous ac-\nknowledgment of their independency, rendered their attempts fruit-\nless.\n18. Whatever loss of fame, reputation, and territory Great Britain\nincurred in America, her arms never shone with greater h stre than\non some occasions in which she was engaged during this wu\\ with\nthe confederate powers of Europe in Asia particularly, -:ne was\nacquiring an empire ten times greater in wealth and population, than\nail she had to lose in the west: but of all her achievements at tlr\nperiod, none, perhaps, was so conspicuous, none so glorious, as the\ntefence of Gibraltar under General Elliot, afterwards lord Heath-\nfield, against the combined forces of Spain and France. The prepa-\nrations made to recover that important fortress for Spain, exceeded\nevery thing before known. The ultimate success of the attempt\nwas calculated upon as so certain, that some of the French princes\nof the blood, repaired to the Spanish camp merely to witness its sur-\nrender. But the heroism of the troops in garrison baffled all their\ndesigns, and the timely arrival of the British fleet completed the\ntriumph, in October, 1,782. The siege (^begun in 1,779) was entire-\nly abandoned, with the loss of all the Spanish floating batteries, and\nthe defeat of the combined fleets of France and Spain, by lord Howe.\nThis action took place on the 20th of October in the following\nmonth provisional articles of peace were signed at Paris, by British\nand American commissioners, and early in the ensuing year a treaty\nconcluded at Versailles, between Great Britain, France, and Spain,\nto which, in February, Holland also acceded.\n1 9. Towards the close of the war, many important discussions in\nparliament took place on the American affairs, in which it was\nfound, that those who had most espoused her cause, on the question\nof internal taxation, and most objected to the measures of administra-\ntion in the conduct of the war, differed, at the last, from each other,\non the question of American independence a difference rendered\npeculiarly memorable, as being the subject of the last speech and\nappearance in parliament of that illustrious statesman, the earl of\nChatham. On April 7, 1,778, though labouring under a severe fit of\nillness, he appeared in his place, in the house of lords, and delivered\na most animated and energetic speech, in which he strongly protest-\ned against the surrender of the sovereignty of Great Britain over\nher colonies soon after, rising to reply to the Duke of Richmond,\nhe fell back on the seat in a fainting fit, and in a few days expired,\nat his seat in Kent. In four years from this event, Great Britain was\ncompelled, to yield upon this great point, and, by the peace of Ver-\nsailles, ratified and concluded September 3, 1,783, the thirteen United\nColonies of America were admitted to be .Free, Sovereign^ and indepeif\ndeni States.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0302.jp2"},"301":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY, 297\nSECriON IX.\nFRANCE, FROM THE PEACE OF PARIS, 1,763, TO THE\nOPENING OF THE ASSEMBLY OF THE STATES GENERAL,\n1,789.\n1. For the affairs of France, from the death of Lewis XIV., to\nthe peace of Vienna, 1,738, (see Sect. I.) In the year of 1,740,\nowing to the death of the emperor, Charles VI., Europe was again\nagitated, and France, in espousing the cause of the elector of Bava-\nria, against the house of Austria, became involved in the war, which\nwas terminated by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1,748, (see Sect.\nIII.) From the conclusion of the above treaty, to the commence-\nment of the seven years war, she enjoyed a state of external peace\nand tranquillity. But though this short interval of repose from war,\nwas applied to the improvement of the kingdom, in no common de-\ngree, both in the capital and provinces, by the establishment ol\nschools and hospitals, the erection of public edifices, the building of\nbridges, digging canals, and repairing roads in the cultivation and\nimprovement of many arts, the extension of commerce, and encour-\nagement of manufactures; of silk, of porcelain, and tapestry, in par-\nticular; yet amidst all these improvements she enjoyed little of inter-\nnal tranquillity. Religious disputes greatly occupied the attention\nof all ranks of persons, and involved the clergy, the court, the par-\nliaments, and the people, in incessant contests, exceedingly disgrace-\nful, and; considering the temper of the times, the advancement of\nhmman knowledge, and the progress of ideas, extremely injudicious.\n2. During the reign of Lewis XIV., a fierce contention had arisen\nbetween the Jesuits and Jansenists, on certain obscure points in\ntheology, which, after much fruitless argument, much raillery and\nabuse on both sides, through the influence of the Jesuits with the\nking, were referred to the decision of the Roman pontiff. One hun-\ndred and one propositions, out of one hundred and three, which were\nsaid to favour the Jansenists, in a book written by the Pere Quesnel,\nwere, in the year 1,713, declared by the holy office to be heretical,\nand consequently condemned in form The interposition of his ho-\nliness had little effect, in regard to the restoration of peace and tran-\nquillity. The public instrument, by which the sentence was passed\non the Jansenist party, (in the ianguage of Rome commonly called\nthe bull Unigenitusf from the first word with which it begins,)\nbecame the signal for fresh animosities, murmurs, and complaints.\nThe people, the parliament, many prelates, and others of the clergy,\nviolently exclaimed against it, as an infringement of the rights of the\nGallican church, contrary to the laws, and a violation of the freedom\nof opinion in matters ot religion. But the king, acting under the\nsame influence as had induced him to forward the appeal, ordered it\nto be received, and in a short time afterwards died. The regent\nduke of Orleans found means to keep things tolerably quiet during\nThe king 1 confessor, the P. le Tellier, happened to have told th«\nking that this book contained more than a hundred censxwable propositions-.\nTo save the credit of the confessor, the pope condemned a hundred and\none, and stated the above reason for what he had done, in express terms,\nto the French ambassador at Rome.","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0303.jp2"},"302":{"fulltext":"298 MODERN HISTORY.\nhis administration of affairs, nor did the flame burst out again till the\nyear 1,750, when, through the bigotry of the then archbishop of\nParis, the clergy were encouraged to refuse extreme unction to all\nwho should not produce confessional notes, signed by persons who\nadhered to the bull.\n3. It is easy to guess the confusion and deep distress, indeed,\nwhich so singular and intolerant a measure was likely to produce.\nThe cause of the recusants and people in general, was, upon this\noccasion, strongly supported by the parliament of Paris, and other\nSarliaments; and as in the preceding struggles the Jansenists had\neen thrown into prison, in this the magistrates made no scruple of\ncommitting all who refused to administer the sacrament to persons in\ntheir last moments. The Jesuits had again recourse to the king.\n4. The common course of proceeding, in all disputes and con-\ntentions between the king and his parliaments, had hitherto borne\nthe stamp of the most perfect despotism. However bold, or how-\never respectful the remonstrances might be on the part of the lat-\nter, they were not allowed to have the least effect against the de-\ntermination of the court. If these judicial bodies became too re-\nfractory, banishment ensued of course, and not the slightest regard\nwas paid to any arguments they might allege, nor any resistance\nthey might offer, in support of the liberties of their fellow subjects.\n5. Things came to the usual crisis on the present occasion. All\nthe chambers of parliament refused to register the letters patent by\nwhich they were commanded to suspend the prosecutions relative\nVo the refusal of the sacraments. In the year 1,753, they were\noanished, and much inconvenience arose from the interruption of\nbusiness, and suspension of justice while the clergy, attached to\nthe bull, made great boast of the victory thev had obtained, and\nendeavoured continually to strengthen themselves more and more\nagainst their adversaries. The king often wavered, but was as\noften brought back by the interposition of the pope and obstinate\nperseverance of the Jesuits; in 1,754, however, seizing the opportu-\nnity of the birth of a second son to the dauphin, (the duke of Ber\nry, afterwards Lewis XVI.,) he recalled the parliament, but with-\nout effecting peace. The members had been received at Paris\nwith loud acclamations, and every demonstration of joy their\nconduct had rendered them popular to an extraordinary degree, so\nthat when commanded afresh to register the king s edicts, they\nagain refused. This bold act of disobedience subjected them to\nthe last extremity of kingly authority. The sovereign repaired\nhimself to the hall of parliament, November, 1,756, and in aW of\njustice (the term by which such assemblies were peculiarly desig-\nnated,) tinally ordered them to register the edicts in his n? me, which\nthey could no longer, as the constitution then stood, refuse. Many,\nhowever, resigned their appointments, and much discontent prevailed\namongst the people. It should be observed, that by this time the\ndepositaries of the laws and advocates had begun to depart from\ntheir usual routine of technical formalities, and, animated by the ex-\namples set them, to enter largely into the general questions of law\nand liberty, rights and obligations, duty and privilege they began,\nin short, systematically to take the part of the oppressed t.^ey were\nprepared, not only to remonstrate, but to argue, debate, and openly\nto protest against the violation of the rights of the people.\n6. The hand of a fanatic, in the year 1 ,757, appeared to have\nthe effect of altering the king s mind once more. As hi? majesty","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0304.jp2"},"303":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 299\nwas stepping into his carriage, he was stabbed by an assassin of\nthe name of Damiens, his object being, according to his own confes-\nsion, not to kill, but to alarm his majesty, with a view of producing\nsome change in the king s sentiments, that might dispose him to en\njoin the administration of the sacraments to dying persons, without\nthe confessional notes insisted upon but little reliance is to be placed\non any declarations of this nature. In this instance they seemed\nnot to agree with the conduct of the assassin. That Lewis acted as\nhe did soon afterwards, with regard to the points in dispute, in conse-\nquence of this attempt on his life, is by no means certain but in a\nshort time matters were accommodated with the parliament, and the\narchbishop of Paris, the chief fomenter of the disturbances on the\npart of the clergy, banished.\n7. It may not be unreasonable, perhaps, to date the commence-\nment of the revolution that broke out nearly thirty years after-\nwards, from this period. Scarcely any thing could have contributed\nmore to encourage the revolutionary principles already at work,\nthan disputes which indicated such inveterate superstition and big-\notry such determined opposition to all freedom of thought such\nsophistry and intrigue such submission to the court of Rome such\ncontempt of the public opinion, as expressed, for want of any better\nconstituted organ, in the remonstrances of the French parliament;\nsuch a disposition on the part of the court and clergy to uphold the\narbitrary powers of the sovereign, and this at a moment when the\nprivate life of the monarch himself was in the highest degree profli-\ngate and abandoned, and the whole system of government a system\nof venality, favouritism, and public plunder. These imprudent and\nunwise proceedings, at such a time, gave a handle to the philosophers,\ncr literati, of the day, to take the reform of matters into their own\nhands, and by supplying them with such ample materials for the\nexercise of their wits, as well as their courage, laid the foundation\nfor a revolution which (so extensive were the abuses of government)\nalmost necessarily threw every thing into confusion, and in the end\nfar outstepped the bounds of all sober and discreet reform. Bred up\nby the Jesuits themselves, and instructed in all the branches of\nworldly and polite knowledge, they were amply prepared to expose\nthe weakness or wickedness of their masters, when ince the veil\nthat shrouded their deceptions was by any accident removed. They\nstood ready to avail themselves of any circumstances that might\ntend to render manifest the pride and obstinacy, hypocrisy and\ndeceit, of an overbearing sect, who by their influence with the king,\nmight at any time trample upon the liberties of the people.\n8. These philosophers, (for so they have been with too little dis-\ncrimination called,) thus raised in the estimation of an oppressed\npeople into the rank of champions of public freedom, were unfortu-\nnately, but probably through the artful designs of their instructers,\nlittle acquainted with the true principles of religion, however fa-\nmiliar they might be with its abuses. In directing their attacks,\ntherefore, against the Jesuits, they were rather anxious that their\nshafts should reach all the regular clergy, or monastic orders in\ngeneral; nor were they at all careful how much religion itseli\nmight suffer in the overthrow of its ministers. The enemies of the\nJesuits in China, Portugal, Spain, and America, had been the\nDominicans and Cordeliers. It was the aim of the philosophers, in\ncrushing the Jesuits, to crush their rivals also they were there-\nfore as severe against the Dominicans as against the Jesuits: the","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0305.jp2"},"304":{"fulltext":"SOO MODERN HISTORY.\nparliament only attacked the latter. However attached Lewis XV.\nmight be to the Jesuits, as the defenders of the catholic religion,\nand kingly authority, he appears to have entertained a jealousy\nof them, as censors of his immoral course of life, and as more at-\ntached to his son the dauphin than to himself. He therefore be-\ncame indifferent to the attacks making upon them while his mis-\ntress, the marchioness of Pompadour, and his minister, the duke de\nChoiseul, in order to keep the king wholly in their own power, were\nready to take part against the dauphin, the queen, the royal family,\nand the Jesuits themselves, of whom they were, for the reasons\nabove stated, justly suspicious. The duke de Choiseul himself, in-\ndeed, is said to have given the following account of his enmity to the\norder that being on an embassy at Rome, the general of the order\nfrankly told him, that he knew, before he came, every thing that\nhe had said about the society at Paris, and so convinced him that\nwhat he said was true, that he could not doubt but that, through\nsome means or other, they were able to learn all that passed, not\nonly in the cabinets of princes, but the interior of private houses,\nand that so dangerous a society ought not to subsist. It is proper to\nstate this, in order to exonerate the duke from any suspicion of\nhaving sacrified them to the philosophers, whose irreligious princi-\nples he is known latterly not to have approved.\n9. In the year 1,759 the Jesuits had been expelled from Portugal,\non a charge of countenancing an attack on the king s life. Under\nthese ciraamstances, it is not surprising that the enemies of the order\nat Paris should attempt to fix on them the charge of the late attack\non Lewis XV., and to attribute to them regicide principles. Damiens\nhimself seemed to have taken pains to leave the matter in extreme\ndoubt. They already were sufficiently branded in the eyes of the\npublic, as the friends and assertors of arbitrary power, and enemies\nto liberty. To relieve the sovereigns of Europe from the thraldom\nof a sect so powerful, so artful and dangerous, became a principle of\naction, which the public were well enough disposed to countenance,\nand an opportunity only was wanting to accomplish their ruin.\n10. This opportunity the Jesuits themselves provided for their\nenemies. Having endeavoured to escape from a demand made on\nthem in consequence of some mercantile proceedings, in which one\nof their society was deeply involved, the tribunals to which the\ncase was referred, having a handle given them by the pleadings\nof the Jesuits, very properly required to see the articles of their\ninstitution, hitnerto, that is, for more than two centuries, kept se-\ncret from all the world. The times were well fitted for such a\ndiscovery. All men of wit and understanding, however unprinci-\npled themselves, were well prepared to detect and expose the vul-\nnerable parts of their great charter or institute, (for so it was\ncalled) and to lay open to the world at large the peculiar arts and\ncontrivances, by which they were systematically instructed jto ac-\nquire an absolute dominion over the minds and consciences of men.\nThe mysterious volume was found to contain sufficient to convict\nthem of such bad principles, with regard both to civil government\nand morality, that, though the king hesitated at first to pass sen-\ntence on them, being almost as much afraid of their rivals and op-\nponents, the Jansenists, the parliament, and the philosophers, as of\nthemselves; yet, at length, August 6, 1,762, he was prevailed upon\nto issue a decree, by which they were secularized, and their posses-\nsions ordered to be sold, which was speedily, and with very few","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0306.jp2"},"305":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 30 i\nexceptions, carried into execution in all parts of the kingdom.\nEfforts indeed were made to save them, as being essentially necessa-\nry to combat the attacks ol the new philosophy, and to check the\nprogress of deism and atheism as heretofore they had interposed to\nconfound schismatics and heretics both the altar and the throne, it\nwas alleged, needed their services now more than ever; but all\nthese movements in their favour were in vain. The duke de\nChoiseul and the marchioness of Pompadour had the influence to\nprocure an edict from the king for the actual abolition of the order\n»n France, which was issued in November, 1,764, and other courts\n$i Europe judged it wise to take the same steps. Spain and Portu-\ngal having at this time ministers, whose principles and politics much\nresembled those of the duke de Choiseul the count d Aranda, and\nthe marquis de Pombal the Jesuits were expelled from Spain,\nNaples, and Sicily, from Mexico, Peru, and Paraguay, in the course\nof one and the same year, 1 ,767.\n11. The fate of the Jesuits was no sooner decided, than the par-\nliaments, elated by the downfal of their great opponents, began to at-\ntack the arbitrary power of the king. The profligate life of the\nlatter had withdrawn him too much from the cares of government,\nand opened the door to abuses in almost every department of admin-\nistration but while the parliaments were thus engaged, some very\nextraordinary processes at law, particularly the case of the Calm\nfamily at Thoulouse, of Labarre at Abbeville, and of the celebrated\nLally, commander in India, in which shocking instances of fanaticism\nand oppression occurred, turned the eyes of the philosophers, with\nVoltaire at their head, to the defects of the French jurisprudence, and\nexcited a strong feeling against both the taws of France, and the\nadministrators of them.\n12. The nation had sustained a considerable loss in the death ot\nthe dauphin, who, though a favourer of the Jesuits to a certain ex-\ntent, exhibited a character so different from that of his father in\nmany most essential points, as to render him very justly popular his\nhighness died at the age of 36, in the year 1,765 his wife, a prin-\ncess of the house of Saxony, surviving him only fifteen months. In\n1,770, through the agency of the duke de Choiseul, a new connex-\nion took place between the courts of Vienna and Versailles, by the\nmarriage of the young dauphin, afterwards Lewis XVI., with the\ndaughter of the empress dowager, the archduchess Marie Antoi\naetle an union attended with such costly and splendid festivities at\nme time, as must excite, in every sensible mind, the most awful re-\nflections on the dismal events which are now known to have clouded\nis latter days.\n13. The marriage of the dauphin took place at a time when the\ndifferences between the king and his parliament had arisen to the\ngreatest height. In the course of the years 1,770 and 1,771, the\nking held several beds of justice, but without at all subduing the\nspirit which had been raised against his edicts, and which the minis-\nter, in opposition to the chancellor, is supposed to have encouraged\na new parliament, and six councils, on the suggestion of the latter,\nwere proposed to be constituted, to supply the place of the refracto-\nry members, who were banished but this measure was opposed,\nnot only by the regular parliaments, but by the princes of the blood,\nand several even of the very persons nominated to form and preside\nin the new assemblies. Several provincial parliaments, as well as","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0307.jp2"},"306":{"fulltext":"302 MODERN HISTORY.\nthat of Paris, were suppressed, and as many as seven hundred magis-\ntrates exiled or confined.\n14. The year 1,774 terminated the life and reign of Lewis XV.\nhe died in the 65th year of his age, having reigned 58. The latter\npart of his life was highly disgraceful in a private point of view, and\nutterly feeble in a public one nor was his death at all regretted.\nHe was succeeded by his grandson Lewis XV 7 I., who had lost an\nelder brother in the year 1,761, his father in 1,765, and his mother\nin 1,767; strange mortality in one family, and too much resembling\nthe losses in that of Lewis XIV., (see Sect. I.,) then imputed to\npoison a charge revived upon this occasion, but probably entirely\nwithout foundation.\n15. At the very commencement of his reign, but not without some\nsacrifice of his private feelings and opinions, Lewis XVI. complied\nwith the general wish of having the old parliaments restored, and\nthe new councils formed by the chancellor Maupeou, dissolved a\nmeasure which seemed to diffuse an almost universal joy throughout\nthe capital and provinces. The king had taken into his service two\nministers of a disposition favourable to the wishes of the people\nhe venerable count de Maurepas, and M. Turgot. In conjunction\nwith these ministers, Lewis was undoubtedly disposed to reform\nabuses, and promote the happiness of his people but unfortunately\nthe state of France, if not of the world in general, precluded all\nhope of any gradual and temperate change.\n16. The American contest had commenced a declaration of right?\nhad appeared there, exceedingly well calculated to open the eyes\nof those who had not yet seen, and to encourage the revolutionary\nmovements of those Who had been able to detect, and were prepared\nto expose, the great abuses subsisting in the French government; al-\nready had the philosophers successfully attacked the Jesuits; aimed\nsome severe blows at the monaslic orders in general, as well as at the\ncourt of Rome, which had supported and abetted them in every at-\ntempt to uphold the papal and royal authority, and to stifle the com*\nplaints of the people. The tyranny thus inveighed against and at-\ntacked, had incited an opposition, much more likely to promote\nlicentiousness than assist the cause of real and genuine liberty. The\nerrors of Catholicism, upheld by a bigoted and infatuated clergy, at\nvariance with the only assemblies in the nation capable of any con-\nstitutional remonstrance, however ineffectual, naturally hurried the\nwits and freethinkers of that lively nation into extremes which every\nsober minded man could not iliil to lament; in a very short course of\ntime, from railing at the regular clergy, they proceeded to rail at\nreligion, and even atheism was propagated in a way that bespoke a\ndreadful disregard of all principles of religion, common honesty, and\nhonour; in works purporting to have been written by very respect-\nable persons, deceased, Avho had holden, when alive, opinions diamet-\nrically opposite to those that were thus stamped with their names.\nThese were among some of the most dreadful forerunners of a rev\nolulion, which, had it been properly managed, had it fallen into the\nhands of persons better prepared to act upon the true principles of\nreligion and ordeily government, considering the progress of knowl\nedge and the powerful impulse which the human mind had received,\nwas not unseasonable in point of time and circumstances.\n17. It would be absurd, however, to deny the abilities of many of\nthe persons who now stood forwnrd to stem the torrent of abuses,\nand vindicate the rights of the people several of them had wit,","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0308.jp2"},"307":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. SOS\nand learning, and science, at command, to the highest degree some\nof them had a lively sense of liberty, but they had been ill-taught\non the subjects of religion and morality they had read Locke, with-\nout imbibing Locke s best principles they had confounded the\nabuses of Christianity with Christianity itself; they were witty and\ningenious, but not comparable in wisdom and conduct with their con-\ntemporaries in Scotland, or in England; the latter were the truest\nfriends to Jiberty, the best philosophers, and the best politicians, as\ntheir writings show. The celebrated Encyclopaedia, which first ap-\npeared in 1,751, had supplied an opportunity for all the literati of\nPrance to express their most private sentiments on government,\npolitical economy, and the management of the finances. Amongst\nthese the economists bore a conspicuous part; their whole system,\nwhen rightly understood, being one of liberty, whether it regarded\npersonal rights, the free application of industry, or the exportation\nof corn. The author to the Introduction to the Encyclopaedia, M.\nd Alembert, was a man of considerable talents, but a deist in principle\nhis coadjutor, Diderot, an atheist.\n18. The ministry of Turgot, while it lasted, was rather calculated\nto give encouragement to the French reformers his own views\nwere undoubtedly liberal and patriotic, and he had a master sincere-\nly disposed, in all likelihood, to further any practicable plan of\nreform, but the course of the minister was too precipitate his views\nextended to too many objects, and were such as admitted not of any\nspeedy accomplishment they were too mighty for the grasp of any\none man they only excited the animosity of the privileged orders,\n•md drove them into measures of defence, more calculated to worj*\ntheir own overthrow than conciliate their enemies. The advocates\nof ancient abuses and unreasonable customs, they treated their op\nponents with an ill-judged contempt, and by resisting all amelioration\nof the present order of things, laid the foundation for a thousand\nimpracticable systems and extravagant theories, new constitutions\nand schemes of government, which being severally proposed, tried,\nand rejected, in rapid succession, at last involved every thing in con-\nfusion, anarchy, and ruin.\n19. While the seeds of revolution, if not of republicanism, plen-\ntifully sown, were beginning to germinate in France, in America the\npeople were already acting upon the very principle of resistance to\nan alleged tyranny. It required only to bring the two countries, by\nsome means or other, into contact, to spread the contagion, and\nrevolutionize both nations as the different circumstances and charac-\nters of the people should severally determine. At the beginning of\nthe year 1,778, a formal alliance was negotiated between the court\nof Versailles and the revolutionary government of America; but\nlong before that, in the year 1,774, the American declaration of\nlights, on which their opposition to the English government rested,\nwas received in France-, as a kind of practical application of the\ntheoretical schemes of the French philosophers, and might reasona-\nbly have alarmed all the courts of Europe though the contrary\nwas the fact. France and Spain sent help, and Prussia approved the\nAmerican proceedings, not so much out of friendship towards the\nAmericans, as of blind hostility to Great Britain. The king of France\nis said to have foreseen the ill consequences of such a war, but to\nhave weakly given way to contrary advice.\n20. The speeches of opposition, in the mean time, in the two Eng-\nlish houses of parliament, greatly interested the people on the conti-","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0309.jp2"},"308":{"fulltext":"304 MODERN HISTORY,\nnent; the crowned heads, indeed, took little notice of the warning,\nwhilst the subjects were listening attentively to the lessons of liberty\npromulgated by Chatham, Fox, and Burke. Unfortunately, the court\nof Versailles, at this very time, with the exception of the king, who\nwas inclined to economy, fell into the utmost extravagancies of\nluxury, gayety, and dissipation drew largely, and without any con-\nsideration, on the public treasury, though the finances were in a\nmost depressed state; invented all kinds of novelties, and seemed\nbent upon exchanging the forms and etiquette of a court for trilling\nthough expensive amusements, not omitting such as promoted and\nencouraged the spirit of gambling.\n21. While these things were going on at court, and too much\nCountenanced, it is to be feared, by the queen, she received a visit\nfrom her eccentric brother, the emperor Joseph the second, which\nhad, or appeared to have, an extraordinary effect on the Parisians\nbeing so timed as to fall in with the new notions that had been\nadopted, of manly simplicity, and a republican severity of manners.\nThe incognito he preserved, he carried so far as to dismiss, in a very\nstriking manner, all the glare and pomp of royalty the frankness\nof his manners, unostentatious and frugal mode of life, led the French\nmore particularly to notice, and to condemn more severely, the\nthoughtless luxury and dissipation of their own court and princes.\n22. The king had a hard and cruel task upon his hands he found\nit impossible to check a course of extravagance and levity in his\nown family, which he could not, and, in fact, did not approve in his\nchoice of ministers, he was sure to offend one party or the other\nthus, when in 1,776, on the dismission of M. Turgot, he first appoint-\ned the celebrated M. Necker, of Geneva, to the high office of su-\npreme director of the finances, the privileged orders took the\nalarm they thought^ they saw in the citizen of a republic, and a\nprotestant, a decided friend to the liberal ideas that were afloat to\ntheir prejudice, and the enemy and corrector of all abuses of power\nand place. When, on the removal of M. Necker, the management\nof the finances was delivered into other hands, the people complain\ned that their friend and favourite had been sacrificed, to intrigue and\ncabal, and that he had been checked and supplanted, at a moment\nwhen he was chalking out a system of reform, highly beneficial to\nthe state, and favourable to their best interests.\n23. In 1,783, M. de Calonne undertook to restore order to the\nfinances, and his measures were exactly such as were calculated to\noring matters to a crisis, and hasten the revolution which had for a\nlong time been impending. Inclined to favour the luxury and prod-\nigality of the court, and at the same time to provide for the deficien-\ncies in the revenue, he boldly attacked the privileged orders, by\nproposing, as the best impost he could devise, a general land tax\nfairly adjusted, and from which there should be no exemption. To\ncarry this great point into execution, being no favourite with the\nparliament, he recommended the convocation of the assembly of the\nnotables (a name given to a former meeting of select and distin-\nguished persons, in the year 1,626.) To this advice the king assent-\ned, doubtless with the best intentions, though many about the court\npretended, even at that time, to foresee in this measure the downfal\nof the monarchy, and the ruin of the minister who had proposed it.\nThe king gave his consent, December 1,786, and in February 1,787\nthis extraordinary assembly met. The minister had undoubtedly act-\ned constitutionally in calling it, however rashly in regard to his own","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0310.jp2"},"309":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. S05\ninterests, and the king has been supposed to have imbibed from his\nfather a strong inclination to consult such public and national councils.\nIn this instance, however, both the crown and the minister were de-\nceived; the latter, who expected to be allowed to lay his plans\nbefore them in the way of commands to be obeyed, was soon dis-\nE laced, on the remonstrances and demand of the very assembly he\nad ventured to call together and though it did some good in the\nway of regulation and reform, during the short period of its sitting,\nwhich was only till the 25th of May, 1,787, it was fir from answer-\ning the purposes for which it had been convoked. The members ot\nit, however, had acquired information hitherto withheld from the\npublic, and imbibed principles friendly to liberty.\n24. On the dismission of M. de Calonne, his successor, the\narchbishop of Thoulouse, by an arbitrary and inconsiderate be-\nhaviour, involved his sovereign in another unpleasant contest with\nthe parliament, who, in a moment of irritation, called ibr a meet-\ning of the states-general. The credit and power of the parliaments\nhad hitherto been chiefly owing to the disuse of these national\ncouncils, so that if it had been proposed with any sincere desire of\nredressing grievances, and resisting oppression, the members with\nwhom it originated would have deserved the credit of patriotism\nbut. probably they were swayed by motives less pure. The king,\nhowever, consented to their convocation in 1,792, but in the mean\ntime had many unpleasant altercations with the parliament, and\non one occasion was treated with so little ceremony, or rather such\nindignity, as it was thought, by the due d Orleans, as to occasion his\nbanishment.\n25. The minister, in order to break or reduce the power of par-\nliament, thus openly at variance with him, and to get rid of the\nyounger members, whose refractory spirit was but too apparent,\nprojected the appointment of a cour plenicre, consisting of persons\nselected by the king from the principal nobility, professions and\nofficers of state. The court was formed, and sat long enough to\nenforce the ministerial decrees, but amidst such murmuring and\nconfusion, such violent remonstrances and objections, attended with\npopular commotions in the capital and provinces, that in a short\ntime the scheme was abandoned, and the minister announced to the\npublic the king s intention of convoking the states-general in the\nyear ensuing he was then dismissed from his high oflice, and, to\nthe great joy of the parliament and people, M. JNTecker was recalled.\n26. The royal word had been pledge for the summoning the\nstates-general in 1,789; and it was soon found to be a promise,\nwhich, though the chief management of the finances had passed\ninto other and more popular hands, could not easily be abandoned.\nThey had not been assembled since the year 1,614, and difficulties\ntherefore were started as to the best mode of arranging them the\nking even condescended to refer the matter to the decision of all\nthe corporate and learned bodies of the realm an extraordinary step\nto take, but favoured by the minister, who had it in view to give con-\nsequence to the third estate, or commonalty, in order to counter-\ncalance the too great influence of the privileged orders.\n27. This popular design of the minister, besides alarming the\nclergy and nobility, did not meet with the readv concurrence of\nthe parliament; and it was even proposed, by M. d Espresmesnil,\na member who had incurred both banishment and imprisonment in\nthe course of his opposition to the court, to adopt at once the plan ot\nCc2 39","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0311.jp2"},"310":{"fulltext":"S06 MODERN HISTORY.\n1,614; a proposal to which the parliament acceded; but it had the\neffect of rendering them immediately as unpopular as the privi-\nleged orders. The claims of the third estate met with the support\nof a large majority of the people, as might naturally have been\nexpected at such a moment; the commons of 1,788 were very dif-\nferent from those who were first summoned to meet in 1,302, upon\na plan which had continued to 1,614. It was reasonable to adopt\nnew forms and it was therefore strongly insisted that they should,\nupon this occasion, in order to be upon a par with the other orders,\nhave a double representation, and deliberate together. Had the plan\nof the states-general of 1,614 been adopted, the parliament would\nhave appeared there with much greater eclat than in any new ar-\nrangement; this may account for the part they took upon this occa\nsion. They entirely expected, in demanding the convocation of the\nstates, that they should have the chief place in that assembly, and\ncontinue to enjoy the coniidence of the people.\n28. Such was the state of things at this memorable period an\ninfatuation the most surprising seemed to hurry on the privileged\norders to their ruin and destruction, and with them the monarchy.\nInstead of bending in any manner to the force of popular opinion,\nor acknowledging the justice of the claims made on them, as a fa-\nvoured class, they more strongly than ever stood upon their privi-\nleges, and appeared to treat with contempt that powerful and now\nenlightened majority that was opposed to them they insisted more\nthan ever upon their feudal rights, after the whole system had been\nvirtually abolished. Conduct of this kind could not fail to stimulate\nthe other party to deeds of violence and retaliation, in which the\nauthority of the established laws and customs came soon to be to-\ntally disregarded, and every thing seemed to tend to ruin and dev-\nastation when the election of the states-general was appointed to\ntake place, both sides exerted themselves with the utmost zeal and\nanxiety, but the result was found to be highly favourable to the\ndemocratic party.\n29. Great changes had already taken place in the character and\nmanners of the Parisians. Since the American war, a strong dispo-\nsition had been shown to imitate the English, in dress, manners,\namusements, and freedom of speech the respect which had former-\nly prevailed for high birth and rank was every day diminishing\npersons of all classes were beginning to be raised to situations of dis-\ntinction and confidence; and some of the great themselves, instead\nof maintaining the distance preserved by their ancestors, made ap-\nproaches towards the lower ranks, by intermarriages, and the open\nand general encouragement of literature, trade, commerce, and\nagriculture even the females began to discuss questions of state, to\nexpress a lively and sentimental concern for all oppressed persons or\nnations, and to wish that all the young men who could speak elo-\nquently upon these subjects in their private assemblies, should have,\n=is in England, a field opened to ihem for the more public display of\ntheir talents and abilities. It is not to be wondered that, under these\ncircumstances, every eye should be fixed on the meeting of that\ngreat national council, whose powers had not been called into action\nfor the long space of nearly two centuries.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0312.jp2"},"311":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 807\nSECTION X.\nAUSTRIA, FROM THE CONCLUSION OF THE SEVEN YEARS\nWAR TO THE DEATH OF MARIA THERESA, 1,763—1,780.\n1. With regard to Austria, the seven years war terminated with\nthe peace of Hubertshurg, which was signed on the 5th of Febru-\nary, 1,763, (see Sect. VI.) and on the 27th of May, 1,764, as the\nfruits of that peace, the empress was gratified with the election of\nher son Joseph to the dignity of king of the Romans a point of\ngreat importance to her, considering the circumstances that had re-\ntarded the elevation of her roval consort to the imperial throne.\nThe election was most opportune, for the emperor Francis survived\nit but a very short time, being struck with a fit of apoplexy in the\nmonth of August of the same year, while attending the nuptials ot\nhis second son at Inspruck, in the Tyrol. Francis had borne his fac-\nulties meekly, resigning to his imperial consort the cares, as well as\nthe state and parade of government, which, indeed, more regularly\nappertained to her than to himself; he obviously withdrew from\nthe authority that seemed to have devolved to him and if he occu-\npied himself at all with the affairs of government, it was rather to\nsupply its pecuniary demands from his Tuscan treasury, than for any\nother purposes; not so much in the way of gain, as of regular busi-\nness and prudential management. Of the high estimation in which\nhe was held by the empress there can be little doubt her affection\nfor him had a romantic cast, and seemed founded on what so seldom\noccurs, or can be expected to occur in royal marriages, an early,\nfixed, and solid attachment.\n2. Her majesty employed herself, from the conclusion of the\ntreaty of Hubertshurg, in ameliorating in every way possible the\ncondition of her country in founding philosophical academies, re-\nforming the schools, encouraging by premiums the manufactures,\nand in restraining several feudal abuses: she had the opportunity\nafforded her of contributing to the introduction of the variolous inocu-\nlation into her dominions. She interfered, and in a very judicious\nmanner, in the regulations regarding monasteries and nunneries, abol-\nished the dangerous privilege of asylum, the horrible excesses of\nthe inquisition, and the inhuman judicial process of torture. She\nalso suppressed the society of Jesuits.\n3. Considering the extreme repugnance Maria Theresa had\nshown to the dismemberment of her own domains on the oeath of\nher father, it must seem greatly to redound to her discredit that she\ncould have become a party to the partition of Poland but it may\nvery fairly be inferred that she was driven into it. Being unable to\nserve the cause of Saxony she had no other alternative against the\ncombination of Russia, Prussia, and the Porte, than to claim a part\nthough it is almost proved that she was drawn in by Prussia to par-\ntake ot the plunder, that she might also share the odium excited by\nit. After the partition indeed began to have effect, and was sanction-\ned by the Polish delegates nominated for that purpose, Maria\nTheresa appears to have had no scruples in extending her encroach-\nments, and supporting Prussia in the same attempts, to such a degiee\neven as to provoke the interposition of Russia. It was not till the","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0313.jp2"},"312":{"fulltext":"308 MODERN HISTORY.\nyear 1,777 that all the three parties were satisfied, and brought to\nan agreement in regard to limits the portion assigned to Austria\nbeing decidedly the greatest in extent. In the same year the em-\npress queen, by a convention, signed on the 5th day of February,\nobtained possession of the Buccovina, ceded to her by the Porte.\nHer situation was at this period particularly flourishing, her army\nnumerous and well disciplined, her finances in good order, and her\nalliance with France cemented by many marriages with the Bourbon\nprinces but after the partition of Poland, and the connexion the\nempress queen seemed thus to have formed with Russia and Prussia,\nan anti-Austrian party sprang up at the court of Versailles, who\npersuaded the king to renew his connexions with Prussia, in order\nto secure some check against the augmentation of the power of\nAustria this, however, was done without violating subsisting trea-\nties, or breaking friendship with Maria Theresa. Lewis XVI. was\nmuch more jealous of the son than of the mother, and not without\nreason the views of the former being evidently ambitious and em\ncroaching, and highly anti-gallican.\n4 In December, 1,777, on the death of the elector of Bavaria,\nboth the emperor and empress queen laid claim to his dominions as\nfiefs or allodials, properly descending or reverting to one or other\nof them, having previously taken steps to arrange matters with their\nmore immediate competitor, the elector Palatine and relying\nstrongly on the support of France, as well as on the age and infirmi-\nties of the king of Prussia but the latter found means to interpose,\nby stimulating the duke of Deux Fonts, presumptive heir to the\nelector Palatine, to appeal to himself and the king of France against\nthe dismemberment of the Bavarian territories, referring, in confir-\nmation of his rights, to the treaty of Pavia, confirmed by the Golden\nBull, and the treaty of Westphalia all these authorities were disput-\ned on the part of the emperor and empress, who insisted on the\nvalidity and legality of the arrangements made with the elector\nPalatine. The emperor in the mean while offered to submit his\nown claims to the judgment of the diet, and to mediate between his\nmother and the other claimants preparations, nevertheless, were\nmade for deciding the matter by arms, and both the emperor and\nking of Prussia took the field at the head of their respective forces\nbut the empress queen, fearing for her son, made many overtures of\npeace, sought the mediation of Russia and France, and, though con-\ntinually thwarted by the emperor, who was inclined to war, and un\nwilling to sul mit to the dictates of foreign powers, succeeded in re-\nstoring tranquillity, by the treaty of Teschen, 1,779. By this treaty\nmany arrangements were entered into to satisfy the king of Prussia,\nthe elector Palatine, the duke of Deux Ponts, and the elector of\nSaxony. And Austria acquired territory, though of no great extent,\nvery important in point of situation. She obtained from Bavaria the\ncircle ot Burghausen, which opened a passage to the Tyrol, anc\nwas not compelled absolutely to renounce any of her claims though\nshe found means to forego with credit the further prosecution of\nthem.\nFrance had done enough during these disputes about Bavaria, tf\ngive umbrage to the court of Vienna she had secretly opposed thfc\ndismemberment of the electorate, she had not supplied the succours\nshe was required to do according to the treaty of Versailles, and she\nhad manifested a distrust of the emperor, bordering upon contempt\nThis conduct had the eflect of throwing the latter into the arms of","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0314.jp2"},"313":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 309\nEngland and Russia in the contest with America, J oseph espoused\nthe cause of England, pronounced it to be the cause of all sovereigns,\nand prohibited ail intercourse between the subjects of the empire\nand the revolted colonies. With regard to Russia he took a more\nactive part; he visited Catherine on her celebrated journey to the\nCrimea, and at Petersburg ingratiated himself with her to an ex-\ntraordinary degree, alienated her from the old king of Prussia, and in\nso doing procured her assistance in promoting the advancement of\nhis brother the archduke Maximilian to the coadjutorship of Cologne\nand Munster, the last wish of Maria Theresa, who had thus, in an\nextraordinary manner, found the means to provide, before her death,\nfor all her numerous family. But her end was approaching: in\nNovember, 1,780, she was seized with an illness, which terminated\nher existence her last days were passed in acts of devotion and atten-\ntions to her son, the emperor, and others of her family, particularly\nstriking and grand. She displayed at this awful moment a powerful\nmind, a warm heart, and a truly christian fortitude she died No-\nvember 29, 1,780, in the 64th year of her age, and 41st of her\nreign. She was not exempt from weaknesses, but her virtues,\nboth public and private, greatly preponderated the former were of\nthe most splendid cast, the latter altogether as amiable. Nine out of\nsixteen children survived her.\nJoseph, who succeeded her; Leopold, great duke of Tuscany;\nFerdinand, governor of Austrian Lombardy and duke of Modern*\nby reversion Maximilian, coadjutor of Cologne and Munster Mary\nAnne, abbess of Prague Mary Christina, wife of Albert, duke ot\nSaxony Maria Elizabeth, abbess of Inspruck Maria Amelia, duches?\nof Parma Caroline, queen of Naples Maria Antoinetta, queen of\nFrance.\nSECTION XI.\nREIGNS OF JOSEPH II., LEOPOLD II., c, FROM 1,765 TO 1,800.\n1. On the demise of his father, Francis I., Joseph, who had been\nelected king of the Romans in 1,764, ascended the imperial throne,\nat the age of twenty-four, in the year 1,765, his mother being still\nliving. It was soon apparent that he projected great; changes, and\nthe reformation of many abuses, but in pursuing these purposes he\nwas undoubtedly too precipitate and too adventurous his educa-\ntion had not been such as to fit him for such high attempts. It was\nimpossible to unite in the way he proposed such scattered domin-\nions; it was impossible to carry into execution all the schemes he\nhad invented for the consolidation and improvement of the empire.\nIn the Belgic provinces, in particular, he rendered himself extreme-\nly unpopular by the violence of his proceedings, but this was not\ntil! after his mother s death as long as she lived she sedulously en-\ndeavoured to restrain the impetuosity and warlike disposition of her\nson, apprehending that he had many enemies at hand, and that not-\nwithstanding the pretended courtesy of the king of Prussia, mani-\nfested in private interviews as well as public negotiations, he could\nnot have much chance of success in coping with so able, powerful,\nand experienced an opponent in this, perhaps, she showed some\nsense, though it has been doubled whether she did not too much\ncontrol the ardent spirit of her son. The empress queen dying in","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0315.jp2"},"314":{"fulltext":"310 MODERN HISTORY.\nthe year 1,780, Joseph was left to the pursuit of his own whims and\nprojects, in many instances most extravagant, in almost all oppressive.\nFor though there was an appearance of liberality, and much show of\ngood, he evidently seemed to consult nothing but his own arbitrary\nwill.\n2. Had his education been such as to enable him to form a right\njudgment of things, had not his genius been cramped, and nis rea-\nson perverted, by a choice of tutors and preceptors peculiarly ill\nqualified to fit him for the arduous and conspicuous station to which\nhe had been elevated by the circumstances of his birth and con-\nnexions, he might certainly have done great good, and actually\nameliorated the condition of a large and most interesting portion\nof the human race, for his manners were such as to have led him\nto a just knowledge of their wants, and a proper sense of their\nclaims upon society. He travelled through Europe, as if he were\nbent on seeing the real condition of his fellow-creatures, in all ranks\nand situations of life discarding all pomp and parade, he sought the\nsociety and conversation of persons far below him, and encouraged\nevery one to give him information uj on subjects most nearly touch-\ning their interests. Since Peter I. cf Russia, no monarch had taken\nsuch pains to procure information, and survey every thing with his\nown eyes.\n3. The whole extent of his dominions was supposed to contain\na population of 24,000,000, distinguished however by p. great va-\nriety of laws, customs, religious opinions, and language the lower\norders subject to many restrictions, attaching to the state of vas-\nsalage in which they were still held by their feudal lord and su-\nperiors. The Roman catholic religion chiefly prevailed the cier-\ngy were wealthy, and possessed great influence. Maria Theresa\nha j perceived what was wrong, and had shown an excellent dis-\nposition to amend matters, but had partly been compelled by cir-\ncumstances, and swayed by prudence, to proceed moderately and\ngradually. Joseph was more impetuous; he was so eager to break\ndown all distinctions, that, among other regulations, he insisted\non having but one language for the whole empire, though no less\nthan ten principal languages were spoken at that time, and in\ncommon use. Within the confines of his dominions, all his other\nprojects were of the same description, whether good or bad, ex-\nceedingly too hasty he broke up old systems before he was well\nprepared to establish new ones, and in the interval, necessarily\noccasioned such confusion, disgust, and trouble, as to hinder every\ngood effect, and thwart his own purposes; in all his regulations he\nseemed bent upon upholding his own imperial power, not only by\nemitting to introduce any new checks upon it, but even abolishing\nold ones he particularly displeased his Hungarian subjects, those\nfaithful adherents of his mother, by interfering with their laws and\ncustoms, and offending some of their fondest prejudices.\n4. Though attached to the Roman catholic religion, he showed\ngreat disregard of the papal authority, by subjecting the monas-\nteries to episcopal jurisdiction, suppressing many, and reducing the\nnumbers, both of monks and nuns, in all that were permitted to\ncontinue, with great wan of feeling he omitted to make any pro-\nvision for those who were discharged he broke through many su-\nperstitions, not rightly judging how deeply they were interwoven\nwith the religious feelings of the people, and how much the latter\ntherefore were likely to be affected by such violence and haste","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0316.jp2"},"315":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 311\nhe abolished the privileges of primogeniture, declared marriage\n(heretofore regarded as a sacrament) to be only a civil contract,\nand rendered bastards capable of inheriting. The wisest and most\ntruiy liberal of all his innovations was that which, by a public edict,\ndated October 31, 1,781, established a general toleration for all the\n*Jcal!iolici^ or dissenters from the Romish religion. This and other\nmeasures of interference with ecclesiastical matters so disturbed and\nalarmed pope Pius VI., as to induce him to take a journey to Vienna,\npersonally to remonstrate with the emperor. His plan was opposed\nat Rome, and entirely discouraged by the Austrian ministry; but his\nholiness persisted, and, after a visit of much form and ceremony, re-\nturned in about a month, without effecting any change in the senti-\nments or proceedings of Joseph.\n5. In the same precipitate manner, as in other instances, he sud-\ndenly abolished feudal vassalage, without any suitable arrangements\nfor the relief of those who must evidently suffer by such an impor-\ntant change of tenure and while he prided himself upon putting an\nend to slavery, he subjected the emancipated to such arbitrary im-\nposts of his own invention, as plainly to convince them that they had\nnot in reality recovered their freedom. To countervail these errors\nin legislation and government, he certainly showed great merit in\nthe encouragement he gave to arts, letters, trade, and manufactures;\nin founding numerous schools and universities, public libraries, labor-\natories and observatories in improving the public roads, making\ncanals, and establishing free ports. In 1,784, he obtained permission\nfrom the Forte to navigate the Turkish seas, which seemed to afford\nexcellent^ means to his Hungarian subjects, who were otherwise ill\nsituated for trade, to carry on an extensive commerce by way o.\nthe Danube war, however, soon interrupted this accommodation in\n1,787 it came to an end.\n6. In 1,781, Joseph, having concerted his plans with France, who\nhad altered hei measures towards him, probably for the very pur-\npose, determined to break through the barrier treaty* imposed\nupon Austria when the Netherlands were transferred to Charles VI.,\nand which, though undoubtedly affording security to Austria itself\nagainst the French, must be allowed to have constantly carried in\nit something galling to the feelings of the imperial court, as entirely\ndictated by the maritime powers. The fortifications of the barrier\ntowns had now fallen into decay, and the connexion which had\nfor some time subsisted between the courts of Versailles and Vien-\nna, seemed to afford the emperor plausible grounds for declining to\npay for the military protection of a frontier no longer likely to be\ndisturbed. He therefore directed all the fortifications in the Nether-\nlands to be done away, except those of Luxemburgh, Ostend, jVamur^\nand Antwerp while the Dutch, who had been desired to withdraw\ntheir garrisons, as no longer necessary, or entitled to pay, judged it\nwise to comply.\n7. This violation of the barrier treaty, complied with in the last\ninstance so easily by the united provinces, was quickly^ followed\nby fresh demands on the latter power, under pretence of more ac-\ncurately adjusting the boundaries of the Dutc a and Austrian Neth-\nerlands. The cession of the city of Maestricht and the contigu-\nous district of Outer Me use being among other things insisted\napon. At length, however, and about the year 1,784, these claims\nSee Coxe iv. 152, 153, c","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0317.jp2"},"316":{"fulltext":"312 MODERN HISTORY.\nall seemed to merge in one sweeping demand, to have the full and\nfree navigation of the river Scheld, tor the purposes of establishing,\nin favour of his Flemish subjects, a direct trade with the East In-\ndies, and of restoring the city of Antwerp, once the emporium ot\nEurope, to its proper degree of splendour and importance a proj-\nect, which, if it could have been accomplished without interfering\nwith so many foreign interests, and the manifest violation of suo-\nsisting treaties, may be said to have reflected no disgrace on the\npolicy, wisdom, or paternal care of the emperor but it was impos-\nsible to expect that such changes should be allowed to proceed\nwithout great opposition. It was soon discovered that both France\nand Prussia were prepared to support the Dutch against him, and\nthough the empress of Russia had endeavoured to deter the latter\nfrom aiding the Hollanders, the project was laid aside, and Joseph,\ninstead of his views on the Scheld, resumed some of his former de-\nmands. In the end, however, every thing was compromised by\nmoney, through the mediation of the French king, or rather in con-\nformity to the dictates of the French minister.\n8. Another ooject which the emperor attempted almost at the\nsame time, but equally without effect, was the exchange of the\nNetherlands for Bavaria. He had taught his mother to covet the\nlatter countr} 7 and its acquisition would undoubtedly have render-\ned his dominions more compact, and given him a continued line of\nterritory, from the frontier of Turkey to the Mediterranean sea,\nwhile it might have relieved him from the charge of a more distant\nportion of his dominions, held by a very uncertain and troublesome\ntenure. Joseph had calculated upon overcoming all the difficul-\nties that might arise from foreign powers had secured the consent\nof Russia, and even negotiated the proposed exchange with the\nelector of Bavaria, (who, if it took place, was to be made king of\nAustrasia or Burgunay.) But Frederic II., at the age of seventy-\nibur, again interposed and, by forming with the several princes and\nstates of the empire what was called the Germanic union, for main-\ntaining the integrity and indivisibility of the Germanic body in gen-\neral, effectually prevented the exchange so much desired. The\nprincipal parties to the union, which was settled and confirmed, Juiy\n1,785, were, besides the king of Prussia, the electors of Hanovei-j\nSaxony, and Mentz, the margrave of Anspach, and the duke ot\nDeux Ponts. The whole scheme, indeed, was found to be so im-\npracticable, that the emperor and elector judged it prudent to deny\nthat any convention to that effect had taken place between them.\n9. In 1,788, Joseph incurred considerable disgrace, by his attacks\nupon Turkey. He had projected, in conjunction with the empress\nof Russia, w*hom he had flattered by a visit to the Crimea, the total\ndismemberment of that empire but blunder upon blunder defeated\nhis purposes, and he retired from the contest blamed by ail parties.\nIn 1,789, however, hostilities were renewed, and in the battle of\nRimnik, which took place in the month of September, the combined\nforces of Russia and Austria gained an important victory over the\nTurks, under the command of the grand vizbr. The capture of\nBelgrade soon after, by the army of Loudon, completed their\ntriumphs but their success occasioned jealousies, which effectually\ninterrupted the career of victory. England, Holland, and Prussia,\nbegan to be alarmed at the increasing power of Russia and Austria:\nand. by fomenting the troubles in the Netherlands, drew the atten-\ntion of Joseph from his intended encroachments on Turkey.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0318.jp2"},"317":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 313\n10. In no part of his dominions were his attempts at reformation\nworse received, or worse managed, than in the Netherlands. Di-\nvided into many provinces, and each province governed by distinct\nlaws, customs, and regulations; some secured by charter, in the\nenjoyment of important privileges and immunities, nothing could\npossibly have been thought of more vexatious than that of redu-\ncing them all under one system of administration, commencing with\nthe sudden and violent abolition of many convents, and the sup-\npression of many institutions, forms, and ceremonies, by long usage\nbecome little less than sacred in the eyes of the people. The\ncourts of law, the universities and schools, were subjected to sim-\nilar changes, nor did the imperial decrees spare any order of men,\nor any public establishment, however respectable in other respects,\nfrom undergoing this severe ordeal, and revolutionary process.\nNothing could exceed the consternation and disgust with which these\nnew regulations were received by all ranks of persons, from the\nlowest to the highest for even the governors-general sided with\nthe refractory party, and were averse from carrying into execution\na system so exceedingly repugnant to the feelings of the people in\ngeneral, but especially of the principal persons amongst the cler-\ngy, laity, and magistrates. Riots and disturbances took place, as\nmight have been expected, in many parts, and France was applied\nto for assistance, as guarantee of their liberties. The whole au-\nthority of government seemed to be vested in the minister plenipo-\ntentiary of the emperor, count Belgioso, who had to contend alone\nagainst the formidable opposition that had sprung up for not only\nthe governors-general, as has been before intimated, were on the\nside of the people, but even the imperial minister, prince Kaunitz,\nwho greatly disapproved the violent proceedings of his master.\n11. Joseph at tirst assumed an appearance of rigour and inflexibili-\nty, in the pursuit of his new measures, little suitable to the actual\nsituation of affairs. He had not foreseen so formidable a resistance,\nand when it occurred, he depended too much on his means for sup-\npressing it embarrassed as he was at the time by the war with\nTurkey. After much threatening, therefore, and strong marks of\ndispleasure against the Belgic states, he found it advisable to com-\npromise matters, for a time at least: or rather to offer to relinquish\nall the objectionable parts of his new system to re-establish the\nancient constitution, confirm the celebrated charter, called La joy-\ncuse Entree, and submit to have the case referred to delegates on both\nsides. In this, however, he was not sincere, and his duplicity and\narbitrary disposition becoming every day more manifest, it was\nimpossible to prevent things coming to extremity. The example\nif France was contagious the whole population became divided\nwto two parties of patriots and royalists, and the former were\nsoon found to be the strongest. In November, 1,789, the states de-\nclared their independence, in consequence of a meeting held al\nGhent the soldiery began to take part with the people. On the\n26th of December, the states of Brabant assumed the sovereign pow-\ner, in which they were soon followed by the states of the other\nSrovinces; a federal union was formed, under the title of the United\nelgic States, and a congress of deputies to administer the new gov-\nernment, appointed to assemble on the 11th of January, 1,790.\n12. Thus were the low countries sacrificed to the injudicious and\nhasty measures of the emperor, who was too late rendered sensible\nof his errors, when he found them perfectlv irreparable, either in\nDd 40","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0319.jp2"},"318":{"fulltext":"314 MODERN HISTORY\nthe way of conciliation or force. He lived to see his offers of peace\nand reconciliation rejected with scorn and contempt, while he totally\nfailed in his endeavours to procure the aid of foreign states to reduce\nhis revolted subjects to obedience. In other parts of his dominions,\nparticularly in Hungary, the same spirit of opposition to his plans\nhad been excited, and kept up by similar measures of irritation and\ndefiance, till the time of his decease drew near. He would then\nwillingly have retraced his steps, and did, indeed, take some meas-\nures to conciliate the offended Hungarians; but the termination of his\nlife was fast approaching, hastened no doubt by the opposition and\nill fortune which had attended almost the whole of his political career.\nHe had weakened his constitution in all probability by the restless\nlife he had led, and the hardships and fatigues to which he had ex-\nposed himself in the field but he suffered severely in his mind from\nthe course things had taken in the Netherlands, and though he exhib-\nted in his last moments the fortitude, resignation, and composure\nof a true christian, yet it is truly melancholy to think that his whole\nreign was passed in rendering himself and others wretched. He\nexpired on the 20th of February, 1,790, in the forty-ninth year of\nhis age and leaving no issue, was succeeded in his hereditary do-\nminions by his brother Leopold, who was also chosen emperor before\nthe end of the year in which his brother died.\n13. The reign of the emperor Leopold II. was very short, and\nfar from a happy one. His brother had left his dominions in a\nwretched state of discontent and confusion diminished, in some\nmost important instances, and pretty generally exposed to the attacks\nof formidable and designing enemies. Leopold had been able to do\nsome good amongst his Tuscan subjects before he ascended the\nroyal and imperial thrones, but his genius and talents were judged\no be unequal to the government of a mighty empire. He soon\ngave satisfaction however, to the aching minds of his new subjects,\nby restoring to many their ancient, privileges, and revoking the in-\njudicious and irritating innovations of his deceased brother. Nor did\nhe manage his foreign negotiations ill, which, had they failed, might\nhave involved him in inextricable difficulties. By flattering the Eng-\nlish, and appearing to enter into their views in regard to Turkey\nand the Netherlands, he deterred the king of Prussia from prosecut-\ning his designs upon Gallicia, which he wished to procure for Po-\nland, in exchange for Dantzic and Thorn. Afterwards, by fomenting\nvhat monarch s resentment against England, who appeared to have\nabandoned him, he managed to form a union with the very court\nwhich at the commencement of his reign had manifested the great-\nest symptoms of rivalry and opposition. This accommodation with\nthe king of Prussia greatly facilitated his accession to the imperial\ncrown, which was conferred upon him, October 9, 1,790.\n14. By very firm, but conciliatory behaviour towards the Hun-\ngarians, who seem to have imbibed at this time many of the demo-\ncratic principles of the French, he not only effectually ingratiated\nhimself with the leading persons of the kingdom, but regained the\naffections of the people at large, which had been sadly alienated\nthrough his brother s unwise interference with their most favourite\ncustoms and established rights.\n15. Leopold did not so easily settle his disputes with the Nether-\nlands. The mediation of England, Holland, and Prussia, had been\noffered, but he rather inclined to rely on his cwn strength, and his\nconnexions with France, which were every hour becoming more","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0320.jp2"},"319":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 315\nuncertain and precarious. He had recourse therefore to force, and\nsucceeded indeed in re-establishing the imperial authority, but total-\nly detached from any cordial returns of loyalty on the part of the\nBelgians, which became but too apparent, when his subsequent dis-\nputes with the revolutionary government of France exposed those\nparts of the Austrian dominions to fresh troubles and disturbances.\n16. The situation of the emperor Leopold, it must be granted,\nwas very embarrassing in the first years of the French revolution.\nThe constraint put upon the royal family of France, to which he\nstood so nearly allied, and the threats denounced so openly agains\nthe queen his sister, in particular, must have greatly affected his\nprivate feelings, while many of the German states, whose rights,\necclesiastical and territorial, guarantied by the peace of YVest-\nphalia, had been invaded in Alsace, Franche Compte, and Lorraine\nby the decree of the national assembly, for abolishing the feudal\nErivileges, publicly called upon him to interpose in their behalf, as\nead ot the empire as he stood bound to do indeed by his capitula-\ntion with the diet, on receiving the imperial crown. In regard to\nthe royal family of France, his first plans, in conjunction with the\nking ot Prussia, were clearly injudicious, and injurious to the cause\nhe took in hand. The French revolutionists were not in a state to\nbe intimidated by angry manifestoes or threats of foreign interfe\nrence. The emperor himself, indeed, did often appear cautious of\nembroiling his country in a war with France, but was at length prob\nably provoked into it, by the violence of the Jacobinical taction at\nParis, ratner than persuaded by the representations of the emigrant\nprinces, or royal family at Paris, as was so strongly alleged. Beyond\nthe alliance with Prussia, however, concluded on the 19th of Febru-\nary, 1,792, the emperor Leopold can scarcely be said to have had\nany share in the war with France for, on the 27th of that very\nmonth, he was seized with an illness, which in three days terminated\nhis life, at the early age of forty-four, leaving his dominions in a\nstate of more serious danger than when he began his reign.\n17. The emperor Leopold was succeeded in his hereditary states\nby his eldest son Francis, born in 1,768, who became emperor in\nthe July following his father s death, and still reigns. This mon-\narch had to begin those hostilities with France which his predeces-\nsor seems to have contemplated with considerable distrust, and\nhe became a party to the too hasty proceedings of his Prussian ally\nand the duke of Brunswick, who increased the irritation and pro-\nvoked the resistance of the French, by menaces extremely impo-\nlitic, considering the actual state of things. They endeavoured, in-\ndeed, to throw the blame on the emigrant princes, who, it was\nalleged, had misled them by false representations of the good dispo-\nsition of the people in the interior of France. They expected to\nfind a large majority ready to co-operate with them in the overthrow\nof the ruling faction\n18. The emperor soon found himself in a very awkward situa-\ntion. Instead of invading France with any effect, he had the mor-\ntification to see his own dominions invaded by the French, under\na general (Dumourier), who had boasted that he would subdue\nthe Austrian Netherlands before the end of the year an engage-\nment which he in a great measure fulfilled, through the disaffection\nof the Belgians, who were ready enough to throw off the Austrian\nyoke, heedless that they were in the way of having another imme-\ndiately imposed upon them still more galling and vexatious. In the","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0321.jp2"},"320":{"fulltext":"5ib MQ i .TO\nmonth of November, 1,792. aii subjection to the imperial authority\nwas openly renounced in the very capital of the Netherlands, and\nthe French allowed to enter the city in triumph. While these things\nwere going on in Flanders, Germany itself was invaded by the French\ngeneral, Custine, Mentz taken, and heavy contributions levied in the\ntowns of Worms and Frankfort.\n19. Early in the year 1,793, the Austrians under general Clair-\nfait and the prince of Saxe Coburg, obtained advantages over the\nFrench, at Aix-ia-Chapelle, which were followed by the capture\nof the towns of Valenciennes and Conde, in conjunction with the\nBritish army under the command of the duke of York. A separa-\ntion of the two armies afterwards took place, which was attended\nwith unpleasant circumstances, and seems to have happened very\ncontrary to the desire and wishes of the Austrian commanders.\nThe troops under the duke laid siege to Dunkirk, but were unsuc-\ncessful in their attempts against the place, being obliged to abandon\nme undertaking with the loss of the greatest part of their artillery\nand stores.\n20. In the year 1,794, the allied armies again acted in conjunction\nagainst the French under general Pichegru, the emperor himself\nhaving joined the camp, but the overwhelming power of the French\nbaffled all their attempts to defend the Netherlands, which fell en-\ntirely into the hands of the enemy.\n21. The share which the emperor Francis II. had in the final\ndismemberment of Poland, 1,795, will be shewn in the history of\nchat unhappy country The king of Prussia having gained great\nadvantages by this transaction, declined any longer assisting the allies\nagainst France, and in open violation of his engagements with Eng-\nland, made a peace with the French government,. April 5, 1,795, to\nthe great disgust of the confederates.\n22. The contests between the armies of Germany and France,\nin the years 1,796, 1,797, were carried on with the greatest vigour,\nskill, and bravery, on the Rhine, in Suabia, in the Tyrol, and in\nItaly. In 1,796, tne archduke Charles, brother of the emperor,\nacquired great glory by checking the progress of the two celebrat\ned French* generals, Jourdan and Moreau and, though compelled\nto retire before Buonaparte, in 1,797, and to subscribe to the peace\nof Campo-Formio, as will be related elsewhere, his credit with the\narmy remained undiminished, and his reputation as a general unim-\npaired. On the renewal of the war in 1,799, at the instigation of\nthe Neapolitan court, the Austrians were assisted bv the Russians,\nand at the close of the eighteenth century, the tide of affairs seemed\nto be turning greatly against the French, when a new revolution in\nthe fluctuating government of that disturbed people, suddenly chang-\ned the face of things, as will be shewn in our continuation of the\nhistory of France.\nSECTION XII.\nFRANCE, FROM THE OPENING OF THE ASSEMBLY OF THE\nSTATES-GENERAL, 1,789, TO THE DEATHS OF THE KING\nAND QUEEN, 1,793.\nI. The states-general met, May 5, 1,789. The king s speech has\nbeen much admired, as the address of an upright, humane, and","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0322.jp2"},"321":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 3!7\npatriotic prince, to a respectable assemblage of his subjects, by\nwhose political and legislative exertions he hoped to improve the\nstate of the nation. The nobles and clergy had expressed a willing-\nness to forego their pecuniary privileges, but there^ were other\ngrounds upon which they seemed likely to be at variance with the\nthird estate. The latter were for obliterating all traces of distinc-\ntion in their legislative capacity while the former were so impru\ndent as to take some steps, not only indicative of an invincible attach-\nment to such distinctions, but bearing an air of arrogance and defi-\nance in them, ill suited to the times. The very costume adopted on\nthe occasion was calculated to render the representatives of the\ncommonalty almost ridiculous in the eyes of their countrymen.\nThe nobles and clergy were distinguished by robes peculiarly rich\nand brilliant; but the whole of the third estate were directed to\nappear in the common and antiquated black dress of the members of\nthe law, though of various callings and professions. As soon, how-\never, as the commons had verified their powers and were prepared\nto act, without waiting for the concurrence of the other two orders,\nit was proposed by a M. Le Grand, and seconded by the Abbe Sieyes,\nto call their meeting the t% National Assembly as forming a national\nrepresentation one and indivisible. This was eagerly adopted by\na majority of the members, but objected to by the king at length,\nhowever, some of the clergy and nobles having joined the third estate,\nthe king himself condescended to approve and sanction the union, a\nmatter of great triumph to the popular party, and which, in fact,\nmade them the arbiters of the destiny of France.\n2. On the 11th of July, 1,789, the king thought it necessary to\ndismiss M. Necker many tumults and insurrections were the con-\nsequence of this unpopular proceeding; the Bastile state prison,\nonce crowded with the victims of arbitrary power, but at this mo-\nment, and under the mild reign of Lewis XV I., almost empty, was\nbesieged by the mob, taken, and razed to the ground. After many\ntumults of this kind, the king judged it expedient to comply with\nthe wishes of his people, and to recali the discarded minister; he\nwas also induced by circumstances, to yield to another ^demand of\nmore importance, namely, the dismissal of all his troops from the\nenvirons of Paris and Versailles. In the meanwhile, the marquis de\nla Fayette, who had been engaged in America, and there imbibed a\nspirit of liberty, was fixed upon to take the command of the new\nmilitia or city guard. Alarmed at the appearance of things at this\nperiod, many nobles, and even one of the king s brothers, left the\nkingdom. This had undoubtedly a bad effect it not only left the\nking more exposed to the violence of faction, but seemed to betoken\na disregard of the liberties of their country, and a settled purpose of\ninvoking foreign aid.\n3. The national assembly soon divided itself into two parties;\nthe aristocrats, or such as not only favoured royalty, but to a cer-\ntain extent, the privileged orders, nobles, and clergy and the\ndemocrats, or advocates of freedom the swon enemies of all op-\npressive and distinct privileges they were also distinguished into\nroyalists and patriots. Among the former we may reckon the mod-\nerates, whose speeches in the assembly are justly to be admired,\nfor their extreme good sense and rational politics. Of the nobles,\nit should be observed, that the most obnoxious were those who\nhad purchased their nobility, amounting to many thousands. Of\nthe ancient, and hereditary nobility there were, it was comput-\nDd2","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0323.jp2"},"322":{"fulltext":"318 MODERN HISTORY.\ned, not more than two hundred families in the whole kingdom\nwhen the revolution began, nor were their privileges and exemp-\ntions by any means so great as was pretended. It was soon seen\nwhich party was the most powerful,- on the 4th of August, 1,789\ndecrees were passed, as if with the full consent of the whole as-\nsembly, for the abolition of the privileges of the nobles and clergy,\nprovinces and towns while persons of every rank and description\nwere pronounced to be eligible to all civil, military, and ecclesi-\nastical appointments. The royal family were exposed to horrible\ninsults and indignities at Versailles, and at length almost forcibly\nconveyed to Paris in consequence of which removal, the assem-\nbly afso adjourned its sittings to the capital, a fatal step to take,\nas it could not but expose them to the tyranny of a faction, and\nthe fury of the Parisian mob. Among the measures adopted at\nthis period, the most important were those which placed all\nchurch property at the disposal of the nation, dissolved all monas-\ntic establishments, feudal privileges and rights, and suppressed the\nprovincial parliaments and assemblies, by artfully dividing the king-\ndom into 83 departments, the work of the Abbe Sieyes; by this act\nthe very name of province was obliterated from the French vocabu-\nlary, and with it all pecular rights, laws, and jurisdictions all pro-\nvincial governors, commandants, sub-delegates, presidents, and tri-\nbunals of election mayors, echevins, jurats, courts of aid, chambers\nof accounts, c. Every thing was at this time transacted in the way\nof violence and destruction every law voted by acclamation, wifi]\nlittle patience and less judgment thus, when it was proposed\nabolish all titles and hereditary distinctions, armorial bearings, live\nries, x. the democrats would scarcely suffer the question to be d\nbated, and it was carried by a large majority, though so many meu\nbers of the assembly must have been deeply affected by it.\n4. The national assembly was slow in preparing a constitutional\ncode, particularly in deciding upon the three following questions.\nWhether such assemblies should be permanent or periodical com-\nposed of one or two chambers and whether the king s veto should\nbe absolute or suspensive While these things were in agitation, the\nking had attempted to rescue himself from tne trammels imposed\nupon him, by a timely escape from Paris but he was stopped on his\njourney, and compelled to return. At length the assembly terminat-\ned its labours a constitutional act was prepared and presented to\nthe king, of which, after an interval of ten days, he iJeclared his ac-\nceptance. Had he been free, it is impossible that he could have\ngiven his sanction to a measure which subjected the monarch to the\nwill of a domineering assembly, and was ill-calculated to repress the\nefforts and designs of a licentious and restless faction. The assembly,\nhowever, having thus completed its task, was dissolved by the king\non the 30th day of September, 1,791, being succeeded by another\nconvention, denominated the legislative assembly, whose delibera-\ntion? were confined to the space only of one year none of the\nmembers of the former assembly being eligible to the latter.\n5. In the year 1,792, Austria and Prussia, in consequence of a\ndeclaration and agreement (according to all accounts imprudent)\ndetermined upon at Pilnitz, in the preceding year, began to inter-\nfere in behalf of the king and royal family, but so far from alarm-\ning the revolutionary party in France, their interposition seemed\nonly to have the effect of instigating it to acts of greater violence\nand more determined courage. War was without scruple declared","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0324.jp2"},"323":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. Sf§\nagainst the king of Hungary and Bohemia, in the month ol April,\nand every preparation made to resist all counter revolutionary\nprojects. Sweden and Russia had shewn a strong disposition also to\ninterfere; but the assassination of the Swedish monarch, Gustavus\nIII., in 1,792, and the distance of Russia from France, prevented\nDoth those countries engaging in actual hostilities. In the mean\ntime, Paris became a scene of dreadful confusion; every day some\nnew faction seemed to arise to baffle the attempts of those who\nhad yet wisdom or temperance enough to prevent things coming to an\nextremity. The legislature was at the mercy of the Parisian clubs,\nand of the mobs, too freely admitted into the galleries of the assem-\nbly. The king was insulted in the grossest manner for having ven-\ntured to interpose his suspensive negative to the passing of two\nsevere decrees; one against those who had emigrated, and the\nother against the clergy who declined taking the civic oath. M. la\nFayette, who had been appointed to take the command of the army,\nwrote from his camp to admonish the national representatives to res-\ncue the country and the king from the factious designs of the enrag-\ned jacobins but in vain it served only to exasperate still more the\nanti-royalists, and to bring fresh troubles on the royal family. The\ndesign of the factious seems to have been, either to intimidate the king\nto a degree of abject submission, or to provoke him to act against the\nconstitution in a manner that might render him liable to the ven-\ngeance of the people. The march of the Prussian army, and a\nthreatening manifesto issued by its commander, the duke of Bruns-\nwick, irritated the violent party into a frantic determination to abolish\nroyalty. The king was supposed, or represented, to be confederate\nwith the enemy, and deeply engaged in a plot with his emigrant\nbrothers and relatives, to counteract the revolution.\n6. A dreadful attack was made on the palace in the month of\nAugust, the particulars of which are too disgusting to dwell upon;\nbut it completed the triumph of the demagogues for in compelling\nthe king^ guards to act on their defence, they had it in their powei\nto charge the king himself with having made war upon his people.\nNothing was now heard but the cry of liberty and equality. The\nu chief of the executive power, as they chose to denominate his maj-\nesty, was formally suspended from his functions, and, under the pre-\ntence of guardianship, committed with his queen and family to the\ntemple.\n7. The assembly appeared from this moment to be as much in\nthe power of the faction as the king. The period has been too\njustly distinguished by the appropriate title of tt the reign of terror.\nThe execrable Robespierre was in reality at the head of affairs, and\nit would be impossible adequately to describe the atrocities of his\nmerciless career. It would exceed the limits of this work to enter\nfar into particular details. La Fayette abandoned the army, as\nunwilling to serve under such masters his conduct has been ar-\nraigned, as reflecting at once upon his loyalty, his patriotism, and\nhis courage it was thought that with the army so much at his\ndisposal as it seemed to be, had his principles been such as he pre-\ntended, he would have marched back to Paris, and saved his coun-\ntry and his king from the ruin with which they were threatened.\nIn the meanwhile the combined troops of Austria and Prussia were\napproaching the frontiers differences subsisted in the army nor\nwas general Dumourier, who had succeeded to the command on\nthe retirement of La Fayette, generally confided in, either by the","height":"3588","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0325.jp2"},"324":{"fulltext":"3£0 MODERN HISTORY.\narmy or the faction. To lessen the number of aristocrats, many\nsuspected of belonging to that party were hurried to prison, where,\nwithout scruple, and with such barbarity as is not to be paralleled\nin the records of history, they were almost all assassinated, to the\namount, as it has been estimated, of not less than five thousand.\nThis happening on the second of September, all who were con-\ncerned in it, as principals or abettors, were denominated Septem-\nbrizers.\n8. These were but preludes to a catastrophe, if possible, still\nmore shocking a murder perpetrated with a studied deliberation,\nand with all the mockery of legal forms and ceremonies. HoweA r er\nhastened by the hostile approach of the confederate powers, and\nthe injudicious threats they threw out in case any violence should\nbe offered to the king s person, nothing could possibly excuse the\nperversion of justice, and gross inhumanity which marked the trials\nof the king and queen nothing exceed the melancholy circumstan-\nces of their imprisonment and execution! On the 11th of Decern\nber, 1,792, the king appeared before the convention, to hear the\ncharges preferred against him. w You are accused, said the\npresident, by the French nation, of having committed a multitude\nof crimes, for the purpose of re-establishing your tyranny by the\ndestruction of liberty. He then entered into a few particulars.\nThe king, with great dignity, replied, No existing laws prohibit-\ned me from doing as 1 did I had no wish to injure my subjects, no\nintention of shedding their blood. Further accusations were\npressed upon him, from which he defended himself with the same\nfirmness and simplicity of language, the same coolness and intre-\npidity of mind. He declared boldly, that his conscience fufiy ac-\nquitted him of the things laid to his charge, and appealed to the\nwhole course of his behaviour and carriage towards them as king,\nto exonerate himself from the horrid imputation of having been\neager and ready to shed the blood of his people. This charge, in-\ndeed, rested solely on the events of the lOlh of August, when the\nrabble broke into the palace of the Tuilleries, and not only men-\naced the lives of the king and his family, but are allowed to have\nbegun the sanguinary part of the conflict, by the murder of five of\nhis Swiss guards. It was not till after this event that the rest of\nthese faithful adherents fired upon the aggressors, and drew upon\nthemselves the vengeance that terminated so fatally, for they were\nall destroyed.\n9. It having been resolved that the judgment and decision of the\ncase should rest with the national representatives, the convention\nmet on the 15th of January, 1,793, to discuss the question of the\nking s guilt, upon the charges so loosely and so maliciously brought\nagainst him, when it appeared that only thirty-seven were disposed\nto think favourably of his conduct. Six hundred and eighty-three\nmembers, with little or no hesitation, some, indeed, with the most,\ncruel eagerness and exultation, pronounced him guilty. An attempt\nwas made to procure a reference of this matter to the people but\nit was over-ruled by a majority of one hundred and thirty-nine.\n10. Having determined the question of his guilt, that of his pun-\nishment became the next subject of discussion. It was proposed\nto decide between detention, banishment, and death. After a de-\nbate, in which the amiable monarch seemed to be regarded by many\nas despotism personified, no less than three hundred and sixty-one,\nor, according to some accounts, three hundred and sixty -six members,","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0326.jp2"},"325":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 321\nvoted peremptorily for death and on a further question, whether\nthe execution of the sentence should be suspended or take place\nimmediately, the votes for the latter amounted to three hundred and\neighty against three hundred and ten. The king was to be informed\nof the result of their proceedings, and to suffer death in twenty-four\nhours afterwards. The advocates for the king were allowed to\naddress the assembly, and to move an appeal to the people, but with-\nout effect. On the motion of Robespierre, the decree was pro-\nnounced irrevocable, and the king s defenders debarred from any\nfurther hearing.\n11. On the 21st of January his majesty, having previously taken\nleave of his family, and performed the services o r devotion, was\nconveyed to the place of execution; nothing couia exceed the\npious resignation with which he submitted to the cruel and unjust\nsentence which doomed him to death, and during his passage to the\nsquare of the revolution, where the guillotine was erected, he be-\ntrayed no symptoms of fear or anger. On the scaffold, he manifest-\ned a strong desire to address the crowd but the drums were made\nto sound louder, and he was rudely bidden to be silent in a moment\nafter, his head was severed from his body, and shewn to the people\nas the head of a tyrant and a traitor\n12. History, both public and private, has borne ample testimony\nto the falsehood of the charges brought against him every nation\nin Europe concurred in condemning the conduct of the French regi-\ncides and though, in exciting the resentment of fresh enemies,\nEngland and Spain particularly, it threatened the ruin of the new\nrepublic it appeared by no means to have satisfied the blood-thirsty\nvengeance of the ruling faction, The democratic, or republican\nparty, had long been split into two divisions, and their opposition to\neach other seemed at this time to be at the height. Brissot, who\nheaded the Girondists, (so called from the department of Gironde,\nwhich some of that side represented,) was still alive Robespierre,\nDanton, and Marat, directed the movements of the opposite faction;\nfor some time previously called the Mountain, from the elevated seats\nthey occupied in the hall of the convention.\n13. It seemed now to be a question which of these turbulent par-\nties should obtain the ascendancy and a contest of this nature was\nnot likely to be decided without a much larger effusion of blood.\nThe reign of terror 1 still continued, and many more victims were\npreparing for the stroke of that fatal instrument, which seemed to\nhave been timely invented for the quick and incessant course of\ndecapitation and destruction now adopted. Had any thing been capa-\nble of producing domestic union, it might have been expected, from\nthe formidable confederacy of foreign powers, armed against the na-\ntion for, in addition to Austria and Prussia, England, Spain, and\nPortugal, were at open war with France while a royalist party had\narisen within its own confines, of rather a formidable description,\nconsidering the strength of the enemies without, and the distracted\nstate of the government.\n14. Though such was the situation of the country, with regard\nto foreign powers, and royalists at home, the struggle between the\nGirondists and Robespierrean faction was carried on at Paris with\nthe utmost violence and precipitation but the Mountain prevailed.\nThe leaders of the Brissotines were arrested and confined in the\nmonth of May 5 and on the 31st of October following, all executed*\nBrissot himseli saw sixteen of his party guillotined before it came to","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0327.jp2"},"326":{"fulltext":"S22 MODERN HISTORY.\nhis turn, and four were beheaded afterwards. Many of them were\npersons of considerable talents, and not destitute of private virtues,\nhad they lived in less turbulent and trying times.\n15. Horrible as this execution must have been, one still more\nappalling had engaged the attention of the people, on the same spot,\nonly fifteen days before. Loaded with insults, and deprived of every\npossible comfort or consolation, the widow of Lewis Capet, as\nthey chose to call their queen, (a princess of Austria, and daughter\nof the high-minded Maria Theresa,) had not been suffered to enjoy\none moment of repose from the day of the king s execution prep-\narations were soon after made for her own trial, which, if possible,\nwas conducted in a manner still more revolting to every feeling\nmind, than that which had been adopted in the case of her unhappy\nconsort. Her guilt and her punishment were as soon decided upon\nbut even after this sad act of vengeance and injustice, shocking circum-\nstances of ignominy, degradation, and persecution took place, scarce-\nly to be credited as the acts of any.portion of a people at all advanced\nin civilization she was cast into a dungeon, and delivered into the\ncustody of a gaoler seemingly selected on purpose to insult over\nher misfortunes, and aggravate her sufferings. On the dreadful day\nof her execution, she was conveyed to the scaffold in a common cart,\nwith her hands tied behind her, amid the brutal shouts of an infuriat-\ned populace. Thus died, in the 38th year of her age, the queen\nof one of the greatest kingdoms of the earth a princess, who,\nthough not entirely free from faults, had, till this fatal revolution,\nlived in all the splendour and luxury of a court, the marked object,\nnot only of admiration and adulation, but of homage so profound, and,\nin some instances so servile and ensnaring, as to palliate and account\nfor all the errors of her short, but eventlul life.\nSECTION XIII.\nGREAT BRITAIN, FROM THE CONCLUSION OF THE AMERI-\nCAN WAR, 1,783, TO THE PEACE OF AMIENS, 1,802.\n1. From the peace of Versailles, in 1,783, to the commencement\nof the year 1,793, Great Britain kept free from war, though not\nwithout some disputes with foreign powers, and occasional calls\nupon her to interpose, as an ally or mediatrix, in the affairs of other\nstates, Holland particularly. Soon after the termination of the\nAmerican war, extraordinary changes in the administration took\nplace. The ministry that negotiated the peace, at the head of\nwhich was the earl of Shelburne, was displaced, and succeeded by\nwhat was called the coalition ministry, from the extraordinary cir-\ncumstance of Mr. Fox and lord North becoming joint secretaries of\nstate, after an opposition peculiarly animated, and a positive declara-\ntion on the part of the former, that they differed so in principle as to\nrender such an union for ever impracticable.\n2. The unpopularity of such an apparent dereliction of principle,\nas might reasonably be expected, rendered their continuance in\npower extremely precarious, and it was not long before their re-\nmoval was effected, in consequence of a bill brought into parlia-\nment by Mr. Fox, to regulate the affairs of India. The measure\nwas judged to be fraught with danger to the constitution, by throw-\ning too much power into the hands of a board of commissioners, to","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0328.jp2"},"327":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY 323\nbe chosen by parliament, and though it passed the commons, it was\nthrown out by the lords, and the ministry dismissed.\n3. Mr. Pitt, a younger son of the great lord Chatham, now came\ninto power, not in any subordinate situation, but as premier, though\nat the early age of twenty-four, and under circumstances peculiarly\nembarrassing, for he had long to contend against a majority of the\nhouse of commons, who threatened to stop the supplies, and effect\nhis removal, as not enjoying the confidence of the people. This\n6eing judged too great an interference with the prerogative, and\n*nany addresses being presented to the king to retain him in his\nservice, the parliament was at length dissolved, and the issue turned\njut to be extremely favourable to the choice of his majesty.\n4. The affairs of India manifestly requiring the interposition of\ngovernment, Mr. Pitt, as soon as possible, procured a bill to that\neffect to be passed, according to which a board of control was to be\nappointed, not by parliament, but by the crown. Though this in-\ncreased in some degree the influence of the latter, it was judged to\nbe far less hazardous than the proposal of Mr. Fox, which threatened\nto throw such a power into the hands of the minister and his friends,\nas might enable them to overawe the sovereign, and render their\nremoval almost impracticable. Mr. Pitt s bill, also, was found to in-\nterfere far less with the chartered rights of the company. It passed\nthe lords, August 9, 1,784.\n5. Another measure of considerable importance occupied the at-\ntention of the minister, during the year 1,786, which was expected\nto contribute greatly to the support of public credit. This was the\nestablishment of a new sinking fund, by appropriating the annual\nsum of one million, to be invariably applied to the liquidation of the\npublic debt. At a subsequent period, a sinking fund of still greater\nimportance was established, by which every future loan was to\ncarry with it its own sinking fund. This was proposed to the house\nin 1792, and readily adopted: it consisted in raising one per cent..\nbesides the dividends upon every new stock created, to be applied\nby the commissioners for the reduction of the national debt, in the\nsame manner, and under the same regulations as the original mil-\nlion*\n6. From the commencement of the year 1,786, to the year 1,795,\nthe attention of the British parliament was in a very extraordinary\nmanner occupied with the charges brought against Mr. Hastings,\ngovernor-general of Bengal, in February, 1,786. Mr. Burke, whose\nmind had been long affected by the abuses practised in India, by\nthe servants of the company, had appeared for some time to have\nfixed his eye upon Mr. Hastings, as a tit object of prosecution and\nhe now moved for papers to substantiate the charges upon which\nhe meant to impeach him. These charges being discussed in par-\nliament, during the session of 1,787, and referred to a committee,\nwere confirmed by the house of commons, on the 9th of May, and\nthe articles of impeachment exhibited to the house of lords, on the\n14th in consequence of which Mr. Hastings was taken into cus-\ntody, but, on the motion of the lord chancellor, admitted to bail.\nThe trial did not commence till February 15, 1,788, was continued\nnot only through the whole of that parliament, though very si wly,\nbut after much debate, determined to be pending on the commence-\nBy this provision every loan would have its own fund, which would\noperate at compound interest, and discharge the debt in forty seven years\nat the longest, from the time it was first incurred.","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0329.jp2"},"328":{"fulltext":"S84 MODERN HISTORY.\nment of the new parliament, 1,790, and not brought to a conclusion\ntill the month of April, 1,795.\n7. The question whether the impeachment abated on the dis-\nsolution of parliament, appearing to involve a constitutional point\nof the highest importance, was discussed with singular attention,\nand a large display of legal and parliamentary knowledge. Th#\nlaw members of both houses were never perhaps so divided in then\nopinions; but the numerous precedents cited by Mr. Pitt seemed\nclearly to decide the question as follows that though legislative\nprocesses are abated by prorogation or dissolution, it is not so with\nregard to judicial proceedings. It appeared to be a nice and curious\nquestion, and, as affecting the responsibility of ministers, its decision\nmav be regarded as singularly important.\n8. Though in the course of the proceedings and prosecution of\nthe various charges against Mr. Hastings, the eloquence of the\nmanagers exceeded all that could have been expected, yet nevei\nperhaps were so great talents employed with less success a trial of\nsuch seeming importance, so strangely protracted or a case of\nimpeachment brought to an issue so little answerable to the expec-\ntations thai had been excited. It would be impossible to deny that\nflagrant and enormous abuses had been committed in India during\nthe period in question, yet, the very length of the trial made it ap-\npear to most persons in the light oi a persecution, and that of an in-\ndividual to whom the company and the nation stood highly indebted\nfor many eminent services. As it ended in the acquittal of Mr. Has-\ntings, that gentleman may be presumed innocent. One good, how-\never, seems to have arisen from the investigation all succeeding\ngovernors-general have certainly been more circumspect and correct\nin their proceedings.\n9. In the course of the year 1,787, great disturbances having\ntaken place in the united provinces, fomented by the French, and\nthreatening the dissolution of the stadtholderate, an alliance was\nformed between the courts of St. James s and Berlin, to protect the\nrights of the prince of Orange, and resist the interference of the\nFrench. Preparations for war took place, but the Prussian army\ndecided matters without any active co-operation on the part of\nGreat Britain. The alarming state of things in France, appeared\nto deter the court of Versailles from rendering that assistance, to\nthe malecontents of Holland, which the latter had been taught to\nexpect.\n10. Puring the session of 1,788, the attention of the house oi\ncommons was first called to the horrible circumstances attending\nthe African slave-trade. It is quite surprising that such a traffic\nshould have been so long carried on, without exciting the resent\nment of every sensible mind, and disgusting the feelings of a civil-\nized people unfortunately, when first noticed, it was found to be\nso deeply interwoven with the interests of our settlements in the\nWest Indies, and to depend so much on foreign states, as well as\nour own, as to render it almost necessary to proceed slowly and\ncautiously, though it was impossible not to be horror-struck with\nthe information laid before the house, particularly in regard to\nwhat was called the middle-passage, or transportation of the unhap-\npy Africans, from their native shores to the several islands. As it\nwould be inconsistent with the nature of such a work as the present,\nto enter into the detail of the proceedings upon this very interesting\nsubject, which took up a long time, and can scarcely now be said to","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0330.jp2"},"329":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. SStb\nbe terminated, it may be sufficient to note, that, after continual re-\nnewals of the subject in the two houses of parliament, yet, owing to\nmany untoward circumstances, it was not finally abolished till the\nyear 1,806, nor has it even yet been in the power of any ministry,\nor any of our diplomatists, effectually to prevent the trade, as car-\nried on by foreign states, though every person of humane feelings\nmust devoutly wish and desire that it should be so. It must, how-\never, always redound to the credit of our own country, that the\nvoice of compassion and mercy was first heard amongst us, and that\nthe first arm stretched out to save and to rescue a large proportion\nof our fellow -creatures from the most abject slavery and cruel tor\ntures that ever were inflicted, was the arm of a Briton\n11. The parliament being prorogued on the 11th of July, 1,788,\nto the 20th of November, was compelled to meet on the day ap-\npointed, by circumstances of a most distressing kind. His majesty,\nprobably through excess of business, to which he was known to\ndevote more time and labour than could well be consistent with\nhis health, was seized with an illness which totally incapacitated\nhim from discharging the functions of his high and exalted station.\nIt must appear strange, that by the laws and constitution of the\nrealm, so little provision had been made for a catastrophe by no\nmeans out of the line of probability, that it became a question into\nwhat hands the suspended executive had devolved, and this led, as\nmight be expected, to very warm and important debates in parlia\nment. Though the prince of Wales, being of full age, did not person\nally claim the regency as matter of right, his party did. The min-\nister, Mr. Pitt, contended that it belonged to parliament to supply\nthe deficiency and this question being stated, it was judged expe\ndient to debate it, and settle it by vote. The decision upon this\noccasion was entirely in favour of the power of parliament to\nappoint the regent, none doubting, however, that the heir apparent\nwas the fit object of such appointment. Other questions were\nagitated at the same time, of equal importance particularly how\nfar restrictions could be imposed by parliament, in regard to the ex-\nercise of prerogatives, the whole of which were reasonably enough\nsupposed to be essential to the government of the country. This\nquestion also was decided in favour of the minister, who had proposed\nrestrictions, with an understanding, however, that they could only\napply to a temporary suspension of the kingly power. In this case\nalso, the care of the king s person was assigned not to the regent, but\nto the queen. One great difficulty remained after all the discussions\nupon the regency. It was douoted how the lord chancellor could\nbe empowered to put the great seal to a commission for opening the\nsessions of parliament, so as to restore the efficacy of legislation\nit was decided that he might be directed to do it in the name of the\nking, by authority of the two houses.\n12. Fortunately for the public, this first illness of his majesty\nwas of so short duration, as to render unnecessary all the changes\nthat had been contemplated. Early in the year 1,789, the lord\nchancellor was able to announce to the houses of parliament, the\nperfect recovery of the king. Nothing could exceed the transports\nof joy with which this intelligence was received throughout the\nwhole kingdom. A national thanksgiving was appointed, and his\nmajesty went himself in great state to St. Paul s, to offer up hii\ngrateful devotions on the event. The illuminations on the occasion\nwere so general, that it is probable, from the accounts given of\nEe","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0331.jp2"},"330":{"fulltext":"S26 MODERN HISTORY,\nthem, that scarcely a cottage in the most remoteparts of the island\nwas without its show of loyalty and aneciion. Trie appearance of\nthe metropolis, in particular, was most extraordinary, and notwith-\nstanding the immense concourse of people that continued almost the\nwhole night in the streets, and the crowded throng of carriages and\nhorses, so strong a disposition was shown by all ranks and descriptions\nof persons to conduct things peaceably, that fewer accidents occurred\nthan were ever known before in similar cases.\n13. It should be noted, as a matter of general history, that had\nnot his majesty recovered so opportunely, difficulties of an extraor-\ndinary nature might have ensued, from the different proceedings of\nthe two legislatures of Great Britain and Ireland. While in the\nformer it was decided that the prince could not assume the regency,\nas matter of right, and that the parliament had a power to impose\nrestrictions, in Ireland, his right appeared to be acknowledged by\nthe two houses agreeing to address him, to take upon him immediately\nthe government of that kingdom, during the king s incapacity, and\nwith the usual powers of royalty.\n14. In the year 1,789, the proceedings in France began to occup-\nthe attention of Europe, and of England in particular. A struggle for\nfreedom seemed to be so congenial to the spirit of the people of the\nlatter country, that it is not to be wondered that the commencement\nof so extraordinary a revolution should excite the strongest sensa-\ntions. Unfortunately the abuses in the French government were so\nmany, and some of them so entirely contrary to every principle of\nreason and equity, that it soon became apparent that nothing less\nthan a radical change, and revolution of every existing institution\nand establishment, would satisfy the disturbed minds of that volatile\npeople minds unhappily prepared not merely to resist oppression,\nout to throw off every restraint of religion and morality. Such an\nexample, therefore, required to be watched and guarded against, in\na country whose free constitution supplied its own means of refor\nmation in every case of necessity, and where tumultuary proceedings\ncould only lead to ends the most fatal and deplorable. Mr. Pit*\nseemed aware of this, and though his measures of precaution were\nsupposed occasionally to press too hardly on the liberty of the sub-\nject, it must be admitted that a very improper intercourse was at\ntimes carried on between the several popular associations in England\nand Ireland, and the national assembly of France. The object of\nthe latter, in its replies to the addresses presented to it, being, accord-\ning to all reasonable interpretation of the terms used, to invite and\nencourage the discontented of all countries to follow their exampie,\nwhich was every day becoming more violent and anarchical,\nThis was not all j emissaries were employed to propagate their\nprinciples in other countries, many of whom came to England, and\nmet with an encouragement not to be overlooked by a government\nproperly sensible of the dangers to be incurred by any adoption of\nsuch sentiments and principles, in a country so very differently situ-\nated from that of France. England had long ago done for herself\nwhat France was now attempting and though no such changes and\nrevolutions can be expected to take place without some violence,\nyet England had passed through this ordeal, and accomplished her\npoint a whole century before France began to assert her liberties.\nIt was little less than an insult to every true Englishman, therefore,\nto attempt to stir hirst to such violent proceedings as had already\nbeeffl »uRte«s*3 7 tanctioned by the French revolutionists but","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0332.jp2"},"331":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY.\nthat such attempts were making, could not but be too obvious. Oft\nthe 19th of November, 1,792, the national assembly passed a decree,\nthat they would grant fraternity and assistance to all who might wish\nto recover their liberty. This was two months after they had pro-\nclaimed the eternal abolition of royalty, and imprisoned the king; after\nthey had declared hereditary nobility to be incompatible with a tree\nstate and thus, by implication, declared that England and most ot\nthe other states of Europe were not free. It was afterwards provedj\nby their own acknowledgment, that before any declaration of war,\nmore than a million sterling had been sent to England from the\nnational treasury of France, for purposes strictly revolutionary,\nNo country was free from these political disturbers even general\nWashington, as president of the United States of America, wag\nobliged to publish letters patent, to withdraw his countenance from\nthe accredited French ministers in that country, who had grossly\ninsulted him as head of the executive government.\n15. In the year 1,790, an unpleasant dispute arose between the\ncourts of St. James s and Madrid, which had nearly involved the\ntwo countries in a war. It related to a settlement on the north-\nwestern coast of America, which had been attempted by some sub-\njects of Great Britain, at Nootka Sound, for the carrying on a fur\ntrade with China. The Spaniards, conceiving this to be an invasion\nof their rights, under a claim to these distant regions the most ex-\ntravagant and absurd, with great precipitation attacked the English\nsettled there, took the fort which had been erected with the consent\nof the Indians, and seized upon the vessels. It was not possible to\npass over so great an outrage but by the vigorous and timely prep-\narations made to procure reparation, and the little hope of assist-\nance to be derived from France, in case things should come to ex-\ntremities, the Spanish court was brought to terms before the expira-\ntion of the year; and not only every point in dispute ceded to the\nEnglish, but many advantages granted with regard to the navigation\nof the Pacific ocean.\n16. In the course of the same year, the British court interfered\nsuccessfully to restore peace between Austria and Turkey, and\nwas further instrumental, though not without some hindrances, in\nreducing the revolted Netherlands to the dominion and authority\nof the former power. Her attempts to mediate between Russia\nand the Porte, were by no means so successful, and had nearly, in-\ndeed, involved the nation in war, for an object of very little im-\nportance in the eyes of the public at large, though the ministei\nseemed to think otherwise. In consequence, however, of the op-\nposition he met with, he was induced to forego the plan he had in\nview, of preventing Russia getting possession of the town of Ocza-\nkow, and a peace was concluded with that power at Yassi, January,\n1,792.\n17. Towards the close of the same year, after the king of France\nand his f»^dly were in a state of confinement, many attempts were\nmade by the national assembly to ascertain the views of England\nwith regard to the confederacy formed against her, and the question\nof poace or war seemed nearly brought to an issue, before the horrible\nexecution of the king, in the month of January, 1 ,793. That event\nbeing followed by the dismissal of the French minister at London,\nap^oared so totally to dissolve all friendly communications between\nthe two countries, as to induce the French government, by a decree\ncl die assembly February 3, 1,793, to declare war against the king.","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0333.jp2"},"332":{"fulltext":"328 MODERN HISTORY.\ncf Great Britain and the stadtholder of Holland in which decree,\nmere was evidently an attempt in the very wording of it to separate\nthe people of the two countries from their respective sovereigns.\n18. By this time, indeed, the encroaching disposition of the\nFrench revolutionists was manifested in their annexation of Savoy\nto France for ever, as soon as they had gained any advantages over\nit; and in their conduct in the Netherlands, by declaring the navi-\ngation of the Scheld free, contrary to all subsisting treaties with\nthe Dutch. The same spirit was apparent in their refusal to ex-\nempt Alsace and Lorraine from the operation of the decrees for the\nabolition of feudal rights, and in their forcible seizure of Avignon\nand the comtat Venaissin, which had belonged to the Roman see\nfor many centuries. It is true, the indiscreet manifestoes of the\ncombined armies were sufficient to stimulate a people, already in\na high degree of irritation, to acts of severe reprisal, in all cases of\nsuccess but it was very manifest that they had already violated\ntheir own principle of not acting on a system of aggrandizement,\nof which they made such boast at the beginning of the revolution.\nTheir glaring abandonment of this principle, and the injury done to\nthe Dutch by opening the Scheld, were the ostensible grounds of\nthe v/ar on the part of England. The declaration of France, in\nsome degree, saved the minister from the responsibility of having\nactually commenced hostilities, however, in the opinion of opposi-\ntion, he might be said to have provoked them but it should still be\nobserved, that there was a treaty subsisting between the two countries,\naffirming that the recal or dismission of public ministers should be\nconsidered tantamount to a declaration of war. If so, and the treaty\nwas not invalidated by the change of things at Paris, as many asserted,\nthe first declaration of war proceeded from the English government-\nwho, on the suspension of the kingly authority, had recalled lord\nGower from Paris, (many other courts, however, having done the\nsame,) and on the death of the king, abruptly dismissed the French\nminister, M. Chauvelin, from England.\n19. The exact objects of the hostile interference of England\nwere never formally explained in parliament, though in the king s\ndeclaration they were regarded as too notorious every thing con-\nduced to render it apparent, that they had in view as much to op-\npose the propagation of anarchical principles, as the violence of\nterritorial aggressions; that previously to the declaration of war\non either part, the English government had shown a disposition not\nto interfere with the internal affairs of France, seems manifest from\nmany circumstances.\n20. It is not necessary to enter into the details of the war that\ntook place after England joined the confederacy. The extraor-\ndinary progress and success of the French appertains to the history\nof that country, and may therefore be found elsewhere. Though\nthe British troops fought with their accustomed bravery, and ob-\ntained in their first campaign some signal advantages, yet, owing\nin some measure to the want of harmony and cordiality between\nthe confederates, but still more to the overwhelming force of\nFrance, now risen en masse, they ultimately met with great reverses,\nand were compelled to abandon the country they had undertaken to\ndefend; but though unsuccessful by land, on the ocean England\nmaintained her wonted superiority. Many of the French West In-\ndia islands fell into her power in the summer of 1,794, and a most\ndecisive victory was gained by lord Howe, over the Brest fleet, op","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0334.jp2"},"333":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 329\nthe 1st of June. The island of Corsica also was subdued, and by\nthe anti-gallican party, with the celebrated Paschal Paoli at their\nhead, erected into a monarchy, the kingly power and prerogatives\nbeing freely conferred on his majesty George III. In the month of\nOctober, however, 1,796, the French party recovered the ascenden-\ncy, and the island being evacuated by the English, was re-annexed\nto France.\n21. At the conclusion of the year 1,794, though France had on\nthe continent made surprising acquisitions, the spirits of the English\nwere far from being shaken, and the utmost efforts were cheerfully\nmade for continuing the contest on the ocean; and in all the colonies\nof the enemy, the advantages were clearly on the side of the British,\nduring the years 1,795, 1,796, and 1,797, when negotiations for\npeace took place, but without being brought to any favourable issue.\nAt the close of 1,797, his majesty, attended by the two houses of\nparliament, and the great officers of state, went to St. Paul s, to offer\nup a public and national thanksgiving for the naval victories obtained\nin all parts of the world; upon which occasion, many flags and\ncolours taken from the French, Spaniards, and Dutch, were borne in\nsolemn pomp to the cathedral, and deposited on the altar. Nothing\ncould exceed the enthusiasm with which the British nation at this\nperiod appeared disposed to resist the threats of the enemy. The\nnational militia having offered to transfer their services to Ireland,\nto suppress a rebellion which had broken out there, volunteer corps\nwere formed in all parts of the kingdom to supply their place, and\nthe people were readily induced to submit to a measure of finance,\nthen first adopted, namely, of raising, by a triple assessment, (after\nwards converted into an income and property tax,) a large propor\ntion of the supplies wanted for carrying on the war within the ymr\nsc much, in short, of the loan, as should exceed the sum discharged\nby the operation of the sinking fund, so that no addition should be\nmade to the permanent debt.\n22. In the year 1,798, the affairs of Ireland occasioned great dif-\nficulties. A regularly organized rebellion, the leaders of which\nwere in constant communication with the enemy, threatened to-\ntally to dissolve the connexion subsisting between that country\nand Great Britain, and to invite the aid and co-operation of France,\nat the manifest hazard of rendering Ireland a dependency of the\nlatter power, as had already been the case with Savoy, Belgium,\nLombardy, and Venice. Ireland had but lately obtained concessions\nfrom England of no inconsiderable importance, a free trade, and the\nrecognition of her political independence but the catholics were dis-\nsatisfied with the national representation, to the defects in which\nthey attributed the continuance of the penal statutes still directed\nagainst them. The French revolution led to the formation of the\nsociety of United Irishmen, in 1,791, which had many reforms and\nchanges in view, though short perhaps of an entire revolution. In\n1,795, from representations made to it of the oppressed state of Ire-\nland, the French government regularly proffered its assistance to\nsubvert the monarchy, and separate Ireland from Britain. Fortunate-\nly the plans of the traitors were timely discovered, and though U\nwas not possible to prevent a recourse to arms, which afflicted many\nparts of the kingdom between April and October, yet the principal\nringleaders were for the most part seized, executed, or compelled to\nfly, and under the able government of lord Cornwallis, tranquillity\nEe2 42","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0335.jp2"},"334":{"fulltext":"330 MODERN HISTORY.\ntvas happily restored, with less difficulty and damage than had been\nexpected.\n23. The situation of affairs in Ireland during 1,798, led in the fol-\nlowing year to the project of an union between the two countries,\nwhich Mr. Pitt submitted to the British parliament in the form of a\nmessage from the king, January 22, 1,799. The Irish legislature\nhaving been declared independent in 1,782, it was obvious that no\nsuch measure could be carried into execution without the free con-\nsent and acquiescence of the Irish parliament. Many circumstan-\nces seemed to conduce to render the proposed union desirable and\nbeneficial to both nations, and at this particular moment, to recon-\ncile most people to it. The catholics of Ireland had become dis-\nsatisfied with the parliament of that country, while the protestants,\nwho were greatly outnumbered by the catholics, though they pos-\nsessed four fifths of the property of the kingdom, had good reason\nto suppose their interests and ascendency would be best secured\nin one united and imperial parliament, than in a distinct legisla-\nture, in a country where the catholics had already obtained their\nelective franchise, and composed the bulk of the population. They\nmight also reasonably apprehend the consequences of the overtures\nthat had been made to France, and the alarming progress of revolu-\ntionary principles. In the case of the regency, the dangers incident\nto two distinct legislatures, had been rendered sufficiently apparent.\nOn all these accounts, though the measure was at first very coldly\nentertained, and even rejected by the Irish house of commons the\nminister was greatly encouraged to proceed, by the strong support\nhe received in both countries, from persons of all ranks and parties.\nA series of resolutions was proposed to the house, to be laid before\nhis majesty, recommendatory of the proposed union, which, after\nsome opposition, was sent to a committee by a majority of 140 to\n1 5. In the lords, the address passed without a division a protest,\nhowever, being entered on the books, signed by three lords, Hol-\nland, Thanet, and King.\n24. The last year of the eighteenth century was distinguished\nby the most important events in India, where the English, under the\ngovernment of the earl of Mornington, totally defeated the most\ninsidious, and powerful enemy, the forces in that remote country\never had to contend with Tippoo Saib, the sultan of Mysore, son\nof the celebrated Hyder Ally Khan, who had usurped those domin-\nions in 1,761. In the years 1,784, and 1,792, treaties of peace had\nbeen concluded between the sultan and the English, which, however,\nhad had very little effect on the former, who had shown himself\nconstantly attached to the French interests and having been com-\npelled by the last treaty to cede one half of his dominions to the\nconquerors, and to deliver two of his sons as hostages into the hands\nf lord Cornwallis, the governor-general, appears to have harboured\nshe most inveterate hatred against the English from that moment,\nand to have meditated, by the aid of the French, and certain of the\nnative powers, nothing less than their total extirpation. It would be\nimpossible, perhaps, to find in history stronger instances of duplicity\nand treachery, than were practised by this celebrated potentate\nagainst the British interests, during the years 1,797 and 1,798, in\nthe spring of the latter of which, lord Mornington arrived in India.\nWith the French directory, with the French colonial government in\nMauritius, with the king of Candahar, with the courts of Poonah\nnd Hyderabad, with Buonaparte in Egypt, and even with the Oito-","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0336.jp2"},"335":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. $31\nman Porte, at the same time, the wily sultan managed to carry on\nsecret negotiations, amidst the strongest professions of amity and\nattachment towards the English government. It has been conjectur-\ned, that had he obtained effectual aid from the French, in extirpating\nthe English, he would as willingly have turned against his European\nabettors the purport of all his negotiations with the native powers,\nbeing to stir them up to a general combination against the injideh\nand enemies of the prophet, without any distinction of the two\nnations.\n25. By the extreme vigilance and cautious proceedings of the\nnew governor-general, the intrigues of the sultan, notwithstanding\nhis reiterated assurances of fidelity, were so amply discovered and\nexposed, as to vindicate, in the fullest manner, the declaration of\nwar which took place in February, 1,799, and which was speedily\nfollowed up by the most vigorous proceedings on the part of the\narmy, terminating in the capture of Seringapatam, the capital of\nthe Mysorean dominions, May 4, and the death of the sultan, whose\nbody was found, after the action, covered with heaps of dead, .his\nimmense territories were divided amongst the allied powers^ the\nremains of his family provided for in the Carnatic, and a boy ot five\nyears old, the surviving representative of the Hindoo dynasty, restor-\ned to the throne of his ancestors.\n26. In the first year of the new century, the projected union and\nincorporation of the two legislatures and kingdoms of Great Britain\nand Ireland, was brought to a conclusion. Doubts were expressed\nin the Irish house of commons, and supported by great strength of\nargument, whether, as a delegated body, and without a fresh ap-\npeal to their constituents, they could formally consent to their own\nannihilation. Strong suspicions also were thrown out, that the plan\nhad no other object in view than that of recovering to England the\ndomination she had surrendered in 1,782, when the independency of\nthe Irish legislature had been fully, and, as it was alleged, finally\nacknowledged and established; but these objections were over-\nruled. It was no surrender, it was urged, of their legislative rights,\nto consent to be incorporated with the parliament of Great Britain,\nbut a consolidation of them and their consent would acquire a\ncharacter from the regulations of 1,782, highly honourable to the\nnation; she could now treat as an independent state, and upon a\nfooting of equality, instead of being in any respect compelled, as\nmight otherwise have been fhe case, to an union of subjection.\nEarly in the year 1 ,800, the assent of the two houses of parliament,\nin Ireland, was signified in addresses to his majesty, transmitted\nthrough the lord lieutenant, which being submitted to the British\nparliament, after much discussion and debate on the bill in gen-\neral, as well as its several provisions, the union of the two king,\ndoms was finally arranged to take place from the first of January,\n1,801.\n27. The act of incorporation contained eight articles the first\nthree decreed the union of the two kingdoms, the maintenance of\nthe protestant succession, and consolidation of the parliament. By\nthe fourth, it was settled that four prelates should sit alternately in\neach session, and twenty-eight lay pesrs be elected for life, while\ntwo members for each county, (thirty-two in all) and thirty-six citi-\nzens and burgesses, should represent the commons. The fifth article\nunited the churches of England and Ireland the sixth and seventh\nprovided for the commercial and financial arrangements of the two","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0337.jp2"},"336":{"fulltext":"352 MODERN HISTORY.\ncountries, and the eighth for the maintenance of laws then in f i\nand continuance of the courts of judicature.\n28. On the first of January, 1,801, a royal declaration was if leA\nregulating the style and titles appertaining to the imperial cro o of\nGreat Britain and Ireland, with the arms, flags, and ensigns tb**eo£\nIn these arrangements, the opportunity was judiciously tak«at of\nlaying aside the title of king of France, and the French arnv the\ntitle in English was confined to Great Britain and Ireland in atin,\nBritanniarum Rex, and the quartering of the Jleurs de lis,™ omit-\nted in the blazonry.\n29- A fresh revolution in the government of France, about this\ntime, having thrown the executive power, in a great measure,\ninto the hands of a supreme magistrate, the first consul, and over-\ntures for peace having been made by Buonaparte in that capacity,\nmuch discussion upon the subject took place between the ministers\nof the two countries, but wiihout effect. The Austrians having\nsustained a defeat in Italy, had solicited and obtained a suspension of\nhostilities, and entered upon some negotiations for peace, to which\nEngland was invited to become a party, upon consenting to a naval\narmistice, but her maritime power stood so high, that while Malta\ncontinued subject to France, and the French army unsubdued in\nEgypt, she could not reasonably be expected to forego such advan-\ntages, and to place herself upon a footing with her continental ally,\nwhose situation was so different. Her determination to continue the\nwar, was soon followed by the surrender of Malta, on the 5th of Sep-\ntember, 1,800, and in thecourse of the next year, the French troops\nwere compelled finally to abandon Egypt; thus terminating an ex\nE edition, in a great degree mysterious, but which, no doubt, might\nave led to the disturbance of our power in India, had it not been for\nthe interruption it met with on its way thither, and the overthrow of\nTippoo Saib.\n30. In the course of the year 1,800, the enemies of England were\ngreatly increased by the revival amongst the northern powers, of\nthe armed neutrality, originally devised and adopted in 1,780. As\nthis dispute involved a very curious point of international law, it\nwould have been well, if it could have been brought to such an\nissue as might have settled the question for ever but, after much\nnegotiation, and some very unpleasant conflicts at sea, (particularly\nwith the Danes,) seizures and embargoes, the matter terminated\nrather in an uncertain compromise, than any positive adjustment.\nThe right of search by belligerents, however inconvenient to neu-\ntrals, seemed to have been acknowledged for many centuries, as a\nprinciple of maritime law upon the system of the armed neutrality,\nit was contended that ships under convoy should pass free, the flag\nof the neutral power being sufficient pledge and security that the\ncargoes were not contraband of wnr. The claim in this case being\nevidently directed against England, then, and at all times mistress\nof the sea, rendered it a point of extreme importance one which\nshe could not surrender without a contest, or armed negotiation;\notherwise, and if it had not been decidedly in favour of her oppo-\nnents, the countenance given to the new system by so many states of\nEurope, Russia, Denmark, Sweden, Prussia, Naples, France, Spain,\nHolland, Austria, Portugal, Venice, and Tuscany, (for by some steps\nor other they all seemed disposed to adopt the spirit of it,) might have\nbeen expected to amount to a formal recognition of its principle, as\na proper law of nations the dispute, however, upon this occasion,","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0338.jp2"},"337":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 333\nwas settled at Petersburg, by negotiation, after the accession of the\nemperor Alexander, and attended with concessions on the part of the\nBaltic powers, of singular importance, though less complete than\nthey might have been, owing to the counter concessions of Britain.\nThus, though it was decided that enemy s property embarked on\nboard neutral ships, should be liable to confiscation, and that the\nright of searching merchant ships, even under convoy of a ship of\nwar, should be recognized, yet, it was at the same time determined\nthat arms and ammunition only should be considered as contraband,\nand that the right of searching merchant ships under convoy should\nappertain exclusively to vessels belonging to the royal navy. If not\nentirely decisive, however, the stipulations of this celebrated con-\nvention highly deserve to be looked up to as a proper standard of\nthe rights of neutrality.\n31. During the contest that arose with England, out of this con-\nfederacy of the nothern powers, the king of Prussia, one of the con-\ntracting parties, saw fit to take possession of the king of Great Brit-\nain s electoral states of Hanover, but on U» change of affairs in\nRussia, was speedily induced to restore them.\n32. By the treaty of peace concluded at Luueville, between the\nemperor of Germany and France, February 9, 1801, England was\nleft without an ally, and a change of ministry having taken place\nabout the same time, may be said to have laid the foundation for\nmore serious negotiations for peace, on the part of England and\nFrance, than had hitherto taken place since the commencement of\nthe revolution. Nothing,* however, seemed to hasten it so much\nas the defeat of the French army in Egypt, and the settlement of\nthe differences between England and the Baltic powers, which\nenabled her to negotiate with more advantage, and greatly lower-\ned the spirit of the French government. Preliminaries were signed\non the first of October, 1,801, and a definitive treaty concluded at\nAmiens, between Great Britain and the French republic, Spain and\nHolland, on the 25th of March, 1,802. By this treaty, England\nobtained Ceylon from the Dutch, and Trinidad from the Spaniards,\nrelinquishing all her other conquests Malta being given back to\nthe knights of St. John of Jerusalem, under the guarantee of the\nprincipal powers of Europe.\nSECTION XIV.\nFRANCE, FROM THE DEATH OF THE KING AND QUEEN,\nAND OVERTHROW OF THE GIRONDIST OR BRISSOTINE\nPARTY, 1,793, TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DIREC-\nTORY, 1,795.\n1. The situation of France, towards the close of the year 1,793,\nwas deplorable in the extreme. It lay at the mercy of a faction,\nnot merely blood-thirsty, but which nothing but blood would satis-\nThe jacobins, or Robespierrean party, determined to root out\nevery thing that could, by the remotest implication, be denounced\nas adverse to their plans, procured a decree to be passed, exceed-\ning every thing that can be conceived in atrocity. Such was the\nLoi sur les suspects, passed in September, by which their agents","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0339.jp2"},"338":{"fulltext":"334 MODERN HISTORY\nin all parts of the country were empowered to arrest, imprison,\nand thereby doom to destruction, whomsoever suspicion in any\nmanner attached to, not merely as principals, but as connected with\nprincipals, however unavoidably, naturally, or accidentally. One\narticle alone will explain the rest, The following are the persons\ndenounced in the 5th All of the ancient class of nobility all hus-\nbands, wives, fathers, mothers, sons, or daughters, brothers, sisters,\nor agents of emigrants, who shall not have constantly manifested\nan attachment to the revolution. The queen, the twenty-two victims\nof the Girondist party, and general Custine, may be considered as\namong the earliest and most distinguished persons that fell under\nthe power of this horrible faction. The due d Orleans, though not\nbelonging to the Girondist party, was denounced by Robespierre\nhimself, as connected with them, and publicly executed on the 6th\nof November but his life and conduct, both public and private, had\nbeen such, that he fell totally unregretted. It would be vain to\nattempt to relate the many dreadful events which marked this bloody\nperiod. It is to be hoped history will never again have to record\nsuch complicated cruelties and miseries, such premeditated murders,\nsuch studied torments, mental and bodily.\n2. On the 17th of November, of this memorable year, the cath-\nolic religion, (at the instance of an archbishop of Paris, Gobet!)\nwas publicly abjured by the convention, and decrees past, amidst\nthe most tumultuous acclamations, for substituting a religion of reason\nin its room. The churches were quickly despoiled of their ornaments,\nthe altars destroyed,civic feasts instituted instead of religious festi-\nvals, and Liberty, Equality, c. consecrated as objects of worship.\nThese revolutionary and anti-catholic decrees were moreover\nordered to be translated into Italian, on purpose that they might be\ntransmitted in that most intelligible, and therefore most offensive\nshape, to the pope. The calendar underwent also a correction. A\nnew republican form and era being adopted and established, to com-\nmence from the 22d of September, 1,792, the day on which the na-\ntional convention began its sittings, and royalty was abolished. The\nyear was divided into twelve parts, of thirty days each, distinguished\naccording to the prevalent seasons, Vendemiaire, September and Oc-\ntober Brumaire, October and November Frimaire, November and\nDecember JVivose, December and January Pluviose, January and\nFebruary Ventose, February and March Germinal, March and\nApril Floreal, April and May Prairial, May and June Messidor.\nJune and July; Thermidor, July and August; Fructidor, August and\nSeptember. The Sabbath was abolished, and five complimentary\ndays added, all commemorative of the revolution. Each month was\ndivided into three decades, and a respite from labour allowed on\nevery tenth day.\n3. It was not possible to suppose that those who ruled during\nthis dark u reign of terror, could long be suffered to retain their\nEower and station in the republic. Fortunately for the good of\numan society, their very crimes rendered them jealous and sus-\npicious of each other, so that before many months had passed,\nifter the execution of the queen and the Brissotines, the earth was\nrid of such monsters, proscribed and driven to the scaffold by their\nown friends and associates in wickedness Robespierre, from whom\nthe faction chiefly took its denomination, being at length accused,\ncondemned, and executed, in the course of a few hours in the month\nof July, 1,794, to the satisfaction of the whole civilized world. Be-","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0340.jp2"},"339":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 336\nfore this great day of retribution, however, one moie victim of roy-\nalty was brought to the scaffold, whose sole offence must have been\nthe heroic display she had made, in her constant attendance upon\nthe king, her brother, and his most unhappy family, of every amia-\nble virtue that could adorn a woman. The princess Elizabeth, who\nhad continued in the temple, with the two children of the unhappy\nLewis XVI., from the period of his execution, was brought before\nthe revolutionary tribunal, accused of accompanying the late king\nwhen he attempted his escape of having attended upon and ad-\nministered help to the wounded in the conflict with the guards\nand of having encouraged her infant nephew, Lewis XVII., to en-\ntertain hopes of ascending the throne of his father and upon these\ncharges sentenced to die, May 10, 1,794, and executed without pity\nor remorse\n4. It was during the year 1,793, that Napoleon Buonaparte, a na\ntive of Corsica, had first an opportunity of distinguishing himself in\nthe French army, being employed in the direction of the artillery at\nthe siege of Toulon, which had fallen for a short time into the hands\nof the English. Hitherto the war against the powers in opposition\nto France, had been carried on in a most desultory and extraordinary\nmanner, with more success certainly on the part of the Frencn than\ncould have been expected, from the extraordinary condition and cir-\ncumstances of their armies, and the strange state of responsibility in\nwhich theii commanders were placed by their rulers at home.\nSome of their generals were compelled to desert, many were pro\nscribed, and many, after displaying the utmost valour in the tiela,\nwere actually brought to the scaffold. Nevertheless, the impulse\ngiven to the revolutionary army, by the circumstances of their coun*\ntry, aided by mistakes and jealousies on the part of their opponents,\nenabled it to combat effectually against much better organized\ntroops, and to resist the attacks that were made upon it in all quar-\nters for in addition to the Austrians and Prussians, Sardinians, Eng-\nlish and Spanish, in La Vendee and other departments, a civil war\nprevailed, where many acts of heroism, indeed, were displayed\nby a brave, but unsuccessful band of royalists, who ultimately\npaid dear for their revolt, by the most horrid and disgraceful punish-\nments.\n5. The French revolution had now attained that pitch of extrav-\nagance and disorder, which left no hopes of any check or termi-\nnation, but that which actually ensued, namely, a military despo-\ntism. According to the remarks of one of the ablest members of the\nfirst national assembly, one who was sacrificed at the period we\nhave been treating of, in a way the most treacherous and revolting\nto every feeling mind, the French revolution being undertaken not\nfor the sake of men, but for the sake of opinion, had no distinct\nleader, no Cromwell or Fairfax. All were leaders, all institutors,\nall equally interested in the course of affairs. Such a revolution,\nhe observes, must be commenced by all, but he was sagacious\nenough to foresee that it would probably be terminated by one. All,\nhowever, for a certain time, being leaders and institutors, nothing\ncould ensue from such a state of things, but continual struggles to be\nuppermost continual denunciations and proscriptions of rival parties;\nand a strange succession of new constitutions, and new forms of gov-\nernment, as any opening seemed to occur for bringing things to a\nsettlement\n6. The death of Robespierre, and of many of his accomplices,","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0341.jp2"},"340":{"fulltext":"336 MODERN HISTORY.\nclearly afforded snch an opening, if not for settling, at least lor\nameliorating things but for some time the convention and the na-\ntion seemed to be in too great a surprise and consternation to pro-\nceed with any method to so desirable an end, The former having\nhad its origin in the days of anarchy and confusion, seemed little\nprepared to defend or support its own dignity, but the cry of hu-\nmanity began again to be raised, and to be heard, and in no long\ncourse of time after the defeat of Robespierre, the jacobin club,\nfrom which had emanated all the previous acts and decrees, so-\ndisgraceful to France, was abolished and dissolved, by a decree of\nhe convention. The reformation of the laws and government\ngave greater trouble. The pain of death had been decreed against\nany who should propose to set aside the constitution of 1,793, and\nwith this sentence hanging over them, all the people had sworn to\nuphold and maintain it. Tired, however, of the absolute and un-\ncontrollable power they had exercised, many members, even of the\nconvention, sincerely wished for more limited authority. A com-\nmittee was appointed to prepare a new code of laws, and, in the\nmean time, processes were carried against some of the most violent\nof the abettors of the late tumults and disorders, particularly the\ncommissioners who had sanctioned the most dreadful proceedings\nat Lyons, Nantes, Orange, and Arras. The execrable law under\nwhich they had acted, Loi des suspects, was repealed, and a just\nvengeance directed against those who had been most forward to car-\nry it into execution.\n7. At length a new constitution was framed, presented to the\nconvention, and approved. Two legislative councils, one of five\nhundred members, and the other of two hundred and fifty, were\nto enact the laws the former to propose, the latter to sanction or\nreject them. The executive government was committed to five\ndirectors, chosen by the legislature, but whose responsibility was\nill-defined, and their connexion with the legislative bodies not suffi-\nciently provided for, either as a balance, or controlling power. It\nwas not without other faults and blemishes, but it may undoubtedly\nbe regarded as making a much nearer approach to order and reg-\nularity, than the one which it was intended to supersede. It was\nformally accepted and proclaimed, September 23, 1,795.*\n8. This may be considered as the third constitution established\nsince the first meeting of the states-general, in 1,789; great objec-\ntions were made to one article, which secured the return of a very\nlarge proportion of the members of the convention, to serve in the\nnew legislature. Tumults were raised in the sections of Paris, and\nan attack made upon the convention, which, however, was at last\nrescued from the violence of the mob. Buonaparte, who was then\nat Paris, was appointed to act upon this occasion in defence of the\nassembly.\n9. Externally, the affairs of France may be said to have been at\nthis moment in a high and extraordinary degree of prosperity. The\ncampaigns of 1,794 and 1,795, committed to the charge of very able\ngenerals, Pichegru, Souham, Jourdan, Kleber, Moreau, and Du-\ngommier, had hitherto succeeded beyond their utmost expectations.\nThe Belgian states, and the united provinces, had not only been\nThe directors being Reubel, Letourneur, Lareveillere-Lepaux, Bar-\nras, and Sieyes but the latter declining the honour, Carnot supplied his\nplace","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0342.jp2"},"341":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 337\nwrested from the hands of their defenders, the Austrians, Prussians,\nand British, but associated with the French republic in a close con-\nleracy. The stadtholdership was again abolished, and the stadt-\nhoider and his family obliged to take refuge in England. In the\nmean time, peace had been concluded with many of the belligerent\npowers, highly advantageous to France; with Prussia, Spain, the\nlandgrave of Hesse, the grand duke of Tuscany, and others while\nthe navigation of the rivers Rhine, Me use, and Scheldt, had been\nrendered free, in all their courses and branches, to the people of\nFrance. These proceedings, with regard to the Belgian states and\nHolland, were the commencement of a system pursued from that\ntime on all the frontiers of the new republic. By a decree of the\nnational assembly, the French generals were directed to proclaim\nevery where the sovereignty of the people, to suppress all authorities\nand privileges, to repeal ail taxes, and establish provisional govern-\nments on democratic principles. By this system of fraternization\nas it was called, the subdued countries being formed into republics,\ntt republiques satellites, 1 as they were significantly denominated by the\nFrench themselves, were associated with France as subordinate\nstates. Of the states first revolutionized in this manner, the Batavian\nrepublic took the lead, surrendering to France, without hesitation,\nthe chief of her fortresses, and thus extending, and at the same time\nprotecting her frontier. The mistake she made in thus welcoming\nthe French, was but too soon discovered. The French levied heavy\ncontributions the English took from them many of their foreign\nsettlements, and particularly the cape of Good Hope, and the island\nof Ceylon.\n10 In the month of June, 1,795, Louis XVII., the unfortunate son\nof Louis XVI., died in the temple, under circumstances extremely\nsuspicious, and very deplorable, having been some time in the cus-\ntody of a low-born drunken wretch, who did every thing he could\nto insult and torment him, and undermine his health. He was in the\neleventh year of his age at the time of his death. His sister, the\nprincess royal, (the present duchess of Angouleme) was soon after-\nwards most happily released from her miserable prison, whence a\nfather, mother, and aunt, had been successively led to execution,\nand where an only brother had died a victim to cruelty, and perhaps\npoison. Her royal highness was exchanged for certain members of\nthe late convention, who had been delivered up to the allies, by the\ngenerals who had incurred the displeasure of their rulers at Paris,\nor had fallen into the hands of the enemy by other accidents.\nSECTION XV.\nFRANCE, FROM THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DIRECTORY,\n1,795, TO THE PEACE OF AMIENS.\n1. The appointment of the five directors, was an act of policy\non the part of the ruling members of the convention, who thought\nit better to hazard such a division of the executive power, than to\ngive umbrage to the people, by the renewal of a first magistrate*\nthough an elective one. As these new officers, however, owed\ntheir nomination to the influence of those members of the iate con-\nvention who were chosen to form a part of the legislative body a\nFf 43","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0343.jp2"},"342":{"fulltext":"338 Modern history.\nclose union was soon found to subsist between the directors and the\nmajoiity of the council.\n2. The council of ancients, consisting of two hundred and fifty\nmembers, at first appeared to form the bulwark of the new consti-\ntution having no share in the framing of the laws, they were able\nto interpose with the greater dignity in pronouncing their judgment\nupon such as were referred to them, and often exercised the re-\nstored privilege of the veto beneficially for the public. The judi-\ncial murders of the reign of terror were terminated, and the gov-\nernment displayed, in many instances, a return to moderation and\nhumanity, extremely desirable and praiseworthy, but in the south\nern department, a system of reaction and retaliation prevailed, which\nit was beyond their power to control. An organized body of assassins\nkept all those parts of the nation in a state of incessant alarm. The\nmetropolis was in some degree restored to its wonted gayety, but\nevery thing bespoke, as might reasonably be expected, a mest de-\nmoralized state of society. The stage became intolerably licentious,\nand the public amusements were disgraced, by a freedom of man-\nners, and indelicacy of dress on the part of the females, beyond mea-\nsure offensive. Those whose nearest connexions had been doomed\nto the scaffold, could find no better mode of commemorating their\nloss, than by festive, meetings, called Bab a la Victime to which\nno one could be admitted but such as had lost a father, a mother, a\nhusband, a wife, a brother, or a sister, by the guillotine\n3. Hitherto the prowess of the French armies had been mani-\nfested much more i-n the north, and on the Rhine, than in the\nsouthern parts of the continent; towards Italy, the Austrians and\nPiedmontese seemed to hold the French in check. Dugommier had\nMeed invaded Spain with effect; and by his attacks contributed\nto bring about a peace with that country but novv a new scene\nwas about to open, leading to such a succession of victories and\nrevolutions as it would be impossible fully to describe in such a work\nas the present.\n4. Karly in the year 1,796, general Buonaparte obtained (bein^\nthen twenty-six years of age,) the chief command of the army of\nItaly, as it was called. His eagerness to commence operations\ndiew upon him some remonstrances. It was suggested to him that\nmany things were wanting in his army necessary to the campaign.\nw I have enough, said he, if 1 conquer, and too many if I should\nbe beaten. The Austrian army in those parts was commanded\nby general Beaulieu, an officer peculiarly active and enterprising.\nGeneral Buonaparte took the command of the French army on the\n3Cth of March, and between the 12th and 15th of April, beat the\nAustrian troops in three distinct engagements, at Montenotte, Mil-\nlesimo (or Montelezino,) and Dego. In the space ot four days, it\nhas been computed, that the Austrian army was diminished to the\namount of 15,000 men, being separated at the same time from their\nPiedmontese allies. After the battle of Dego, Buonaparte advanced\nrapidly into Piedmont, nor did he stop till he had arrived at the\nvery gates of Turin. There he agreed to an armistice solicited by\nthe king, who was ignominiously compelled to submit to his occu-\npying with French troops all the principal fortresses of his coun-\ntry. Happy to be allowed to retain the capital, he was also obliged\nto cede Savoy, Nice, Tende, and Beuil. From Turin, Buona-\nparte pursued his course into Lornbardy, and by the celebrated","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0344.jp2"},"343":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 339\nbattle of Lodi, on the 10th of May, obtained complete possessior of\nthe Milanese.\n5. Unwilling to enter immediately into the narrow parts of Italy\nin this stage of his proceedings, he satisfied himself with threaten-\ning the pope and the king of Naples, till he brought them to terms\nof peace the former surrendering to the French republic, Bologna,\nFerrara, and the coasts ol the Adriatic, from the mouths of the Po,\nto Ancona and the latter consenting to contribute largely to the\nmaintenance of the French army, and to close his ports against\nthe enemies of France. The dukes of Parma and Modena, made\nsubmission in time to save their countries. The grand duke of\nTuscany had previously acknowledged the French republic, but\nwas bidden very peremptorily to exclude the English from the\nport of Leghorn. The submission of all these princes and states\nto the overwhelming force of the army undei the command of Buo-\nnaparte, was but part of the victory he obtained over them. In\nevery step he took, he was careful, by new laws, treaties, and po-\nlitical arrangements, to revolutionize the countries over which\nhe obtained an ascendency by arms, and to incorporate them with\nthe French republic. Savoy, Nice, and the Milanese, were thus\nbrought under his dominion, and ultimately erected into distinct,\nthough subordinate republics.\n6. It was at the very commencement of the military career of\nthis extraordinary man, that he adopted a system of plunder, which,\nfor a long time, engaged the attention of the whole civilized world.\nIn all the treaties concluded with the Italian princes, he stipulated\nthat French artists should be admitted into their public galleries,\nmuseums, and palaces, to select as many as they might choose, of\nthe choicest performances of the celebrated painters and sculptors\nof all ages, and cause them to be conveyed to Paris. French sentiment\nhas dwelt upon the circumstance of the immortal Raphael, Titian,\nand Domenichino, having thus had it in their power, and in such\ncritical moments, to pay the ransom of their native countries, over\nlooking the sad violation of sentiment occasioned by the removal ot\nthese precious pledges of their stupendous talents from the hands\nwhich had so long preserved them, and from places of which they\nhad been so justly regarded as the choicest and most valuable\nornaments.\n7. The siege of Mantua was attended with many severe conflicts.\nOn the reduction of that important place, Buonaparte is stated to\nhave thus addressed his soldiers The capture of Mantua termi-\nnates a campaign which has justly entitled you to the everlasting\ngratitude of your country. You have triumphed over the enemy in\nthree pitched battles, and seventy inferior engagements you have\ntaken a hundred thousand prisoners, fifty field-pieces, two thousand\nbattering cannons. The country you have subdued has nourished,\nmaintained, and paid the army during the whole campaign, and you\nhave remitted thirty millions to the minister of finance, in aid of the\npublic treasury. You have enriched the museum at Paris, with\nmore than three hundred of the choicest and most valuable works of\nart, both of ancient and modern Italy, and which it had taken thirty\nages to produce.\n8. Though we know from subsequent accounts of French victo-\nries, that they are net always to be depended upon, yet there can\nbe no doubt, that the above address does pretty fairly describe the\nextraordinary rapidity and extent of Buonaparte s first operations","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0345.jp2"},"344":{"fulltext":"S40 MODERN HISTORY.\nin the field. The years 1,796 and 1,797, were indeed marked by\nsuch surprising instances of this nature, that they deserve a place\nin history, though the prudence and good generalship of such pre-\ncipitate steps has been reasonably questioned. Mantua capitulated\non the 2d of February, 1,797, and Buonaparte pursued his course\nin the direction of the Austrian capital, leaving Italy behind him,\nwith a view of penetrating to Vienna. Though obliged to fight his\nway, he succeeded, March 2, 1,797, in taking possession of Gradis-\nca, which laid open to him the provinces of Goritz, Carniola, and\nCarinthia.\n9. The Austrian grand army was commanded by the emperor s\nbrother, the archduke Charles, an able general, a great favourite\nwith the soldiers, and who had combated the French on the Rhine\nwith signal success. He was not, however, strong enough to await\nthe approach of the French, who soon reached Leoben, only thirty\nmiles from Vienna, where great consternation was excited, and the\nimperial family compelled to retire. As both armies, however,\nwere brought into a very critical position, negotiations were en-\ntered into at this place, an armistice concluded on the 8th of April,\nand preliminaries of peace signed on the 15th of the same month,\n1,797.\n10. Before we notice the celebrated treaty of Campo-Formio,\nby which the peace was settled and confirmed, it may be fit to con-\nsider the state of those countries which Buonaparte had left behind\non his march upon Vienna, He had made peace on his own terms\n(most advantageous ones for France) with Parma, Modena, Rome,\nand Naples. He had overrun Sa* oy, obtained possession of the\nMilanese, and reduced Mantua. He had erected Genoa into the\nLigurian republic, and the Milanese he converted into the Cisalpine\nrepublic, after having first given it the name of Transpadane, in\nreference to the river Po, and in contradistinction to the Cispadane\nrepublic, consisting of Modena, Bologna, Reggio, and Ferrara, con-\nfederated in 1,796. He had passed Venice on his way to Trieste, of\nwhich he took possession on the 3d of April, 1,797. The Venetians\nhad afforded an asylum to Lewis XVIII., and wavered greatly in\ntaking part either with the Austrians or the French, not being able\nto calculate upon the issue of the contest. They had also fallen\ninto domestic broils and dissensions, which gave the French command-\ner the opportunity he always sought, of introducing a French army\nto allay their differences. The consequences were, f hat they im-\nmediately seized upon the fleet, the Ionian islands, and, in fact, all\nthe Venetian states, which enabled Buonaparte greatly to improve\nthe peace he was making with the Austrians. Albania and the Ioni-\nan islands he kept to himself; to the Cisalpine republic he assigned\nthe western dependencies of Venice, reserving for Austria, the capi-\ntal, Istria, Dalmatia, and the island of the Adriatic, in exchange for\nthe Netherlands, and the duchy of Luxemburg. He had profess-\ned to enter upon the Venetian states, merely to rescue them from\nthe hands of Austria, but by this extraordinary manoeuvre, he not\nonly delivered them over to the very power from whom he under-\ntook to save them, but he obtained from Austria the very object foi\nthe sake of which her English allies had refused to make peace ir*\n1,796. Such appears to have been the chief foundation of the cele\nnrated treaty of Campo-Formio, concluded between the emperor and\nthe French republic, October, 17, 1,797.\n11. Previously to the conclusion of the treaty of Campo-Formio,","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0346.jp2"},"345":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 341\nthe allies had lost three of their confederates, the dukes of Wir-\ntemburg and Bavaria, and the Margrave of Baden, all of whom\nhad found it necessary to purchase peace of the directory by heavy\ncontributions. Such great advantages in its external relations\nwere, however, far from contributing to the internal tranquillity of\nthe republic. The first five directors, as might naturally have been\nexpected, were by no means accordant in their views, or of equal\ntalents and abilities and provision seemed to have been made\nfor fresh revolutions, by the continual recurrence of new elections,\nboth in the legislative assemblies and directory. One of the five\ndirectors was annually to go out, and one third of each of the le-\ngislative bodies to be renewed. The first event of this kind, as\nmight be expected, revived all the jealousies of rival parties, and\nproduced an explosion almost as violent as any that had yet occur-\nred the explosion of the 18th of Fructidor, as marked in the short-\nlived republican calendar. Le Tourneur quitted the directory by\nlot, and was succeeded by Barthelemi, who soon appeared inclined\nto join Carnot against Keubel, Barras, and Larevilliere-Lepaux.\nThe three latter were for assuming a despotic power their oppo-\nnents were divided, some inclined to the restoration of royalty,\nothers to the emancipation of the councils from the sway of the\ndirectors, Reubel and his two associates but as they formed a mi-\nnority, and their enemies were prompt in their measures of revenge,\nand had moreover the command of the military, it was not long be-\nfore the latter obtained the victory they sought. On the 4th of\nSeptember, 1,797, the legislative assemblies were surrounded with\ntroops, and at the instance of the three ruling directors, two of their\ncolleagues, (Carnot and Barthelemi) several members of the two\ncouncils, many public ministers, and many men of letters, declared\nguilty of anti-republican mens ares and principles, arrested and impri-\nsoned and, on the 5th, sentenced to deportation to the unhealthy\nand remote settlement of Guiana, in South America. The authors,\neditors, directors, and proprietors, of no less than forty-two public\njournals were included in the sentence. Some of the proscribed\nmembers found means to escape but those who were conveyed to\nGuiana, suffered dreadfully from the voyage; many died from the\nunwholesomeness of the place, some found means to return to Europe,\nparticularly general Pichegru and the ex-director, Barthelemi, who\nwere conveyed to England from the Dutch settlement of Surinam.\n12. Buonaparte returned to Paris not long after these disturban-\nces, and was received with peculiar honours. The peopie began\nto look up to him for deliverance from the tyranny of three direct-\nors; and the latter were as eager to remove him from the metropo-\nlis. In the midst of the honours paid to him, on account of his vic-\ntories in Italy and Germany, Barras, with great emphasis, nominat-\ned him as the hero destined to place the tri-coloured flag on the\ntower of London. Troops were actually assembled on the coasts\nof Flanders and Normandy for the purpose but Buonaparte him-\nself, seeing the impracticablility of such an attempt, meditated\nmore distant expedition.\n13. In the course of the year 1,798, the system, began so sue\ncessfully in Flanders and Holland, of revolutionizing the countries\ninto which the French armies should penetrate, was carried to a\ngreat extent. Watchful to seize upon every opportunity afforded\nthem by internal dissensions, the French this year obtained posses-\nsion of Rome, Switzerland, the Pays de Vaud, the Grisons, and\nFf2","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0347.jp2"},"346":{"fulltext":"342 MODERJN HISTORY.\nGeneva, under circumstances peculiarly distressing to the existing\ngovernments, and commonly attended with heavy exactions, and\nthe plunder of their churches, palaces, and museums. The pope\nwas driven from Rome, partly by his own subjects, and partly\nthrough an overweening confidence in his own power and influ-\nence. The Roman republic was proclaimed February 15, 1,798;\nand the finances being found in a bad state, the Vatican and other\npublic buildings stripped of their contents. The Pays de Vai^i,\nwhither the French had been invited, to protect them against the\naristocratic despotism of the Bernese, was formed into the Leman\nand Switzerland, after many cruel sacrifices, into the Helvetic re\npublic, or rather into three republics, for that was ultimately the\narrangement adopted provisional governments being in all places\nappointed, conformably, in a great degree, to the principles of the\nFrench constitution. No remonstrances on the part of the free can-\ntons could save them from the directorial decrees. An address to\nthis effect, peculiarly pathetic and eloquent, from the cantons of\nSchwitz, Uri, Appenzel, Glaris, Zug, and Undervvalden, had no\neffect whatever in preserving them from a change of constitution,\nforced upon them by democratic France. The degenerate Romans\nhad appeared to pride themselves upon emulating their heroic an-\ncestors, in re-establishing the republic, under the auspices of Gallic\ninvaders. But the brave Swiss resisted to the utmost the rude dis-\nturbers of their ancient freedom. The modern republicans of Rome\nchanted a Te Deum, to hallow their deliverance. The Swiss sung\ntneir antiquated songs of patriotism and freedom, till the most dire\nnecessity compelled them to surrender their established constitution\nto the dictates of a French directory.\n14. On the 5th of May, Buonapaite left Paris for Toulon, to take\nthe command of an expedition, the real object of which has scarce\nly been ascertained to this day, though it appears most probable,\nthat he designed to join Tippoo Saib in India, and to subvert the\nBritish empire there. He was accompanied by many artists, natu-\nralists, and antiquarians, and a large proportion of the army which\nhad served under him in Italy. Malta lying in his way to Egypt,\nhe failed not to take possession of it, partly by force, and partly by\nintrigue, subjecting that island and its dependencies, Goza and Cumi-\nno, to the French republic, June 12, 1,798. Its conquest had for\nsome time previously been meditated, but it had lately been put\nunder the protection of the emperor of Russia, Paul I. it was treated\nby the French as ill as other place?, notwithstanding the utmost\nassurances to the contrary. The knights were driven from the\nisland, many of the people compelled to join the French army,\nand new laws imposed under the authority of the directory. In the\nmonth of July, this year, 1798, a triumphant entry into Paris, of\nall the works of art collected in the several places subdued by the\nFrench aims, took place amid the acclamations of the people. The\nFrench fleet had narrowly escaped at Malta the pursuit of ar Eng\nlish one, under the command of Nelson and after the subduction\nof the island, it was able to proceed, still undiscovered, to Egypt,\nwhere the English had already been to look for thern in vain. On\nthe 2d of July, Buonaparte took possession of Alexandria, mooring\nhis fleet in the bay of Aboukir. In less than three weeks from his\nlanding, and after a severe action with the Mamelukes, called the\nbattle of the pyramids, Cairo, and the whole of the Delta fell into\nhis power but his triumph was lessened by the loss of his fleet, on","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0348.jp2"},"347":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 343\nthe 1st of August, which, being attacked in the bay \\y Nelson, was\nalmost totally destroyed or taken, the French admiral Brueys being\nkilled and his sh p burnt four ships only, two of them frigates, were\nall that escaped. When Buonaparte left Toulon, his fleet consisted\nof 400 sail, including thirteen ships of the line, and it was rather\nincreased than otherwise by his enterprise at Malta.\n15. The victory of Nelson gave a new turn to the war against\nthe French. On his quitting Egypt, he carried his fleet to Naples,\nwhere the utmost joy was manifested by the court at the blow which\nhad been given to the French preponderance. The queen invoked\nthe Austrians to renew the war against France; and the expedition\nto Egypt and attack upon Malta having excited the czar, and even\nthe grand seignior, to resist aggressions so unprovoked and alarming,\nFrancis II. was not insensible to the call made upon him. England\nwas not backward to encourage and aid such movements, in every\npart of Europe. The king of Sardinia, and the grand duke of Tus-\ncany showed themselves willing to join the new confederacy but\nthe king of Prussia was not to be prevailed on to abandon his neu-\ntrality.\n16. The Neapolitan court, which had been the foremost to ex-\ncite this new war, were the first sufferers from it. Having invaded\nthe territories of the church, and even obtained possession of Rome,\nthey were suddenly driven back by the French, the capital taken,\nand the royal family compelled to retire to Palermo, in Sicily. Na-\nples was not taken possession of without a formidable insurrection\nof that extraordinary portion of its population, the Lazzaroni, with\nwhom the king, whose amusements were often unbecoming his high\nrank, happened to be popular. This resistance provoked reprisals\nexceedingly distressing to the inhabitants, and almost ruinous to\nthe city; the tumult, however, was at length appeased, and the\nkingdom of Naples converted into the Parlhenopean, or Neapolitan\nrepublic.\n17. The king of Sardinia, and the grand duke of Tuscany were\nalso made to pay dear for the renewal of hostilities, both being de-\nprived of their dominions, as allies of the Neapolitans, and com-\nEelled to abandon their capitals. The aged pope, who liad indeed,\ny many unwise provocations, irritated the French, a refugee in\nthe Tuscan territories, unwilling to accompany the deposed princes\nin their retreat from Florence, and too confidently relying on the\nreverence that would be paid to his years and station, was actually\narrested in his monastic retirement, and conveyed to Y alence, in\nDauphiny, a prisoner, where he died broken hearted, August 29,\n1,799. On the establishment of the consular government, his body\nwas honourably interred, and a monument erected over him.\n18. But the directory, in the midst of these arbitrary seizures of\nstates and kingdoms, acted with too little foresight, as to the effects\not the formidable confederacy of Russia and Austria. The French\narmies were widely separated, and many of the most successful\ngenerals, through a pernicious jealousy, disgraced and removed\nfrom their command. This disheartened the soidiers; and reverses\nwere preparing for them, both in Germany and Italy. The Russian\narmy, under Souvaroff, entered the latter country early in the spring\nof the year 1,799, and on the iSth of April was at Verona. The\ncharacter and manners of this. northern general, made a great im-\npression both upon the allied armies, and upon the inhabitants of the\ncountries he invaded The French, under the celebrated Moreau,","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0349.jp2"},"348":{"fulltext":"344 MODERN HISTORY.\nwere obliged to fall back, leaving the Milanese exposed to the com-\nbined forces. After various actions, Milan was invested and, after\na nineteen days siege, taken May 24. Turin, Alessandria, Mantua,\nand Tortona, were reduced in the months of June and July and\nin most of these places, as well as in other parts of Italy, Tuscany,\nNaples, and Rome, great indignation was manifested against the\nFrench, of whose tyranny they had all tasted, and of whose friend\nship they were already become weary. In a short time the French\nretained, of all their conquests in those parts, only Genoa and Savoy.\n19. While these things were going on, the councils at Paris be-\ngan to distrust the government of the directors, and to ask why\nBuonaparte was at such a distance. Inquiries of this kind were\noften put to his brother Lucien, who had a seat in the council of\nfive hundred. A party was formed against the most obnoxious of\nthe directors, and three found it necessary to retire. Another revo-\nlution in the government was evidently preparing. Buonaparte s\nabsence and object seemed equally mysterious. It was supposed\nthat he meant to open the old channel of trade between the East\nIndies and the Mediterranean. After the destruction of his tleet,\nas though banished from France, he appeared eager to establish a\ncolony in Egypt, which, perhaps, was originally in his view, in\ncarrying thither all that the arts and sciences of Europe could con-\ntribute of utility or beauty. All his works were superintended by\npersons of known celebrity for talent and knowledge of every de-\nscription but he was turned from this object by the jealousy ol\nthe Turks, who, after the battle of Aboukir, (or of the Nile, as it\nis generally called in England,) were ready enough to join the\nEnglish in attacking the French, confined, as it were, within their\nterritories. Buonaparte, to be beforehand with them, marched into\nSyria, where the pacha of Acre, a man of most ferocious character,\ncommanded. He succeeded in taking many fortresses, and for\nthree months maintained a war in the very heart of the country,\nbut his artillery having been intercepted by the English, who had\nalso been admitted into Acre, his attempts upon the latter place\nwere frustrated, and, being threatened on all sides, he resolved to\nreturn to Egypt there he received letters to inform him of the\nreverses in Italy, and the disorders at Paris, and to press his return\nbut the Turks had landed at Aboukir, and taken possession of the\nfort, and it was judged necessary for his fame, that he should not\nquit Egypt without beating them. He hastened to attack them,\nand succeeded but not without many severe conflicts, and an eight\ndays siege of the fortress of Aboukir. Soon after this success, he\nembarked clandestinely for France, leaving the army under the com-\nmand of general Kleber, (who complained greatly of being so duped\nand abandoned,) and in a very extraordinary manner escaped all the\nEnglish ships cruising in the Mediterranean.\n20. Buonaparte arrived just in time to take advantage of the\ndistracted state of the government. The legislature was a prey to\nfaction the directors divided in opinion the jacobins and anarchists\nextremely troublesome, and not unlikely to recover their sway;\nwhile many departments were in a state of insurrection and civil\nwar. Sieyes, the most wise and politic of all that had yet been in\nthe directory, foresaw the necessity of a change, and wanted only\nsome military genius to support his measures, and to whom he\ncould confide his designs. Three other important characters ap-\npeared to rest their hopes on the interference of Buonaparte;","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0350.jp2"},"349":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 345\nFouche, minister of police Cambaceres, minister of justice and\nthe ex-minister for foreign affairs, Talleyrand Perigord.\n21. Within a month after the arrival of Buonaparte, a proposal\nwas made in the council of ancients, to remove the legislative bod-\nies to St. Cloud, and to confer on Buonaparte the command of the\ntroops at Paris. At the moment the decree was passed, Buonaparte,\naccompanied by many of the generals who had distinguished them-\nselves under him, appeared at the bar, denouncing threats against all\nwho should traverse the decree just passed. The council of five\nhundred, taken by surprise, made some show of resistance and Buo-\nnaparte appearing amongst them, gave such offence, that he was in\ndanger of assassination, amidst the cries of Down with the tyrant\nNo dictator! His brother Lucien, at that time president, was\nloudly called upon to pronounce a decree of outlawry against him,\nwhich he evaded by throwing aside his official dress, and renouncing\nhis seat in the assembly after which, Buonaparte, in some alarm,\nhaving joined his troops, the meeting was dissolved, and violently dis^\npersed by the soldiery. It was allowed however to assemble again\nunder the former presidency, the Jacobinical members being excluded,\nwhen a new order of things, approved by the council of elders, was\nbrought forward, decreed, and proclaimed. The directory was abol-\nished, and three new chief magistrates appointed under the name ot\nconsuls, while committees were formed to prepare a new constitu-\ntion. Eighty persons were to compose a senate, one hundred a\ntribunate, and three hundred a legislative body.\n22. The time seemed now to be arrived when the excesses of the\nrevolutionary movement had prepared men s minds tor a transition\nfrom a state of anarchy to one of despotism. Popular liberty had\nfallen into disrepute, from the violences of the jacobins; and a\nstrong executive government seemed indispensably necessary to re-\nstore things to any degree of order and consistency. Though the\n.five directors appeared to be exchanged for three consuls, there\nwas, in the last instance, no correspondent division of power and\nauthority. To the first consul were assigned functions and pre-\nrogatives exceedingly distinct from those of his colleagues. Unity\nof thought and action was declared to be a fundamental quality in\nthe executive power. So far they were evidently going back to\nthe first and best principles of monarchy. Hitherto, however, an\nelective and limited consulate was all that was contemplated. Gen-\neral Buonaparte was appointed first consul, Cambaceres the second,\nand Le Brun the third the first two for ten, the last for only five\nyears; Buonaparte, to say the least, having all the power of a king,\nthough not the name, assigned to him, a power approaching too\nnear to absolute and uncontrollable despotism.\n23. In the first discharge of his new functions, however, he was\ncareful to display a spirit of moderation, forbearance, and conciliation,\nin many popular acts at home, and overtures of peace to England.\nThe latter were without effect, and a large subsidy being granted by\nthe British parliament, to enable the emperor to continue the war.\nno time was lost by the French in endeavouring to recover their\nfooting in Italy. In the month of May, 1,800, the first consul left\nParis, to take the command of the army in those parts and after a\nmost surprising passage through the mountainous parts of Switzer-\nland, and the capture of the town of Costa, with the celebrated fort\nof Bard, succeeded so far as to be able to enter Milan once more in\ntriumph, the Austrians retiring before him, little expecting that he\n44","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0351.jp2"},"350":{"fulltext":"346 MODERN HISTORY.\ncould find a way into Lombardy by the road he had chosen. The\nRussian army had been withdrawn in disgust, after the proceedings in\nSwitzerland, which had greatly offended tne czar. Previously to\nthe entrance of the first consul into Milan, the French, under Masse\nna, had been compelled to evacuate Genoa but the Austrians were\ndoomed to suffer a reverse and though in the famous battle of\nMarengo, which took place on the 14th of June, they fought with\nthe most desperate courage, and sustained an action of tburteen\nhours with great heroism, and the fairest prospects of success, the\nenemy received reinforcements at so critical a moment as to enable\nthem to obtain a complete victory, which was soon followed by a sus-\npension of hostilities^ solicited by the Austrian general.\n24. Negotiations tor peace were entered into at Paris, and the\npreliminaries were signed but, through the remonstrances of the\nEnglish government, (as it is supposed,) the emperor refused his\nratification, and the war was continued, both in Germany and Italy\ntill the 25th of December, 1,800, when another suspension of hostil-\nities being agreed to, at Steyen, a town in Upper Austria, soon led\nto the treaty of Luneville, between the French republic and the empire,\nsigned February 9, 1801 by which the Rhine was made the boun-\ndary of the French republic, leaving the several princes dispossessed,\nin part or in whole, of their territories on the left side of the river,\nto be indemnified in the bosom of the empire the Adige, in the\nsame manner, being fixed to be the boundary between the Austrian\nterritories in Italy and the Cisalpine republic. The Grand duke of\nTuscany renounced his dukedom in favour of the infant duke of\nParma, created king of Etruria and the independence of the Bata\nvian, Helvetic, and Cisalpine republics, was recognised and guaran-\ntied by both parties.\n25. The English government had refused to enter into a naval\narmistice, though in danger of being deserted by the emperors of\nGermany and Russia, and had declined every offer of peace upon\nsuch terms, while Malta and Egypt continued in the hands of France.\nBut after the re-capture of the former, and the defeat of the French\nunder Menou, at Alexandria, in September, 1,801, both parties seem-\ned more disposed than before to enter into negotiation, with serious\nviews of bringing things to an accommodation. On March 27th,\n1,802, a definitive treaty was signed at Amiens, more favourable to\nFrance that to England, though nothing could exceed the joy ex-\npressed in the latter country, on the termination of hostilities with\nthe French republic. It was soon found to be no better than a truce\nof very short duration.\n26. The power of the French republic at this moment was enor-\nmously great, in addition to the former possessions of France, it\nhad gained the Netherlands, and a considerable portion of Germany,\nGeneva, Piedmont, and Savoy had been incorporated with it Hoi\nland and Switzerland were rendered effectually dependent upon it.\nThe Cisalpine republic, including the Milanese, the duchies of Mo-\ndena, Mantua, and Parma, and part of the Venetian and Roman ter-\nritories, was placed under the presidency of the first consul, for a\nterm uf ten years. Genoa, or the Ligurian republic, had been re-\ncovered by the treaty of Luneville Spain was entirely at the com-\nmand of France, as well as Tuscany, under its new possessor, the\nvassal king of Etruria. It had recovered also its West Indian settle-\nments, and acquired a considerable footing in South America.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0352.jp2"},"351":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. S47\nSECTION XVI.\nFRANCE, FROM THE PEACE OF AMIENS TO THE TREATY\nOF TILSIT, 1,807.\nI It has already been observed, that the first steps of the con-\nsulate were of a conciliatory nature. Endeavours were made to\npacify the rebellious departments; the law of hostage, which had\nbeen in its operation extremely vexatious, was repealed and the\nlist of emigrants closed. On the first change of the government,\nmeasures were taken to repress the violence of the jacobins, and\nawe the factious but the sentences passed on the most obnoxious\nwere afterwards mitigated.\n2. Soon after the conclusion of the peace of Amiens, the first\nconsul gave great satisfaction to the bulk of the ration, by restoring\nthe catholic religion. On Easter-day, 1,802, the peace was ratified\nin the metropolitan church, with all the sanctions of the ancient\nreligious forms, and a large attendance of new prelates. The basis\nof the convention with the pope had been settled and arranged in\nthe preceding year, upon the following principles That a new\ndivision of the French dioceses should be made, suited to the re-\npublican division of the country and that the first consul should\nnominate the new archbishops and bishops, leaving it to the pope,\nas a matter of course, to confer canonical institutions. The bishops\nto appoint the parish priests, subject to the approbation of govern-\nment. The pope to procure the ancient bishops to resign, and to\nengage not to disturb the alienated property of the church. No\nbull, rescript, c, from the court of Rome, no decrees of synods, or\ngeneral councils, to be received, or promulgated, without the consent\nof government. No national or diocesan meeting to take place with-\nout the same authority or any nuncio, legate, or vicar, to be allow-\ned to exercise his functions.\n3. Such were some of the principal articles of the concordatum\nof 1,801. The pope seemed to be glad to make any concessions\nthat might recover France from the depths of infidelity while the\narticles themselves plainly show that the first consul, in restoring\nCatholicism, had no intention to subject the nation, as heretofore, to the\ndominion of the Roman see, even in spiritual matters. A still strong-\ner proof^ however, of which, appears in the liberty afforded, at the\nsame time, to the Lutherans and Calvinists, who were placed nearly\nupon the same footing with the catholics and were even allowed to\nhave three seminaries of education two in the eastern parts of France,\nfor the Lutherans, and one at Geneva, for the Calvinists. Provision\nwas also made in the new concordatum for the supposed case ct a\nprotestant being chosen chief magistrate of the republic.\n4. On the second of August, 1,802, by an extraordinary expres-\nsion of the public will, the consulate, the term of which, in the case\nof Buonaparte and Cambaceres, had been limited to ten years, was\nconferred on the former for life. The original proposal had been\nonly to extend the term but the people in the different communes\nbeing called upon to give their opinion, voted, almost unanimous-\nly, for its being continued to the first consul for life, which wa9\nreadily sanctioned by the senate.","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0353.jp2"},"352":{"fulltext":"348 MODERN H1STOKY.\n5. This appointment was soon followed by a new form of con-\nstitution, calculated to throw greater power into the hands of the\nfirst magistrate, who was permitted, not only to nominate his col\nleagues, but to make war, form alliances, conclude peace, pardon\ncriminals, and virtually to choose the members of the legislative\nbody, by means of the senate, which was almost entirely under\nhis influence. He was careful, at the same time, to put the govern-\nments of the Cisalpine and Ligurian republics, and other newly ac-\nquired states, upon a similar footing, reserving to himself, in all cases,\nthe supreme power as first magistrate. All these steps were so art-\nfully taken, as to appear to be the regular result of popular choice\nand deliberation. Liberty, equality of civil rights, and national\nrepresentation, were professed to be the objects in view but care\nwas taken to render each dependent on the domineering influence\nand directions of the first consul. It was at this period that the Cisal-\npine was converted into the Icalian republic.\n6. Switzerland was not so easily to be brought under the French\nyoke, though its struggles for liberty and independence were finally\nunavailing. Many of the cantons displayed an almost invincible at-\ntachment to their ancient constitution, and resisted, in every way\nthey could, the menaced invasion of their rights and privileges but\nthe more they were divided amongst themselves, which unhappily\nproved to be the case to a high degree, the greater opportunity was\nafforded to the despotic ruler of France to interpose his offices to\nrestore peace, nominally as a mediator, but really and effectually to\nthe subjugation of the country, which, when reduced, was in mockery\ndeclared to be free and independent. Remonstrances on the part of\nthe English court, are supposed to have had some effect in mitigating\nthe rigour of his exactions, and rendering the new constitution pre-\npared for them, more congenial to their feelings than might other-\nwise have been the case.\n7. In 1,802, by the death of the duke of Parma, and in virtue of\na previous convention with Spain, the first consul, in the name of the\nFrench republic, took possession of the duchies of Parma, Placentia,\nand Guastalla, and incorporated them soon after with France. The\nonly son of the deceased duke of Parma, by a Spanish princess,\nhaving assigned to him by the treaty of Luneville, the Tuscan states,\nunder the title of the kingdom of Etruria.\n8. Though, by the above treaty, the indemnification of those\nprinces, whose rights and property had suffered from the progress\nof the French, seemed to be left chiefly to the decision of the diet\nof the empire, Buonaparte found means to interfere to his own ad-\nvantage, favouring those most from whom he had the most to fear, or\nwho were most likely to be subservient to his views. For the duke\nof Wirtemburgh, the landgrave of Hesse Cassel, and the margrave\nof Baden, he secured the electoral dignity while the indemnifica-\ntions were provided for by the secularization of many ecclesiastical\nstates on the right side of the Rhine.\n9. It was soon found that, by the peace of Amiens, little cordiality\nwas produced between the two nations. The first consul professed\nto be bound by that treaty only to particular specified points, and\nappeared through his agents, secret or avowed, to be preparing for\na renewal of hostilities. He had some reason, it must be confessed,\nto be offended with the liberties taken with him in some of the pub-\nlic journals of England at this time and though it can scarcely be\nsupposed that peace could be his object, yet he appears to have","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0354.jp2"},"353":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 349\nbeen provoked and irritated by the distrust of the British govern-\nment and nation. So early as the month of May, 1,803, the two\ncountries may be said to have been again in a state of war with\neach other.\n10. On this quick renewal of hostilities, the first consul had re-\ncourse to a most extraordinary measure, in detaining all the Eng-\nlish who happened to have come over to France during the peace,\nfor business or pleasure, as a sort of hostages for the future conduct\nof their country. He also projected a powerful invasion of Eng-\nland, which had only the effect of rousing the latter country to such\nvigorous and patriotic exertions as entirely to frustrate all his\nschemes and intentions. A levy en masse was proposed, subject\nto the regulations of parliament. As another act of vengeance\nagainst England, an army was sent to occupy Hanover, though the\nking, in his electoral capacity, had determined to remain neuter.\n11. The first consul had now, for some time, exercised not only\nkingly, but almost despotic power, and artfully placed himself in\nsuch a situation of control and influence, with regard to all the\npublic bodies, assemblies, and councils of the nation, that it is not\nto be wondered that he should have aspired to, and obtained, the\nhighest dignities it is in the power of a nation to bestow though,\nhad he acted with less prudence and policy, nothing certainly could\nhave occurred more surprising than the undisturbed elevation of a\nCorsican adventurer to one of the most splendid thrones of Europe.\nBy an organic senatus consultum of the 18th of May 1,804, Buona-\nparte was declared Emperor of the French. The title to be he-\nreditary, as to his immediate descendants, and, in case of failure of\nmale issue, granting him a further power to adopt the children, or\ngrand-children, of his brothers. All laws were to originate with\nthe sovereign, or to be proposed in his name and due care was\ntaken, by rendering the legislative body and tribunate dependent on\nthe senate, in the appointment of which the emperor was to have\nalmost the whole power, to prevent the passing of any laws contrary\nto his will. The imperial title thus conferred on him, was acknowl-\nedged by most of the states of Europe, though not by England.\n12. This assumption of the imperial title, by Napoleon Buona-\nparte, and the subsequent confederation of the Rhine, led the em-\nperor of Germany, Francis II., to abdicate the Germanic empire, and\nto change his title to that of emperor of Austria, thereby securing\nthe same hereditary honour to the house of Hapsburg, and at the\nsame time, not entirely resigning his political relationship to the\nstates and empire of Germany.\n13. On the 2d of December, 1,804, Napoleon was crowned, in\nthe church of Notre Dame, with extraordinary pomp and splendour,\nhaving previously invited, or rather compelled the humbled pontiff\nof Rome to be present at the ceremony, and to anoint him. His\nempress, Josephine Beauharnois, to whom he had been some time\nmarried, was crowned at the same time.\n14. One of the first acts of the new emperor was to change the\nname of the Code civil des Francois, introduced under the consular\nfovernment, for that of the Code Napoleon. His two brothers,\noseph and Lewis, and his two colleagues, Le Brun and Cambaccies,\nwere declared grand elector, constable, arch-chancellor, and arch-treas-\nurer, of the empire and the dignity of mareschal was conferred on\nthe most distinguished of his generals. But, in order to give more\nlability to his throne, or intimidate his enemies, under pretence of a\nGg","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0355.jp2"},"354":{"fulltext":"350 MODERN HISTORY\nroyalist conspiracy, he had many eminent persons brought to trial;\namong others, the two celebrated generals, Pichegru and Moreau\nThe former was, soon after, found dead in his prison, under circum-\nstances implying little less than a most deliberate murder the latter,\nan equal object of dread and alarm, and whose death was probably\ncontemplated, was permitted, however, to retire to North America.\nIt is scarcely credible, though it certainly appears upon record, that\nthe French minister at Berlin was directed to move the king of Prus-\nsia to deliver up the unfortunate Lewis XVIII., then at Warsaw, and\nto send him to France, to answer for the concern he was stated to\nhave had in this conspiracy.\n15. Having obtained the imperial dignity in France, Napoleon ap-\nE eared dissatisfied to be only president of a republic with regard to\nis Cisalpine conquests. Means were found to induce the constituted\nauthorities of the new Italian republic to offer to him the crown of\nItaly, an offer he was quite prepared to accept, as though the whole\nof that devoted country had been already subdued. On the 26th of\nMay, 1,805, he repaired to Milan, and taking the famous iron crown\nfrom the altar of the cathedral, placed it on his own head, denouncing\nvengeance against all who should dispute his right to it. Having\ndone this, he appointed the son of the empress Josephine, Beauhar-\nnois, to be his viceroy, and agreed, that upon his death the two\ncrowns should be separated. Soon after he seized upon Genoa, dis-\npossessed the doge and senators of their power, and decreed, that\nhenceforth the territories of the Ligurian republic, as it was called,\nshould be annexed to France. These rapacious proceedings at length\nprovoked a fresh confederacy against nim, so that before the year\nwas passed, not only England, but Russia, Prussia, and Austria, were\nin arms to resist his encroachments. Sweden had joined the confed-\neracy, but retired in disgust. Such, however, was the dread of the\npower or vengeance of France, that several of the German princes,\nparticularly the elector of Bavaria, sided with Napoleon, in opposi-\ntion to the emperor Francis.\n16. By sea, the power of the French and Spaniards combined failed\nof gaining any advantages over the allies. On the 21st of October,\n1,805, in the battle of 1 rafalgar, a complete victory was obtained by\nthe British fleet, under lord Nelson, who perished in the action.\nThere was a disparity in the number of ships, in favour of the French\nand Spaniards, of thirty-three to twenty-seven. On the continent,\nthe course of the war was very different. The king of Prussia was\ndilatory in his proceedings, and even treacherous. Sweden had\nwithdrawn. The emperor Francis employed an inefficient com-\nmander, if not worse, (general Mack,) and the Russians, who were\nmore in earnest, were baffled by the unsteady proceedings of their\nallies, and distressed by want of provisions, sickness, and fatigue,\nAfter the battle of Austerlitz, in December, the emperor of Austria,\nwhose capital had been in the hands of the enemy, solicited peace,\nsubmitting to surrender what had been allotted to him of the Venetian\nterritories, together with the principalities of Lucca and Piombino\nand to acknowledge Buonaparte as king of Italy. Bavaria acquired\na part of the Brisgaw and Tyrol. Such were the terms of the peace\nof Presburgh, October, 1,804.\n17. The succession of some of the German states from the empe-\nror of Austria, had, in the mean time, produced changes that require\nto be noticed. The electors of Bavaria and Wirtemburgh were\nelevated to the rank of kings of their respective countries and","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0356.jp2"},"355":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 351\nEugene Beauharnois, viceroy of Italy, son of the French empress\nJosephine, obtained in marriage the daughter of the new king of\nBavaria, though she had been previously betrothed to the prince of\nBaden.\n18. The court of Naples, during this war, through the injudK\ncious, but natural, resentment of the queen, sister to the late un-\nfortunate queen of France, had the misfortune to incur the high dis-\nEleasure of Napoleon, by admitting a British and Russian army to\nmd on its territories. The French despot lost no time in pronounc-\ning sentence on the rebellious neutral. He quickly made it known\nthat the Bourbon dynasty had ceased to reign at Naples. The royal\nfamily was compelled to retire to Palermo, and in a short time after,\nNapoleon conferred the Neapolitan crown on his brother Joseph,\nmuch to the discontent, however, of the people, who for some time\ngave him great disturbance. Joseph was proclaimed king, March\n30, 1,806.\n19. The emperor of the French had another kingdom in view for\nhis brother Lewis, constable of France. Holland had submitted to\nseveral forms of government, without obtaining that order and tran-\nquillity which was supposed to be in the contemplation of those\nwho directed her affairs. It was suggested that a monarchy would\nremedy all the disorders to which she was exposed and it was hint-\ned, too plainly to be misunderstood, that it would be agreeable to the\nemperor, if the leading persons of the state, not the community at\nlarge, would give countenance to such a change. So great was the\ninfatuation, or timidity, of the persons to whom these suggestions\nwere made, that they did not scruple to solicit the appointment of\nthe emperor s brother, who declared nimself king of Holland ac-\ncordingly, June 5, 1,806. To the credit of the new king, it should\nbe observed, that he soon fell into disgrace with his imperial brother,\nby being too lenient to his subjects, and by endeavouring to mitigate\nthe rigour of the French decrees.\n20. In the year 1,806, Napoleon succeeded in subverting the\nconstitution of the German empire, by detaching many of the prin-\ncipal states, chiefly of the western and southern divisions of Ger-\nmany, to form what was denominated The Confederation of the\nRhine by which the several princes consented to renounce the\nlaws of the empire, to contract a federative alliance with the\nFrench emperor, and to supply him with troops whenever he should\ndemand them. In consequence of this gross defection of so many\nmembers, the emperor, by a solemn edict, abdicated the govern-\nment of the Germanic empire, absolving all the electors, princes,\nand states, from the obligations by which they stood bound to him,\nas their legitimate head thereby terminating, as it were, a gov-\nernment which had subsisted for a thousand years, and been un-\ninterruptedly confided to the house of Hapsburgh from the yeai\n1,438.\n21. It seemed as if every thing, at this time, was doomed to fall\nbefore the power of the Corsican. Prussia, which had hitherto\nacted a most unwise part, in neglecting to add its weight to the\nconfederacy of 1,804, and even submitting to be cajoled into an\nalliance with France, became, in the course of the year 1,806, sen\nsible of her error but to no good purpose. She now precipitately\nentered into a war for which she was ill-prepared; with no sup-\nport but that of Saxony and having put her arnry under the com-\nmand of the duke of Brunswick, sustained two signal and almost","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0357.jp2"},"356":{"fulltext":"35U MODERN HISTORY.\nfetal defeats, at Jena and Averstadt, laying the capital open to the\nadvance of the enemy, who entered it in triumph and, being too\nwell received and entertained by the people, did not fail, as in all\nother cases, to take due advantage of their willing submission. In\nthe course of the contest, the Saxons were detached from Prussia,\nand the duke of Brunswick being wounded, and obliged to quit his\ndominions on the advance of the French, died miserably at Altona:\nNapoleon, in resentment, meanly refusing to suffer his body to be\nburied amongst his ancestors.\n22. It was during his sojournment in Berlin, November, 1,806,\nthat the French emperor dictated that extraordinary decree, de-\nclaring the British islands to be in a state of blockade, though he\nhad no naval force capable of interrupting their commerce in any\npart of the world. By this decree, the whole trade of Britain was\nproscribed no intercourse of any sort was allowed to take place\nall British subjects on the continent were threatened with arrest and\nconfiscation of property, and every port shut against English ves-\nsels, in Prussia, Denmark, the Hanse towns, Holland, Flanders,\nFrance, Spain, Italy, c.\n23. The progress of the French, in the territories of the king of\nPrussia, occasioned fresh alarm to the emperor of Russia, and to\nthe British government, and procured for Frederick that assistance\nwhich his former supineness and intrusion on the Hanoverian states\nmight very reasonably have rendered hopeless. The king of Swe-\nden was also subsidized by England, to send an army into Pome-\nrania but all the efforts of the allies were insufficient to stop the\ncareer of the French. The Russians fought many severe battles,\nat Eylau, Friedland, c, but were unable to prevent the French\ngetting possession of Dantzic and Konigsberg losses so severely\nfelt by the king of Prussia, as to compel him to conclude a separate\npeace, as a conquered enemy while Napoleon, with consummate art,\nnot only persuaded Alexander to abandon the king of Prussia to his\nfate, but to form an alliance with himself, for the further spoliation\nof the Prussian dominions, and to concur in arrangements very\nadverse to the general interests of Europe, and serviceable only to\nhis own family. By the treaty of Tilsit, July, 1^807, the emperor\nof Russia agreed to acknowledge the Rhenish confederacy, now\nconsisting of many states, and Joseph and Lewis Buonaparte, as kings\nof Naples and Holland. He suffered the French emperor to confer\non his youngest brother, Jerome, with the title of king of Westpha-\nlia, the Prussian provinces between the Elbe and the Rhine, the\nstates of Hanover, and the territories of the duke of Brunswick, and\nlandgrave of Hesse Cassel, while the greater part of Prussian Poland\nwas given to the elector (now king) of Saxony, with the title of duke\nof Warsaw and by secret articles, as it has been alleged, most of\nthe usurpations of the French, in all parts of Europe, were sanc-\ntioned and confirmed. During the whole of the years 1,806 and\n1,807, the German states were undergoing continual changes,\nthrough the overbearing tyranny of Napoleon. All the princes who\njoined the Rhenish confederation were rewarded with titles or ter-\nritorial possessions all who favoured the allies, dispossessed of\ntheir dominions, and declared enemies of France. To particularize\nall these revolutions, few of which were permanent, would exceed\nthe limits of the present work.\n24. Among other acquisitions resulting from the treaty of Tilsit,\nNapoleon recovered the Ionian islands. These islands, subsequent","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0358.jp2"},"357":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 353\nto the treaty of Campo-Formio, had been greatly agitated and dis-\nturbed, and it seemed difficult to know what to do with them. In\nMarch, 1,800, however, by a convention between Russia and the\nPorte, it was settled that Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, Ithaca, Cerigo,\nSt. Mauro, and Paxo, should be formed into one state, under the\nguarantee of the contracting parties, by the name of the Ionian\nrepublic. By the treaty of Amiens, 1,802, Napoleon engaged to\nacknowledge the Septinsular republic but, by the treaty of Tilsit,\nit was restored to him again by Russia. This treaty, in short, ap-\npeared to be dictated entirely by the despot of France. Prussia,\nabandoned by her Russian ally, suffered dreadfully. The king of\nSweden refused to become a party to this memorable convention,\nand manifested a determination to resist, to the utmost, the en-\ncroachments of the French but he had little judgment or prudence\nto direct him and he had not the means to contend against such an\nadversary as Buonaparte. After many ineffectual attempts to save\nStralsund, and keep his army in Pomerania, he was at length\ncompelled to retire, with the loss both of Stralsund and the isle of\nRugen.\nSECTION XVII.\nSPA N AND PORTUGAL FROM 1,788 TO 1,814.\n1. These two countries are by nature so connected, that though\ntheir interests are, and generally have been, very different, and\n*he people little disposed to friendly associations, yet, with regard\nto the affairs of Europe, they have very commonly been involved\nin the same troubles, and never long permitted to enjoy tranquillity,\nwhile the leading powers of the continent have been engaged in war.\nThis has been already sufficiently manifested in the history of these\ntwo contiguous kingdoms, during the former part of the eighteenth\ncentury, but has been rendered still more conspicuous by the events\nof the subsequent vears.\n2. Charles IV. of Spain, came to the crown in December, 1,788.\nwhen the French revolution was just beginning and it was not till\nsome few years after, and in the midst of the reign of terror, that\nhis kingdom became involved in the disturbances oi that great catas-\ntrophe. The Spaniards, in the year 1 ,793, offended with the vio-\nlence offered to the royal family of France, had invaded the latter\ncountry, and taken the town of Bellgarde, little foreseeing the\nspeedy and severe reprisals to which they were exposing them-\nselves. Early in the year 1,794, the French, under general Dugom-\nmier, invaded Spain, and succeeded, not only in beating the Spanish\narmy, but in securing the occupation of many places of importance.\nThese successes were not only available to the restoration of peace\nwith Spain, but procured for the French, by the treaty of 1,795, the\nSpanish portion of the valuable island of St. Domingo, in the West\nIndies, and, in 1,796, an alliance with the Spanish monarch against\nEngland, an alliance fatal to Spain in many respects her fleet be-\ning beaten by the English in battle, off the cape of St. Vincent, the\nisland of Trinidad taken from her, and retained by Great Britain\nat the peace of Amiens, and her commerce crippled and impeded\nin all parts of the world.\n3. Though she sought, by a large subsidy to France, to be per-\nGg2 4","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0359.jp2"},"358":{"fulltext":"354 MODERN HISTORY.\nmitted to remain neuter, after the renewal of the war in 1,803, yet\nshe was not long allowed to be at peace. In 1,804, the English, sus-\npicious of her close connexion with France, seized upon some of her\ntreasure ships, coming from South America, with a suddenness judg-\ned by many to be not strictly justifiable and, in 1,805, war was form-\nally declared against Great Britain. But in this new war she was\nagain doomed to suffer misfortune, her fleet being totally beaten by\nlord Nelson, on the 1st of October, 1,805, in the celebrated battle off\ncape Trafalgar. (See Sect. XVI., 16.)\n4. During the year 1 ,806, Spain appeared disposed to break with\nFrance, had any misfortune befallen the latter power but her suc-\ncesses in Prussia seem to have intimidated Spain, and to have in-\nduced her, in 1,807, through the manoeuvres of Godoy, the Spanish\nminister, who had a view to the principality of Algarves, to enter\ninto a regular treaty with France, for the partition of Portugal.\n5. Hitherto the latter country, since the elevation of Buonaparte\nto the chief magistracy, had been suffered to remain neuter. Ihe\nreigning queen having been declared insane, the power had devolved\nto the prince of Brazil, crown prince, in 1,799, who, in virtue of his\npurchased neutrality, had been able to keep his commercial relations\nwith England, unmolested by the French, till the treaty just mention\ned between the latter power and Spain.\n6. France was not long in availing herself of the permission she\nhad obtained to march an army through Spain, for the subjugation of\nPortugal. Having made demands on the regent of Portugal, with\nwhich he could not, in honour, comply, it was declared that the house\nof Braganza had ceased to reign and, shortly afterwards, the French\narmy, under general Junot, passed the frontiers. In these extremi-\nties, instigated by the English, the royal family determined to embark\nfor America. They set sail on the 21st of November, 1,807; and,\non the 30th, Junot, with his army entered Lisbon.\n7. The state of Spain, at this period, was undoubtedly such\nas to encourage the most ambitious views of the French emperor.\nNothing could exceed the weakness of the court of Madrid, or the\nconfusion of the national affairs. At the very moment of the parti-\ntion treaty, the hereditary prince, Ferdinand, who had refused to\nmarry the minister s sister-in-law, on the suggestion of the court,\nwas arrested, imprisoned, and threatened with a criminal prosecution,\nfor having secretly sought a matrimonial alliance with Buonaparte s\nfamily. This was followed by disturbances, and the imprisonment\nof the obnoxious minister, Godoy, duke of Alcudia, and, since the\nconvention of 1,795, generally called the prince of peace.\nCharles IV., harassed and distressed by these tumults, was induced-,\non the 19th of March, 1,808, to resign his crown in favour of his\nson, now become Ferdinand VII. but he soon afterwards revoked\nhis abdication, as forced upon him, and extorted by the dread of\npersonal violence. Nothing could be more directly calculated to\npromote the views of Buonaparte than these divisions, whose con-\nstant policy it was, in all cases of premeditated conquest, to promote\ndissension, in order to be called in as an arbitrator or mediator,\nwhich was the case in this instance. After Buonaparte had been\nbaffled in his hopes of compelling the king and queen to emigrate,\nthrough the resistance of the people of Spain to such a measure,\nthe whole royal family were invited to repair to Bayonne, to confer\non the state of affairs an invitation the most insidious, but which\nhad its effect. On the 14th of April Buonaparte arrived there; Fer-","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0360.jp2"},"359":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 355\ndinand on the 20th, and on the 1st of May, Charles IV. and his queen,\nafter the favourite, Godoy, had been released, on their application to\nBuonaparte.\nS. The transactions at Bayonne exceeded almost every thing to\nbe met with in any preceding history. The persons invited were\nexactly those whom Buonaparte would have been glad to have seen\ndriven into his toils- in this case they were weak enough to go\nthither of their own accord. Having the two kings completely in\nhis power and beyond the frontier of Spain, he compelled Charles\nto resume his authority, on purpose that he might resign it into the\nhands of the French, proposing, on the terms of an equivalent else-\nwhere, a similar act of renunciation on the part of Ferdinand;\nwhich the latter indignantly refusing, was at once declared to be\nexcluded from all he had, and all he might have had, and even\nthreatened with the loss of liberty. This so intimidated the degrad-\ned prince, that at length he unconditionally resigned his royal digni-\nty, first into the hands of his father, and through him, into those of\nBuonaparte, who soon obtained, though in a manner the most extra-\nordinary, the consent of most of the principal personages of the state,\nas well as of the constituted authorities, to the appointment of his\nbrother Joseph, then king of Naples, to the vacant Spanish throne,\nand to render it hereditary in the family of the usurper. In the\nmean while, Ferdinand was sent to Valancey, and afterwards to Fon-\ntainebleau, as a prisoner, and Charles and his queen to Compiegne\ntheir joint abdication of the Spanish crown was publicly announced\nat Madrid on the 20th of May, to the great disgust of the Spanish\npeople in general, who soon resolved to be revenged for the horrid\nindignities they were made to undergo.\n9. In the course of the very month in which all the transactions\nat Bayonne took place, and Joseph Buonaparte entered the capital\nof Spain as king, the national resentment was manifested by a gen-\neral rising, and insurrection in all the principal provinces; but it\nwas first in Andalusia that any thing like an organized government\nwas formed for the conduct of the war, on the part of the patriots\nthere, a provincial junta, or council of magistrates, inhabitants,\nand constituted authorities, was formed, at Seville, which led to\nother conventions of the same nature, in places least molested by\nthe French, and in all of these Ferdinand VII. was proclaimed king,\nand war openly denounced against the French, accompanied with\nproclamations and manifestoes, highly creditable to the good sense,\nspirit, ardour, and patriotism of the Spanish nation, and expressed\nin terms very different from the language to which the French ty-\nrant had been accustomed. Joseph Buonaparte entered Spain on\nthe 9th of July, 1,803, escorted by four thousand Italian troops, and\nfollowed by upwards of one hundred carriages, conveying his suite\nand the members of the junta assembled at Bayonne, to assist at hia\ninauguration. He was ill received, or rather sullenly treated by the\ninhabitants, on his passage to the capital. Joseph entered Madrid\non the 20th of July at which very time the Spaniards obtained an\nimportant victory over a French army marching upon Cadiz, which\nwere compelled to capitulate to the amount of fourteen thousand\nmen, while the French fleet at Cadiz was seized by the vigilance\nand activity of don Thomas Morla. These successes on the part\nof the Spaniards, compelled the new king to retire from the capital\nto Burgos, after plundering the treasury and securing the crown\njewels.","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0361.jp2"},"360":{"fulltext":"85C MODERN HISTORY.\n10. In the mean while, it was soon discovered that the aid of\nother powers would be wanted, in order to rescue the kingdom and\npeninsula from the grasp of Napoleon. Application was accordingly\nmade to the court of London, to the Swedes, and to the Portuguese\nand Austrians. The former paid a ready and willing attention to\nthe call and the whole British nation evinced, in an extraordinary\nmanner, the utmost desire to render effectual assistance to Spain,\nwhose cause seemed to be justly interesting to every friend of freedom.\n11. While these things were passing in Spain, a similar spirit\nhad arisen in Portugal, against the tyranny and usurpations of the\nFrench and the arrival of a British army, in the month of August,\nunder sir Arthur Wellesley, (afterwards duke of Wellington,) gave\ntimely effect to these patriotic movements. The relief of Portugal\nwas sooner accomplished than proved to be the case afterwards\nwith Spain. On the 21st of August a decisive battle took place at\nVimiera, between the French and combined armies of English and\nPortuguese in which the former were so entirely beaten as to be\nobliged to evacuate the country and which they were enabled to\ndo, by a convention concluded at Cintra, under circumstances consid-\nered far too favourable, by Europe in general, and which was re-\nsented by the people of England.\n12. The evacuation of Portugal, however, at all events, set an\narmy free for the use of Spain, which, at the latter end of the\nmonth of October, to the amount of twenty thousand men, entered\nthat country, under the command of sir John Moore the emperor\nNapoleon having quitted Paris just about the same time, to take\nthe command of the French army there. Unfortunately, the state\nof Spain at the moment of this first attempt on the part of England, to\ngive aid to the patriots, was such as greatly to embarrass the British\ncommander he had been taught (or rather, the government at home\nnad been so) to expect a strenuous co-operation on the part of the\nSpaniards; in which he was exceedingly disappointed, while he\ncontinually received advice of the augmentation of the French\nforces, to an amount fir exceeding all his calculations nor did he\nconsider even his own army so well-appointed as to enable him\nto contend, in the heart of the kingdom, whither he was directed to\nproceed, with any fair probability of success. He was evidently\ndispirited with the prospect before him; and though a perfectly\nbrave officer, felt himself so ill-supported by the Spaniards, at least,\nby those who directed the public affairs, (if not even deceived and\nbetrayed,) and so embarrassed by want of money and other supplies,\nas to be compelled to retire. The retreat of his army, though un-\nhappily disgraced by many irregularities and disorders amongst the\nsoldiery, was conducted, in the face of the enemy, (Buonaparte him-\nself being sometimes present,) with singular courage and dexterity,\ntill they reached Corunna, where, at last, the transports not being\narrived, an action with the pursuing army took place, which\nterminated in favour of the English, though with the loss of the gal-\nlant, but unfortunate, commander, whose death was greatly lamented.\nAfter this action, on the arrival of the transports, the English troops\nembariced without molestation, and on the 18th of January, 1,809,\nset sail for England.\n13. Before sir John Moore finally determined upon retiring, he\nhad learned that Buonaparte had recovered possession of the capi-\ntal, whicn, after the departure of Joseph, the patriots had endeav-\noured to fortify and defend but it was surrendered to the enemy","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0362.jp2"},"361":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 357\n^rly in the month of December, 1,808, by the temporary governor,\nDon Thomas Morla. Spain was far from being subdued at the close\nof the year 1,808, though the aspect of things was alarming, and\nthe French extremely confident of success. Joseph re-entered\nMadrid, in great pomp, in January, 1,809. In the mean time, Napo-\nleon had decreed that the inquisition should be abolished, many mon-\nasteries suppressed, and the feudal privileges abrogated.\n14. After the affair of Corunna, the French army under general\nSoult, (duke of Dalmatia,) invaded Portugal again, and was able\nto get possession of Oporto while another army, under general\nVictor, threatened Lisbon. It was at this moment that fresh troops\narrived from England, under the command of sir Arthur Wellesley,\nwho quickly recovered Oporto, and then turning against Victor,\nonce more relieved Portugal from the presence of the French. In\nTune he entered Spain, and by the 20th of July was in a situation\nto threaten Madrid on the 27th and 28th, at Talavera del Reyna,\nhe was attacked by the French under Joseph Buonaparte, assisted\nby four marshals but was able, in conjunction with the Spaniards,\nafter a very hard fought battle, to repel them with great loss.\nThough this victory was not attended with any immediate advan-\ntages, and would appear to have been rather rashly hazarded, the\nBritish general, for his great skill and conduct during the action,\nwas raised to the peerage by the title of viscount Wellington of\nTalavera.\n15. Though a central junta had been appointed in 1,808, to give\nconsistency and strength to the proceedings of the patriots, they\nwere still ill-prepared either to contend against the enemy a»one,\nor conjointly with the British. In the battle of Talavera, and after-\nwards, their movements had rather embarrassed than assisted the\noperations of the latter. It would have been well if the Spaniards,\nfrom the first, could have been prevailed upon to appoint lord Wel-\nlington generalissimo of all the forces acting against the French.\nThe latter, however, were much harassed by a sort of desultory\nwar, carried on by guerilla parties, who intercepted their supplies,\nand without attempting any regular engagement, (for which, indeed,\nthey were unfit,) were continually attacking them in the way of\nambuscade and surprise for which their superior knowledge of the\ncountry evidently gave them great advantages.\n16. It is not to be wondered that the extraordinary situation of\nSpain should occasion great embarrassment in the management of\nthe war. In the place of the supreme central junta of 1,808, a\nregency had been appointed, and the cortes assembled, but without\nsufficient effect. The Spanish armies acted without system, and the\nnation at large manifested a jealousy of their English allies, which\nprevented such a co-operation as might have brought the whole under\none command, to the evident advantage of the cause, in which they\nmust have been, though with different degrees of zeal and judgment,\nequally interested. This distrust on the part of the Spaniards ex-\nposed them also, it is to be feared, to treatment far from conciliatory\non the part of the English. The war which was renewed between\nFrance and Austria, in 1,809, drew the attention of Napoleon in\nsome degree from Spain but those differences being soon adjusted,\nearly in the year 1.810, powerful reinforcements were sent from\nFrance to the Peninsula, to reconquer Portugal, and w drive the Eng-\nlish into the sea. What has been said of Spain is by no means ap-\nplicable to Portugal in the latter country, not only a better spirit","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0363.jp2"},"362":{"fulltext":"S58 MODERN HISTORY.\nwas manifested, but the army being placed under British command,\nand regularly organized, by general lord Beresford, was soon render-\ned capable of affording very effectual aid and assistance.\n17. During the whole of the years 1,810 and 1,811, the contend-\ning armies were occupied in striving to gain advantages over each\nother, which called forth all the skill and judgment appertaining\nto the science of war. The detail, however, of the several actions\nwhich took place, of the investment and capture of the strong holds\nof the two portions of the Peninsula, do not belong to such a work\nas the present. It was not till the summer of 1,812, and after the\nvictory gained by lord Wellington over the French under marshal\nMarmont, in the battle of Salamanca, that the total expulsion of the\nFrench, and overthrow of the throne of Joseph, became a matter of\nlittle doubt. The battle of Salamanca may be said to have opened\nthe gates of Madrid once more to the patriots and allied army, and\nrestored the Spanish crown to Ferdinand. The battle was fought on\nthe 22d of July. On the 30th, lord Wellington entered Valladolid,\nthe enemy retiring before him; and on the 12th of August, Madrid\nsurrendered to the British arms. Joseph and hiu suite having pre-\nviously quitted it. Lord Wellington was received in the capital with\nthe acclamations justly due to the liberator of Spain but had the\nSpaniards themselves used the exertions they might have done,\n^Napoleon being at this time engaged in Russia,) the Peninsula\nmight probably have been sooner delivered from the French, after\nthe recovery of the capital, than proved to be the case.\n18. The latter made a stand at Burgos, which was invested by\nthe English, but after a siege of more than a month, abandoned with\nconsiderable loss the British forces being once more obliged to re\ntire as far as Ciudad Rodrigo, on the frontiers of Portugal. The\nSpaniards, however, at length appeared to be roused to a proper\nsense of their situation, and wisely confided to lord Wellington the\ntermination of this protracted war. In December, 1,812, he was\nappointed generalissimo, and distinguished by extraordinary powers.\n19. It seemed now to be practicable to end, by a decisive ac-\ntion, the contest for the possession of Spain and lord Wellington\nlost no time in seeking the opportunity. He took the field in the\nmiddle of the month of May, 1,813, and on the 21st of June, brought\nthe enemy to action on the plains of Vittoria. Never was a vie\ntory more decisive than the one obtained at this time by the com-\nbined British, Portuguese, and Spanish armies. Joseph and his\ntroops were compelled to quit the field with such extreme precipi-\ntation, as to leave behind them fifty pieces of artillery, two thousand\ncarriages of different descriptions, stores, provisions, and am immense\nbooty, consisting chiefly of the plunder of Madrid, fortunately rescued\nupon this occasion from the usurper, who was present, and very\nnarrowly escaped.\n20 After the battle of Vittoria, and the fall of the strong towns\nof St. Sebastian and Pampeluna, the British, Portuguese, and Span\nish troops crossed the Bidassoa, and entered France. Early in\nMarch, the city of Bordeaux freely opened her gates to general\nBeresford, in the name of Lewis XV III., at the same time admitting\nthe king s nephew, the duke of Angouleme. On the 10th of April,\nthe British stormed the French entrenchments near Thoulouse. On\nthe 12th, general Soult filed out of the town, under the muzzles of\nthe British guns. On the 13th, news arrived of the abdication of\nBuonaparte, and the entrance of the allied sovereigns into Paris","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0364.jp2"},"363":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 369\nU is conjectured that the French commander knew of these things\nbefore, but in the hope of gaining some advantage over the invaders\nof France, concealed it.\n21. Before the allies reached Paris, Napoleon had released Fer-\ndinand VII whose return to Spain was, however, rendered very\nunacceptable to many who had espoused his cause in his absence,\nparticularly the members of the regency and existing cortes, with\nwhose proceedings, in regard to the new constitution proposed for\nhis acceptance, he expressed himself extremely displeased; they\nhad previously refused to acknowledge a treaty concluded by Ferdi-\nnand with Buonaparte. He threw himself also into the hands of\nthose who were friends to the ancient system, which, with extreme\nbigotry, he endeavoured to re-establish in its worst forms. From\nthat time to the present the nation has been kept in a state of con-\nsiderable ferment and confusion. By a revolution in March, 1,820,\nthe cortes were restored, and the free constitution of 1,812 pro-\nclaimed and sworn to by the king. The inquisition also was finally\nabolished: but the effects of these last movements remain to be\nproved.\n22. The old king, Charles IV., died at Rome, in 1,819. The bat-\ntle of Vittoria, which relieved Spain from the presence of the\nFrench armies, restored Portugal to her former independence. On\nthe 20th of March, 1,816, the queen, Maria Isabella, died and was\nsucceeded by the present king, John VI., who had been regent\nsince 1,799, the seat of government being still at Rio de Janeiro, in\nBrazil.\nSECTION XVIII.\nFRANCE, FROM THE PEACE OF TILSIT, TO THE ABDICATION\nOF NAPOLEON 1,814.\n1. The treaty of Tilsit left Napoleon at liberty to pursue his career\nof vengeance and usurpation in other countries. He obtained by it\nsuch an influence over Russia, Austria, and Prussia, as to induce\nthem to break with England, without any other reason and as soon\nas he had thus disposed of matters in those quarters, he turned his\nviews to the Spanish peninsula, where a Bourbon dynasty still ex-\nisted. In three months after the signing of the treaty of Tilsit, he\nconcluded the famous partition-treaty with Spain, already spoken of,\nin virtue of which, French troops were to be allowed to pass into\nPortugal, for the sacrifice of that ancient kingdom and afterwards,\nno doubt, in the views and designs of the French emperor, of Spam\nitself.\n2. Of his subsequent invasion and occupation of both countries,\nand of the war for several years carried on, before he could be\ncompelled to renounce his usurped dominion in Spain, an account\nis given in the preceding section. On the 1 7th of December, 1,807,\nin the same spirit of resentment against Great Britain, which had\ndictated the celebrated decree of Berlin, declared the British isles\nto be in a state of blockade, the French emperor issued another\ndecree, at Milan, (in consequence of the British retaliatory orders\nof council, November 21st,) by which every ship which should\nsubmit to be visited by the English, or consent to any pecuniary","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0365.jp2"},"364":{"fulltext":"360 MODERN HISTORY.\nexactions whatsoever, should be liable to confiscation as a lawful\nprize; but his vengeance fell hardest upon Portugal, whose com-\nmercial and political relations with England so exasperated him,\nthat, in an audience given to the foreign ministers at Fontainebleau,\nle openly declared, that if the regent of Portugal did not within\nrwo months conform to the continental system, and totally renounce\nais connexions with England, the house of Braganza should cease to\nfeign, Such was the haughty language of this extraordinary man,\nw the face of Europe, after the convention at Tilsit\n3. In a few days after this denunciation of the Portuguese dy\nnasty, the regent closed his ports against English ship9 of all descrip-\ntions, but not in time to stop the French armies, who pressed so\nclosely upon him, that on the 29th of November, (see the preceding\nsection,) ne was obliged to quit his European dominions for Rio Ja-\nneiro, in the Brazils, and on the very next day Lisbon was occupied\nby French troops under general J unot.\n4. The short-lived kingdom of Etruria was brought to an end\nabout this time; and the queen-regent, late duchess of Parma,\nwith the king, her son, obliged to depart for Spain, her native\ncountry.\n5. In March, 1 ,808, a decree was passed in France, ordaining the\nrenewal of titles of honour, princes, dukes, counts, c, and cre-\nating a new order of hereditary nobility, as essential to an heredi-\ntary monarch. About the same time, Joseph Buonaparte was re-\nmoved from Naples, and made king of Spain and Joachim Murat,\ngrand duke of Berg, married to the sister of Napoleon, was declared\nking of Naples.\n6. The kingdoms of Naples and Italy being thus entirely in the\nhands of Buonaparte, in order to prevent their communication from\nbeing interrupted by any hostile power, he seized upon the pope s\ntemporalities, for which Pius VI. ventured to excommunicate him.\nHe had the audacity to remind the pope, in thus despoiling him,\nthat the kingdom of Christ was not of this world though the only\nreason alleged for what he had done, was, that Pius had refused to\ndeclare war against England a friendly power, and one from which\nthe pope declared he had never received the smallest injury.\n7. On the 9th of April, 1,809, war was renewed with Austria,\nand so rapid was the progress of the French, that after three severe\nactions at Abensberg, Eckmuhl, and Ratisbon, Vienna was compelled\nto capitulate on the 12th of May. The Austrians, afterwards, under\nthe archduke Charles, gained some advantages over Buonaparte\nbut, before the autumn was passed, a peace was concluded, at Vien-\nna, extremely humiliating to Francis II. To France he was obliged\nto cede the Illyrian provinces to Bavaria, Saltzburg to Saxony,\nthe whole of West Gallicia; and to Russia, East Gallicia; he was,\nmoreover, compelled to accede to the continental system against\nEngland, and to acknowledge Joseph Buonaparte as king of Spain.\n8. But as if these concessions were not sufficient to mortify the\npride of the head of the empire, and representative of the house of\nHapsburgh and Lorraine, the French emperor, to the surprise of\nEurope, demanded and obtained in marriage the daughter of Fran-\ncis II., the archduchess Maria Louisa, having previously been, with\ngreat form, divorced from the empress Josephine, with her own\nconsent, for the express purpose of forming a connexion of higher\nhopes, and affording a prospect of an heir to his newly acquired im-\nperial dominions. The marriage took place at Paris, April 2, 1,810.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0366.jp2"},"365":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 361\n9. Intent upon providing for every branch of his family, the\ngrand duchy of Tuscany was revived by Napoleon, in K809, and\nconferred on his sister Eliza, princess of Lucca and Piombino,\nThe grand duchy of Berg, vacated by the removal of his brother-\nin-law, Joachim Murat, to the throne of Naples, was given to Louis,\nhis nephew, son of the king of Holland and on the 17th of May\nthe pope s temporalities were declared to be incorporated with the\nFrench dominions, and the title of king of Rome appropriated to the\nimperial prince, neir to the French empire. The situation of the\npapal territories, between the kingdoms of Italy and Naples, was\nsuch as in hostile hands might be made use of to intercept the com-\nmunication between the two and therefore the pope, who appeared\nfriendly to England, was of necessity to be despoiled of his domin-\nions, but to receive a revenue of two millions of francs. The new\nconstitutional government was to be in full activity and force on the\n1st of January, 1,810. On the 14th of January, 1,810, the elector-\nate of Hanover was annexed to the dominion of the emperor s\nbrother, Jerome, king of Westphalia and on the 20th of March,\n1,811, Napoleon was gratified with the birth of a son, who, accord-\ning to the arrangements already spoken of, was immediately digni-\nfied with the title of king of Rome.\n10. In June, 1,812, Napoleon, offended with some parts of the\nconduct of the emperor of Russia, who had begun to appreciate\nmore justly the character of the artful and ambitious Corsican,\nonce more declared war against him, having influence, besides, to\nprevail upon Prussia and Austria to join him. His advance towards\nthe Russian dominions was most rapid but, considering the distance\nto which he was carrying his army, and the inveterate hatred and\nindignation he had excited by his bold threats against his imperial\nadversary, his subjects, and his empire, extremely rash. His power,\nit is true, was immense. 400,000, infantry, 60,000 cavalry, and 1,200\npieces of artillery (Germans, Polanders, Dutch, Swiss, Italians,\nSpaniards, and Portuguese, being numbered amongst his troops;\nbut nothing could exceed the anger and resentment of the Rus-\nsians.\n11. On the 9th of May the French ruler left St. Cloud; on the\n24th of June he crossed the Niemen, and on the 14th of September\nattained his grand object of entering the capital of the Muscovite\ndominions. But his reception was far from being such as he ex-\npected, or such as he had met with in other capitals. The city was\nfired by order of the governor, and by the hands of the enraged in-\nhabitants and the French had only ruins to occupy, in a latitude to\nwhich they were totally unaccustomed, and with all the horrors of\nSiberian winter before them.\n12. On the 10th of October, after having solicited an armistice,\nand proposed peace, both of which were peremptorily refused.\nBuonaparte and his disappointed army began their dreary and\nperilous march back to France. Nothing could exceed the diffi-\nculties and distresses to which they were exposed, from the severi-\nties of the weather and climate, and the attacks of the Russians,\nfrom Moscow to the capital of Lithuania, where they arrived on\nthe ICth of December. On the 6th, the emperor Napoleon totally\nabandoned bis harassed army to its fate, having quitted it at Smor-\ngonie in disguise destroyed the bridges by which he passed, regard-\nless of those he left behind and traversing Poland and Germany,\nmade the best of his way to Paris, where he arrived at midnight,\nHh 46","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0367.jp2"},"366":{"fulltext":"362 MODERN HISTORY.\nDecember 18, having lost, or rather sacrificed, upwards of 150,000\nmen, including prisoners, 167,500.\n13. It was naturally expected that this total defeat of all his\nprojects in regard to Russia, together with the miserable condition of\nhis army when it reached the confines of France, would have termi-\nnated his giddy career of pride and ambition but in this the world\nwas deceived. In the following year, he eagerly resumed hostilities,\nbut manifestly to great disadvantage. Though he was readily fur-\nnished with a fresh army, amounting to 350,000 men, he had soon\nopposed to him not only Russia, but Austria, Prussia, and Sweden,\nsubsidized by England. Several of the confederates of the Rhine\nventured to abandon his cause and it became very apparent that\nthe allied powers were more in earnest and more united now than\non any former occasion. Many battles were fought in the course of\nthe summer, with doubtful success, till, at last, the great Battle of\nNations, as it has fitly enough been called, took place at Leipzig,\nin which the French sustained so signal a defeat, as seemed evidently\nto prognosticate the ruin and discomfiture of the great disturber of\nEurope. This celebrated battle, or succession of engagements,\ntook place on the 16th, 18th, and 19th days of October. Leipzig\nwas taken only two hours after Buonaparte had effected his escape.\nThe king of Saxony and all his court were captured by the allies;\na French garrison of 30,000 men, besides 22,000 sick and wounded,\nwith the French magazines, artillery, and stores. The emperor of\nRussia, the king of Prussia, and crown prince of Sweden, each at\nthe head of their respective troops, made their entry into the town\nat different points, after the engagement of the 19th, and met in the\ngreat square, amidst the universal acclamations of the people.\nust before the battle of Leipzig, the allies derived great advantage\nfrom the defection of the kings of Bavaria and Wirtemberg, and the\ngrand duke of Baden, from the cause of France, and the consequent\njunction of 55,000 of the Bavarian troops and during the action of\nthe 18th, a party of the Saxons, bringing with them 22 guns, desert-\ned to the crown prince of Sweden, and desired to be led directly\nagainst the French. So much was the aspect of things changed with\nregard to the destinies of Buonaparte, who, on his return to Paris,\nhad but too much reason to declare, (as he did in his speech to the\nsenate on the 14th of November,) Ail Europe was with us a year\nago, all Europe is now against us.\n14. The immediate consequences of the victory at Leipzig were,\nthe dissolution of the new-erected kingdom of Westphalia, and the\ngrand duchies of Berg and Frankfort. The dukes of Brunswick\nand Hesse Cassel recovered their dominions, and the prince of\nOrange was not merely restored to his stadtholderate in Hollandj\nbut proclaimed sovereign of the United Netherlands. On the 2d ot\nDecember, 1,813, the allies passed the Rhine; the southern frontier\nof the Pyrenees having been invaded by the British and Portuguese\nin October preceding.\n15. Though four great armies of the allies were now within the\nterritories of France, their work was not accomplished. The\nFrench generals, and Buonaparte himself, who, in a very affecting\nmanner, quitted Paris on the 25th of January, 1,814, interrupted\nthe progress of the Russians, Prussians, and Austrians, endeavoured\nto prevent, in every way they could, their advance upon the capital;\nbut all their exertions proved vain, though the attainment ot that\ngreat object was deferred for some months, It was not till the 3JSK","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0368.jp2"},"367":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 363\nday of March, that their triumph may be said to have been cc Deplet-\ned on that day the emperor of Russia and the king of Prussia, at\nthe head of their respective armies, entered Paris in the most solemn\nand imposing manner. On the 2d of April, Buonaparte was formally\ndeposed by the senate, and on the 1 1th he was permitted to abdicate,\nupon terms judged by many to be far too favourable. He was al-\nlowed to retire to Elba, (a residence of his own choice,) retaining his\nimperial titles, and having that island and its dependencies assigned to\nhim as sovereign, with a revenue of two millions of francs. The duch-\nies of Parma, Guastalla, and Placentia, were at the same time secured\nto the empress Maria Louisa, and her descendants, and provision\nmade for all his other relations. Buonaparte, having previously had\na guard appointed, set out on the 20th for the seat of his new and\nvery reduced dominions, much exposed occasionally on his passage to\npopular resentment\n16. On the the entrance of the allies, they were careful in their\nmanifestoes to distinguish between the French people, or nation at\nlarge, and the tyrant whom they had conspired to overthrow and\nevinced the strongest disposition to bury in oblivion, with becoming\nmagnanimity and forbearance, the numberless insults and injuries\nthey had received at the hands of the French, while under the do-\nminion of their now prostrate foe. They took no steps to force upon\nthem the exiled family, but left the settlement of their government\nand constitution entirely to the senate and provisional administration.\nThe Bourbons had been proclaimed in the south, and the count\nd Artois appeared at Paris on the 13th of April; but the recal of\nthe king was the work of the French themselves, as we shall have\noccasion to observe in a subsequent section.\nSECTION XIX.\nPOLAND, FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE EIGH-\nTEENTH CENTURY TO THE TREATY OF VIENNA, 1,815.\nI. No country in Europe has suffered more from a faulty constitu-\ntion than the kingdom of Poland. No country has afforded more\nconvincing proofs of the mischiefs appertaining to an elective mon-\narchy, the constant source not only of internal commotions, cabal,\nand intrigue, but the occasion generally, upon every vacancy, of\nforeign interference. At no era did Poland suffer more, perhaps,\nfrom this combination of evils, tlin towards the commencement\nof the eighteenth century nor has she ever since been able to re\ncover her independence. The arbitrary, though not unprovoked,\nproceedings of Charles XII. of Sweden, in 1,704, when he deposed\nAugustus, and insisted upon placing Stanislaus on the throne, in despite\nof Austria and Russia, plainly snowed how little power a divided\ncountry possesses against the encroachments of an ambitious neigh-\nbour, and how naturally the interference of one such neighbour\nexposes the invaded country to similar measures on the part of\nothers for Augustus himself had been previously forced upon the\nPoles by Russia. From the above period to the present day Poland\nhas been exposed to a continual recurrence of such events and to\npromote the views of a combination of foreign potentates, kept in a\nstate of internal disunion and distraction, constantly favourable to\ntheir ambitious designs.","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0369.jp2"},"368":{"fulltext":"S64 MODERN HISTORY.\n2. Augustus, elector of Saxony, who was deposed in 1 ,704, and\ncompelled formally to abdicate the throne by the treaty of Alt-\nRanstadt, in 1,706, was restored by the assistance of Russia, after\nthe battle oi Pultawa in 1,709, and reigned for the space of twenty-\nfour year9, dying in 1,733. (Sect. I.) His reign was far from being\nan happy one he offended the Poles by the introduction of Saxon\ntroops, and by residing too much away from them in his electoral\ndominions he lived in the midst of factions and conspiracies, being\ncontinually at war with the dissidents or anti-catholics, while he totally\nfailed in his endeavours to render himself absolute, or the crown he-\nreditary in his family.\n3. The war which arose upon the death of Augustus, has been\nalready noticed. Had the Poles been wise enough to remedy that\ngreat defect in their constitution, which rendered the crown elec-\ntive, they could not have done better, perhaps, than to have made\nit hereditary in the person and family of Stanislaus Lescinsky, the\nprincipal competitor of the house of Saxony, he being a Pole by\nbirth, and very amiable in his private character but they were nc\nlonger their own masters; and they were divided amongst them-\nselves to such a degree as to render the interposition of some foreign\npower almost necessary to determine their choice. Upon this oc-\ncasion the emperor of Germany, whose niece the young elector of\nSaxony had married, assisted by the Russians, overcame the French\ninfluence which had been exerted in favour of Stanislaus, and, by\neffectually removing the latter, procured the election to fall on the\nson of the late king, Augustus III.\n4. This king of Poland, on the death of the emperor Charles VI.,\n1,~40, laid claim to the whole Austrian succession and not altogether\nwithout reason, had not the Pragmatic Sanction stood in his way,\nhis wife being the eldest daughter of the emperor Joseph, elder\nbrother of Charles V T I. the object of the Pragmatic Sanction being\nto secure the inheritance to the females, in default of male issue\nand on the demise of Charles VI., his daughter becoming his immedi-\nate heir and representative, it certainly appeared hard that the\ndaughter of the elder brother, who had been emperor, should be so\nentirely excluded. The hope of succeeding to some part, at least,\nof the late emperor s hereditary dominions, induced the king of Po-\nland to enter into a confederacy with Bavaria, Prussia, and France,\nagainst the house of Austria but he derived no advantage from the\nalliance he afterwards changed sides, and at the commencement of\nthe seven years war, as has been before shown, (Sect. VI.) suffered\nmost severely for having espoused the case of the empress queen,\nand entertained views against Prussia, which the wary sovereign of\nthe latter country found means to detect, and cruelly to revenge.\n5. It was not likely that a king who owed his election so entirely\nto the interference of foreign powers, should acquire any thing\nlike independence, or authority at home or abroad. During the\nreign of Augustus III. great feuds and animosities prevailed among\nthe Magnats, while the king himself was entirely subject to the\ninfluence of Russia a circumstance so resented by his subjects as\nto induce them to avail themselves of the privilege of the Liberum\nVeto, to dissolve all the diets he convoked, and thus leave the king-\ndom almost without any government. Augustus III. died in the year\n1.7G3, at a period when the Russian sceptre had passed into hands\nwell fitted to promote, in every vyay possible, (just or unjust,) its\naggrandizement and splendour. Catherine II. is supposed to nave","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0370.jp2"},"369":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 36i\nhad her eyes upon Poland before the demise of Augustus, and to\nhave been prepared not only to set aside the son of the hitter, but to\nadvance to the vacant throne some creature of her own she paid no\nattention therefore tc the solicitations of the house of Saxony, and was\nvery shortly relieved, indeed, from all competition in that quarter^\nby the early death of the new elector. In conjunction with Prussia\nshe succeeded, but not without a spirited opposition on the part of a\nfew Polish patriots, in bestowing the crown of Poland on count Po-\nniatowski, one of her favourites, and a Pole by birth a man of talent,\nand amiable in his disposition, but likely to continue, as well as his\npredecessor, entirely under her control.\n6. Nothing could be a greater mockery than the care which the\nczarina and the king of Prussia pretended to take of the liberties ot\nPoland, at the very moment that they were forcing upon the nation\na king of their own choice and nomination. So far from trying\nto amend their faulty constitution, and eradicate the seeds of future\nanimosities, they particularly entered into an agreement to prevent\nthe king rendering the crown hereditary in his family, or becoming\nabsolute that is, in fact, i?idependent, or powerful for this was their\ngreat object. And when it was to be submitted to the diet to ap-\nprove their nominee, and declare count Poniatowski king, a Rus-\nsian army was sent to Warsaw, to support i\\\\e freedom of the election.\nThe. choice of the diet of course was soon decided to be in favour of\nthe Russian favourite, who became king accordingly, September 7,\n1 ,764, under the name and title of Stanislaus Augustus.\n7. From this period, the three neighbouring powers, Russia,\nPrussia, and Austria, the two former, however, most particularly,\nmay be said to have been interested in the internal dissensions of\nthat unhappy kingdom, which afforded them plausible grounds of\ninterference, and which they could therefore have no sincere incli-\nnation to allay or adjust till they had effectually gained their own ends\nthe object of Russia probably was to maintain her own power and\nascendancy over the whole country but Prussia meditated a parti-\ntion, which might put her into possession of Polish or Western Prus-\nsia, a district of much importance in every point of view.\n8. Whatever may have been originally the distinct views of the\nseveral parties, it is very certain that they derived peculiar advan-\ntages from the extremely unsettled state of the country, which was\nat this time torn to pieces by the contests and disputes between the\ncatholics and dissidents, or dissenters from the established religion\nthe latter, who since the middle of the sixteenth century had ac-\nquired many privileges, were supported by several different foreign\npowers those of the Greek church by Russia, and the protestants\nof all persuasions by Prussia, Denmark, and Great Britain, all of\nwhom were called upon to interpose as guarantees of the famous\ntreaty of Oliva, 1,660. The diet, instigated by the court of Rome\nand heads of the church, judged it right to uphold the established\nfaith, and Stanislaus, though his principles were more tolerant and\nliberal, appeared to take the same side, being jealous also of the too\ngreat power of Russia, of which he could not fail to be continually\nreminded, not only by the open favour shown to tne dissidents by\nCatheiine, but by the insolent superiority assumed by her general,\ncommanding in Poland, prince Repnin, and the extremely arbitrary\nand sanguinary manner in which the empress sought to maintain her\npreponderance.\n9. In the mean while confederacies were forming in all pa. ts of\nHh2","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0371.jp2"},"370":{"fulltext":"SC6 MODERN HISTORY.\nthe kingdom to restore, if possible, the independence of the!*\ncountry, (such at least was the object of the catholics,) or to pro-\ncure for the protestants all the rights and privileges to which tney\nlaid claim, and of some of which they had been unjustly deprived.\nThe latter, under prince Radzivil, supported by Russian troops,\ncompelled the diet of Warsaw, in the year 1,767, to accede to\ntheir demands this hastened the grand confederacy of the catho-\nlics at Bar, in Podolia, in 1,768, whose object was to throw off the\nRussian yoke, with the aid of Turkey, who had been induced by\nFrance to declare war against the Russians in that very year, upon\nhe occasion of the latter having passed their frontier in pursuing\na Polish party, and committed considerable depredations.\n10. Though the confederate catholics had clearly the good of\ntheir country in view, yet such was the influence of Russia, that\nthe king and senate were compelled by Catherine to declare war\nagainst the Porte, and so far to counteract, as much as possible,\nthe efforts that were making to accomplish their own independence,\nIn Austria, indeed, during this stage of the business, the confede-\nrates at Bar had a friend in Maria Theresa, who espoused the\nclaims of the Saxon family, and who sent them both arms and\nmoney, to enable them to check, if possible, the domineering pro-\nceedings of the czarina, of which indeed she had good cause to be\njealous. But the time was approaching in which, notwithstanding\nthe most striking and formal declarations to the contrary, Poland\nwas to become a prey to her three more powerful neighbour s, and\nwhen all other feelings were to give way to that of duly apportion-\ning and dividing the spoils of that unhappy country.\n11. It seems now to be pretty generally agreed, that the plan\nct dismembering this unfortunate kingdom originated with the Ring\nof Prussia, or his brother, prince Henry; and that it was owing to\nparticular circumstances that they were able to bring the two other\nparties so readily to acquiesce in their measures ol partition. Had\nFrederick himself been more rapacious, it would probably not have\nbeen so easily accomplished, but, in order to gain what he most\ncoveted, for his own share, he appeared willing to allow the other\niwo partitioning powers to acquire rather more than fell to his lot,\nboth in extent of territory and amount of population. In admitting\nAustria to any share at all, he made no scruple to assert that his\n^lincipal motive was, that she should bear her part in the blame\nthat must attach to so arbitrary and rapacious an act.\n12. Though the Polish king and nation were compelled to ac-\nquiesce in these proceedings of the three powers, they did not do\nso without remonstrating in terms the most striking and dignified,\naccompanying their remonstrances and manifestoes with an open\nappeal to the several states which had guarantied the integrity of\nPoland but all in vain. They obtained no assistance from foreign\nstates, no abatement of their demands on the part of the par-\ntitioning powers, and were at length obliged, by a solemn diet, to\nsanction this gross dismemberment of their country. In two seve-\nral discussions of the case, however, in the senate, and assembly\nof Nuncios, the minority on the division was most numerous and\nrespectable. In the former, the question was carried by a major*\nity of six only, in the latter by one. The motive alleged by the\npartitioning powers, for this extraordinary proceeding was, that they\nwere anxious to amend the constitution, to preserve the liberties\nof Poland, and to appease the disorders which had for so long a","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0372.jp2"},"371":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 367\nspace of time disturbed the country, but they fulfilled none of these\npretended purposes. They did nothing to amend the constitution,\nbut imposed a new one upon them, fraught with those very\nimperfections, of which they might for ever continue to take ad-\nvantage. They perpetuated the elective monarchy, abridged\nmore than ever the authority of the king, and continued the libc-\nrum veto, a sort of tribunitial privilege, exceedingly inimical to\nthe peace of the country. So far from upholding, they trampled\nupon their liberties in every way they could, and promoted the dis-\norders they pretended to remove, by encouraging, rather than\nchecking, the licentious conduct of their soldiery. In fact, a\ngreater act of atrocity, or a more barefaced mockery of national\nfeelings, never perhaps took place, or was even attempted, than in\nthe dismemberment of the kingdom of Poland. Austria and Prus-\nsia did, indeed, make an attempt to vindicate their claims to the\ncountries they took possession of; but Russia scarcely judged it\nnecessary to make any declaration to that effect. The archives of\nPrussia and Hungary were ransacked, and titles revived and in-\nsisted upon, which, to say the least, had been in abeyance for many\ncenturies. How far this measure may justly be said to have affected\nthe balance of power in Europe, is a distinct case. For a long series\nof years, if not of ages, Poland had been so ill governed, or so weak,\nas to have had little influence on that balance, though her situation\nseemed to point her out, and still appears to do so, as capable of ma-\nterially influencing or counteracting the operations of her many pow-\nerful and ambitious neighbours, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Turkey\nThe worst consequence, however, arising from the confederacy\nagainst Poland, seems to have been the countenance thereby given\nto the partitioning system in general.\n13. It was in the year 1,773 that the division was finally agreed\nto, and settled, and even sanctioned by the Polish diet. Of some-\nwhat more than thirteen thousand square German leagues of terri-\ntory, the partitioning powers took a good third, taking at the same\ntime no measures to lessen the evils arising from the defective con-\nstitution of Poland, in the portion allotted to the natives. It must\nbe acknowledged, that they bestowed great pains on the improve-\nment of their respective shares but no benefits of this nature, con-\nferred on particular parts of the country, could compensate for the\nunfeeling depredations committed upon the whole.\n1 4. The following has been given as a fair representation of the\nparts allotted to the several powers, by the delegates appointed to\nadjust the respective claims. Other accounts, indeed, are extant,\nwhich it would be difficult to attempt to reconcile with the one\nwe are about to give a very exact statement, however, may not\nbe necessary. The Russian allotment consisted of Polish Livonia,\nparts of the palatinates of Witepsk, Polotsk, and Minsk, and the\nwhole palatinate of Micislaw, containing a population of 1,500,000\nsouls. The king of Prussia obtained the district called Royal, or\nWestern Prussia, excepting the towns of Dantzic and Thorn, with\na population of 860,000 souls. Austria gained a large territory in\nthe south of Poland, comprising Red Russia, Gallicia, and parts of\nthe palatinates of Cracow, Sandomir, Lublin, Bezk, Volhynia, and\nPodolia, containing a population of 2,500,000 souls, and the valuable\nsalt-woks of Vielitzka, which produced an annual revenue of £90,000.\nThis district was annexed to the Austrian territories, under the an-\ncient appellation of the kingdoms of Gallicia and Lodomeria. Such","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0373.jp2"},"372":{"fulltext":"3M MODERN HISTORY.\nwere the results of what is now distinguished by the name of the\nfirst partition of Poland.\n1 5. The little assistance Poland received to ward off the disgrace\nand misery of this first partition, the extraordinary apathy with\nwhich it seemed to be beheld by the other powers of Europe, left\nlittle hopes of her regeneration, or escape from the toils into which\nshe had fallen nor indeed has she ever escaped from them, or\nrecovered the smallest degree of independence. After the first\npartition, the object she had most to dread was some accidental\ndisunion of the partitioning powers, who would be sure to wreak\ntheir vengeance upon her; and an event of this very nature seems\nto have been the cause of what has been called the second parti-\ntion, in 1,793. Russia and Austria, in the years 1,787 and 1,788, by\ntoo close an alliance, having given umbrage to the king of Prussia,\nhe insisted that the constitution formed for Poland, in 1,773, was\nvoid, and offered to assist the Poles in framing a new one, which\nwas completed under his auspices, May 3, 1,791. Had this consti-\ntution been able to keep its ground, Poland, so much of it at least\nas remained to the natives, might have recovered some degree of\ncredit and freedom it was in a great measure the work of real\npatriots, enlightened and moderate reformers it abolished the\nliberum veto, and the elective monarchy, except in the case of the\nextinction of some hereditary dynasty; it rendered the person of\nthe king inviolable, but gave him responsible ministers it provid-\ned a representative senate, not much differing from the English\nhouse of commons. Unhappily, this good work found enemies\namongst the ancient nobles, who did not like to give up their pre\ntensions to royalty, and who had recourse to the old and ruinou9\nexpedient of inviting foreign help, always at hand to avail itself\nof the internal commotions of that devoted country. Russia was\ncalled in, by the confederates of Targovitz, and a renewal of losses\nand calamities ensued of course. The king of Prussia, so far from\nsupporting the new constitution, the diet, or the king, as he seem-\ned absolutely bound to do, by his own acts, eagerly seized upon the\ntowns of Dantzic and Thorn, which had been specially excepted\nin the last partition, joined the czarina, in her efforts against the\npatriots, under the brave Kosciusko, and finally succeeded in pre-\nvailing over a country, which, from the enthusiasm and spirit dis-\nplayed on this occasion in her defence, deserved a better fate. By\nthe second partition, in 1,793, Russia is said to have acquired 4,000\nGerman square miles of territory, in Volhynia, Lithuania, Podolia,\nand the Ukraine and Prussia, besides the towns of Dantzic and\nThorn, 1 ,000 square miles in south Prussia, with all the Hanseatic\ntowns. A third and last partition soon followed, in the year 1,795,\nbetween Russia, Prussia, and Austria, which may be said to have\nput an end to the kingdom and republic of Poland Stanislaus, its\nunhappy monarch, being removed to Russia, where he soon after\ndied, February 12, 1,798, In this last partition, Cracow was given\nto Austria, and Warsaw to Prussia. From the resistance of the\nnatives, who gained greater advantages in many engagements than\ncould have been expected from the nature of their force, the slaugh-\nter accompanying these latter revolutions was dreadful, and on the\npart of the Russians attended with circumstances of cruelty too\nmuch resembling what had taken place in 1,772.\n16. It would be difficult to describe the state of Poland, from\nthe period of the last partition, in 1,795, to the treaty of Vienna, in","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0374.jp2"},"373":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 369\n1,815. The injuries the natives had experienced at the hands of\nthe three partitioning powers very naturally disposed them to ac-\ncept any offers from the enemies of their oppressors and, as Buo-\nnaparte had frequent opportunities of making such offers, It is not\nto he wondered that he should have obtained their assistance, and\nsubjected them, more or less, to his government and control but\nas he was only at times in opposition to, and as often allied with\none or other of the three powers, Russia, Austria, or Prussia, he\nwas never able to propose their entire emancipation, even if he had\ndesired it. Thus continually deceived and mortified, they derived\nno advantage from the aid they gave to France, if we except that ten-\ndency towards the recovery of a separate existence, (for it can\nscarcely be called more,) the creation of the grand duchy of War-\nsaw, in 1,807, which, by the treaty of Tilsit, and with the consent\nof Buonaparte, was consigned to the king of Saxony the emperor\nof Russia at the same time acquiring much of Poland from Prussia.\n[n 1,812, the kingdom was declared by the diet of Warsaw to be re-\nestablished; and by the treaty of Vienna, in 1,815, being formally\ndelivered up by the king of Saxony, it became annexed to Russia\nand was declared to be, irrevocably attached to it by its constitution,\nto be possessed by his majesty the emperor of all the Russias, his\nheirs and successors in perpetuity. The part assigned to Prussia\ntook the name of the grand duchy of Posen. The salt-mines of\nVielitzka were confirmed to the emperor of Austria, and such dis-\ntricts as had been acquired by the treaty of Vienna, in 1,809. The\ntown of Cracow was declared to be for ever a free, independent, and\nstrictly neutral city, under the protection of Austria^ Russia, and\nPrussia. The navigation of the rivers and canals, in all parts of an-\ncient Poland, (as it existed in the year 1,772,) was by particular\ntreaties, between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, declared to be free,\nso as not to be interdicted to any inhabitant of the Polish provinces,\nbelonging to either of the three powers.\nSECTION XX.\nGREAT BRITAIN, FROM THE PEACE OF AMIENS, 1,802, TO\nTHE DEATH OF GEORGE III., 1,820.\n1 Before one year had passed from the conclusion of the peace\nof Amiens, circumstances took place which too plainly indicated a\nstrong probability of the renewal of hostilities, and so early as the\nmonth of May, 1803, letters of marque and reprisal were again is-\nsued against the French, by the Britisn government, apparently\nwith the full consent of the people at large, notwithstanding the\nenthusiastic joy which had been expressed on the termination of\nthe war in the year preceding. It was upon this occasion that the\nfirst consul had recourse to a measure, singular in its nature, and\nwhich exposed many persons and families to great inconvenience.\nHe forcibly detained all the English who happened to be in France,\nnot only for purposes of business, but of pleasure or curiosity nor,\nwith very few exceptions, were any of them able to return to their\nnative country, for the long space of ten or eleven years. Prepa-\nrations also were made for the invasion of England, which only ex-\ncited a stronger disposition, on the part of the latter country, to pre-\n47","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0375.jp2"},"374":{"fulltext":"370 MODERN HISTORY.\npare against such attempts, in a way well calculated to destroy af\nonce all the enemy s hopes and prospects of success, in Ireland,\nindeed, a new conspiracy was set on foot, which was supposed to\nrest on some promised support from France but this was denied by\nthe conspirators themselves, and the disturbance soon quelled, with-\nout spreading, in fact, beyond the capital.\n2. Though the king of Great Britain had declared, that, with\nregard to his electoral states, he should remain neuter, Buonaparte\ndid not neglect such an opportunity of wounding his feelings, by\nthe speedy occupation of Hanover, under circumstances peculiarly\naggravating to the people. Early in the month of June, 1,803, the\nHanoverian troops were made to lay down their arms, and engage\nnot to serve against the French without a previous exchange.\n3. Holland was still too much under subjection to France, to be\npermitted to remain at peace; letters of marque were, therefore,\nalso issued against the Batavian republic, on its refusal to agree to a\nperfect neutrality.\n4. In 1,804, a change of ministry in England brought Mr. Pitt\nagain into power, at a moment when the affairs of the continent,\nand the increased power of the first consul, who, in the course of\nthe same month, assumed the imperial dignity, demanded all his\nattention. Before the conclusion of the year, the aid which Spain\nwas compelled to render to the French, together with certain ap-\npearances of hostile preparations in her ports, exposed her to an\nattack on the part of Great Britain, which soon drew from her a\ndeclaration of war, very fatal to her interests, though scarcely to\nbe avoided, considering the circumstances in which she had been\nplaced by the extraordinary proceedings and demands of the British\ngovernment, which was supposed to have violated the strict rules\nof justice, if not of international law, by arbitrarily and prematurely\nseizing her treasure-ships, on their passage to her ports, in an action\nperfectly unforeseen and unexpected, and in which many lives were\nlost.\n5. But if the character of the British nation or government suf\nfered in any respect from errors or mistakes ia the commencement\nof the war, its naval power and credit were nighly advanced be-\nfore a year had passed, by the splendid victory obtained over the\nSpanish and French fleets combined, off cape Trafalgar, in Octo-\nber, 1,805; a victory not achieved, however, without a correspon-\ndent loss, as has been before stated, in the death of the very cele-\nbrated lord Nelson, commander of the British squadron, who fell\nearly in the action, and whose body, being afterwards brought to\nEngland, was buried with very unusual honours in the centre of\nSt. Paul s cathedral.\n6. In 1,806 died Mr. Pitt; a minister whose extraordinary talents\nand integrity of life attached to him many friends and adherents,\nby whom he was ably supported through a very arduous contest\na contest which, though some thought it might have been avoided,\nothers as confidently regarded as entirely just and necessary, and\na timely security against the propagation of revolutionary princi-\nples, more threatening and dangerous than any aggressions purely\nhostile. It is always easy to say, such and such events would not\nhave happened, had a different course from the one actually adopted\nbeen pursued but this is at best mere matter of surmise. It is im-\npossible now to speak decisively of what might or might not have\nbeen the consequences of a longer forbearance from war; it is ex","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0376.jp2"},"375":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. S71\ntremely certain that many untoward circumstances prevented the\naccomplishment of all that Mr. Pitt had in view, and that the power\nof the French emperor, instead of being checked, was advancing\nwith rapid strides to a pitch of uncontrollable and extended domin-\nion, when the former was seized with that illness which terminated\nnis life, in the forty-seventh year of his age. On his death, a new\nadministration was formed, including his great parliamentary oppo-\nnent, Mr. Fox, who survived him for the short space of only seven\nmonths. It is highly creditable to the character of the British nation\nto record, that these two eminent statesmen, who had been for a long\ntime so much opposed to each other, but whose abilities and sinceri-\nty in an opposite line of politics appear to have been duly acknowl-\nedged and appreciated by all parties at the period of their deaths,\nwere buried at the public expense, in Westminister Abbey, so near\nto each other, that one stone might have covered the remains of\nboth.\n7. During the short time that Mr. Fox was a member of adminis-\ntration, fresh attempts were made to terminate the war, by negotia-\ntion, but in vain. Though the French emperor would have agreed\nto many cessions of importance, both to Great Britain and her\nally, the emperor of Russia, it was found impossible to detach from\nhis influence and usurped authority some of the most important\nparts of Europe, particularly Holland, Switzerland, Italy, and Ger-\nmany.\n8 The system so generally adopted by the tyrant of France, of\nconverting to his own use the resources of all other countries,\nwhich could in any manner be rendered subservient to his purpose,\nled the administration which succeeded that in which Mr. Fox had\na share, to set on foot an expedition which has been judged by\nmany incapable of justification on any principles of political expe-\ndiency, and which was unfortunately attended with more fatal con-\nsequences than were at first perhaps contemplated. Upon what in^\nformation the ministry proceeded did not fully appear at the time,\nbut it was alleged that they had reason to know that the French ruler\ndesigned to occupy Holstein, and convert to the purposes of an in-\nvasion of the British dominions the Danish marine.\n9. It was determined, in order to prevent such an accession to the\nlaval power of France, to obtain possession of the fleet on which the\nmemy had thus fixed his view, and though it might perhaps have\nbeen both hoped and expected by the British government, that the\nDanes would be brought peaceably to surrender into their hands\nfor a time a fleet thus devoted to the ruin of a friendly power, yet\ni.he result turned out to be far otherwise. The Danes resisted the\nlemand, and though quite unable effectually to defend against the\nforces opposed to them either their fleet or their capital, did not\n^apitulate till about two thousand persons had lost their lives, and\nmany houses been burnt in a manner that threatened the entire de-\nstruction of the city. The end, it is true, was accomplished, of get-\nting into the power of the English all the Danish ships of war, (eigh-\nteen ships of the line and fifteen frigates,) and naval stores but it is\n».o be feared that it will be long before the irritation caused by this\nuudden and unexpected attack on a brave people, not at war with\nEngland, will be allayed or forgotten.\n10. In vindication of the suspicions of the British ministry, it was\nasserted that the Danish marine and arsenals were found m a state\nwhich left no doubt of the intrigues and agency of the Erench, ac-","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0377.jp2"},"376":{"fulltext":"672 MODERN HISTORY.\ncording to the judgment of the officers and seamen employed in the\nexpedition. The general designs of France seem, indeed, to have\nbeen decisively manifested, in the measures they now openly pur-\nsued, ahout the same time, of appropriating to themselves the fleet\nof Portugal, and for similar purposes, but which, fortunately without\nso melancholy a catastrophe, was rescued from the grasp of the\nFrench ruler, by its timely removal, under the protection of a British\narmament, to the ports of Brazil. The difference between the two\ncases seemed to be this; that in getting possession of the latter fleet\nwe were actually assisting an ally; in the former, we were com-\npelling a neutral to adopt a measure judged to be unnecessary on her\npart, and on suspicions, the grounds of which she disavowed but the\nstate of Europe, at that period, appears to have been such, especially\nwith regard to the minor states, as to justify precautions against\nFrench power and French intrigue, seldom, if ever, resorted to in\nother instances it may also be added, that Portugal unreservedly\ncommunicated to England the avowed designs of France Denmark,\nto say the least, acted with a reserve tar from friendly, and resisted\nall negotiation the consequences to the latter, however, were cer-\ntainly deplorable.\n11. It was in the year 1,807, that the royal family of France,\nwhose situation on the continent became every day more alarming\nand insecure, took refuge in England they fixed their residence at\nHartwell, in Buckinghamshire, his majesty styling himself the count\nde Lisle, and modestly declining all honours and attentions, beyond\nsuch as might be due to a private nobleman\n12. The vindictive measures adopted by the French government\nto ruin the trade and commerce of Great Britain, naturally drew\nfrom the latter retaliatory expedients, which were more or less ap-\nproved, as affecting neutral and friendly powers, but which could\nscarcely have been avoided, without surrendering her maritime\nrights, and submitting to a pretence of blockade on the part of a\npower, whose ships had been fairly driven from the sea by the\nBritish fleets. Orders in council were issued in the months of Janua-\nry and November, 1,807, not only prohibiting all trade between the\nports of France and its allies, but ultimately compelling all neutrals,\ntrading to France, to stop at a British port, and pay a duty in propor-\ntion to the value of the cargo. These embarrassments to trade in\ngeneral could not fail to excite great uneasiness in all parts of the\nworld but the commencement of them is justly to be imputed to the\nextraordinary decree, issued by the French ruler at Berlin, (the basis\nof the continental system, November, 1,806, an account of which\nis given in Sect. XVI. unfortunately the impossibility of satisfactorily\nexempting other states from the effect of these prohibitory and\nregulating decrees, on the part of the two rival countries, involved\nEngland in a very unpleasant dispute with the United States of\nAmerica.\n13. Of the part England took in the affairs of Spain and Portugal,\nIrom 1,808 to 1,814, an account is to be found elsewhere (See Sect,\nXVII.) It may be sufficient to say, that, during the whole contest,\nthe emancipation of those two ancient kingdoms from the power of\nthe French seemed to be contemplated by the whole mass of British\nsubjects as their own cause. The people of Great Britain and Ire-\nland, on the first application for assistance from Spain, appeared\nready to rise in a body. They hailed the dawn of liberty on the\ncontinent with the most enthusiastic feelings. The deputies from the","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0378.jp2"},"377":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 373\nsupreme junta of Seville, did not arrive in England, on their mission\nto the British government, till the 24th of July, 1,808 but long be-\nfore that, other deputies from the principality of Asturias had been\nreceived in London, with the most cordial tokens of esteem and\nfriendship. They were splendidly entertained by the City of Lon-\ndon, the Bank, and other public bodies, as well as by individuals of\nthe highest distinction. Subscriptions were opened in London, Liver-\npool, Bristol, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Dublin, Cork, Waterford, and\nmany other places, for supporting the cause of Spain and several\nmilitary corps, militia, and volunteers, offered their services. Govern-\nment supplied them immediately with three hundred thousand pounds\nin dollars, five thousand muskets, thirty thousand pikes, and an im-\nmense quantity of powder and balls, with promises of more effectual\naid, which were ultimately amply fulfilled. The spirit thus display-\ned by the British public, on the first certain intelligence received of\nthe anti-gallican insurrection in Spain, may be said to have continued\nunabated till, through the matchless skill and valour of the confede-\nrate armies under the duke of Wellington, the French were finally\ndriven from the peninsula in 1,814, as related in our account of\nSpain.\n14. His majesty George III., having, in the month of October,\n1,809, entered upon the 50th year of his reign, the event was cele-\nbrated throughout the nation in a very striking manner, by services\nof thanksgiving in all the churches and chapels, with suitable dis-\ncourses, illuminations, feasts, and other testimonies of joy, but parti-\ncularly by liberal benefactions to the poor. In the month of Novem-\nber in the following year, his majesty, much troubled and afflicted by\nthe long illness and death of his daughter the princess Amelia, had\nan alarming return of his former complaint, which terminated in a\nsecond suspension of his regal functions, and from which he never so\nsufficiently recovered as to be able to transact any business of state.\nOn the 20th of December, his royal highness the prince of Wales\nwas appointed regent, subject for a period to restrictions similar to\nthose which had been proposed in 1,788-9. This plan was violently\nopposed, as unconstitutional and impolitic, but finally carried in Feb-\nruary, 1,811. The bill was completed and presented to his royal\nhighness, who did not hesitate to accept the trust, though not without\nremonstrating against the limitations and restrictions imposed on him.\nEarly in 1,812, however, these restrictions were to cease. Great\nchanges in administration had been contemplated, and many negotia-\ntions were carried on to this effect, but without accomplishing that\nunion and coalition of parties, which the regent himself seemed to\ndesire. Not being disposed to withhold his confidence therefore from\nthose who had so long served his royal father, most of them, on the\ntermination of the restrictions, were continued in their places. A\nmost melancholy catastrophe, which occurred in the month of May,\n1,812, deprived the nation of the services of Mr. Percival, who was\nassassinated in the lobby of the house of commons, by a person ol\nthe name of BellinghamJ in revenge, as he himself stated, of a pri-\nvate injury a denial of justice, as he called it, on the part of govern-\nment. It seemed to be accidental that the premier happened to be\nthe individual first presented to his notice on that fatal day.\n[The paragraphs 15 and 16 of Dr. Nares work, giving a very\nshort account of the differences between the English and American\ngovernments in 1,812, 13, 14, and 15, are omitted. For a more par-\nticular, and we trust more impartial account of the war between","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0379.jp2"},"378":{"fulltext":"374 MODERN HISTOUY.\nGreat Britain ami the United States, the reader is referred to Section\nVI. of Part Fourth, near the close o\\ this volume.]\n17. The year 1,814. will ever be memorable in the English histo-\nry, for the very extraordinary influence of foreigners of the Highest\ndistinction, from the opposite shore, on the downtal of Buonaparte,\nand the conclusion of a war. which had agitated the whole of Eu-\nrope. The list of visitors invited to the grand civic feast given by\nthe corporation of London, and all of whom were present, but a\nvery few, whom illness kept away, may convey some idea of the\nsplendid scenes that took place in different parts of the kingdom\nin honour of these illustrious guests. It was on the 18th of Dane\nthat the dinner was given to the following very exalted person-\nages\nThe Prince Regent; the Emperor of Russia; his sister, the Grand\nDuchess of Oldenburgh, (afterwards Queen of Wibtemburo the\nKing of Prussia; the Royal Dukes of England the Prince Royal of\nPrussia Prince William of Prussia, son of the king Prince F\nick* nephew of the king Prince Henry, brother of the king; Prince\nWilliam, brother of the king; Prince Augiistus the king s cousin;\nthe Prince of Orange; the Prince Royal of \\Virtemburg the Prince\nRoyal of Bavaria the Prlnce of Oldenburg; the Prince of Cobonrg\nPrince Charles of Mecklenburgh Duke of Saxe Weimar; Prince\nGagarina Prince Czeretorinke Prince Radzivil Marshal Prince\nBlucher Prince Hardenburg Prince Metternich Prince Liechten-\nstein Prince and Princess Volkouske his highness the Duke of\nOrleans.\nThese illustrious foreigners were entertained, at great cost and ex-\npense, during their stay, both by the court and public bodies: the\nprince regent accompanied them on a visit to the university of Ox\nford, audio Portsmouth, where they had an opportunity of witness-\ning a naval review.\n18. In May, 1,816, the heiress to the British crown, princess Char-\notte, only child of the regent, was married to his serene highness\nLeopold George Frederic, prince of Cobourg. This marriage was\ncontemplated by the nation as an object of the highest hopes; and\nfor several months the amiable and exemplary conduct of her royal\nhighness cheered the people with the brightest prospects of future\ngood but a very sudden and unexpected disappointment took place\nin the month of November, 1817; the princess was delivered of a\nstill-born male infant, and survived her delivery only a few hours.\nNothing could exceed the concern manifested by the public on this\nmelancholy and distressing occasion.\nIn the month of November, in the following year, her majesty\nqueen Charlotte died at Kew. after a long and painful illness and on\nthe 29th of January, 182U, was followed by her royal consort king\nGeorge III. His majesty died at the castle of Windsor, at a very\nadvanced age, and in the sixtieth year of his reign greatly beloved\nby his subjects, and universally respected for bis many amiable and\nroyal virtues,","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0380.jp2"},"379":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. S76\nSECTION XXI.\nFRANCE, FROM THE ENTRANCE OF THE ALLIES INTO PAR.\nIS, MARCH, 1,814, TO THE FINAL EVACUATION OF IT BY\nTHE FOREIGN TROOPS, 1,818.\n1. Soon alter Buonaparte departed for Elba, Louis XVIII. was\nfreely recalled to the throne of his ancestors he had been resident in\nmany places since his first emigration, and been driven from almost\nail, by the approach of republican troops, the dread of republican\nvengeance in those who afforded him a refuge, and not unseldom the\nfear of poison or assassination. England, at length, afforded him the\nasylum he sought in vain elsewhere there he lived secure against\nFrench armies, French influence, and, as far as Englishmen could\nprotect him, the poisonous drug, or the sword of the assassin. When\nthe way was opened for him to return to his native country, and re-\nceive the crown and the throne, which his people now offered him,\nbut which had been so insulted and abused, it was characteristic of\nEnglishmen to rejoice at his restoration, and at the great change pre-\npared for him, from a state of banishment, outlawry, and dependence,\nto the recovery of one of the most brilliant thrones of Europe, and\nfrom which his unhappy brother had fallen in a way to excite the\nsympathy of every feeling and generous mind: his departure from\nEngland to France was accompanied with the acclamations and sin\ncere gratulations of all ranks of people the prince regent personally\nescorted him not only to London, but from London to Dover and\ntook leave of him, in sight of the French coast, in a manner the\nmost affecting and impressive. White flags were exhibited on almost\nall the churches, near which he had to pass, and nothing could ex-\nceed the joy expressed upon the overthrow of Buonaparte, and the\nrestoration of the Bourbons, both in England and France.\n2. In the latter country, however, it may be naturally supposed,\nthe joy could not be general, nor much of what was expressed out-\nwardly, sincere Louis XVIII. returned to France, not as it was when\nhe left it, but revolutionized; it had undergone great changes, and a\nlarge proportion of the population was deeply interested in those\nch uiges yet many, who returned with him, were quite as deeply\nin crested, in absolutely reversing what had passed, restoring what\nhud been abolished, reclaiming what had been alienated, if not even\npunishing and degrading those who had participated in or been ben-\nefited by such revolutions.\n3. In the mean while the exiled emperor was not quiet he was\ntoo near to the French coast to be kept in ignorance of what was\npassing, and of the sentiments entertained towards him, by those who\nhad participated in his many glorious and triumphant achievements,\nand who could ill brook the degradation to which they might be\ndoomed by the restoration of the Bourbons the army, in particular\nto whom indeed he had behaved not only ill, but cruelly, in his re-\ntreat from Russia and Leipzig, had yet been raised by him to such a\npitch of glory and pre-eminence, as might reasonably account for its\nfeeling both disgust and resentment, at having been compelled to sub-\nmit to the intrusion of strangers into their country and metropolis,\nstrangers, whom they had previously been able not only to defy and\nresist, but in some instances, to triumph over in their own capitals.","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0381.jp2"},"380":{"fulltext":"370 MODERN HISTORY.\n4. The situation of the king of France, therefore, on his return to\nhis dominions, however acceptable to the greater part of Europe,\ncould scarcely be such as he might himself wish or desire it was\nimpossible for him to return to the ancient state of things and he\nmust have foreseen how difficult it would be to render any new con*\nstitution agreeable or suitable to all parties. The senate, indeed,\nhad prepared a new constitution before his arrival one which bore\na considerable analogy to that of England the legislative power be-\ning placed in the hands of the king, the senate, and the representa-\ntives of the nation at large and the amount, nature, and distribution\nof the public taxes, left ex;lusively to the decision of the latter* the\ndeputies were to exercise their functions for the space of five years*\nthe dignity of senator to be hereditary, and to be con!t rred by the\nking, though with a limitation as to numbers, which weie not to ex-\nceed 200; religious freedom, and the liberty of the press, were duly\nprovided for: this constitution was to be presented to him, to be ac-\ncepted previously to his inauguration but on his arrival at Paris, he\ndid not choose to bind himself, further than to promise his people\nsuch a constitution as they would have no reason to disapprove his\nfirst care was, to arrange matters with the foreign potentates who\noccupied his capital, so as to be able, as speedily as possible, to get\nrid of their numerous armies whose presence could not fail to be a\nubject of uneasiness to his own armies, as well as to the people in\ngeneral to the credit of the troops themselves, under such extraor-\ndinary circumstances, it should be observed, that nothing could ex-\nceed the order and forbearance with which they conducted them-\nselves, as victors, in a capital, which, in the way of simple retribu-\ntion, stood fairly exposed to plunder, exaction, and devastation.\n5. Though it was soon settled to refer to a convention at Vienna\nthe final adjustment of matters, and arrangement of peace ye\nFrance was quickly made to understand, that her boundaries must be\ngreatly contracted, and that the independence of most of the newly\nannexed states and territories must be freely acknowledged to these\nterms both the king and his minister, prince Talleyrand, plainly saw\nthe necessity of yielding, though the pride of the French was likely\nto be wounded by it.\n6. On the 4th of June, the king presented to the senate and legis-\nlative body his own new constitution, which ditTered in several points\nfrom that submitted to him on his arrival it reserved to himself the\nright of proposing laws, and the assembly could only request to be\npermitted to discuss particular points; instead of an hereditary\nsenate, peers, chosen by the king for life were to compose that body,\nwithout limitation of numbers the popular representative* were to\nconsist of 262, not under 40 years of age they were to be convoked\nevery year, and were to have the power of impeaching the minis-\nters for treason or extortion the k ng was to appoint the judges, and\ntrial by jury was to be continued the press was placed under a cen-\nsorship, and an order was given for closing the theatres and shops on\nthe sabbath an order not only extremely unpopular at the time,\nt»ut,as it would seem, ineffectual. In nominating the senate, some of\nBuonaparte s courtiers and marshals were included, particularly\nTalleyrand, who became minister for foreign affairs.\n7. The king, who t rom the first commencement of the revolution\nhad displayed a disposition to favour the rights of the people, more\nthan others of his family, or the chiefs of the emigrants, was little\nlikely of himself to deviate from the principles of the constitution,","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0382.jp2"},"381":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 371\no. to disturb unnecessarily the existing state of things, in which so\ntettny interests were involved, but he was supposed to have around\nhim persons still bigotted to the ancient system, and anxious to re-\ncover all that they had forfeited by the course of the revolution\nThese things, together with the dissatisfied state of the army, paved\nthe way for the return of Buonaparte.\n8. The probability of such an event seems to have been strangely\noverlooked by those who were most interested in preventing it: the\npopularity of the deposed emperor had been miscalculated. On the\n1st of March, 1,815, he landed once more on the shores of France,\nwith only 1,140 attendants an attempt which many judged to be\naltogether hopeless, yet, to the utter surprise of those who thought\nso, his progress towards Paris, though not unmolested, afforded him\nevery hour, from the defection of the troops sent against him.\nstronger hopes of recovering his authority. On the 20th of March\nthe king was persuaded to retire from Paris and on the evening of\nthat very day Buonaparte entered it, being hailed by the populace,\nwhich had so lately saluted the return of the Bourbons in the same\nmanner, with the loudest acclamations.\n9. He was soon convinced, however, that he was not returned to\nhis ancient power, and that he, quite as much as Louis XVIII., would\nnow be expected to gratify the people with a free constitution he\nspeedily therefore, issued some popular decrees, establishing the\nfreedom of the press; abolishing the slave-trade and regulating ihe\ntaxes which weighed most heavily on the people he also conde-\nscended to offer to them the plan of a constitution, very different from\nthe system of despotism upon which he had before acted, and con-\ntaining many excellent regulations: he had, however, but little time\nto spare for legislative measures. A manifesto of expulsion and ex-\ntermination had been issued against him by the congress at Vienna,\nsigned by the plenipotentiaries of Austria, France, Great Britain,\nRussia, Prussia, Sweden, Spain, and Portugal, and it was indispensably\nnecessary for him to prepare for war. To this manifesto on the part\nof the allied powers, Buonaparte was not slow in dictating and present-\ning to Europe a counter manifesto, asserting in the strongest terms\nthe right of the French to adhere to the dynasty they had chosen on\nthe expulsion of the Bourbons and declaring that the confederate\nprinces had been the first to violate the treaty of Fontainebleau;\nbut it is remarkable that, though Buonaparte so peremptorily assert-\ned, in his manifesto, the right of the French freely to choose what\ndynasty they pleased to reign over them, he had inserted in his new\nconstitution an article, totally, and for ever, to exclude the Bourbon\nfamily from the succession to the throne.\n10. It was not till June that the several armies were prepared tc\ntake the field, and between the 15th and 19th of that month, the fate\nof Europe seemed once more to become dependent on the decision\nof the sword. The battle of Waterloo, which took place on the 18th\nof June, and in which the British and Prussian armies, under the\nduke of Wellington and marshal Blucher, totally defeated the French,\neffectually put an end to all the hopes and prospects of Buonaparte.\nOn the 20th, he arrived at Paris, the first of his fugitive army and\nin a very k\\v days after, was compelled a second time to resign hi?\nusurped dominions. On his retirement from Paris, his destination\nappeared to be a matter of extreme doubt, till on the 15th of July he\nput himself into the hands of the English by going on board the Bel-\nlerophon man of war, and surrendering himself and suit uncondition-\ni2 48","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0383.jp2"},"382":{"fulltext":"378 MODERN HISTORY.\nally to captain Maitland, the commander of that ship, who sailed im*\nmediately to Torbay with his prisoners, none of whom were per-\nmitted to land.\n1 1. On the 3d of July, not however without a struggle on the part\nof the French army, Paris had formally surrendered to the duke of\nWellington and prince Blucher, who took possession of it on the 7th,\nand on the 8th the king returned, greeted, as before, with the cheer-\ning and acclamations of the tickle multitudes who thronged the roads\nby which he had to pass. By the terms of capitulation, the French\ntroops under Davoust had been made to retire beyond the Loire,\nwhich they did with sullen indignation but on the arrival of the\nAustrians and Russians at Paris, came over to the king. It was very\nobvious, that, having Buonaparte once more in their power, the allies\ncould not fail to provide all possible precautions against his return\ninto any situation which might afford him the means of commu-\nnicating with his old adherent*, and thereby resuming the station he\nhad occupied for so many years, to their extreme annoyance. The\nsmall, rocky, and totally detached island of St. Helena, in the Atlantic\nocean, seemed the only secure place of abode to which he could be\nasiigned. It was therefore agreed to send him thither, under the\ncustody of the British government, but under the eye, also, of com-\nmissioners appointed to reside there, on the part of the Austrian,\nRussian, and French governments. On the 17th of October, 1,815,\nhe arrived at his destined residence.\n12. Amongst the measures adopted by the military commanders of\nthe foreign troops at Paris, none seemed more to occupy the atten-\ntion of Europe than the determination they formed to restore to the\nplaces which had been robbed of them The valuable works of art,\nwhich the victories of the French armies had put into their posses-\nsion, not merely in the way of plunder, but upon a regular system of\npurloining every thing which could add to the splendour and great-\nness of their own capital, however grating to the feelings of those\nfrom whom they were taken, and however severely it must have\nadded to the mortifications they had been doomed to suffer from\nweakness or defeat. The justice of such a step could not be dis-\nputed, though nothing was more likely to excite the resentment and\nindignation of the French, in whose hands, it must be acknowledged,\nhad they been properly acquired, they were likely enough to be\npreserved and exhibited to the world, in a manner the most condu-\ncive to the glory and immortality of the illustrious artists to whom\nthey owed their origin but, as an act of honourable restitution, in\nmany instances, to persons and places whose claims would otherwise\nhave been mocked and derided, the interposition of the two victori-\nous chiefs upon this occasion may be justly admired. Prince Blucher,\nindeed, had a direct interest in reclaiming the spoils of Berlin and\nPotzdam, but the duke of Wellington, while he had nothing to re-\ncover for his own country, freely assisted those whose pretensions re-\nquired the support of such paramount authority.\n13. By the second general pacification of Paris with the allies,\nNovember 20th, 1,815, it was agreed that an army of occupation,\namounting to 150,000 men, and to be maintained in a great measure\nby France, should for the space of live years be put in possession of\nher frontier fortresses, while her boundary should be farther reduced\nthan on the former occasion terms sufficiently mortitying, but justi-\nfied by the turbulent and unsettled principles of the French nation,\nThough the period of five years, however, had been specifically","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0384.jp2"},"383":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 379\nagreed to, the state of things afterwards appearing such as to justify\nthe allies in departing from the exact letter of the treaty, in the\nspring of the year 1,817 they consented to reduce the army of oc-\ncupation one fifth, and in the autumn of 1,818, it was wholly with-\ndrawn from the French territories, and the fortresses on the frontier\nrestored.\nSECTION XXII.\nNORTHERN STATES OF EUROPE, FROM THE CLOSE OF THE\nSEVENTEENTH CENTURY.\n1. Though much has been said of the northern courts in the pre-\nceding sections, as bearing a part in the transactions on the continent,\nduring the last and present centuries, yet as they have not been\nmentioned distinctly and particularly, some brief account of them\nmay be necessary, to give a clearer view of the course of events\nduring the period under consideration.\n2. Peter the great, of Russia, who died in 1,725, (see Sect. LXVI.\n2.) was succeeded by his widow, Catherine I., who survived him\nonly two years. It is remarkable, that though Peter had taken par-\nticular care to secure to the reigning monarch a power of naming\nhis successor, he should himself neglect this precaution and for\nsuch an omission the law had made no provision. Catherine, how-\never, had little or no difficulty to take his place. She was a woman,\nif not of a superior, yet of rather an extraordinary character had\nattended Peter in his travels and campaigns been serviceable to him\nin his greatest extremities often checked the violence of his pas-\nsions and manifested a disposition, during her short reign, to encour-\nage a spirit of liberty amongst her subjects, and to promote, in every\nway she could, the progress of improvement and civilization. Her\ndeath was little expected, and excited some suspicions against the\nprince Menzicoff, who had just negociated a treaty with Austria, and\nentered into a stipulation to raise the son of the unfortunate prince\nAlexis to the throne, upon the condition of his marrying his daughter.\n3. The empress died in 1,727, and was succeeded by Peter II.,\ngrandson of Peter I. Menzicoff, however, seemed to take into his\nown hands the reins of government, till he was supplanted by one\nof the Dolgorouki family, and banished to Siberia, with his wife and\nchildren. The new favourite designed to marry his sister to the\nemperor; but on January 29, 1,730, Peter died of the small-pox.\nIn him the male issue of the line becoming extinct, Anne, duchess of\nCourland, was called to the throne through the influence of Dolgo-\nrouki, contrary to the order of succession established by Peter I., and\nin prejudice of her elder sister, the duchess of Mecklenburg. They\nwere both of them the daughters of Iwan, the eldest brother of\nPeter.\n4. The reign of Anne was prosperous and glorious she showed\ngreat sagacity and firmness in resisting the intrigues, and balancing\nthe credit of rival statesmen, counsellors, and generals, Russian and\nforeign; maintaining her prerogatives against those who sought to\ninvade them, to further their own ambition, particularly Dolgorouki.\nwho, though he had placed her on the throne, was disgraced and\nbanished to Siberia. Anne died in 1,740, leaving the crown, by het\nwili, to her grand-nephew Iwan, sen of her niece, Anne, princess of","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0385.jp2"},"384":{"fulltext":"380 MODERN HISTORY.\nMecklenburg, married to the duke of Brunswick Bevern; but she\nappointed her favourite, count Biren, whom she had brought with\nher from Courland, regent.\n5. This last arrangement threw things into the utmost confusion.\nBiren was deservedly no favourite with the Russians, more than\n20,000 of whom he is said to have sent into banishment he had,\nbesides, a powerful rival in count Munich, the conqueror of Ocza-\nkow, a German, and a man of singular bravery and resolution the\nlatter succeeded in dispossessing the regent of his authority in favour\nof the mother of the emperor. Biren was sent to Siberia; and the\nprincess of Mecklenburg (duchess of Brunswick) assumed the reins\nof government but not attending sufficiently to the duties of hei\nhigh station, and appearing to give too great encouragement to\nforeigners, a new revolution was set on foot, to place on the throne\nthe youngest daughter of Peter the great, the princess Elizabeth.\nThis party, supported by French gold, and headed by Lestocq, a\nphysician, quickly becoming strong, seized upon the emperor Iwan\nand his parents, and proclaimed Elizabeth empress of all the Russias.\nThe life of the infant Iwan was preserved by the clemency and ex-\npress interposition of Elizabeth but only to undergo a harder fate.\n(See below, 8.) Munich was banished and other foreign generals,\nwho had favoured the former government, either shared the same\ndestiny, or contrived to escape from the Russian dominions. The\npeople were well pleased to see the throne rescued from the hands\nof foreigners in favour of so direct a claimant as the daughter ot\nPeter the great. This revolution took place in the month of No-\nvember, 1,741.\n6. Russia flourished under the sway of Elizabeth, whose reign ex-\nm oited an uninterrupted career of glory and success her alliance\nwas courted by some of the greatest powers in Europe. Before her\ndeath, which happened in 1,762, she took care to restore the natural\norder of succession in her family, by declaring the duke of Holstein\nGottorp, her heir, son of her eldest sister, and who became emperor,\non her demise, by the title of Peter III.\n7. This unfortunate prince was not suffered to reign long he had\nmarried a princess of Anhalt-Zerbst; a woman of singular character,\npeculiarly fitted to avail herself of any opportunities that might offer\nm so unsettled a country, to gratify her ambition, and give scope to\nher abilities. The prince had not behaved well to her, and many\nthings concurred to render him unpopular, if not hateful to his sub-\njects; particularly an enthusiastic attachment to the king of Prussia,\nthen at war with the Russians, and projected innovations, well-meant\nbut ill-timed, some particularly affecting the clergy. He proposed to\ncircumscribe the power of the nobles, and seemed to prefer the\nHolstein troops to his Russian guard. As these things rendered his\nremoval probable, according to the ordinary course of proceedings in\nthat semi-barbarous country, the sagacious Catherine willingly gave\nHerself up to a party who had conspired against her httebafrd. It is\ngenerally conjectured that she connived, not only at the deposition,\nbut at the death of Peter, who survived his elevation to the imperial\ndignity not many months; while Catherine, by her superior address\nand intrepidity, not only succeeded in establishing herself upon the\nvacant throne, but in emancipating herself from the domination of the\nparty to whom she stood indebted for it, (the Orloffs.)\n8. One competitor still seemed to stand in her way, the unfortu\nnate iwan,— who had been deposed by Elizabeth, and now languished","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0386.jp2"},"385":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 381\nIn confinement, at the age of twenty-four. Soon after Catherine s\naccession he was slain in prison, on a pretence of his attempting to\nescape, but under circumstances so mysterious as to involve, the em-\npress in suspicion. She reigned under the title of Catherine II. for\nthe long space of upwards of thirty-four years, continually occupied\nin advancing the glory of her people, in augmenting her dominions,\nand rewarding merit. She obtained many signal advantages over the\nTurks, and succeeded (1,784) in wresting from them the whole dis-\ntrict of the Crimea but her designs extended much farther, even to\n(he expulsion of the Ottomans, and restoration of a Grecian empire,\nhaving for its capital Athens or Constantinople she contemplated, in\nshort, the complete triumph of the Cross over the Crescent. An ex-\npedition was even undertaken for the liberation of the Greeks, in\nthe year 1,770; but it proved ineffectual, though it might have been\notherwise, had the Russian commanders consented to follow the ad-\nvice of th Scotch admiral, Elphinstone, who commanded one of the\ndivisions ot the fleet.\n9. Catherine bore a large share in the partition of Poland, and\nseems to have been restrained by no principles of justice, humanity,\nmorality, or virtue, from furthering the purposes of her ambition and\npolicy her prodigality was great, her largesses enormous, and her\nlove of magnificence little proportioned to the smallness of the im-\nperial revenue her abilities and her resolution were remarkable,\nand she may be considered as having contributed largely to the im-\nprovement and glory of the country over which she was permitted\nso long to bear unlimited rule. Her domestic regulations savoured\nlittle of the despotism displayed in her foreign enterprises she miti-\ngated the rigour of the penal laws, abolished torture and slavery,\nprotected the arts and sciences, and endeavoured to elevate the mid-\ndle class to a proper degree of importance.\n10. Catherine II. was succeeded in 1,796 by her son Paul I., a\nstrange character, unsettled in his principles, dissolute in his manners,\njealous, vindictive, and, in his last days, scarcely in possession of his\nsenses. On his first accession, however, he wisely endeavoured to\nprovide against the evils arising from an unsettled inheritance, by\nenacting a law to secure the crown to his lineal and direct descen-\ndants, not absolutely excluding females, but admitting them only into\nthe line of succession on a total failure of male heirs.\n11. The emperor appeared to be extremely eager to secure an\nentrance into the Mediterranean, and was highly gratified with being\nchosen patron of the order of Malta, which lie consented to take\nunder his protection in the year 1,798. He had been induced to take\na part in the war against the French, and succeeded, in conjunction\nwith the Turks, in getting possession, for a short time, of the Ionian\nislands a Russian army was also sent to co-operate with the Austri-\nans, under the command of the celebrated Souwarow, (or Souvaroff,)\nwho, after having achieved great victories in Lombardy, seems to\nhave been cruelly abandoned in Svvisserland, and to have unjustly in-\ncurred the displeasure of his capricious master. A misunderstanding\nbetween the English and Paul on the subject of Malta, entirely\nalienated the latter from the confederacy. In the mean while, his\nviolent conduct had induced the great officers of state and the nobiJHy\nto conspire to dethrone him. He was slain in defending himself\nduring a conflict, in his own chamber, March 24, 1,801 and, greatly\nto the joy of his oppressed people, succeeded by his son Alexander,","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0387.jp2"},"386":{"fulltext":"382 MODERN HISTORY.\nthe present emperor, of whose accession, and share in the continental\nwar, an account has already been given.\n12. Prussia, as a kingdom, is not older than the eighteenth century,\nand entirely belongs therefore to the period under discussion. Its\nhistory, as connected with the electorate of Brandenburgh, ascends\nas high, perhaps, as that of any sovereignty in Europe. Its present\npower may be said to have taken its rise from the wisdom, judgment,\nand good sense of the elector Frederic- William, commonly called the\ngreat elector, who had Ducal Prussia confirmed to him in 1,657, and\nby the convention of Walau and Bromberg, rendered independent ot\nthe crown of Poland, of which, till then, it had been a fief. In the\ntime of the great elector, advantage was taken of the unsettled state\nof Europe, to increase the population, and thereby advance the\nwealth and improvement of the country in every respect. The\nrevocation of the edict of Nantes in France, 1,685, contributed large-\nly to these ends, the Prussian states being freely set open to the ref-\nugees of all descriptions; an act of mere policy, as the elector him-\nself, though tolerant, was extremely devout and careful of the privi-\nleges, and even exemptions of the clergy.\n13. The elector, Frederic-William, died in 1,688, and was succeed-\ned by his son Frederic, who, through the influence of the protestanl\nstates, and the good- will of the emperor Leopold, to whom he had\nbeen of service in his contest with France, but who seems to have\ntaken such a step with little judgment or consideration, became king\nin 1,701, and died in 1,713, at the very period when, by the treaty of\nUtrecht, his regal title was confirmed and generally acknowledged\nby the other states of Europe. Frederic 1. was generous, but fickle,\nsuperstitious, and vain; he founded the University of Hall, the Royal\nSociety of Berlin, and the Academy of Nobles, but without taking\nmuch interest in their concerns, and chiefly at the instigation of his\nmore learned consort, the princess Charlotte of Hanover; he man-\naged, however, to augment, by many acquisitions, purchases, and\nexchanges, the extent of his dominions.\n14. His successor, Frederic-William II., is judged to have done\nmuch more to raise the credit and character of his new kingdom, by\nexcessive prudence, and good management, and the utmost attention\nto his army whereby he not only repaired the losses occasioned by\nhis father s extravagances, but amassed great treasures, and laid the\nfoundation for those stupendous military achievements, which, in the\nnext reign, advanced Prussia to that high state of glory and eminence\nwhich has given it such weight in the political scale of Europe.\nFrederic abolished, in 1,717, all the fiefs in his kingdom; he invited\ncolonies from all parts to settle in his dominions. Like his great pred-\necessor and namesake, he established military schools and hospitals,\nbut he was no friend to literature unpolished in ids manners, and\nimplacable in his resentment. He added to the dominions of Prussia,\nStettin and the greater part of Swedish Pomerania.\n15. On the death of Fredeiic-Wiliiam II., in 1,740, his son, (who\nis sometimes called Frederic II., to distinguish him from the Frederic-\nWilliams, and sometimes Frederic III.,) came to the throne. Of this\nmonarch so much is known, and so much has already been noticed\nand recorded in the other sections of this work, that we have little\nto say here, but that he managed to raise a scattered, ill-sorted, dis-\njointed kingdom into the first rank of power and renown that he\napplied himself incessantly to promote the welfare and improvement","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0388.jp2"},"387":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 383\nof his dominions, to augment the wealth and advance the civilization\nof his people, though, in many of his regulations and measures to\nthis end, he erred occasionally as his predecessors had done, for want\nof a due knowledge of some of the first principles of political econ-\nomy, a science at that period little cultivated. Frederic died August,\n1,786, in the seventy fifth year of his age, and forty-seventh of his\nreign, more admired than esteemed more distinguished for bravery\nin the field, wisdom in the cabinet, and literary attainments, than for\nany virtues or qualities of a nobler nature. He has had the reputa-\ntion of being the author of two very important measures, the parti-\ntion of Poland, and the armed neutrality. The credit of the fiist\nmay probably be very fairly divided between himself and Catherine\nof Russia the second, as a matter of self-defence, and a jealous re-\ngard for the liberty of the seas, reflects no dishonour on his character.\nIt is a point that should be better settled than it seems to be, by the\nstrict rules of international and maritime law.\n16. Frederic was succeeded by his nephew Frederic-William. Of\nthe part taken by this monarch in support of the house of Orange,\nin 1,787, of his opposition to the French, in 1,792, and of the share\nhe had in the two last partitions of Poland, in 1,793 and 1,795, by\nwhich he gained the territories, first of South Prussia, and, secondly\nof South-eastern Prussia, an account has been given elsewhere.\nFrederic-William II. died in 1,797, aged fifty-three, leaving the crown\nto his son, the present king, Frederic 111., who, as he came to the\nthrone at the moment that Buonaparte began his extraordinary ca-\nreer, in disturbance of the peace of the continent, was necessarily\ninvolved in all the difficulties and confusion of those times, as has\nbeen already shown he joined the armed neutrality in 1,800, caused\nHamburgh to be shut against the English, and occupied the states of\nHanover, 1,801, which being annexed by France to Prussia, in 1,805»\nin exchange for a part of the duchy of Cleves, Anspach, Bareuth,\nNeufchatel, and Valengin, provoked the resentment of England and\nSweden. In 1,806, the king rashly engaged in war with France, and\nwas nearly deprived of his kingdom the losses he sustained by the\ntreaty of Tilsit, have been mentioned. (Sect. XVI.) In 1,812, Fred-\neric was compelled by France to furnish an auxiliary force against\nRussia, but was afterwards, on the retreat of the French from Mos-\ncow, able to break through this engagement, and conclude a treaty\nof neutrality with Russia. From this time to the abdication of Na-\npoleon, Prussia acted in close confederacy with the allies, the king\nbeing constantly with his army till (heir entrance into Paris, March,\n1,814. On the return of Buonaparte, 1,815, the Prussians were the\nfirst to take the field, under their celebrated general, prince Blucher,\nand in the battle of Waterloo, reaped the splendid glories of that day\nin conjunction with the British. Since that time, Prussia has enjoyed\na state of peace, though not undisturbed as to her internal concerns.\n17. The crown of Sweden, on the demise of Charles XII., 1,718,\n(see Sect. LXVI. 9. Part 11.) was conferred on his youngest sister^\nUlrica Eleanora, by the free election of the states. On the death of\nCharles, whose strange proceedings had greatly exhausted the king-\ndom, and occasioned the actual loss of many provinces, an opportuni-\nty was taken, once more, to limit the kingly power, which had been\nrendered almost absolute in the reign ol Charles XI., and to make\nthe crown elective. The new queen, who was married to the hered-*\nitary prince of Hesse Cassel, and who had been offered the crown in\nprejudice of the son and representative of her elder sister, the","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0389.jp2"},"388":{"fulltext":"384 MODERN HISTORY.\nduchess of Holstein Gottorp, readily submitted to the conditions pro-\nposed by the states for limiting the royal authority, but soon aftei her\naccession resigned the government to her royal consort, v o was\ncrowned by the title of Frederic I., 1,720.\n18. The new king ruled the nation with little dignity and less spir-\nit; submitting to every thing imposed on him by the states, till the\ngovernment became more republican than monarchical The Swe-\ndish territories were also much reduced during the early part of his\nreign. In the course of the yoars 1,719, 1,720, 1,721, Sweden ceded\nto Hanover, Bremen, anlVeiden; to Prussia, the town or Stettin,\nand to Russia, Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, Wiburg, a part of Carelia\nand several islands.\n19. It was during this reign that the rival factions of the Hats and\nCaps had their origin, and which caused great trouble the former\nreing generally under the influence of France, the latter of Russia.\nTo deter the latter from assisting the queen of Hungary, in the war\nthat took place on the death of Charles VI., France made use of its\ninfluence with the Hats, to involve Sweden in hostilities with Russia,\nfor which she was ill-prepared, and from which she suffered consid-\nerably. Her losses were restored to her in some measure by the\npeace of Abo, 1,743, but upon the positive condition that Frederic\nshould adopt as his heir and successor, at the instance of the czarina,\nAdolphus-Frederic, bishop of Lubec, uncle to the duke of Holstein\nGottorp, presumptive heir to the throne of Russia, and nephew to\nthe queen of Sweden, who would more willingly have had the latter\nfor her successor.\n20. Adolphus-Frederic came to the crown in 1,751. The same\nfactions which had disturbed the former reign continued to give him\ntrouble, and though he made some endeavours to get the better ot\nforeign influence, and recover his lost authority, all his efforts were\nvain. Nothing could exceed the anarchy and confusion that prevail-\ned, encouraged and fomented both by Russia and France, to further\ntheir private ends. The king is supposed to have fallen a sacrifice\nto these disturbances, dying wholly dispirited in the year 1,771.\n21. He was succeeded by his eldest son Gustavus 111., twenty-five\nyears old at the time of his accession a Swede by birth, and an ac\ntive and spirited prince, who was bent upon recovering what hi*?\npredecessors had too tamely surrendered of their rights and prerog-\natives; in which, being supported by France, he had the good fortune\nto succeed. Having found means to conciliate the army, and to rec\noncile the people to an attack upon the aristocrats, who were betray\ning the interests of the country, he established a new constitution\n1,772, with such good management and address, that the public tran\nquillity was scarcely for a moment disturbed. This new arrangement\nthrew great power into the hands of the king, by leaving him the\noption of convening and dissolving the states, with the entire disposal\nof the army, navy, and all public appointments, civil, military, and\necclesiastical; some alterations were made in 1,739, but nothing\ncould reconcile the party whom he had superseded at least it is\nprobable that this was the occasion of the catastrophe which termi-\nnated the life of the unfortunate monarch. Towards the commence-\nment of the French revolution, in the year 1,792, when he was pre-\nparing to assist Lewis XVI., (an unpopular undertaking,) he whs\nassassinated at a masquerade by a person encouraged, if not directly\nemployed, by the discontented party of 1,772*\n22. Gustavus III. was brave, polite, well-informed, and of a ready","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0390.jp2"},"389":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 386\neloquence but profligate in his habits of life, and careless as to mat-\nters of religion. He promoted letters, agriculture, and commerce,\nas far as his means would enable him to do so. His measures appear\nto have been more arbitrary than his disposition.\n23. His son Gustavus IV. being only fourteen years old at the time\nof his father s death, the duke of Sudermania, brother of the deceas-\ned king, became regent for a short time. No monarch in Europe\nmanifested a greater zeal in the cause of the French royal family,\nor disgust at the arbitrary proceedings of Buonaparte, than Gustavus\nIV., but he was little able to give effect to his wishes his judgment\nbeing weak, and his forces inadequate to contend with the French,\nespecially after the latter, by the treaty of Tilsit, (see Sect. XVI.)\nhad found means to detach and conciliate the emperor Alexander.\nAlter this disastrous treaty, Gustavus became not only the object of\nFrench resentment, but of Russian rapacity. He was peremptorily\nforbidden to admit the English into his ports, and Finland was quickly\nwrested from him. The Danes also attacked him. In this dilemma,\nEngland would have assisted him if she could have trusted him, but,\no truth, his rashness and incapacity were become too apparent to\njustify any such confidence. A revolution was almost necessary, nor\nwas it long before a conspiracy was formed, which, in the year 1,809,\nsucceeded so far as to induce him to abdicate. His uncle, the duke\nof Sudermania, being appointed protector, and very soon afterwards\nking, by the title of Charles XIII., the states carrying their resent-\nment against Gustavus IV. so far, as to exclude his posterity also from\nthe throne.\n24. Charles XIII. submitted to new restrictions on the kingly an\nthority, and having no issue, left it to the nation to nominate an heir\nto the crown. Their first choice fell upon the prince of Augusten-\nburg, a Danish subject, but his death happening soon afterwards, not\nwithout suspicion of foul play, Bernadotte, one of Buonaparte s gen-\nerals, was, in a very extraordinary manner, nominated in his room by\nthe king, and approved by the states. As crown prince of Sweden,\ntempted by the offer of Norway, he joined the confederacy against\nBuonaparte in 1,813, and was present at the battle of Leipzig. (See\nSect. XX.)* On the death of Charles XIII., 1,818, he succeeded to\nthe crown, and still reigns, having, by the treaty of Vienna, 1,815,\nobtained Norway, and the island of Guadaloupe.\n25. The history of Denmark during the eighteenth century, and\nbeginning of the nineteenth, is very uninteresting, in a political point\nof view. Incapable of taking any leading or conspicuous part in the\naffairs of Europe, all that we know concerning her relates rather to\nother countries, as Russia, Sweden, I russia, France, and England in\nwhose friendships and hostilities she has been compelled, by circum\nstances, to take a part, little advantageous, if not entirely detrimental,\nto her own interests.\n26. Five kings have occupied the throne since the close of the\nseventeenth century, but it will be necessary to say very little of\nthem. Frederic IV., who came to the crown in 1,699, died in 1,730,\nand was succeeded by Christian VI. a monarch who paid great at-\ntention to the welfare of his subjects, in lightening the taxes, and en-\ncouraging trade and manufactures. He reigned sixteen years, and\nwas succeeded by his son Frederic V., in the year 1,746. Frederic\ntrod in the footsteps of his father, by promoting knowledge, encour-\naging the manufactures, and extending the commerce of his country.\nlie bad nearly been embroiled with Russia during the six months\nRk 49","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0391.jp2"},"390":{"fulltext":"386 MODERN HISTORY.\nleign of the unfortunate Peter III., who, the moment he became em-\nperor, resolved to revenge on the court of Denmark the injuries\nwhich had been committed on his ancestors of the house of Holstein\nGottorp. In these attempts he was to he assisted by the king of\nPrussia. The king of Denmark prepared to resist the attacks with\nwhich he was threatened, but the deposition and death of the em-\nperor fortunately relieved him from all apprehensions, and he was\nable to compromise matters with Catherine II., by a treaty that was\nnot to take effect till the grand duke Paul came of age. By this con-\nvention, the empress ceded to Denmark, in the name of her son, the\nduchy of Sleswick, and so much of Holstein as appertained to the\nGottorp branch of that family, in exchange for the provinces of Ol-\ndenburg and Dalmenhorst.\n27. Frederic V. died in 1,766, and was succeeded by his son Chris-\ntian VII., who, in 1,768, married the princess Caroline Matilda of\nEngland, sister to his majesty king George III. The principal event\nin this reign was one which involved the unhappy queen in inextric-\nable difficulties, and probably hastened her death but which seems\nstill to be enveloped in considerable mystery. A German physician\nof the court, (Struensee,) who had risen from rather a low station in\nlife to be first minister, having rendered himself extremely obnoxious\nby a most extensive reform in all the public offices of state, civil and\nmilitary, and which, had they succeeded, might have done him great\ncredit as a statesman, was accused of intriguing with the young\nqueen, and by the violence of his enemies, headed and encouraged\nby Juliana Maria, the queen-dowager, and her son prince Frederic,\nbrought most ignominiously to the scaffold. The unfortunate queen\nCaroline, whose life was probably saved only by the spirited inter-\nposition of the British minister, quitted Denmark after the execution\nof Struensee and his coadjutor Brandt, and having retired to Zell in\nGermany, painfully separated from her children, there ended her\ndays, May 10, 1,775, in the twenty -fourth year of her age.\n28. During the latter part of his life, Christian VII., whose under-\nstanding had always been weak, fell into a state of mental derange-\nment, and the government was carried on by the queen-dowager and\nprince Frederic, as co-regents, with the aid of Barnstoff, an able and\npatriotic minister. In 1,773, the cession of Ducal Holstein to Den-\nmark by Russia took place, according to the treaty above spoken of:\nthis was a very important acquisition, as giving ner the command of\nthe whole Cimbrian peninsula, and enabling her, by forming a canal\nfrom Kiel, to connect the Baltic with the German ocean. In the\ncontinental wars of 1,788, 1793, Denmark remained neuter, but by\njoining the armed neutrality in 1,800, she excited the suspicions and\nresentment of Great Britain, and, being supposed to favour not only\nRussia but France, became involved in a contest, which was attended\nwith losses and vexations the most melancholy and deplorable. (See\nSect. XX. 9.)\n29. Christian VII. died in 1,788, and was succeeded by his son\nFrederic VI., the present monarch, who had, a few years before, on\nentering the seventeenth year of his age, been admitted to his proper\nshare in the government, having with singular moderation and pru-\ndence succeeded in taking the administration of affairs out of the\nhands of the queen-dowager and her party. Denmark appears to\nhave suffered greatly from the peculiarity of her situation during the\nstruggles arising out of the French revolution, being continually\nforced into alliances contrary to her own interests, and made at last to","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0392.jp2"},"391":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 38?\ncontribute more largely than almost any state, to the establishment\nof peace. The cession of Norway to Sweden, which had been held\nout by the allies as a boon to the latter power, to induce her to join\nthe last confederacy against trance, beings a severe loss to Denmark,\nand very ill requited by the transfer of Pomerania and the Isle of\nRugen, which were all that she received in exchange.\nSECTION XXIII.\nSOUTHERN STATES OF EUROPE, FROM THE CLOSE OF THE\nSEVENTEENTH CENTURY.\n1. The southern states of Europe underwent such extraordinary\nrevolutions during the preponderance of the French under Buona-\nparte, that what happened to them during the eighteenth century,\nreviously to these surprising events, seems comparatively of very\nittle consequence of the changes and disturbances to which they\nwere subject through the interference of the French, an account is\nlo be found in the sections relating to France.\n2. Switzerland at the beginning of the eighteenth century was in-\nvolved in disputes between the protestants and catholics, which were\nattended with very unpleasant circumstances. These differences,\nhowever, were brought to an end by a convention in 1,717, which\nestablished an equality of religious rights. Things remained very\nquiet in most of the cantons from this time to the French revolution;\nwith the exception of the towns of Geneva and Berne, and a few\nother places, where a disposition was manifested to limit and restrain\nthe aristocratical governments, but which only led at that time to\nsuch iudicious reforms, as were sufficient to appease the ardour of the\npeople. These disputes, however, may be held to have contributed\nto the evils which befel the country afterwards. Though the states\nendeavoured to preserve their neutrality during the progress of the\nFrench revolution, it was not possible, while revolutionary principles\nwere afloat, to keep the country so free from internal disputes and\ncommotions, or so united, as to deter the French from interfering.\nGeneva had already been cajoled out of her independence, but the\nfirst decisive occasion afforded to the French of taking an active part\nin the affairs of Swisserland, arose out of the disputes, in 1,798, rel-\native to the Pays de Vaud the gentry and citizens of which, not\nthinking themselves sufficiently favoured by the rulers of Berne and\nFribourg, began to be clamorous for a change. The peasantry of\nBasle aLso, instigated by an emissary of the French directory, de\nmanded a new constitution. These disputes opened the way for the\nintroduction of French troops, first under the orders of the directory,\nand afterwards under Buonaparte, as has been shown in our account\nof France and from that period to the conclusion of the war in\n1,815, Switzerland can scarcely be said to have known a year of\nrepose.\n3. Of the condition of Venice during the eighteenth century, much\nmay be collected from the foregoing sections. She lost the Morea in\n1,718, but acquired in exchange some towns in Albania and Dalmatia.\nSome ecclesiastical reforms took place in the middle of the last cen-\ntury, at which period many convents were suppressed, and the Jesuits\nexpelled. Venice endeavoured to remain neuter during the first","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0393.jp2"},"392":{"fulltext":"388 MODERN HISTORY.\nmovements of the French revolution, but was soon drawn into the\nvortex when Buonaparte assumed the command of the French armv.\nBy the treaty of Campo Formio, 1,797, (see Sect. XV.) her doom\nwas sealed, and this celebrated republic entirely overthrown.\n4. In Rome, since the close of the eighteenth century, there has\nbeen a succession of many popes, though the last two have filled the\npapal chair longer than might be expected, in a sovereignty where\nthe election is generally made from persons advanced in years. Lit-\ntle more than the magni nominis umbra remained to the popes at\nthe beginning of the eighteenth century, of that temporal power\nwhich at one time or other had shaken every throne in Europe.\nThe clergy of France in particular had effectually asserted that king9\nand princes, in temporal concerns, were independent of the ecclesi-\nastical authority. Clement XL, who was of the family of the Albani,\nand assumed the tiara in the year 1,700, opposed the erection of\nPrussia into a kingdom an extraordinary measure of interposition,\nand which had so little weight as almost to expose his court to ridi-\ncule. He espoused the French interests in the contest concerning\nthe Spanish succession, though in 1,708 he was compelled, by the\nvigorous proceedings of the emperor, to acknowledge Charles III.\nking of Spain, From this pope the famous bull unigenitus was ex-\ntorted by the Jesuits, to the great disturbance of France, and the\nwhole Romish church and the consequences of which, indeed, may\nbe traced even in the present state and circumstances of Europe.\n5. Pope Clement XI. died in 1,721, and was succeeded by the car-\ndinal Michael Angelo Gonti, who took the name of Innocent XIII., but\nbeing far advanced in years, lived a very short time, dying on the 3d\nof March, 1,724, and on the 29th of May following, cardinal Ursini,\nBenedict XUL, was chosen his successor. During his papacy, Com-\nmachio, which had been lost to the Roman see in the time of Clem-\nent XL, was recovered Benedict was zealous for the honour of the\nbull unigenitus, and in conjunction with cardinal Fleury, succeeded\nin procuring the cardinal de Noailles, one of the most respectable and\nzealous opposers of it in France, to subscribe it. He had a disposi-\ntion to unite the Roman, Greek, Lutheran, and reformed churches,\nbut could not succeed. He died 1 ,730, more admired for his virtues\nand talents, than praised for his wisdom in the management of affairs.\n6. Benedict XIII. was succeeded by Clement XII., Laurence Corsi-\nni, a Florentine, whose public acts were of little importance. He\nhad disputes with the king of Sardinia, the republic of Venice, with\nthe empire and Spain but much of his pontificate was passed in\ntranquillity. He died on the 6th of February, 1,740. He made con-\nsiderable and valuable additions to the Vatican library. On his\ndeath, a struggle arose between the Albani and Corsini families, and\nthe conclave was much agitated. The former prevailed, and suc-\nceeded in elevating cardinal Prosper Lambertini to the papal chair,\nwho took the title of Benedict XIV. His government of the church\nwas extremely mild, and he was regarded as no favourer of the\nJesuits, who, during his pontificate, fell into disrepute in Portugal,\nthe first symptom of their decline and fall. This pope was a man of\nmost amiable manners, a great writer, and possessed of considerable\nlearning. He corrected several abuses, particularly such as had\narisen out of the privileges of asylum. He carefully endeavoured to\nkeep clear of disputes and contests, thinking the times unfavourable\nto the papal authority. He died in the year 1,758.\n7. Ihe cardinal Rezzonico succeeded Benedict XIV., and took the","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0394.jp2"},"393":{"fulltext":"MODEKN HISTORY. 389\ntitle of Clement XIII. His pontificate is memorable for being the\naera of the expulsion of the order of Jesuits, (in some instances un-\nder circumstances of very unjustifiable precipitation*) from Portugal,\nFrance, Spain, Naples, Sicily, Parma, Venice, and Corsica, notwith-\nstanding the utmost efforts of the pope to uphold them many of\nthem were actually landed from Spain, Portugal, Naples, and Sicily,\non the pope s territories, as though it belonged to him to maintain\nthem when abandoned by the catholic sovereigns. The pope re-\nmonstrated, but with little effect. The French seized upon Avignon,\nand the Neapolitans upon Benevento, to induce him to abandon the\norder, but he would not. Clement XIII. died suddenly, on February\n2, 1,769, and was succeeded by the cele orated Ganganelli, who, in\ncompliment to his predecessor and patron, took the title of Clement\nXIV. This enlightened pontiff was sensible of the decline of the\npapal authority, and of the prudence of conciliating, if not of\nhumouring, the sovereigns of Europe, against whom, he was accus-\ntomed to observe, the Alps and the Pyrenees were not sufficient pro-\ntection. It was in consequence of this leaning towards the temporal\nprinces, that he secured their concurrence to his being made pope,\nhis freedom of thought and manners being otherwise obnoxious to\nthe court of Rome. The conclave, by which he was elected, was\ntumultuous but at length the cardinal de Bernis succeeded in pro-\ncuring him to be chosen pope, May, 1,769. It is weli known that\nthis accomplished pontiff, in the year 1,773, after much deliberation,\nsuppressed the order of Jesuits and, dying in the next year, suspi-\ncions were raised that he had been poisoned, but, on opening his\nbody, in the presence of the French and Spanish ministers, enemies\nto the Jesuits, it was pronounced otherwise. There is little doubt\nbut that he regretted, as head of the church, the step he had been\ncompelled to take it procured for him, indepd, the restitution of\nAvignon and Benevento, which had been taken from his predecessor;\nbut in consenting to the dissolution of an order so essential to the\npapal dominion, he must, in all probability, have yielded to the power\nof irresistible circumstances. He was of an amiable disposition,\nmuch given to literature, indefatigable in business, and highly re-\nspected by foreign nations, plain and simple in his manners, and very\ndisinterested. g\n8. Early in the year 1,775, Angiolo Braschi, a descendant of the\nnoble family of Cesena, was chosen to till the chair vacated by the\ndeath of Ganganelli. The new pope took the title of Pius VI. He\nis said to have been elected contrary to the wishes and intentions of\nmoM. of the members of the conclave, a circumstance not unlikely to\nhappen amidst such a contrariety of interests, and the complicated\nforms of proceeding. As he had thus risen to supreme power, he\nacted afterwards more independently of the cardinals, than any of\nhis predecessors.\n9: He had taken the name of Pins VI., in acknowledged detiance\nof a prevailing superstition, expressed in the following verses, and\napplied to Alexander VI. particularly, if not to others.\nSextus Tarquinius, Sextus Nero, sextus et iste\nSemper sub sextis, perdita Roma fait.\nHe is known to have, in his troubles, reflected on this rather sin-\ngular circumstance, with sorrow and dismay. Certainly no pope had\ngreater indignities to sustain, nor could any have greater cause to\nKk2","height":"3614","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0395.jp2"},"394":{"fulltext":"390 MODERN HISTORY.\napply to themselves the ominous presages conveyed in the line9 just\ncited; for in the year 1,798 his government was overthrown, and\nRome lost. The French took possession of it and proclaimed the\nrestoration of the Roman republic.\n10. The pope s troubles began in 1,796, when he was compelled\nto cede to Buonaparte the cities of Bologna, Urbino, Ferrara, and\nAncona, to pay twenty-one millions of francs, and deliver to the\nFrench commissioners, sent for the purposes, pictures, busts, statues,\nand vases, to a large amount. He afterwards endeavoured to raise\nan army to recover what he had lost but he had formed a very\nwrong estimate of the power of his opponent. He was soon com-\npelled, February 12, 1,797, to sue for peace, and submit to further\nsacrifices at the will of Buonaparte, whom he had certainly very in-\ncautiously provoked. By the peace of Tolentino, he renounced all\nright to Avignon and the Vanaissin, Bologna, Ferrara, and the Romag-\nna. On the entrance of the French in 1,798, the Vatican and Quii\ninal palaces, and private mansions of the obnoxious amongst the\nnobility, were stripped of all their ornaments and riches. The peo-\nple who had invited the French, fancied themselves free, but had\nvery little cause to thank their deliverers. The pope was forcibly\nremoved from Rome, at the age of eighty, and, by order of the\nFrench directory, transferred from place to place, as the course of\nevents dictated, from Rome to Florence, from Florence to Briancon,\nand from Briancon to Valence. Another removal to Dijon is said to\nhave been in contemplation, had not the decline of his health become\ntoo visible to render it necessary. He died at the latter place on the\n29th of August, 1,799, in the eighty-second year of his age, and\ntwenty-fourth of his pontificate.\n1 1. Pius VI. was correct in his manners, and a patron of genius,\nparticularly of the fine arts. He spent much money on buildings,\nnotwithstanding the distressed state of the finances, and devoted large\nsums to the draining of the Pontine marshes, in which almost im-\npracticable undertaking, he partly succeeded. He endeavoured to\ncorrect the abuses of sanctuary, which had been carried so far as to\ngive impunity to hired assassins, much to the disgrace of those who\nprotected them. It deserves to be recorded of him, that he display-\ned great magnanimity, as well as pious resignation, when dragged\nfrom his dominions and though he felt severely the wrongs that had\nbeen committed against him by the French and the infatuated Ro-\nmans, he died tranquilly and serenely.\n12. It is remarkable that he had scarcely been dead a month, when\nRome was delivered from the hands of its oppressors, and given up\nto the British, whose fleet, under commodore Trowbridge, had block-\ned up the port of Civita Vecchia. Those who had favoured the re-\npublican cause were permitted to retire, and the French garrison\nmarched out with the honours of war.\n13. In the month of March, 1,800, a conclave of cardinals, under\nthe protection of the emperor and other catholic powers, met at\nVenice to elect a successor to Pius VI., and was not long in fixing\nupon the cardinal Chiaremonte, bishop of Tivoli, the present pope\nPius VII. In a few weeks after his election, he set out for his new\ndominions, and arrived at Rome on the 9th of July. In the month\nof September, 1,801, he had the satisfaction of concluding a concor*\ndatum with the French republic, by which, under the auspices of\nBuonaparte, then first consul, the Roman catholic religion was re-\nestablished there. Not only heresy, but irUidellty and atheism, had","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0396.jp2"},"395":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 391\nbeen so openly encouraged and avowed by the French revolutionists,\nthat Pius appears to have thought no concessions too great to ac-\ncomplish this end for the terms of the agreement undoubtedly sub-\njected the Gallican church entirely to the civil government, canoni-\ncal institution being almost the only privilege reserved to the pope,\nand every possible encouragement being, at the same time, given to\nthe protestant churches, Lutheran and Calvinistic.\n13. It was very soon discovered, that the new head of the Roman\nchurch, was to be made to bow as low to the authority of Buonaparte\nas his predecessor. In 1 ,804 Pius VII. was summoned to Paris to\nofficiate at the coronation of the French emperor and though in\nthe year following he declined attending a similar ceremony at\nMilan, as has been already shown, it seems only to have exposed him\nto greater sacrifices. In 1,808 he was deprived of Urbino, Ancona,\nMacerata, and Camerino, and soon alter his temporal sovereignty\nwas formally dissolved, and the papal territories annexed to France.\nRome was declared to be a free and imperial city the court of in-\nquisition, the temporal jurisdiction of the clergy, the right of asylum,\nand other privileges were abolished, and the title of king of Rome ap-\npropriated to the heir of the French empire. Pius was conveyed\nfirst to Grenoble, afterwards to Savona, and finally, in 1,812, to Fon-\ntainebleau, where, for reasons unknown, he was once more acknowl-\nedged as a sovereign, till the advance of the allies upon Paris, at last,\nErocured him his liberty; and in 1,814 he was reinstated he made\nis solemn entrance into Rome on the 24th of May and in 1,815,\nby the arrangements of the congress of Vienna, his forfeited estates\nwere re-annexed to the papal dominions. His restoration of the\norder i)f Jesuits and of the court of inquisition, on his return, occa-\nsioneu some concern to the greater part of Europe but his holiness\nhas generally had the credit of being a man of sense, prudence, and\nmoderation.\nSECTION XXIV.\nOF INDIA, OR HINDOOSTAN.\n1. India or Hindoostan having largely engaged the attention of\nEurope since the close of the seventeenth century, may deserve\nsome distinct notice, though little is to be added to what has already\nbeen related in former sections, of the political events and transac-\ntions which have occurred in that remote region of the globe, during\nthe periodtilluded to.\n2. The celebrated Aurungzebe, who occupied the throne of Del-\nhi, at the commencement of the eighteenth century, lived to the\nyear 1,707. In him the spirit of the great Timur, from whom he\nwas the eleventh in descent, seemed to revive. He was brave, but\ncruel. He attained to a great age, being nearly a hundred years\nold when he died, having succeeded in rendering almost the whole\nof the peninsula subject to his sway, from the tenth to the thirty-fifth\ndegree of latitude, and nearly as much in longitude.\n3. But if Aurungzebe thus raised in his own person the credit of\nthe mogul throne, its glory also perished with him. A sad scene of\nconfusion ensued upon his death. He nad himself, indeed, waded to\nthe throne through the blood of his own kindred. After deposing\nhis father, two of his brothers were slain in contending for the crown.","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0397.jp2"},"396":{"fulltext":"392 MODERN HISTORY.\nBut such was the nature, generally, of the political revolutions of\nthose countries, that had not this been the case, the life of Aurungze-\nhe himself might probably have been sacrificed to similar views and\npurposes. He is said to have bitterly repented of his misdoings be-\nfore he died.\n4. No sooner, however, was he dead, than the most violent con-\ntests arose between his own sons, two of whom, Azem and Kaum\nBuksh, perished in their opposition to their elder brother, who be-\ncame emperor, under the title of Bahader Shah. The throne, in-\ndeed, was such an object of contention, that, in the small space of\neleven years, five princes, who attained to the throne, and six, who\nwere candidates for it, successively fell victims to the lusts and pas-\nsions of their semi-barbarous competitors. It was in the reign of\nFeroksere, who was deposed in 1,717, that the English East India\nCompany obtained the famous firman or grant, by which their goods\nof export and import were exempted from duties, and which has been\nregarded as their commercial charter in India no other European\ncompanies being similarly indulged.\n5. In the time of Mahmud or Muhammed Shah, who came to the\nthrone in the year 1,718, and who was engaged in disputes with some\nof his most powerful neighbours and dependents, the celebrated\nusurper of the Persian throne, Nadir Shah, encouraged, or even in-\nvited, as it has been said, by some of the discontented princes, particu-\nlarly the subahdar of the JDeckan, invaded the dominions of the Mo-\ngul, and with such success, as in the year 1,739, to seize upon Delhi,\nthe capital, with all its treasures, and compel the unhappy sultan, to\nsurrender, with the utmost ignominy, his crown and sceptre. He\nwas, indeed, afterwards restored, but with the loss of all his domin-\nions west of the Indus, together with jewels and treasures to an in-\ncalculable amount some indiscreet insult, offered to the Persians,\nhaving been the alleged provocation for delivering the city up to\nplunder, and the inhabitants to the sword, with every cruelty and in-\ndignity attendant upon such misfortunes. This miserable capital\nafterwards underwent a second visitation of the same description,\nfrom one of the followers of Nadir Shah, Abdallah, who had., indeed,\nbeen forced into his service, but found means to take advantage of\nhis master s victories, by seizing upon the territories west of the In-\ndus, ceded to Nadir by the unfortunate mogul, and erecting a sove-\nreignty for himself at Candahar. Nadir Shah was assassinated in his\ntent, in 1,747.\n6. By the invasion of the Persians, the power and glory of the\nmoguls may be said to have been brought to an end. From that\nperiod the subordinate states, princes, and viceroys, began to aspire\nto a degree of independence, and to acquire a consequence before\nunknown the mogul himself becoming a mere nominal sovereign.\nThose who were most raised at this time by the depression of the\nsultanic authority, appear to have been\nThe Nizam or Subahdar, of the Deckan the Nabot of Arcot, oi\nthe Carnatic; the Subahdar of Bengal; the Nabob of Oude; the\nRajahpoote Princes of Agimere the Mahrattas; the Seiks; the\nRohillas, and the Jats,\nThe disputes and differences that took place between these several\npowers, after they had shaken off the yoke of the mogul, opened\nthe door for the interference of the European settlers, towards the\nmiddle of the eighteenth century. (See Sect. VI. 2.) The French\nfirst, and afterwards the English, contrived to take advantage of the","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0398.jp2"},"397":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY 393\n*lval elaims set up by the different native powers, and by rendering\nthem assistance against each other, and it is to be feared greatly fo-\nmenting their quarrels, soon became acquainted with the manifest\nsuperiority of their own tactics, and the influence this must give them\nin such contests. The French went farther, and first hit upon the\nexpedient of training the natives in the European manner, and in-\ncorporating them with their own armies; these were called Sepoys.\n7. It was not long before the French and English, who had at first\nonly taken the field as auxilaries, became opposed to each other as\nprincipals in which conflicts the English succeeded beyond all ex-\npectation, and instead of being driven out of the peninsula themselves,\nwhich was evidently in the view of the French under Dupleix, in\nthe year 1,751 and 1,752, found means to establish themselves there,\nthrough the victories of Clive, to the exclusion of all other European\nnations, except for purposes purely commercial.\n8. Clive has justly been regarded as the founder of the British em-\npire in India he was the first to procure for the company grants of\nterritory and assignments of revenue, which totally changed the char-\nacter of our connexion with that country, and rendered the native\nprinces, even the mogul himself subservient to our purposes. The\nEnglish had received great provocation from the subahdar of Bengal,\nin an attack upon Calcutta, and Clive was selected by admiral Wat-\nson to recover from Sourajud Dowlah the town and fort, which had\nbeen surrendered to him. At the battle of Plassey, 1,757, he not on-\nly succeeded in the recoveiy of Calcutta, but in the deposition of the\nsubahdar, and having appointed his general in his room, obtained a\ngrant of all the effects and factories of the French in Bengal. Bahar,\nand Orissa, and money contributions to the immense amount of\n£2,750,000 sterling, exclusive of private gratuities.\n9. It would have been well if these advantages could have been\nacquired with less loss of credit to the nation than was actually the\ncase but there was too much in these first steps towards a territorial\nestablishment, to feed the ambition and cupidity of those intrusted\nwith the management of affairs, to render it probable that they would\nkeep clear of abuses. The opportunities that occurred of intermed-\ndling with the native powers, were eagerly seized upon as occasions\nfor enriching the servants of the company, (drawn from home in ex-\npectation of making rapid fortunes,) at the expense of the company\nitself, whose affairs were in danger, not only of becoming more em-\nbarrassed by the extraordinary expenses of such interference, but by\nthe alienation of the minds of the natives, under circumstances little\nshort of the most determined plunder and persecution. In the man-\nagement of the new-acquired territories and inland trade, it is no\nlonger to be doubted that the natives suffered in every possible man-\nner, from the most unreasonable monopolies, exorbitant duties im-\nposed on articles of general consumption, abuses in regard to leases,\nand fiscal oppressions so that the British name became dishonored,\nand it was found to be absolutely expedient that some change should\ntake place in the admistration of affairs so remote from the seat of\nall rule and direction, and which, from simply commercial, were now\nclearly become political and military.\n10. The charter of the company being subject to periodical re-\nnewals, afforded opportunities for the interference of the legislature,\nnor was the company itself backward under any pressure of pecu-\nniary embarrassments, to apply to government for assistance. On\none of these occasions) the great change that had taken place in the","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0399.jp2"},"398":{"fulltext":"394 MODERN HISTORY.\nelate of things in India, induced the government at home to claim for\nthe crown all revenues arising from any new acquisitions made by\nmilitary force, and in order to repress the inordinate proceedings of\nthe company s servants, of which the natives, the public at home-\nand the company itself, had but too much reason to complain, gov\nernment also insisted upon taking into its own hands the political\njurisdiction of India.\n1 1. These claims and regulations were first proposed in parliament,\nNovember, 1 ,772, and may be said to have laid the foundation foi\nthat enlarged system of administration and control which has prevail-\ned since, though under different modifications, from lord North s bill\nin 1,773 to Mr. Pitt s in 1,784. By this latter bill, a board of control,\ncomposed of certain commissioners of the rank of privy counsellors,\nwas established, the members of which were to be appointed by the\nking, and removable at his pleasure. This board was authorized to\ncheck, superintend, and control the civil and military government\nand revenue of the company a high tribunal also, for the trial of\nIndian delinquents, was proposed at the same time. The manage-\nment of their commercial concerns was left in the hands of the com\npany the political and civil authority only transferred to the crown\nIn 1,786, some alterations were made in the bill; the offices of com\nmander-in-chief and governor-general were for the future to be unit-\ned in the same person, and a power given to the governor-general to\ndecide in opposition to the majority of the council. The presidencies\nof Madras and Bombay had been previously, by lord North s bill,\nplaced under the superintendency of the governor and council oi\nBengal, but by this bill that point also was confirmed.\n12. When this bill was passed, it appeared from the preamble, tc\nbe decidedly the opinion of parliament, of government, as well as of\nthe court of directors, whose orders had for some time breathed the\nsame spirit, that to pursue schemes of conquest and extension of\ndominion in India, were measures repugnant to the wish, the honour\nand the policy of the nation. It had previously been resolved by\nthe house, that the maintenance of an inviolable character toi\nmoderation, good faith, and scrupulous regard to treaty, ought to\nhave been the simple grounds on which the British government\nshould have endeavoured to establish an influence superior to othei\nEuropeans, over the minds of the native powers in India and that the\ndanger and discredit arising from the forfeiture of this pre-eminence\ncould not be compensated by the temporary success of any plan ot\nviolence and injustice.\n13. Such was the tenor of the resolutions of the house of commons\nin 1,782, recognised as the principle of the bill of 1,784, and farther\nconfirmed by an act passed in 1,793. In all we perceive an evident\nallusion to those mal-practices of the company s servants, which will\ntor ever, it is to be feared, remain on record, to tarnish the lustre of\nour first victories and territorial acquisitions in India, and to detract\nfrom the reputation of persons, whose names might otherwise have\njustly stood high on the list of those, from whose pre-eminent talents\nand abilities, the nation has derived both glory and advantage.\n14. The English system of jurisprudence had been extended to\nIndia by lord North s bill of 1,773, but under disadvantages extreme-\nly embarrassing. The difference of manners, habits, customs; the\ndifficulty, if not impossibility, of mingling two codes, so very dissimi-\nlar as those of Britain and Hindoostan the forms and technicalities\nof the English law, totally unknown to the native courts the an-","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0400.jp2"},"399":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 395\nparent kijWflfca of subjecting a people to laws to which they were\nno parlies, and to which, of course, they had given no sanction;\nthese, and other difficulties have been acknowledged ly those who\nhave had to administer the laws under the new system, in India,\nas having prevented those happy effects taking place, which might\notherwise have been expected from the introduction of the English\njurisprudence. Since the passing of Mr. Pitfs bill, however, much\nbenefit has certainly been derived from the residence and superin-\ntendence of noblemen of the highest rank and abilities, as governors,\ngeneral, and of judges the most enlightened, to preside in the Indian\ncourts. The first reforms that were attempted under the new system,\nthough not so successful as might be wished, proceeded from those\ntwo most amiable and highly respected personages, the marquis\nCornwallis, and sir William Jones.\n15. From the conduct of lord Cornwallis, and his successors lord\nTeignmouth, and lord Mornington, now marquis Wellesley, it is ex-\ntremely evident that the system of neutrality and forbearance pre-\nscribed by the resolutions of parliament, and preamble of the act of\n1,784, would have been scrupulously adhered to had it been possible,\nconsistently with the security of our settlements; but towards the\nclose of the eighteenth century, the English were compelled to de-\nfend themselves from the most formidable designs of the celebrated\nHyder Ally and his son Tippoo Saib, who unquestionablv had it in\nview to exterminate^ the British, and probably all other Europeans,\nfiom the peninsula of India.\n16. The result of these conflicts, which took place in Mysore, and\nthe Carnatic, was the total overthrow of a Mahomedan dynasty of\nonly two sovereigns, commencing with a mere adventurer oi most\nsingular character, who having waded through crimes to his object,\nsucceeded in placing himself and his son on one of the most brilliant\nthrones of the east, and in a condition to give very considerable\ntrouble to the English government there,\n17. Hyder Ally, the father of Tippoo, was born in 1,722- and died\nin 1,782. Tippoo was born in 1,753, and lost his life in the celebrat-\ned assault oi the capital of his new dominions, Seringapatam, inl,799\nThey were very different men, having been differently educated.\nThe former had strong natural powers, which compensated for his\nwan4 of acquired knowledge the latter was vain of his scanty pro-\nficiency in Persian literature, and a few other attainments, to a degree\nof absurdity fancying himself the greatest philosopher of the age,\nthe wisest, bravest, and handsomest of men. Hyder was tolerant in\nreligious concerns to a degree of indifference Tippoo, a bigoted\nmussulman, to the utmost pitch of intolerance and persecution. The\nformer meddled little with religion. The latter contemplated changes\nin Islamism, as in every thing else, having, as a preliminary, substi-\ntuted a new era in his coins, dating from the birth instead of the flight\nof Mahomet. Both father and son were devoid of principle, but the\nformer was much the greatest man.\n18. It was owing to the vigilance and prompt measures of lord\nWellesley, that Tippoo was so opportunely overthrown though his\nproceedings were weak, they were carried on with much duplicity\nand deceit, and upon principles of alliance which in other circum-\nstances might have become very alarming. Under the most positive\nand repeated assurances of peace and amity, he had intrigued with\nFrance, Turkey, the king of Candahar, (a descendant of the cele-\nbrated Affghan chief Abdallah,) the Nizam of the Deckan, and the","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0401.jp2"},"400":{"fulltext":"396 MODERJN HISTORY.\nMahrattas, for the express object of forming a strong confederacy fo\nextirpate the English in his negotiations with the courts of Canda-\nhar and Constantinople, indeed, he had declared vengeance against\nthe infidels generally, whence it has been reasonably concluded that\nnis schemes of destruction embraced all the European powers, the\nFrench not excepted, had his projects but been successful. Fortu-\nnately, lord Wellesley detected ail his plots, and when it became\nimpossible to treat farther with him on any lair grounds, by the\nmost decisive measures, and rapid movements, effectually avert-\ned the blow that had been decidedly aimed at the British empire in\nIndia.\n19. On the fall of Seringapatam, the Mysorean dominions were,\nby allotments to the allies, the British, the Nizam, and the Mahrattas,\nnearly reduced to the limits by which they were bounded before the\nusurpation of Hyder, and, a surviving representative of the Hindoo\ndynasty, a child only rive years old, placed on the throne, with an\nacknowledged dependency on the British government. The de-\nscendants of Tippoo being, however, liberally provided for. and\nsettled in the Carnatic, disturbances in the northern and north-western\nparts of the peninsula, among the Mahratta chieftains, occupied the\nattention of the English army, in the early part of the present cen-\ntury, when a fresh opportunity was afforded of triumphing over the\nintrigues of the French, who headed the adverse forces, and endeav-\noured to procure for that government a cession of the districts in-\ntrusted to their care but the issue of the contest was entirely in\nfavour of the British. From this time the ascendancy of the British\nin the peninsula has continued so decidedly established, as to render\nit needless to say any thing of the other European settlements.\n20. The acquisition of territory in India, together with the new\nsystem of government and control, by rendering it necessary for pec-\nsons of learning and talent to reside there, have had the effect of im-\nproving our knowledge of those remote countries, and opened to us\na field of inquiry and research, peculiarly interesting and curious.\nAmong those who may be considered as having most particularly\ncontributed to these ends, we may reckon Mr. Wilkinsand sir William\nJones the former by having first, with any real success, pursued the\nstudy of the Sanscrit language, the root of all the vernacular dialects\nof the peninsula, and thereby opened to the contemplation of the\nhistorian, the antiquarian, the philosopher, and the poet, whatever is\ninteresting in the literature ot all the nations east of the Indus and\nthe latter, by instituting the first philosophical society in those parts,\nand inviting the learned, in all quarters of the globe, to propose que\nlies in every branch of Asiatic history, natural and civil, on the phi\nlosophy, mathematics, antiquities, and polite literature of Asia, and\non eastern arts^ both liberal and mechanic, as guides to the investiga\ntions of the persons resident in the peninsula, qualified to pursue\nsuch inquiries on the spot, and communicate to the world in general\nthe results of their discoveries.\n21. To this learned society, first established in Bengal, under the\npresidency of sir William Jones, we are indebted for all those curious\npapers preserved in the several volumes of the Asiatic Researches\nand the Indian Annual Register, and which have so largely contrib-\nuted to enlarge the boundaries of oriental literature. To the names\nalready mentioned, as having taken the lead in this curious branch of\nscience, we may add those of our countrymen, Halhed, Vansittart,\nShore, (lord Teagamouth, the second president, on the death of sir","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0402.jp2"},"401":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 397\nWilliam, 1.794,, Davie, Colebrook, Wilford,RenneIl, Hunter, Fender,\nMarsden, Orme, Carey, Buchanan, Barlow, Harrington, Edmonstone,\nKhkpatrick, c.\n22. At the commencement of the present century, it became ob-\nvious to the marquis of Wellesley, then governor-general, that the\nstate oi the British empire in India absolutely required, that the per-\nsons sent out to discharge the important functions of magistrates, judges*\nambassadors, and governors of provinces, should have some better\nmeans of qualifying themselves for such high stations and complicated\nduties, than were then in existence. His lordship s view of these\nmatters, as recorded in the minute of council, dated August 18, 1,800,\ns nighly deserving of consideration, and his plan for forming and en-\ndowing a college for these purposes at Calcutta, reflect the highest\ncredit on his wisdom and discernment, though the latter has not been\ncarried into execution in the way his lordship proposed, for want of\nfunds. The East India College, since established in Hertfordshire,\nmay be considered as entirely owing to the adoption by the company\nof the enlightened principles contained in the minute alluded to. A\nsystem of oriental education is now effectually established, which,\nthough on a much more contracted scale, and in a great measure con-\nfined to England, bids fair, it is to be hoped, to accomplish most of\nthe ends contempvated by his lordship in his original design of founding\na college at Fort William, in Bengal, namely, to perpetuate the im\nmense advantages derived to the company from their possessions in\nIndia, and to establish the British empire in India on the solid founda\ntions of ability, integrity, virtue, and religion.\n23. Of the studies to be pursued, according to lord Wellesley s\nplan, a competent notion may be formed from the following list of\nSrofessorships and lectures Arabic, Persian, Sanscrit, Hindostanee,\nengal, Telinga, Mahratta, Tamula, and Canara, languages Mahom-\nedan law Hindoo law Ethics, civil jurisprudence, and the iaw of\nnations English law political economy, commercial institutions and\ninterests of the East India Company, geography and mathematics;\nmodern languages of Europe Greek, Latin, and English classics\ngeneral history, ancient and modern the history and antiquities o*\nHindoostan and the Deckan natural history botany, chemistry, and\nastronomy.\n24. Though the company saw reason to withhold its countenance\nfrom the original institution, the studies above chalked out have been,\nin a great measure, adopted in the Hertfordshire college, and its gen-\neral success hitherto has been pronounced answerable to the expecta-\ntions of those who were most solicitous in effecting its establishment\nThe education of the young men, destined to till the civil offices in\nIndia, is now therefore partly European and partly Asiatic for so\nmuch of the collegiate establishment in India may be said to remain,\nthat there the students, who have been taught in England the elements\nof Asiatic languages, are enabled to advance to perfection, and to be-\ncome masters of the several dialects prevailing through the peninsula.\nThough the original plan of the noble founder of the college of Fort\nY\\ llliam has not yet been adopted by the East India Company, jet to\napply the words of one of the most distinguished of our orientalists,\nGood has been done, which cannot be undone sources of useful\nknowledge, moral instruction, and political utility, have been opened\nto the natives of India, which can never be closed. In 1,814, all\necclesiastical establishment, under the immediate auspices of govern.\nment, was formed for India, the right reverend Dr. Thomas Fanshaw\nL I","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0403.jp2"},"402":{"fulltext":"393 MODERN HISTORY.\nM. iddleton being consecrated at the archiepiscopal palace, at Lambeth,\nthe first bishop of Calcutta.\nIt must surprise the English reader to be told, that the population\nof the British empire in India has been lately estimated at 90,000,000\nSTATE OF ARTS, SCIENCES, RELIGION, LAWS, GOVERN-\nMENT, c.\n1. The historical events of the eighteenth century have, we must\nconfess, been found to be of such magnitude and importance, as to\noccupy rather too large a space in a work professing to be merely\nelementary but we should be compelled in a still greater degree to\nexceed the limits assigned to us, if we were to attempt to enter into\nthe details of the very extraordinary progress that has taken place\nduring the same period, in arts, sciences, and literature some changes,\nindeed, have occurred, and more been contemplated, in religion, laws,\nand government, but in regard to the former, almost all things have\nbecome new we have new arts and new sciences and in literature,\nsuch an overflowing of books upon every subject that could possibly\noccupy or interest the mind of man, that the most diligent compiler of\ncatalogues would fail in endeavouring barely to enumerate them.\n2. It is somewhat extraordinary, indeed, that this great and rapid\nadvancement of knowledge has after all been confined to only a small\nportion of the globe. The great continent of Africa, though better\nknown than in past times, has made no advances in civilization. Asia,\nthough many parts have been diligently explored during the last centu-\nry, and a large portion of it actually occupied by Europeans, remains,\nas to the natives, in its original state. The vast empire of China has\nmade no progress at all. Japan has effectually shut the door against\nall improvement. South America, indeed, though labouring under\ndifficulties unfriendly to the progress of knowledge, is yet reported to\nbe making no inconsiderable advances, particularly in Mexico, where\nboth the arts and sciences are cultivated with credit and effect. In\nNorth America, also, the arts and sciences and literature may certainly\nbe said to be in a progressive state, but under circumstances of rather\nslow and partial improvement.*\n3. Civilized Europe is the only part of the world that can claim the\ncredit of almost all that has been done towards the advancement of\nknowledge since the commencement of the eighteenth century, and\nonly a few parts after all of civilized Europe itself. Turkey has stood\nstill, as well as her Grecian dependencies, till very lately. Spain,\nPortugal, and even the greater part of Italy, liave laboured under dif-\nficulties and restrictions exceedingly inimical to their advancement,\nand which have greatly arrested their progress in the career of letters\nand philosophy. The north and north-eastern parts of Europe have\nproduced many learned men, have been diligently explored, and ma-\nterials at least collected for great improvements other parts are also\nupon the advance but England, France, and Germany, are undoubt-\nThe writer must be under a mistake. Is it not acknowledged through-\nout Europe, that the United States of North America are not only farther\nadvanced, but faster advancing, in the discoveries of science, and that\ntheir progress in literature is more rapid, than any other nation of the new\nworld","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0404.jp2"},"403":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 3*)9\nedly the principal countries to which we must look for the most strik-\ning progress in every branch of human knowledge. In these three\ncountries, in particular, discoveries have now certainly been made and\nprinciples established, which can never be lost again, and which must,\nas far as they may extend, be constantly operating to the lasting im-\nprovement of the world at large.\n4. It would be quite unnecessary to go back to the origin, or former\nstate, either of the arts or sciences, now known and cultivated in Eu-\nrope. It is pretty generally understood, that, comparatively with tta\nage of the world, they have been only very recently submitted to sucb\nprocesses as bid fair to bring them to the highest state of perfection\nOne art has helped another, and new s^ences oeen brought to light,\nthat have greatly promoted the advancement of those before under-\nstood and cultivated. Galvanism has assisted electricity j and gal-\nvanism and electricity together been exceedingly serviceable to\nchemistry chemistry to mineralogy, and so forth new systems and\narrangements, and new nomenclatures, have contributed greatly to\nrender every step that has been taken more accurate and certain, and\nto place every object of attention or inquiry more exactly in the rank\nand order it should occupy in the general circle of arts and sciences\nbut the thing of most importanse of all, in regard to the improvements\nthat have taken place since the beginning or middle of the eighteenth\ncentury, is. that every thing has been conducted exactly upon those\nf)rinciples, which the great lord Bacon so strongly recommended, and\nias, therefore, been found conducive to all those great ends, the neg-\nlect of which, in his own and preceding ages, he so much deplored\nevery thing has had a tendency to augment the powers, dimimsh the\npains, or increase the happiness of mankind.\n5. Amongst the sciences so cultivated and advanced, since the sev-\nenteenth century, as justly to be regarded as new, we may rank chem-\nistry, botany, electricity, galvanism, mineralogy, geology, and in many\nrespects, geography every one of these sciences has been placed on so\nvery different a footing, by the recent manner of treating them, and by\nnew discoveries, that it is better, perhaps, at once to consider them as\nnew sciences, than to advert to former systems, founded on totally er-\nroneous principles, and which have been, on that account, very rea-\nsonably exploded.\n6. Chemistry, however, even in the course of the period before us,\nhas undergone very essential changes it is now not only a very differ-\nent science from the chemistry that prevailed antecedent to the eigh-\nteenth century but the eighteenth centuiy itself has witnessed a re-\nmarkable revolution in its leading principles some, indeed, of the\nmost important changes approach nearer to the nineteenth than the\nseventeenth century, if they do not actually belong to the former at\nall events, it was not till towards the close of the eighteenth century\nthat chemical experiments had been pushed so far as to displace two\nof the elements of the old philosophy, and totally supersede the pre-\nvailing theory of heat, light, and combustion a theory wnich was\nitself not much more than half a century old. Stahl, the celebrated\ndisciple of Becher, born in 1,660, but who lived to 1,734, has the credit\nof being the author of the phlogistic system, which began to be attack-\ned late in the last century, and seems now to be totally exploded.\nWhether the rival theory will ultimately maintain its ground in all\npoints, may, perhaps, appear still doubtful to some the French claim\nto be the authors of the new theory but though the experiments they\nvery ably conducted were highly conducive to the establishment of it,","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0405.jp2"},"404":{"fulltext":"400 MODERN HISTORY.\nthe way seems to have been more opened to thern by others than they\nare willing to acknowledge, particularly by English observers. The\nphlogistic system was a plausible theory in certain respects, but io\nothers totally indefensible and, perhaps, a better proof of the utility\nof repeated experiments could not be produced, than that which as-\ncertained, that, instead of the extrication of a particular substance by\ncombustion, something was undoubtedly added to, or imbibed by, the\ncombustible body, in order to the separation of its parts that, in fact,\nin the actual process of combustion, affinity produces a double decom-\nposition, and that a certain portion of the atmosphere entering into\nunion with the combustible body produces all those appear*, nces\nwhich, under the former sv«tem had been attributed to the ex-\ntrication of an unknown principle of inflammability, denominated\nphlogiston.\n7. The very curious experiments, made to confirm and establish the\nlatter system, have been of the greatest importance in regard to other\nmatters, particularly to that branch of the new chemistry which has\nbeen denominated the pneumatic system. The discoveries in this line\nof experiment, which has the air lor its subject, exceed, perhaps, all\nothers in importance and interest the analysis of the common atmos-\nphere has opened to our view a series of physical operations constant-\nly going on, the most wonderful and delicate that can possibly be con-\nceived the respiration of animals is of this description. The atmos\nphere is now known to be a most curious compound of two sorts ot\nair, or gases, (as they have been named of late,) the one capable of\nsupporting life and flame, the other destructive of both in combus-\ntion, calcination of metals, and respiration, the process is the same,\na decomposition of the atmosphere the pure part iy imbibed, and the\nimpure part left subject to further contamination, by what is given\nout by the combustible, calcining, or respiring bodies during the ope*\nration for, as it was before said, the decomposition in all instances is\na double one the proportion of the two parts of the atmosphere has\nbeen ascertained to be in a hundred, twenty-two of pure or vital, and\nseventy-eight of impure or azotic gas.\n8. The discovery of the vital air is acknowledged by M. Lavoisier\nto have been common to himself with two other eminent chemists, Dr.\nPriestly and the celebrated Scheele. Dr. Priestly discovered it in\n1,774, Scheele in 1,777, M. Lavoisier in 1,775 the former seems un\ndoubtedly to have the best claim to the discovery. M. Lavoisier, at\nfirst, called it highly respirable air afterwards, as entirely essen-\ntial to the support of life, vital air Dr. Priestly, who lived and\ndied an advocate for the phlogistic system, dephlogis cated air\nand Scheele called it empyreal air. It at last obtained another\nname, from its being supposed to be the cause of acidity, viz. oxy-\ngen gas.\n9. Who is justly to be accounted the father of the pneumatic cnem-\nistry, it would, perhaps, be hazardous to say Dr. Black of Edinburgh\nhas had the credit of being so, from his experiments on the carbonic\nacid. It has been claimed for Dr. Priestley, Scheele, and M. Lavoi\nsier the discoveries in this line certainly constitute a grand era lr\nchemistry. The many various kinds of gases that have been now\ndiscovered the very curious experiments made to ascertain theii\nproperties the instruments invented to render such experiments cer*\ntain the new compounds that have been detected by their means,,\nand their operation and effects in almost eveiy branch of physics, if\nwould far exceed our limits to describe but it is impossible not tc","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0406.jp2"},"405":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 401\nnotice the extraordinary discovery of the decomposition of water,\nwhich belongs entirely to pneumatic chemistry.\n10. Till within less than half a century ago, water was esteemed to\nbe so certainly an elementary principle, that but few ever dreamed of\nits being otherwise and it was almost by accident that it was at last\nfound to be a compound. In the course of certain pneumatic experi-\nments, it was ascertained by Mr. Cavendish, that water was produced\nby a combination of two particular gases both analysis and synthesis\nwere resorted to, to render this curious discovery more certain, and it\nwas at length ascertained, not only that those two gases were constant-\nly produced in certain proportions from the decomposition of water,\nbut that water was as constantly the result of a judicious mixture of\nthose two gases the gases thus constituting the proper principles of\nwater, were the vital and inflammable airs of the first chemical nomen-\nclature of modern days, better known now by the names of oxygen\ngas and hydrogen gas the latter evidently so called from its im-\nportance, as a constituent base or radical 01 water we owe the dis-\ncovery of it to our countryman, Mr. Cavendish. The proportion be-\ntween the two gases in these curious experiments has been found to be\neighty-five of oxygen to fifteen of hydrogen both oxygen and hydro-\ngen being combustible, their combination for experimental purpose*\nis brought about by inflammation, through the means of the electric\nspark.\n11. Having given this short account of the leading discoveries in\npneumatic chemistry discoveries which have opened to us totally\nnew views, of certain physical operations of the first importance, and\ngreatly extended our knowledge of chemical substances and their prop-\nerties, simple and compound, visible and invisible, confineable and\nunconfineable we shall be compelled to be mucn more brief in what\nfurther relates to modern chemistry.\n12. Of late years almost all the substances in nature have been ex\namined and probably almost all the combinations of them exhausted\nnew metals to a large amount, new earths, and new acids have been\ndiscovered the fixed alkalis decomposed, and their nature ascertain-\ned the whole range of chemical affinities and attractions nicely ar-\nranged and determined, as far as experiment can reach and many\nelastic aeriform fluids brought to light, distinguished from each other\nby their different bases, which were totally unknown before to natural\nphilosophers, under the forms in which they are now obtained and\nwhich have been thought deserving of being formed into a fourth class\nor kingdom, amongst the productions of nature the proper distinction\nof these elastic fluids, or gases, as they have been denominated, (after\na term adopted by Vanhelmont, signifying a spirit or incoercible\nvapour,) being that of some base, saturated with the cause of heat or\nexpansion, called in the new nomenclature caloric; by means of some\nof these gases, so combined with caloric, a power has been obtained\nof fusing the most refractory substances in nature.\n13. To render the nice and delicate experiments necessary in this\nnew branch of chemical science more accurate, numerous instruments\nhave been invented, of very curious construction such as the eudiom-\neter, to measure the purity of any given portion of air the gazometer\nto measure the quantities, kc. of gases the calorimeter, for measures\nof heat to which we may add various descriptions of thertnome ers\nand pyrometers. .particularly the differential thermometer, invented by\nMr. Leslie, of Edinburgh, and its accompaniments the pyroscoj e t\nor measure of radiant heat the photometer to ascertain the intensity\nLI 2 51","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0407.jp2"},"406":{"fulltext":"402 MODERN HISTORY\nof light very curious and delicate balances, some that are said to bfe\ncapable of ascertaining a weight down to the seven millionth part\ndeserve to be mentioned, as extraordinary instances of skilful work-\nmanship many different sorts of hygrometers also have been con-\nstructed, particularly one by the same ingenious experimentalist\nalready mentioned, Mr. Leslie, calculated to render more correct the\nexamination of all processes dependant upon evaporation; but il\nwould be endless to attempt to describe the many instruments and con-\ntrivances rendered necessary by the extreme delicacy and minuteness\nof modern chemical and pneumato-cheniical experiments; it is suffi-\ncient to state, in a history of the progress of arts and sciences, than\nin all instances, invention appears to have kept pace with experiment\nand that the world has been almost as much enriched by the new-in-\nvented means of discovery, as by the discoveries to which they have\nconduced while the skill and judgment requisite to construct the\nexpensive and complicated instruments indispensably necessary for\nascertaining the analysis and synthesis of bodies, with such exquisite\nprecision, as to quantity and proportion, have conspired greatly to\nadvance the several arts connected with such machinery, as well as to\nquicken the intelligence and ingenuity of the artists themselves in\nthis line, perhaps, nobody has acquired greater celebrity than the late\nMr. Ramsden, the maker of the balaace of the Royal Society, whose\nextraordinary powers have been alluded to above.\n14. Among those who have principally distinguished themselves in\nthe improvement and advancement of chemical science, since the\ncommencement of the eighteenth century, we may justly mention the\nnames of Stahl, Fourcroy, Macquer, Lavoisier, Guytonmorveau,\nBerthollet, Klaproth, Vauquelin, Chaptal, Gay-Lussac, Kiiwan, Ten-\nnant, Wollaston, Priestley, Cavendish, Black, Irwine, Crawford*\nLeslie, Hall, Thompson, Brande, and Davy. To the last of whom,\nour illustrious countryman, we stand indebted for some of the most\nremarkable discoveries, and most laborious analyses of compound\nsubstances, which have taken place under the new system nor has\nhe been deficient in applying his scientific attainments to practical\npurposes, in his elements of chemical agriculture, and above all, the\nsafety-lamp, whereby he may possibly, in combating the fatal effects\nof the fire damp in coal mines, have contributed to preserve the lives\nof thousands and thousands of his fellow creatures this discovery\nwas the fruit of many most laborious, difficult, and even dangerous ex-\nperiments.\n15. When we consider the many uses of chemistry, and the im-\nmense advantages to be derived from eveiy improvement of it in a\nvariety of manufactures, in medicine, in metallurgy, in the arts of\ndying, painting, brewing, distilling, tanning, making glass, enamels,\nporcelain, and many others, we may easily conceive that the progress\nand advancement of this one branch of science alone, during the last\nand present century, must have contributed largely to the improve-\nment of many things, on which all the comforts and conveniences, the\nhappiness, the security, the well-being, the prosperity, and even the\nlives of men, depend.\nBOTANY.\nI. Botany is another of the sciences, which, from the changes\nit has undergone, and the great progress it has made since the","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0408.jp2"},"407":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 403\ncommencement of the eighteenth century, may justly be regarded as\nnew,\n2. Already were the names of Ray, Rivinus, and Tournefort, well\nknown to the lovers of this interesting study, forming as it were a new\nera in the history of botany, and imparting a lustre to the close of the\nseventeenth century, for which it will ever be memorable. Their at-\ntempts at arrangement may be justly considered as the commencement\nof a career which was destined to acquire its full degree of develope-\nment during the eighteenth century, under the happy auspices of toe\nmost celebrated botanist the world ever saw the great and illustrious\nLinnaeus.\n3. This extraordinary man was born at Rashult, in the province of\nSmaland, in Sweden, on the 24th of May, 1,707, and before he was\ntwenty-one years of age, had made himself so thoroughly acquainted\nwith the study of plants, as well as with the merits and defects of his\npredecessors in that line, as to conceive the idea of remodelling the\nwhole fabric of systematic botany, and of placing it on a new founda-\ntion, namely, the sexuality of vegetables. This bold and enterprising\nundertaking he not only projected, but accomplished with a rapidity\nand success that excited the wonder and astonishment both of his\nfriends and enemies.\n4. His first work was published in 1,730, being a brief exposition of\nthe new principle on which his system was to he founded and the\nmethod may be said to have been completed in 1,737, when he pub-\nlished his Genera Plantarum, which contained a description and ar-\nrangement of nearly one thousand genera, comprising upwards of\neight thousand species, and constituting what has been since known by\nthe name of the sexual system.\n5. At first it was either opposed as a fanciful innovation, or received\nwith doubt and distrust but its fame soon began to spread, and tc\nbear down before it all opposition, till it ultimately met with the\nalmost universal reception of botanists in every country in Europe.\n6. In 1,742, Linnaeus was chosen professor of botany at Upsal, and\nin 1,753 he published his Species Plantarum. His authority was now\nsupreme, and the impulse he communicated to the study of vegetables\nunprecedented in the annals of botany hence the various voyages\nthat were undertaken by his immediate disciples, Kalm, Laepling,\nHasselquist, and others, or which have been since undertaken by their\nsuccessors, aided by the munificence of princes, or the zeal of private\nindividuals, as well as the various societies that were sooner or later\ninstituted, with a view to the advancement of botanical knowledge\namongst which the Linnaean society of London, founded in 1,788, stands\npre-eminent, under the presidency of sir James Edward Smith, one\nof the most distinguished of the followers of Linnaeus, and the pos-\nsessor of his herbarium, library, and manuscripts.\n7. The acquisitions thus made to the mass of botanical knowledge,\nare altogether astonishing. Botanists are now said to be acquainted\nwith upwards of forty thousand species of plants and still there are\nregions of the earth unexplored, and flowers without a name, et sunt\nsine nomine jlores.\n8. We cannot, however, refuse to acknowledge that botany has also\nderived the most important advantages from such cultivators of the\nscience as cannot be ranked amongst the disciples of Linnaeus, though\nthey have equally contributed to the advancement of the knowledge of\nplants, at least in the department of the study of their natural affini-\nties the grand and ultimate end of botany, which Linnaeus himself","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0409.jp2"},"408":{"fulltext":"404 MODERN HISTORY.\nknew well how to appreciate, and even to improve, as may be seen in\nhis prelections published by Giseke, and in his Fragments of a Natu-\nral Method. But it was left for the illustrious Jussieu, the most ac-\ncomplished botanist of the present age, to give to that method the\ncomparative perfection which it has actually obtained, and to erect\nthe noble superstructure of his Genera Plantarum a work exhibiting\nthe most philosophical arrangement of plants, as well as the most\ncomplete view of their natural affinities, that was ever presented to\nthe contemplation of man.\n9. This work was published at Paris in 1,789, and the natural\nmethod of Jussieu, which may be regarded as having at all times\nstood in opposition to the artificial method of Linnaeus, seems now to\nbe advancing to a more direct rivalship than ever. Even in the\nworks of such botanists as profess to be the disciples of Linnaeus, there\nseems to be a leaning to the method of Jussieu but whether the\nnatural method of the latter will be suffered ultimately to prevail, or\nthe artificial method of the former, time only can show.\n10. Great, however, as the progress of systematic botany has un-\ndoubtedly been, during the course of the last and beginning of the\npresent century, the progress of physiological botany has perhaps\nbeen still greater. In proof of this, it will be sufficient to mention the\nnames of Hales, Bonnet, Du Hamel, Hedwig, Spallanzani, Gaertner,\nKnight, Keith, and Mirbel each of whom has distinguished himself\nin the field of phytological investigation, and eminently contributed to\nIhe advancement of the science. Above all, we must not fail to men-\nlion the name of Priestley, as being the first who introduced into the\nstudy of phytology the aid of pneumatic chemistry, which, under the\nnappy auspices of Ingenhouz, Senebier, Saussure, Ellis, and Davy,\nand lastly of Gay-Lussac and Kenard, has done more to elucidate the\nphenomena of vegetation, than all other means of investigation, and\nhas furnished as the foundation of the physiology of plants a body of\nthe most curious and undoubted facts.\n11. Before we dismiss this part of our subject, it is not unfit that we\nshould notice the extraordinary progress that has been made at the\nsame time in distinct branches of the science, as well as in the appli-\ncation of the arts of drawing, engraving, and colouring, for the pur-\nposes of illustration, and for exhibiting to the eye, at all times, in al\nplaces, and at all seasons, the beautiful and interesting productions of\nthe vegetable kingdom, in such perfection, as, in seme degree, to su-\npersede the necessity of living specimens sometimes so rare and in-\naccessible as to be out of the reach of the most scientific. There is\nno branch of knowledge which has furnished more splendid and elabo-\nrate works of this nature, than that of botany, or in which the arts have\nbeen carried to a greater degree of perfection and delicacy and as a\nstudy so elegant and agreeable cannot well be rendered too general,\nit is pleasing to observe, that through the improvements that have thus\ntaken place, and the facilities afforded to such publications, not a\nmonth passes in this kingdom without large additions being made to\nthe general stock of botanical knowledge, in works of singular beauty\nand correctness though far from costly, considering the pains bestow-\ned upon them.\n12. The lovers of botany stand greatly indebted also, to those\nlearned persons who have made it their particular business to collect,\nexamine, and describe the plants of countries and districts, and to\nsupply them with distinct Florcz, both foreign and domestic, as the\nFlora Britannica of Smith, the Flora Anglica of Hudson, the Flora","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0410.jp2"},"409":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 40b\nScotica of Lightfoot, the Flora Cantabrigiensis of Relhan, the Flora\nOxoniensis of Sibthorpe, the Flora Londinensis of Curtis, the Flora\nGraeca, the Flora Peruviana, the Flora Danica, the Flore Francoise,\nand others much too numerous to mention in the same class may be\nreckoned those works which are still further confined to the descrip-\ntion or illustration of particular genera of plants, as in our own country,\nthe Carices, by Goodenough the Grasses, by Stillingfleet the\nMenthae Britannicae, by Sole the Pines, by Lambert the Fuci, by\nTurner and various others.\nELECTRICITY.\n1. Though the property of excitation existing in amber, (elektron,)\nappears to have been known to Thales six hundred, and to Theophras-\ntus three hundred years before Christ, yet electricity (which takes its\nname from this circumstance) and galvanism, as it is still called, may\ndecidedly be regarded as sciences which have sprung up during the\nperiod to which our present inquiries belong. It was not, indeed, till\ntowards the middle of the eighteenth century that experiments in\nelectricity were pursued with any degree of ardour, success, or ad-\nvantage. Mr. Hawksbee wrote learnedly upon the subject in 1,709,\nbut it was not till twenty years afterwards that Mr. Grey and M. dii\nFaye at Paris, engaged m some experiments which contributed to\nthrow light upon the subject. Mr. Grey, who resumed his experi-\nments in 1,734, saw enough to lead him to suppose that the electric\nfluid and lightning were the same, which was not, however, effectually\nproved till the year 1,752, when the celebrated Dr. Franklin, of\nAmerica, with great ingenuity, and no small degree of courage, ascer-\ntained the fact by decisive experiments a discovery which he soon\napplied to practical purposes, by the invention of metallic conductors\nfor the security oi buildings, ships, c, during storms.\n2. As experiments could not be profitably undertaken till a suitable\napparatus was provided, it is equally evident, that the improvement\noi such apparatus must greatly have depended on the progress of the\nscience. The Leyden phial for the accumulation of the electrical\npower in glass, was invented about 1,745, and the general apparatus\nGradually improved by Van Marum, Cunaeus, Dr. Nooth, Mr. Nairne,\n)r. Priestley, Messrs. Read, Lane, and Adams. To professor Volta,\nof Como, we stand indebted for two very useful and important electri-\ncal instruments, the electrophorus, and condenser of electricity. Many\nsorts of electrometers for measuring the quantity and quality of elec-\ntricity in an electrified body, have also been invented.\n3. In 1,747 electricity began to be used for medical purposes, and\nwas supposed to be of efficacy in cases of rheumatism, deafness, palsy,\nscrofula, cancers, abscesses, gout, c. but the progress of medical\nelectricity has not been great, while the want of an apparatus, and the\nknowledge and skill requisite to apply it properly, must always pie-\nvent its becoming any very common remedy.\n4. Galvanism, which may be said to have been engrafted on elec-\ntricity in 1,791, was the discovery of the celebrated Galvani of\nBologna it has been called animal electricity his first experiments\nhaving been macte on animals, and tending manifestly to prove the\nidentity of the nervous and electric fluids, though this was for some\ntime doubted. M. Galvani discovered that, without any artificial\nelectricity, and by merely presenting some conducting substance to","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0411.jp2"},"410":{"fulltext":"406 MODERN HISTORY\ndifferent parts of the nerves or muscles of a dissected frog, violent\nmotions were produced, exactly similar to those which were excited\nby a discharge of the electrical machine.\n5. The discovery of M. Galvani has since led to very important\nends, through the great care and attention of M. Volta, who, improv-\ning upon his discovery of the power of conductors, has been enabled\nto supply the philosophical world with an instrument of very extraor-\ndinary powers, especially for purposes of chemical decomposition.\nAt first M. Volta was led to suppose that it required only a set of dif-\nferent conductors, two metals and a fluid, to collect and distribute the\nelectrical matter he considered that, upon these principles, he bad\nproduced an artificial imitation of the electrical powers exhibited by\nthe torpedo, the gymnotus, silurus, and tetrodon electricus but further\ndiscoveries demonstrated that there was a chemical agency going for-\nward all the time, and that much depended on the action of the fluids\non the metals, which are all naturally excellent conductors, but become\nnon-conductors when oxydated, some being more easily oxydated than\nothers. The voltaic pile is a simple galvanic combination a series\nof them forms a battery. The most perfect galvanic combination is\nheld to consist in such an arrangement of metals, exposed to the action\nof an oxydating fluid, as are liable to very different changes the\ngreatest and the least. In every simple galvanic combination, water\nis decomposed, the oxygen entering into union with the metal, and the\nhydrogen being evolved.\n6. Since this discovery, many have engaged in electro-chemical re-\nsearches, of the utmost importance, particularly our own countryman,\nsir Humphrey Davy. His experiments on the alkalis and earths, and\ndiscovery of their metallic nature, being in themselves sufficient to\nshow how wide a range of inquiry is opened to the experimentalist,\nby this powerful agent it being reasonable to suppose, that there is\nscarcely any substance in nature, either above or below the surface of\nthe earth, that is not subject, more or less, to the chemical agencies\nof electricity. Heretofore the observations of the philosopher were\nchiefly, if not entirely, confined to those sudden and violent changes\nwhich take place through any powerful concentration of the electric\nfluid. These new discoveries seem to afford him a fair chance and\nopportunity of tracing some at least of those manifold changes which\nmay be brought about in a more quiet, tranquil, and insensible man-\nner^ and which, in all probability, are incessantly operating effects,\nhitherto little known and little suspected. It is obvious that medicine,\nchemistry, physiology, mineralogy, and geology, may all be greatly\nassisted by a more perfect knowledge of such curious and hitherto\nhidden processes of nature Before the galvanic method of exciting\nelectricity had been discovered, many very curious experiments had\nbeen made to prove the influence of electricity on tne atmosphere,\nmagnetism, vegetation, muscular motion in earthquakes, volcanoes,\nand other natural appearances and operations all of which are likely\nto become better known, and further illustrated, by the application of\nthe electro-chemical apparatus, which, since its first invention, has been\nalready greatly improved. It may not be amiss to observe, that meteo-\nrology, as a particular branch of knowledge, has been greasy aided\nby all the improvements spoken of above in chemistry and electricity,\nand in the invention of many instruments, very simple, but chiefly tc\nbe referred to the eighteenth century as the barometer, the thermom-\neter, the hydrometer, the pluviameter, or rain-gauge, the anemometer,\nand electrometer already mentioned. Amongst the most eminent of","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0412.jp2"},"411":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 4(H\nUiose who have applied themselves to this study, we may reckon\nMessrs. Bouguer, Saussure, De Luc, Gay-Lussac, Van-Marum, Fer-\nguson, Cavallo, c. Drs. Franklin, Blagden, and Priestley Messrs,\nCanton and Beccaria.\nMINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY.\n1. Mineralogy and geology are reasonably to be regarded as new\nsciences since the close of the seventeenth century, having been cul-\ntivated from that time in a manner totally new, and greatly advanced\nby the progress made in other sciences, and the improvement of many\n.arts. They are both, however, still so much in their infancy, that a\nvery brief account of what has taken place during the last and. present\ncentury is the utmost that we can attempt.\n2. It was not till towards the middle of the last century, that the\nmodern scientific arrangements of minerals began to occupy the atten-\ntion of naturalists. That indefatigable observer, Linnaeus, did not\noverlook this branch of natural history, but introduced into the twelfth\nedition of his Systema Naturae, published in 1,768, a systematic\nview of The Kegnum Lapideum, which he divided into three\nclasses, petrce, minerce, and fossilice, many orders, and fifty-four gene-\nra. In 1,793, Gmelin republished the Systema Naturae of Lin-\nnaeus, with alterations and improvements.\n3. Linnaeus did not take the lead in such arrangements in his own\nwork he notices the preceding systems of Bromelius, who published\nin 1,730 Wallerius, in 1,747 Woltersdorf, in 1,748 Curtheuser, in\n1.775 Justi, in 1,757 Cronstedt, in 1,758 and Vogel, in 1,762,\nLinnaeus, however, has the credit of having first reduced the science\nof mineralogy into classes and orders, and Wallerius and himself un-\ndertook the arduous and hazardous task of fixing the specific characters\nof minerals. Wallerius s second system appeared in 1 ,772. In 1 ,781\nVeltheim published his system at Brunswick, and in 1,782, Berga-\nman s made its first appearance at Leipsic.\n4. Before this time the celebrated Werner, professor of mineralogy\nat Freyburg, in Saxony, had published a treatise on the classification\nof minerals, according to their external characters, which was more\nully illustrated in his nates to a translation of Cronstedt, which ap-\npeared in 1,780. Werner has obtained a name amongst mineralogists\nand geologists, which stands deservedly high though he seems only\nto have prepared the way for the observations and experiments of\nothers, by an accumulation and description of facts and appearances,\nextremely curious and valuable. The fundamental principle in Wer-\nner s mineralogical arrangement, is the natural affinity of fossils, of\nwhich he enumerates three kinds the chemical, the oryctognostical,\nand the geognostic. Mr. Kirwin first introduced the Wemerian sys^\ntem into Britain, in his treatise on mineralogy, 1,784.\n5. In 1,773, the study of the regular or crystalline forms of minerals\nseemed to give a new turn to mineralogy. The first work of eminence\nin this line was the Crystallographie of the celebrated Rome de P Isle,\nwhich was made the basis of the system of Hauy, published in 1,801\nAll mineral bodies are supposed by this system to be reducible by\nmechanical division to an integrant molecule. From the form and\ncomponent parts, it has been proposed to deduce the specific charac-\nters The forms of the integrant molecule are found to be three the\ntetranedron, the triangular prism, and the parallelapiped. Much","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0413.jp2"},"412":{"fulltext":"408 MODERN HISTORY.\nattention has been paid to this system, and it must be acknowledged\nthat if the tes f s proposed were easily to be applied, and chemistry\nhad proceeded so far as thoroughly to enable us to distinguish between\nthe accidental and essential ingredients of minerals, as lias been done\nin some remarkable instances with much effect, more direct means of\ndistinguishing minerals could scarcely be devised but as things stand\nat present, there seems to be too much geometry and chemistry ne-\ncessary to render such a system generally useful. In 1,808, however.\nM. Chevenix, in the Annales de Chymie, gave great support to the\nsystem of Hauy, to the disparagement of that of Werner, to whom,\nnevertheless, he is careful to give due praise. Crystallization wil\niong remain, probably, a subject of most curious research and inquiry\namong geologists as well as mineralogists the appearances of it in\nprimitive rocks, leading immediately to the grand question concerning\nthe operations of fire and water, which have divided the cultivators of\nthis branch of study into the two parties of Platonists, who contend for\nthe igneous origin of those rocks, and the JVeptunists, who refer them to\nan aqueous origin of the latter of which, was the celebrated Werner.\n6. Many other systems, more or less connected with Werner s, have\nbeen made public, as Brochart s, Schmeisser s, 1,795 Babington s,\n1,796 Brogniart s, (a very useful and valuable one,) Kidd s, 1,809\nClarke s, 1,811 one by Mr. Arthur Aikin and, lastly, that of Ber-\nzelius, a Swedish chemist, who has lately attempted to establish a\npure scientific system of mineralogy, oy the application of the electro-\nchemical theory and the chemical proportions as this system is\nclosely connected with the latest discoveries and improvements that\nhave been made in chemistry and electricity, we shall here close our\nremarks on mineralogy, as a science by no means perfected, but open\nto further experiments and observations, though very materially ad-\nvanced since the close of the seventeenth century\n7. Geology has arisen out of mineralogy and though no new\nscience as to name, is entirely so according to the principles upon\nwhich it is now conducted. Werner was for giving a new name at\nonce to the new science, which was a judicious step to take, though it\nhas not been generally adopted he called it Geognosie it is fit, in-\ndeed, that it should be distinguished from the geology of old, which\nonly engendered a parcel of fanciful theories of the earth, unfounded\non facts. How the globe was formed, is a very different inquiry from\nthat of what has happened to it since it was formed modern\ngeology is chiefly conversant with the latter to examine the interior\nof the earth, as far as it can be examined, in order to understand the\ncourse of the revolutions and changes that have taken place, and of\nwhich we perceive the most manifest proofs already very extraordi-\nnary circumstances have been discovered, indicative of successive\nchanges, both before and after any organic beings existed, and there-\nfore both before as well as after the globe became strictly habitable;\namong the most curious effects plainly to be traced, may be reckoned\nthe extensive operations of fire and water, the extinction of many\n6pecies of vegetables and animals, and the very extraordinary preser-\nvation of some of the latter, bespeaking a state of congelation, at the\nmoment of the catastrophe by which they appear to have been over-\nwhelmed remains of animals in places where they no longer exists\nand the extraordinary absence of human reliquiae. The science of\ncomparative anatomy has been of great use in these researches, in\nwhich nobody has distinguished himself so much as M. Cuvier, secre-\ntary of the French Institute.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0414.jp2"},"413":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 409\n3. Many geological societies are forming, or have been already\nformed, in different parts of Europe and in America, and professor-\nships founded in our universities but it will be long, perhaps, before\nthe several observations and discoveries making in all parts of the\nworld, can be so compared, classed, and methodized, as to bring out\nsuch results as may be admitted for certain and indisputable truths, in\nregard to the history of the earth and of man. In the mean while, we\nshould consider that geologists have always a field to work in, abound-\ning in materials so applicable to every useful art as to promise con-\ntinual accessions of knowledge, not merely scientific, but of real\npractical utility.\nWe ought not, perhaps, to dismiss this part of our subject, without\nnoticing the very curious geological map of England, published by\nour countryman, Mr. Smith, in 1,815, a work of great merit and\noriginality.\nGEOGRAPHY.\n1 We have mentioned geography, also, as among those sciences\nwhich may be regarded as almost new, not only because it is since the\nmiddle of the last century that Ave have acquired a more correct knowl-\nedge of the figure of the earth, but from the extraordinary manner in\nwhich the whole terraqueous globe has been explored of late, and the\nadditions consequently made to our former knowledge of its parts:\nthe discoveries that have taken place since the close of the seventeenth\ncentui f, have, according to the French geographers, presented to us\ntwo new quarters of the world, and which have been denominated\nAustralasia and Polynesia. The following account may serve to ex-\nplain t lese additions to modern geography\n2. The former is held to contain, 1. New Holland, and all the\nislands betwee-n twenty degrees west, and between twenty and thirty\ndegree. east of it. 2. New Guinea and the islands adjacent. 3. New\nBritain, New Ireland, and the Solomon Isles. 4. New Caledonia and\nthe Neu Hebrides. 5. New Zealand. 6. Van Dieman s Land, which\nis separated from New Holland by Basse s strait or channel, and is\nabout tl irty leagues wide.\n3. The division called Polynesia, consists of, 1. The Pelew Islands\n2. The Ladrone or Marian Islands. 3. The Carolines. 4. The\nSandwich Islands. 5. The Marquesas, which are very numerous.\n6. The Society Islands, about sixty or seventy in number. 7. The\nFriendly Islands. 8. The Navigators Islands. The largest island\nin this division is Owhyhee, one of the Sandwich Islands, and the\nplace where the celebrated circumnavigator, Cook, lost his life.\n4. The voyages and travels conducive to these discoveries are too\ngenerally known to be much dwelt upon in such a work as the present.\nIt will be sufficient merely to mention the names of those who, since\nthe years 1,735 and 1,736, (when the Spanish and French mathemati-\ncians undertook their celebrated missions to measure a degree of the\nmeridian under the pole and at the equator,) have been employed by\nthe different powers of Europe on voyages of discovery.\n5. Of the English we may enumerate\nByron, 1,754—1,766. Mr. Harrison s time-piece applied to the\ndiscovery of the longitude.\nWallisand Carteret, 1,766. Sailed together, but soon separated;\nOtaheite and other islands discovered.\nM m 52","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0415.jp2"},"414":{"fulltext":"410 MODERN HISTOR1.\nCook, three voyages\nFirst voyage, 1,768 1,771. The transit of Venus observed at\nblatavai, in Otaheite, June, 1,769. New Holland, and New Zealand\nexplored.\nSecond voyage, 1,772 1,775, in search of a southern continent.\nThird voyage, 1,776 1,780, to discover a northern passage fatal\nto captain Cook, who was killed at Owhyhee.\nPortloch and Dixon, 1,785 1,788 principally to establish the fur\ntrade, at Nootka Sound.\nVancouver, 1,790 1,795, to explore the northern passage. Unsue-\nsessful.\nPhipps, (lord Mulgrave,) north pole, 1.773,\nLord Macartney, China, 1,792.\nLord Amherst, ditto. 1,816, 1,817.\nOf the French we may reckon,\nBougainville, 1,766—1,768.\nLa Peyrouse, 1,785 1,788, supposed to have perished.\nD Entricasteux, in search of La Peyrouse.\nMarchand, 1,790— 1,792.\nThe Spaniards appear to have employed Malaspina, an Italian,\n1*790, to explore distant seas and countries; but his voyage was not\npublished. These were all of them voyages, not merely devoted to\ngeographical discoveries, but in which competent persons, in almost\nevery branch of science, were concerned, to take account of whatever\nshould offer itself to their notice, or be likely to contribute, in any\nmanner whatsoever, to the general advancement of human knowledge\nastronomy, botany, zoology, meteorology, physiology, mineralogy,\nand geology. Trade and commerce, navigation and the arts, were\nconstantly in the way of receiving illustration or improvement, during\nthese bold attempts to advance the geography of the world, and solve\nthe difficulties which still seemed to hang about that interesting and\nimportant science. The names of Banks, Solander, Green, Sparrman,\nForster, and Anderson, will descend to the remotest posterity, with\nthat of Cook.\n6. War often, indeed, interrupted these pursuits, but the eighteenth\ncentury has the credit of affording the following strong marks of the\nprogress of civilization and liberal ideas. It was during a continental\nwar, that a combination of learned and scientific persons, English,\nFrench, Russians, Danes, and Swedes, in the year 1,761, laying aside\ntheir animosities, undertook the arduous task of observing, for astro-\nnomical and geographical purposes, a transit of Venus over the sun.\nIt was in the midst of war, that France, in a very public and formal\nmanner, suspended all hostilities that could in any manner affect the\nprogress or safe return of our English navigator, Cook and both the\nFrench and English, in the course of their voyages of discovery, are\nknown to have evinced a spirit of philanthropy and humanity very\nopposite to what had passed on such occasions in former ages. The\nimprovement of every barbarous and savage people they might visit,\nwai, among the first thoughts of those who were engaged in these new\nadventures. Some remarkable directions to this effect, given by\nLouis XVI. himself to La Peyrouse, will for ever do honour to the\nmemory of that benign but ill-fated monarch. The English circum-\nnavigators were not less attentive to these things, but continually sought\nthe amelioration of the savage condition of the people they visited\ntoo often, however, quite in vain, or without any lasting effect.\n7. It would be utterly out of our power to enter into any details of","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0416.jp2"},"415":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 411\n(he numerous researches that have been made in all parts of the globe,\nsince the spirit of discovery was first excited, which has so remarkably\ndistinguished the period of which we are treating. In the north and\nsouth, east and west, of both hemispheres, almost every region has\nbeen explored, and every information obtained that can throw light on\nthe history either of the earth or of man. The two peninsulas o\nIndia, Persia, Arabia, Egypt, and Abyssinia, the northern and the\nsouthern, and, in some instances, the interior parts of Africa Syria.\nGreece, and Turkey Norway, Lapland, Siberia, and even the wilds\nof Tartary and Kamschatka New Spain the back settlements of\nNorth America, and North America itself; Iceland, Greenland, .c,\nhave all been visited by persons of science and learning, and are almost\nas well known now, as the most frequented and civilized parts of Eu-\nrope all that can be ascertained of their history all that the re-\nmains of antiquity could unfold to the eye of curiosity all the animals,\nplants, minerals, they produce have been so amply examined, de-\nscribed, classed, and methodized, that it may reasonably be supposed,\nthat in very many instances, all that can be known is known. Among\nthe travels enumerated, the scholar, in particular, has been in no or-\ndinary degree gratified by the visits that have been recently paid to\nmodern Greece, and by the able, classical, and scientific descriptions\nwhich have been given of that very interesting portion of the conti-\nnent, by lord Byron, Mr. Hobhouse, major Leake, Dr. Holland, sir\nWilliam Drummond, Dr. Clark, lord Aberdeen, sir William Gell, and\nothers of our own countrymen and by M. Pouqueville, who having\naccompanied Buonaparte to Egypt, at the close of the last century\nwas among the first to explore those celebrated regions.\n8. The new means of inquiry and investigation, have so kept pac\nwith the wide field lately opened to the world, that even individual!\nhave been found competent to bring home with them from the most\nremote countries, ample mformation upon all the great points that can\npossibly interest the curiosity of man a greater instance of this, could\nnot, perhaps, be produced, than in the case of a living traveller and\nauthor, the celebrated M. Humboldt, of Prussia, whose multifarious\nresearches, at a very early age, in almost all parts of the globe, have\nadded more to the general stock of knowledge in the compass of a very\nfew years, than could have been attained by ages of inquiry in times\nat all distant. In speaking of this very celebrated traveller, whose\naccounts of Spanish America in particular have lately excited so much\nattention, it is fit also to notice the removal of man} 7 restraints and im-\npediments in the way of such researches, through the more liberal\npolicy of the mother country so far from expressing, as would have\nbeen the case in former times, any jealousy of such a visit to her colo-\nnies, M. Humboldt obtained the express approbation and concurrence\nof the Spanish court. The removal of the court of Portugal to the\nBrazils in the year 1,807, has also proved favourable in no small de-\ngree to the prosecution of such inquiries the king having, with con-\nsiderable liberality, patronised such undertakings.\n9. The sovereigns of Russia, from the time of Peter the great,\nthrough a natural desire of acquiring a correct knowledge of their very\nextended dominions, buried, at the close of the seventeenth century,\nin profound ignorance and obscurity, were careful to employ proper\npersons to make such discoveries, who so ably discharged their com-\nmissions, that before the end of the eighteenth century, a veiy cele-\nbrated German professor declared that they had amassed such a quan-\ntity of materials, entirely new, for the history of the three kingdoms","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0417.jp2"},"416":{"fulltext":"412 MODERN HISTORY.\nof nature, for the theory of the earth, for rural economy, and for an\ninfinity of other objects relative to the arts and sciences, as would em-\nploy many learned men for several years, in their proper arrangement\nand classification. The names of Beering and Spangberg, rallas,\nGmeLin, Muller, Chappe D Auteroche, Georgi, Lepechin, are well\nknown, as among those who have most distinguished themselves in\nthese northern and north-eastern expeditions. Among the improve-\nments connected with the science of geography, and its progress, we\nshould be glad if we could do justice to the very learned and eminent\npersons who have, in a manner unknown before, devoted their time to\nthe more correct delineation of the face of the globe, in the construc-\ntion of maps and charts, which seem to be advancing rapidly to the\nhighest degree of perfection. M. d Anville, whose labours in this\nway are so well known, may be justly considered perhaps as having\ngiven the first stimulus in this line of study, to the geographers ol\nmodern times.\n10. As the science of astronomy is in many instances connected with\ngeography, we may here notice the changes that have taken place in\nregard to the former, during the last and present centuries which,\nhowever, being only in the way of addition upon the established prin-\nciples of the Copernican and Newtonian systems, are not such as can\nbe said to have altered the character of the science itself and, indeed,\nthe additions that have been made are very easily enumerated, though\nthey must have cost much pains, and are the results of very curious\nobservations and intricate calculations, on the part of those to whom\nwe stand indebted for them.\n11. We have added five planets to those formerly known as belong\ning to our solar system. The Georgium Sidus, or Uranus, discovered\ny the celebrated sir W. Herschel, 1,781, and its satellites, 1,787\nCeres, by M. Piazzi, at Palermo, 1,801 Pallas, by Dr. Olbers, at\nBremen, 1,802; Juno, by M. Harding of Lilienthal, in 1,804 and\nVesta, by Dr. Olbers, 1,807. To the former of these celebrated ob-\nservers Ave owe a most enlarged knowledge of the celestial regions,\nDarticularly of the nebulous parts, from the application of his new\nelescopes of most extraordinary powers, which nave enabled us to\nascertain that the milky-way, and other similar appearances in the\nneavens, are a congeries of fixed stars, in strata, prodigiously numer-\nous, and exhibiting very curious phenomena. Of the immense amount\nof these stars, which may still have beyond them an unfathomable and\nanexplorable abyss of the same kind, we may form some conjecture\nfrom the following statement of sir William himself, who found by his\ngauges, in the year 1,792, that in the small space of forty-one minutes,\nno less than 238,000 stars, in the via lactea, had passed through the\nfield of view in his telescope. Sir William places our own system in\nthe via lactea. He has discovered, besides many new stars, double\nand triple stars, and what he calls changing stars.\n12. We have learned to correct our ideas concerning the substance\nof the body of the sun, heretofore considered as entirely of an igneous\nnature. Though its rays contribute largely to the production of heat\non the earth s surface, many very obvious appearances ought sooner\nto have convinced us of what now seems clearly to be understood, that\nthe sun is not a body of fire.\n13. The science of astronomy has been much promoted during the\ntime of which we have been treating, by the improvement or invention\nof many curious and necessary instruments, and the building and\nestablishment of regular observatories and practical astronomy has","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0418.jp2"},"417":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 413\nbeen carried to a very high pitch, by the talents and ingenuity of many\nvery eminent persons in France, Britain, Germany, Italy, c. as M.\nClairault, d Alembert, De la Caille, La Place, La Grange, Bailly, De\nla Lande, c. Bradley, Maskelyn, Herschel, Hutton, Robison,\nFerguson, Vince, c. Euler, Mayer, Boda, Bianchim, Boscovich,\nFrisi, Piozzi, c.\n14. We have spoken elsewhere of the travels, expressly undertaken\nin 1 753, to measure in the northern and soifthern parts of the world, a\ndegree of the meridian, by which the figure of the earth was ascertain-\ned to be an oblate spheroid, according to the conjectures of sir Isaac\nNewton, and contrary to the assertions of the Cassinis and Bernouilli,\nwho had for some time insisted that the polar diameter was longer\nthan the equatorial all the experiments seemed to concur m proving\nthe reverse. The steps that were taken, m the years 1,761 and 1,769,\nto determine the parallax of the sun, by observing the transit of Venus,\nafford another strong proof of the extraordinary zeal and resolution\nwith which science was cultivated during the period of which we have\nbeen treating. On the recommendation of Dr. Halley, who had ob-\nserved a transit of Mercury at St. Helena, but who did not expect to\nlive to see a transit of Venus, and who in fact died in 1,742, mathema-\nticians and astronomers were sent out in the years before mentioned,\nboth from France and England. _\n15. Among the modern inventions appertaining to astronomy, be-\nsides the instruments absolutely necessary to correct observation, we\nmay reckon those curious and elegant machines, exhibiting the motions\nand phenomena of our solar system and its several parts our orreries\nplanetariums, tellurians, lunariums, c, all of which may be consider\ned as extremely interesting and ingenious contrivances.\n1 It would be useless to attempt to give any circumstantial account\nof the progress that has been made in other sciences, during the period\nof which we have been treating, and vain to seek, by a mere enume-\nration of names, to do justice to the many eminent and illustrious per\nsens who have distinguished themselves in various parts of the world,\nin every branch of learning, useful and ornamental, since the com-\nmencement of the eighteenth century. The numerous biographical\nworks chronological charts, critical and philosophical journals, which\nhave from time to time been published during this period, may supply\ninformation much more full and copious than would be at all consistent\nwith the limits of this work, already extended beyond their original\ndesign As however, the surprising burst of intellect, investigation,\nand enterprise which has so marked and distinguished the last and\npresent century, appears to have been in a great degree connected\nwith the history ot Europe during the same period, we shall take a\nbrief view of the latter; beginning with England and France the\ntwo countries which seem in several respects to have had tne most\nconsiderable share in the changes that have taken place.\n2 4t the period of the deaths of queen Anne and Lewis XIV.\n(see Sect. LXIV.) England and France appear to have stood in situa-\ntions diametrically opposite. England had just obtained all that she\nwanted from a revolution France had scarcely begun to ieei that she\nstood in need of one. England had succeeded m placing her civil and\nreligious rights on a sure footing France was as yet but little sensible\nthat hers had been greatly violated. England was recovering from a\nM m 2","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0419.jp2"},"418":{"fulltext":"414 MODERN HISTORY.\nstate of misrule and licentiousness France was declining more than\never into such a condition. In England, Newton had established his\nnew system of philosophy, and Locke illustrated the principles of a\nfree government in France, Descartes still held the minds of men in\na state of fascination and enchantment, and the people knew not what\nit was to be free.\n3. The French government, by too great severity in political and\nreligious matters, had compelled many of her subjects to take refuge\nin foreign countries, where they were at liberty to make their own re-\nflections, to print and to publish their thoughts upon the comparative\ndespotism of the country from which they had been driven, and the\ndelusions to which the subjects of the latter were exposed.\n4. Among those who had been thus banished, or compelled to retire,\nno one could have done more to unsettle the minds of his countrymen,\nin regard both to religion and politics, than the celebrated Bayle.\nHis object appears, however, to have been merely to unsettle them\nfor his whole work is a tissue of doubts and difficulties, which he had\nno disposition to resolve, but to leave to every man^s own judgment to\ndetermine, after having very impartially stated all the arguments and\nall the facts he could possibly collect, on both sides of every question.\n5. The French had been so long used to submission, that merely to\nteach them to doubt was a grand step towards a revolution in their\nopinions but Bayle did not live to see the seeds he had been sowing\ncome to any perfection. It was not. according to the account of the\nFrench themselves, till Voltaire, partly in a state of exile, had visited\nEngland, that they began to ripen. In England, Voltaire became ac-\nquainted with the philosophy of Newton and Locke, and saw some of\nthe best political principles of the latter established and in action\nbut being the guest of Bolingbroke, his deistical principles, which\nwere very early made known by a passage in his tragedy of CEdipus,\nunderwent no change, or were probably more deeply fixed and con-\nfirmed.\n6. Though Shaftesbury, Wolston, Collins, Toland, Tindal, and\nothers, had attacked revelation, and either openly or insidiously sought\nto imbue the minds of the English with their deistical principles the\npublic in general were little affected by their writings. Men of supe-\nrior talents, superior credit, and very superior learning, had lived, or\nwere living, capable of giving a different tone to the feelings of the\npeople. Newton, Locke, Addison, Steele, Clarke, Swift, c, were\namply sufficient to support the cause of religion and not only to de-\nfend the very outworks of Christianity, but to avert the shafts of ridi-\ncule, and set at naught the sarcasms of infidelity. In those admirable\nperiodica] papers, the Spectator, the Guardian, the Tattler, c, we\nmay trace a direct and most benevolent design of rescuing the rising\ngeneration from the contagion of bad examples, and the influence ot\nfalse principles.\n7. In France it was otherwise deism, though weak against the\nplain evidences of Christianity, was strong against the fanaticism of a\nbigoted, and the superstition of a corrupted church. The banter of\nVoltaire soon began to take effect, when aimed at things and persons\nso vulnerable as the monastic orders, and the controverted points in\ndispute between the Jesuits and Jansenists. The defence of religion\nalso, in consequence of these disgraceful and puerile conflicts, and the\nplausibility of the attacks that were made upon it, -which struck hard\nat its abuses, fell into hands little capable of wielding the weapons so\neffectually employed in England. The dread of derision too soon","height":"3548","width":"2108","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0420.jp2"},"419":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 415\ndamped the spirit of pulpit eloquence, which had cast such a lustre\non the names of Saurin, Massillon, c. and converted even the chris-\ntian preacher into a philosopher of the modern school. Among those\nwho first appeared in defence of revealed religion against the deists,\nthe French themselves have particularly mentioned the younger Ra-\ncine, the cardinal de Polignac, and M. Le Franc de Pompignan.\nThe first wrote a heavy poem, which few read the second a long\nphilosophical poem in Latin, which not many could read and the\nlast published some sacred odes, of which Voltaire found room to say,\nwith his usual wit, Sacres Us sont, car personne rfy touche. Though\nVoltaire might have imbibed his deism in part from Bolingbroke, it\nwas plainly not a plant of English growth but it proved to be sadly\ncongenial at that time to the soil of France.\n8. The regency had wrought a great change in the principles and\nmanners of that lively people. The profligate habits of the duke of\nOrleans opened a wide field to libertines and freethinkers, and natu-\nrally encouraged them to speak their minds more freely upon all sub-\njects than would otherwise have been consistent with the spirit of the\ngovernment. Religion and morals, indeed, could not have received a\ngreater blow than from the extraordinary elevation of the infamous\nDubois to the rank of cardinal, and to the archbishopric of Cambray,\nso lately filled by the amiable and virtuous Fenelon.\n9. While the morals of the French were thus becoming daily more\ndepraved, the manners of the English were evidently much improved.\nThe grave and austere character of William III., the correct deport-\nment of Mary, and her sister, queen Anne, had effectually checked\nthe licentiousness of the two preceding reigns, and given encourage-.\nraent to a set of writers peculiarly capable of amending the age, of\ninculcating true piety and sound morality, and giving a better tone to\nthe amusements of the public. Instead of the gross indelicacies which\nhad disgraced the writings and degraded the talents, of Vanburgh,\nBehn, Congreve, and even Diyden, the taste and manners of the nation\nderived great improvement and advantages from the more chaste and\ncorrect performances of Addison, Steele, Rowe, Prior, Pope, Thomson,\nAkenside, .c. The stage underwent a wholesome reformation, and\nin every department of literature there appeared a manifest leaning\ntowards whatever could conduce to purity of sentiment and delicacy\nof feeling.\n10. Had Voltaire carried back with him from our shores, as he\nmight have done, a purer form of Christianity, and a better system of\nmorals, as well as a more correct philosophy, and sounder principles of\ngovernment, he might have conferred a lasting benefit on his country\na benefit the more timely and critical, as it would possibly have pre-\nvented some of the worst evils which befel that unhappy nation in her\nsubsequent struggles for liberty. Bayle had taught the French to\ndoubt Voltaire, having taken a near, though imperfect view of Eng-\nland, taught them to think and to inquire while a greater man than\nhimself was contributing, though more slowly and quietly, to the\nsame end.\n11. Almost at the very time that Voltaire was in England, Montes-\nquieu visited the same country but appears principally to have con-\nfined his views to the great object of his researches, the spirit of hei\nlaws, and the leading principles of her admirable constitution. There\nhe learned to admire, in its purest form, a limited monarchy, and a\nsystem of jurisprudence, equally adverse to tyranny and licentiousness;\nequally friendly to the wholesome authority of the magistrate, and the","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0421.jp2"},"420":{"fulltext":"410 MODERN HISTORY.\njn.sl rights of the people. Montesquieu, however, (though in his Per-\nsian Letters he had betrayed a leaning towards deism,; moved in a\nline distinct from that generally taken by the philosophers of the day.\nWhile Voltaire very soon manifested a desire of taking the lead of all\nthe wits and freethinkers, however different their talents, their charac-\nters, or their principles, Montesquieu was not displeased to be left to\nhimself, and to leave his great work to make its own impressions, how-\never slowly, on sensible and ingenuous minds. Its first effects of any\nimportance may, perhaps, be traced in the remonstrances of the par-\nliaments, who began to take a higher tone after the publication of\nU esprit des Lots, and to consider themselves more in the light of rep-\nresentatives of the people.\n12. A number of very extraordinary men were beginning at the\nsame time to draw upon themselves the attention of the world, and to\nemploy their talents in different lines, and often upon very different\nprinciples, to enlighten the world, and emancipate it from the thral-\ndom of ancient prejudices and inveterate abuses. Among these, how-\never, none were more extravagantly eccentric than J. J. Rousseau.\nThis extraordinary man was decidedly for new modelling the whole\nsystem of political society, and reducing it to principles which existed\nonly in his own imagination. Not having ever seen a race of savages,\nhe fancied they must be the more perfect the nearer they were to a\nstale of nature and being tormented with the restraints of civilized\nsociety, he concluded civilization itself to be an evil. These sophisms\nserved to render him the idol of the equalizing and destroying dema-\ngogues of the revolution. It was impossible to resist the impressions\nmade by the captivating pictures he drew but they seldom had any\nbetter effect than that of rendering his votaries as dissatisfied with the\nworld as he himself was, and bewildering their imaginations with\ndoubts and difficulties innumerable. He knew how to appreciate the\nsublime morality of the gospel, though he could not regulate his own\nactions by it and having found in the bible, as in all other cases,\nsomething that dissatisfied his restless and irritable mind, and reviling\nwhat he could not approve, or did not sufficiently understand, he cer-\ntainly did as much mischief to the cause of revealed religion, calling\nhimself a christian all the while, as the worst of his deistical contem-\nporaries. His opinions and his actions, as exhibited in his own\nwritings, will for ever render him an object of admiration mingled\nwith pity, if not in some instances with abhorrence\n3 3. But it was, in no iong course of time, discovered that the free\nopinions that were afloat, and which were as various as the persona\nwho entertained them, and who had as yet no common bond oi union,\nas Voltaire, Rousseau, Buffon, Diderot, D Alembert, Duclos, Helve-\ntius, Marmontel, Condillac, Raynal, Volney, (to name but a few, J\nshould by some means or other be embodied and consolidated, that\nthe whole of their several thoughts and observations on different sub-\njects might be presented to the world in a mass. This was the origin\nof that great and voluminous undertaking, the Encyclopedic, spoken\nof before, planned by Diderot and D Alembert and which, to say\nthe least of it, seemed to be a treasure of universal science, far more\ncomprehensive, at least, than any thing of the kind before attempted,\nbeing not confined t^ what might strictly be called the arts and\nsciences, bui extending to every question of government, civil econo-\nmy, and finance.\n14. The Dictionnaire ^ncyclopedique, amidst many faults and ex\ntravagances, contained uns oubtedly much important matter, written in","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0422.jp2"},"421":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 41?\nso agreeab e a style, as to be admirably fitted to excite and promote\na thirst after general knowledge, universal inquiry and investigation,\na confidence in private judgment, and a prejudice against every thing\nthat appeared to have no other support than custom and authority.\nWheat might be torn up with the tares, and tares often sown instead\nof corn but it must be acknowledged that we stand indebted to the\nprojectors of this work for the detection and extirpation of many\nerrors, and the powerful stimulus given by their movements to the\nspirit of free inquiry and useful research.\n15. The persons engaged in it have been so generally called philos-\nophers, and have been styled such in so many histories of the French\nrevolution, that it is almost necessary to observe that the greater part\nof them bore little resemblance to those who had heretofore been dig-\nnified with that title. The regent, duke of Orleans, though dissolute\nin his habits of life, was a man of taste, talent, and information so\nchat the savans of France, who had heretofore been a retired order of\nmen, became about this period the life of society, and the ornaments\nof the highest circles in the metropolis. Some few, indeed, still kept\nat a distance from the court, but, generally speaking, such was the\nstate of things during the regency and afterwards, when Lewis XV.\nfell into that disgraceful course of life, which clouded his latter days,\nand subjected him and his mistresses to the censure of the clergy^\neven Voltaire, whom the king personally disliked, and the Encyclo-\npaedists, as enemies to the clergy, were taken into favour. They\nwere often indeed dismissed again, but never entirely driven from\ncourt.\n16. This change of public opinion, even in the highest circles, in-\ntroduced the learned into places where they never appeared before,\nand gave them a new character. While the influence which the men\nof letters thus began to acquire in society, obliged the noblesse to\nchange their habits also, and to mingle with those who before formed\na distinct class it obliged them also to cultivate learning themselves,\nand even the females found it necessary to become more or less\nphilosophical.\n17. In the mean while some of these modern philosophers had other\nEuropean courts set open to them, particularly in the northern parts\nof Europe, where a greater degree of liberty in the article of opinion\nalready prevailed, very different from the bigoted and Machiavelian\nprinciples of Rome and Italy, which had hitherto borne sway. Gath-\ner! ne II. of Russia, and Frederic of Prussia, through a laudable desire\nprobably of improving and enlightening their semi-barbarous domin-\nions, invited thither some of the most busy of the French literati but\nwith little judgment or discrimination. Frederic, besides Voltaire,\nD Alembert, and Maupertius, gave free admission, and even encour-\nagement, to the atheist La Methrie, the marquis D Argens, and the abbe\nde Prades and Catherine received, and greatly patronised in his\nlatter years, the celebrated Diderot. Thus, with the knowledge and\nlearning which the new philosophers really possessed, scepticism and\ninfidelity were spread far and wide, and there was a sad mixture of\ndarkness and illumination in all they taught.\n18. The French revolution has been attributed to the literati, or\nphilosophers of those days but we should greatly err, if we were to\nsuppose that they contemplated generally such a dissolution of things\nas afterwards took place many, indeed, were dead before the revo-\nlution commenced. Neither Voltaire nor Montesquieu were repub-\nlicans the former had a supreme contempt for the populace and\n53","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0423.jp2"},"422":{"fulltext":"418 MODERN HISTORY.\nby his flattery of Catherine II. and the marchioness de Pompadour,\nwould seem to have had little of the republican spirit in him. Indeed\nit has been asserted of him, that he loved kings. Raynal is said\nto have shuddered when he saw his own violent imprecations on des-\npotism and tyranny brought into action. Some, however, undoubted-\nly threw aside all restraints, openly declared themselves deists, atheists,\n;c, and to their abominable blasphemy and infidelity we may rea-\nsonably impute many of the evils which marked those dreadful times\nbut, in truth, the history of opinions ceases to be connected after a\nshort time with the French revolution. It very soon became a strug-\ngle of passions and private interests, and at length terminated in a\ncatastrophe as fatal to the literati as to the throne and the altar. That\nfatal instrument, the guillotine, so much spoken of at that time, was\nstained with the blood of some of those very persons who had con-\ntributed most to the advancement of knowledge, and the propagation\nof liberal ideas.\n19. The impulse, however, was now given to two of the most curi-\nous, ingenious, and inquisitive nations of Europe, and nothing could\npossibly exceed the rapidity with which every branch of science has\nsince been cultivated in Britain, constantly with more steadiness,\ngravity, and judgment, than in France, though not with more zeal and\nactivity. The Germans, in the mean while, in the northern parts\nmore particularly, seem to have devoted their time to studies of\nrather a different description, being known chiefly for works of in-\ntense research and most profound learning. Experimental philosophy,\nnatural history, and chemistry, have indeed been also cultivated by\nthem with considerable success but in works of fancy, wit, and\nhumour, they have not acquired so much credit as their neighbours.\nA singular disposition to indulge in tales of wonder, chivalry, and\nknight-errantry, has been manifested in most of their works of imagi-\nnation and in metaphysics, they have produced systems, which, while\nthey betray an extraordinary talent for the investigation of such ab-\nstruse subjects, are certainly more to be admired for their ingenuity\nthan their utilit}\n20. No countiy in Europe, perhaps, can have undergone greater\nimprovements, during the period of which we have been treating, than\nRussia but her improvement has not been so much progressive as\nsudden. The mighty genius of Peter the great determined him to\nintroduce his own extensive empire at once into the commonwealth of\nEurope and, instead of waiting to give his subjects a capacity for\nimproving themselves, as other nations had done, he eagerly adopted\nall that had been discovered elsewhere, and converted his rude people\ninto a civilized nation, just as far as such methods could reach. He\ntaught them to adopt and imitate what they were as yet in no condi-\ntion to invent, or even improve, and left it to his successors to fill up\nthe gaps that might remain unprovided tor at the time of his death.\nHis subjects, or rather slaves, obeyed his dictates, and have continued\nsince to learn from their neighbours, till they have attained to such\nproficiency in the arts of life, as to be no longer regarded as a rude or\nignorant people, though all the other countries of Europe had the start\nof them till the very close of the seventeenth century.\n21. Peter the great had, in a small compass of time, some very\nweak and some very wise successors. The former have not been\nsuffered to stand long in the way of the latter, and though their re-\nmoval has savoured little of the civilization and improvement of which\nwe have been speaking, it cannot be denied that Russia has been pre-","height":"3561","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0424.jp2"},"423":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 419\nvented by many singular occurrences from relapsing into her former\nstate of rudeness and barbarity. The extremes of magnificence and\nrudeness, indeed, are too often found to meet and the middle class\nhas by no meang yet acquired that importance in society which is so\nessential to every well-regulated government. The state of things\nstill exhibits too much of the old narrow line of distinction, of lords\nand vassals nevertheless, Russia has obtained much, and advanced\nconsiderably. Where, little more than a century ago, wolves fed and\nsought their prey, an immense and magnificent city and metropolis\nnow stands, thronged with inhabitants from all parts of the globe but\nperhaps it would be well if she would consent to step back and give a\nsolid and more natural base to her acquirements. The system of\nadoption and imitation has brought her to a state rather of superficial\nthan of real greatness. She has had her universities before her\nschools but it could not well be otherwise in so sudden an improve-\nment much remains to be done before the nation at large, in its sev-\neral relations, social and political, can be said to be really and effectu-\nally civilized.\n22. Sweden, during the eighteenth century, produced many eminent\nmen, and. contributed largely to the advancement of science. It may\nbe sufficient to mention, in proof of this, the names of Linnaeus, vVal-\nlerius, Cronstadt, Bergman, Scheele, Thunberg, and Sparrman.\n23. The Danes have not been idle, but have encouraged in many\nways the promotion of literature and philosophy mathematics and\nastronomy, zoology, botany, and other sciences, have been cultivated\nwith good success and many splendid works are extant, that reflect\ngreat credit on the spirit and ardour of the government, as well as of\nindividuals, and the learned societies instituted and established there.\nDISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS.\n1. Many new discoveries and inventions of lasting benefit to man-\nkind, as well as many most essential improvements of old inventions\nand discoveries, have marked the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries\nsome of the most remarkable of which it will be sufficient merely to\nname, as they are already become too common and familiar to need\nexplanation such as inoculation, and much more recently, vaccina-\ntion steam-engines and steam-boats printing of linen and cotton\ncloths p ct P er f° r rooms figured silks and carpets spinning ma-\nchines stereotype printing, and lithographic engraving; musical\ntypes; porcelain and pottery _ particularly Welch and iron-stone china\nlightning conductors time-pieces pneumatic, electrical, and galvanic\napparatus life-boats and life^reservers the sjjeaking-irumpet, scife-\niy-lamp, telegraphs, gas-hghts, panoramas, balloons, reflecting and\nachromatic telescopes, concave mirrors, with various other optical and\nastronomical instruments.\n2. Laws and governments have been advancing towards a greater\ndegree of perfection, though in many countries very slowly, and\nmanifestly under difficulties and impediments which time only can\nremove. The French revolution opened people s eyes to ancient\nabuses but by inducing all the evils and horrors of anarchy- did by\nno means accomplish so much for real liberty, as might have been\nwished and expected like other tumultuary revolutions, it terminated\nin a military despotism, and its effects on the continent of Europe\nhave been hitherto partial, and apparently of much less importance as","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0425.jp2"},"424":{"fulltext":"420 MODERN HISTORY.\nto the actual amelioration of things than many persons expected. Still\nwe may justly enumerate among the changes conducive to the future\nbenefit, comfort, and happiness of mankind, the steps taking- in sev-\neral states to restore or establish the representative system of go\\ em-\ninent the dissolution of many monastic institutions, and feudal priv-\nileges the check that has been given to arbitrary imprisonment,\ntorture, the horrors of the inquisition, and the African slave-trade\nthe improvements that have taken place, principally through the in-\nterposition of our benevolent countryman, Mr. Howard, in the man*\nagement of prisons, and the extraordinary steps lately taken, especial-\nly in the British dominions, for the better education of the poor and\ntheir instruction in religion.\n3. It would be vain indeed to attempt to enumerate the astonishing\nadditions that have been made within these few years, to the public\nestablishments for the promotion of knowledge, the advancement ot\nprofessional skill, and the relief of the necessities of mankind. Phil-\nosophical societies of all descriptions have been formed in various\nparts, under the most favourable circumstances of support and encour-\nagement. The propagation of Christianity has been attended to, and\npromoted with extraordinary zeal, not only by individuals, but by\nmissionary and Bible-societies, far too numerous to mention. Every\ndescription of medical, chirurgical, and other assistance, has been\nfurnished to the poor, by a most extraordinary increase of hospitals\nand infirmaries, dispensaries, asylums, and charity-schools. The\nnaval and military professions have had the benefit conferred on them\nof new and distinct academies, including a charitable provision for the\nchildren of those who have perished in either service. The irr proved\n§tate of chemistry and mechanical skill, has advanced many arts to a\nTery high degree of perfection, and much assisted both the manufac-\nturing and agricultural industry nor should we omit to mention, as\namong the improvements of latter years, by which our own country in\nparticular has been benefited in the highest degree, the amendment\nof the public roads, the increased means and facilities of public con-\nveyance and communication, and the advancement of inland navigation,\nRELIGION.\n1. In regard to religion, from the close of the seventeenth century\nto the year 1,820, we may remark that paganism continues to prevail\nover the greater part of Asia, Africa, and the new discovered islands,\nas well as among the Indians of America, North and South, (in the\nsettlements of the Spaniards and Portuguese, the Roman Catholic re-\nligion has been introduced of course.) Mahometanism prevails in\nsome parts of India, in Persia, Arabia, Egypt, the States of Barbary,\nSyria, and Turkey. The Jews continue dispersed over every part ot\nthe world, but in a state and condition far better than was formerly\nthe case in Europe they are no longer exposed to cruel and wanton\nacts of oppression and persecution, and in some countries they have\nobtained important privileges. In Abyssinia the majority of the\npeople are said to be christians, and throughout the whole of the Eu-\nropean settlements of North America, Christianity is the received re-\nligion, though under a variety of denominations, Congregationa lists,\nPresbyterians, Dutch reformed church, Episcopalians, Baptists, Qua-\nkers, Methodists, Roman Catholics, German Lutherans, German Cal-","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0426.jp2"},"425":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 421\nmists, Moravians, Tunkers, Mennoniste, Universalists, Swedenboi\nans, and Shakers.\n2. In regard to leligion or Christianity, on the continent of Europe\nhas been already shown what rude attacks it had to sustain, during\nne course and progress of the French revolution. Deism and even\ntheism were openly avowed in their national assemblies the im^\nmortality of the soul and resurrection of the body scouted at, and\ndeath pronounced to be an eternal sleep. Paganism was in some de-\ngree revived, the tree of liberty substituted for the cross, and the\ngoddess of reason elevated above the God of Christians. During the\ndirectorial and consular governments, however, Catholicism was re-\nstored, but under very altered circumstances without its accompani-\nments of monasteries and nunneries, and very much detached from\nthe sway and authority of the papal see.\n3. The protestant churches, of all sects and denominations, have\ndone much, as was before observed, by missions in every direction, to\nspread the knowledge of Christianity, but seldom with that cordiality\nand unanimity that might have been wished, and which could not\nhave failed to have given greater effect to their exertions. Among\nthose who have appeared most zealous, though not most discreet, we\nmay reckon the Moravians and Methodists; two sects or parties,\nwhose most avowed object it has been to stem the torrent of vice and\ncorruption, prevailing amongst professed christians. The methodists\nhave generally called themselves of the church of England, though in\nmany material respects they appear to have deviated from it, both in\ndoctrine and discipline, and have for some time been divided amongst\nthemselves into two great parties, one espousing the Calvinistic, the\nother the Arminian, tenets. It is common to refer the origin of\nMethodism to the year 1,729, when the two brothers, John and Charles\nvVes.ey, took the lead of those who adhered to the Arminian doctrines,\nMr. George Whitefield, who joined them in 1,735, became, in 1,741,\nthe head of the Calvinistic division.\n4. The modern Moravians take their date from the year 1,723,\nwhen they first settled at Hernhut, in Upper Lusatia, on the estates\nof Nicholas Lewis, count of Zinzendorf, who, in 1,735, became their\nbishop. They profess to receive the Augsburg confession are meek\nand quiet in their habits and principles, but have at times adopted a\nstrange phraseology, which was thought to affect their moral character,\nand procured them many enemies. As missionaries they have been\nextremely active, particularly in the West Indies and America they\nprofess to be the remains of the Hussites.\n5. The emperor Joseph II. relieved his protestant subjects of all\ndenominations from many galling restrictions, and greatly abridged\nthe power of the pope. Many catholic princes, even the ecclesiasti-\ncal states, followed his example in various particulars. In favouring,\nhowever, an unlimited freedom of opinion at such a moment, he open-\ned the door to the introduction of deistical principles, and facilitated\nthe formation of a sect of illuminati, which, during the course and\nprogress of the French revolution, taught and disseminated doctrines\nadverse in the highest degree to the order of civil society, the rights\nof property, and the christian faith.\n6. The papal authority, during the latter years of the period under\ndiscussion, has been greatly abridged in all countries heretofore sub-\nject to it even in Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Sicily nor is it likely\nto be recovered, notwithstanding the attempts lately made to restore\nmartially the order of Jesuits and the inquisition. Of the indigiu\nN n","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0427.jp2"},"426":{"fulltext":"422 MODERN HISTORY.\noffered to the last and present pope by the French we have spoken\nelsewhere. At one time they so entirely took the reins of government\nat Rome into their own hands, that the pope and cardinals were\nobliged to take flight, in which situation Pius VI. died. His suc^\ncessor, Pius VII., since the final overthrow of Buonaparte, has lived\nin peace and quietness, in his capital, exercising, notwithstanding his\nrecall of the Jesuits, a very tolerant and inoffensive sway. It is, how-\never, to be lamented, that, in the instance of the pope, as well as of\nthe king of Naples, and others, their resentment of the French usur-\npations on their return to their dominions has been carried so far as to\nabrogate every ordinance of the French Emperor, however wise or\nsalutary, and even to undo what had been begun, manifestly tending\nto the improvement of their respective countries.\nHISTORY, POLITE LITERATURE, FINE ARTS, he.\n1. We feel ourselves rathei at a loss to give any satisfactory account\nof the progress that has been made in the branches of knowledge\npointed out by the title of this section it would far exceed our limits\nto attempt to enumerate the many historical works that have been pub-\nlished during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, or to go into any\nregular discussion of the particular merits of the several poets, paint-\ners, musicians, philosophers, philologists, c. c, who may be said to\nhave distinguished themselves in the period of which we have been\ntreating. To do this with any degree of justice, we should be cblig-\ned, perhaps to divide them into many classes, and assign to the sev-\neral individuals of the long list that might be produced, their respec-\ntive ranks and stations, from the highest degree of perfection to medi-\nocrity, or lower we should have to draw a comparison between them\nand their predecessors, and consider, in various points of view, every\nadvance they had made in their different callings, studies, and pur-\nsuits but such a discussion would be quite unsuitable to a work like\nthe present. Many of those, indeed, who have contributed to enlarge\nthe boundaries of knowledge during the eighteenth and nineteenth\ncenturies, have been already mentioned but there are still some\nnames which almost demand our notice, before we entirely close this\nvolume. It should, however, be observed, that many very eminent\npersons, who lived till long after the commencement of the eighteenth\ncentury, belong to a different period, having been the ornaments of\nwhat is called the age of Louis XIV. It may be best, perhaps, to\narrange the few we feel bound to select from the great mass of au-\nthors, artists, c, according to their countries.\n2. In Germany the following may be said to have acquired a high\nreputation: Mascov, Mosheim, Pfeffel, Herder, Muller, in History\nSchiller in History and Tragedy; Klopstock, Gesner, Wieland\nKotzebue, Goethe, in Poetry and Dramatic writing in Painting\nMengs Ingenhouz in Chemistry, and Bode in Astronomy Handel,\nGluck, Haydn, and Mozart, in Music Lavater in the fanciful science\nof Physiognomy. Even the names of Mesmer, Mainaduc, Gall, and\nSpurzheim, may require to be mentioned, as having for some time, in\nan extraordinary manner, amazed the ignorant, and deceived the\ncredulous, by their strange systems of Animal Magnetism and\nCraniology.\n3. In France, Camlet, Montfaucon, the Count de Caylus, Rollin-\nVertot, Rapin, Goguet, Millot, Raynal, Mabiy, and the Abbe Bar-","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0428.jp2"},"427":{"fulltext":"MODERN HISTORY. 423\ntheleiny, part cularly distinguished themselves in the line of History\nand Antiquities to whom we may now add, perhaps with reason and\njustice, Mad. de Stael, and M. La Cretelle M. Bailly, one of the\nvictims of the Revolution, rendered himself conspicuous by his very\ncurious History of Astronomy, and other works. Many of his con-\ntemporaries, who applied themselves to other branches of science,\nhave been already mentioned. Some ot them also fell by the hands\nof the public executioner, during* the dreadful period of the Revolu-\ntion. Their most celebrated painter, however, David, escaped, but\nwith more reputation as an artist than as a man for his own proceed-\nings, as a revolutionist, were base and sanguinary.\n4. In Great Britain, we have to boast, in the line of History, of the\nnames of Robertson, Watson, Hume, Gibbon, Lyttelton, Goldsmith,\nRoscoe, Russell, Gillies, Ferguson, Stuart, Mitford in Law, of Sir\nWilliam Blackstone, whose Commentaries, for elegance and perspi-\ncuity of diction, stand unrivalled. Bolingbroke and Swift are justly\nheld to have improved the English language, in the two main articles\nof energy and beauty. The style of Dr. Johnson is less chaste,\nthough, perhaps, equally forcible. The name of Adam Smith will\nprobably descend to the latest posterity, for his masterly work on the\nwealth of nations, a subject in which he seems almost to have taken\nthe lead, as an original writer. In Painting, the names of Hogarth,\nReynolds, and West, stand high for originality, taste, conception, and\nexpression in Metaphysics, Hume, Hartley, Berkeley, Reid, Baxter,\nand Priestley, have distinguished themselves. To the Poets already\nmentioned we must add Gay, Young, Shenstone, Collins, Gray, Ma-\nson, Cowper, Crabbe, Scott, Byron as Novelists, Richardson, Smol-\nlett,^ Fielding, Burney, Edgeworth, c. Garrick and Siddons have\nconferred immortal honour on the English Stage.\n5. Italy, though labouring under great disadvantages, has been by\ndo means deficient in learned and scientific persons, since the close of\nthe seventeenth century. In history and antiquities, in poetry, dra-\nmatic works, natural history, drawing, engraving, and sculpture, the\nfollowing names richly deserve to be delivered down to posterity\nBaronius, Giannone, Muratori, Maffei, Metastasio, Goldoni, Algarotti,\nGozzi, Tiraboschi,Beccaria, Spallanzani, Alfieri, Bartolozzi, Cipriani,\nCanova. France and Italy seem to have a joint claim to a living\nauthor of considerable fame, M. Simondes de Sismondi.\nTREATY OF VIENNA, 1,815.\n1. As Europe, generally speaking, may be said to continue at this\nmoment in the state in which it was left by the above treaty, we shall\nconclude with a brief sketch of the changes that took place at that\nmemorable period. The duchy of Warsaw was given to the emperor\nof Russia, with permission to assume the titles of czar and king of\nPoland, some parts, however, being secured to Prussia, under the title\nof grand Duchy of Posen. The town of Cracow, in Little Poland,\non the banks of the Vistula, was declared to be for ever a free, in-\ndependent, and strictly neutral city, under the protection of Austria,\nRussia, and Prussia. The king of Saxony was confirmed in his regal\ntitles, but at the price of many important cessions to Prussia, princi-\nethat of the duchy of Saxony. Prussia, besides, recovered\nzic, Quedlinburg, and many other places yielding, however, to\nthe king of Great Britain, now become king of Hanover also, many","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0429.jp2"},"428":{"fulltext":"424 UNITED STATES.\nlordships and principalities, in other parts of Germany. A new Ger\nmanic confederation was established, the members of which were\ndeclared to be equal in their rights, and bound to render to each other\nmutual assistance. Their affairs to be confided, first to a federative\ndiet, amounting to seventeen votes and, 2dly, to a general assembly,\nforming sixty-nine votes who are to decide upon all regulations\ntouching the fundamental laws of the confederation. The diet to\nassemble at Frankfort on the Maine, and Austria to preside. The\nthree important fortresses of Landau, Mentz, and Luxembourg, being\nassigned over to the confederation.\n2. The united provinces of the Netherlands, late the Belgic states,\nwere formed into a kingdom, jointly with those of Holland, in favour\nof the house of Orange Nassau, late stadtholders and to the same\nsovereign was granted the duchy of Luxembourg, with the title of\ngrand duke.\n3. The integrity of the nineteen cantons of Switzerland was ac-\nknowledged, and guarantied and Geneva, for the first time, consti-\ntuted a canton of the Helvetic confederacy. The states of Genoa\nwere annexed to the kingdom of Sardinia, in the place of many re-\nnunciations on the part of the latter power, principally in favour of\nGeneva. The grand duchy of Tuscany was settled on the archduke\nFerdinand of Austria and king Ferdinand the IVth was restored to\nthe sovereignty of the Two Sicilies.\nPART FOURTH.\nUNITED STATES\nSECTION L\nDISCOVERY OF AMERICA.\n1. It was somewhat natural that the distinguished author of the\nElements of History should almost exclusively confine himself to the\ngreat events of the old world. It will be observed that the discovery\nof America by Columbus embraces only a short space, (see Section\nXLI.) and that North America, the first settlement of the United\nStates, the revolution and severance of those states from the crown of\nGreat Britain, and the more recent dispute of the States with Great\nBritain, are dismissed by both authors in a few words. (See Section\nXLIL, and Sections VIII. and XX. of the Continuation.) This con-\nsideration will suggest the propriety of a more particular narration of\nthe events which relate to the United States, for whose particular use\nthe present edition of this work is intended.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0430.jp2"},"429":{"fulltext":"UNITED STATES. 425\n2. The honour of accomplishing an exploit so sublime as that of the\ndiscovery of this western hemisphere, was gained by Christopher\nColumbus. This great man, a native of Genoa, descended from a\nrespectable family, was well qualified by nature and education to be-\ncome distinguished on the ocean. Ardently inclined towards that\nelement, he went to sea at the age of fourteen. After a variety ot\nadventures serving to enlarge his knowledge more than to increase his\nfortune, he went to Lisbon. Here, having married the daughter of\nPerestrello, a Portuguese navigator of much celebrity, his favourite\npassion of making discoveries was rendered more irresistible by read-\ning the journals of his father-in-law, which had fallen into his hands.\n3. The attention of the Portuguese was at that time directed to the\nfinding a passage by water to the East Indies and they intended to\naccomplish this purpose by passing to the south until they reached the\nsouthern extremity of Africa, and then taking an easterly course.\nThe spherical figure of the earth was then known, and its magnitude\nhad been ascertained with some good degree of accuracy and the\nactive mind of Columbus, after having attentively compared the\nobservations of modern navigators with the conjectures of the ancients,\nat last came to the conclusion, that, by sailing directly to the west,\nnew countries, which it was likely formed a part of the great continent\nof Asia, must be discovered. His opinion was strengthened by the\ndiscovery, after a long course of westerly wind, of pieces of carved\nwood, trees, and canes, and dead bodies, the natives of another clime,\ndriven on the shores of the Madeira isles and the Azores.\n4. Fully satisfied with the truth of his system, Columbus was im-\npatient to bring it to the test of experiment. He first made applica-\ntion to the senate of Genoa for patronage, desirous that his native,\ncountry should reap the fruits of his labour and ingenuity but here\nhis proposals were rejected as the dream of a chimerical projector.\nNot discouraged by mis repulse, he laid his plans before John king\nof Portugal, who basely attempted a fraud on him, by despatching a\nvessel in pursuit of the discovery, after drawing from Columbus all\nthe information which treacheiy could devise. The pilot selected foi\nthis purpose, being no less deficient in courage than were his em-\nployers in dignity and justice, returned to Lisbon without making any\ndiscovery.\n5. Disgusted with the treacheiy, Columbus instantly went to Spain,\nand laid his plan before Ferdinand and Isabella, at the same time thai\nhe sent his brother Bartholomew to England, for the purpose of nego-\ntiating for the patronage of Henry Vli.j reported to be one of the\nmost sagacious and opulent princes of the age. Accident deprived\nEngland of the renown of this discovery the brother of Columbus\non his way being captured by pirates, and detained in captivity many\nyears although arriving in England in great indigence, Henry re-\nceived the overtures of Columbus more favourably than any other\nmonarch, and invited him to that country. But it was too late. The\ngreat discoverer, after combating many and sore disappointments,\nsucceeded at length in securing the Spanish court, aided by two rich,\ngenerous, and vigilant patrons, Quintanella and Santangel. Ferdinand\nwas still restrained by his characteristic caution and reserve but\nIsabella, alive t® the glory which must accrue from the accomplish-\nment ot so grand an enterprise, declared her resolution to employ\nColumbus and, in the low state of her finances, consequent On a long\nand serious contest with the Moors, who had then but just been ex-\npelled from Spain, offered to pledge her jewels in order to complete\nNn2 54","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0431.jp2"},"430":{"fulltext":"426 UNITED STATES.\nthe preparations of the voyage Santangel however relieved the diffi-\nculty, by advancing from his private purse the necessary sum.\n6. April 17, 1,492, more than seven years after the date of his first\napplication, an agreement with Columbus was concluded. The ex-\npedition was fitted out at Palos, a small town of the province of\nAndalusia but it was badly suited to the service for wnich it was\nintended. It consisted of three vessels, the Santa Maria, the Pinta,\nand the Nigna the first of inconsiderable burthen commanded by\nColumbus as admiral and the two last, not superior in size to large\nboats, by two brothers, Martin and Vincent Pinzon the whole pro-\nvided with ninety men, and victualled for twelve months.\n7. August 3, Columbus set sail. He touched at the Canary islands,\nwhere hz refitted his crazy vessels, and departed from Gomera,\nSept. 6 Here he took his course due west, leaving the track of all\nformer navigators, and stretched boldly into seas unknown. Very\nsoon his sailors, alarmed at the distance they had proceeded without\nfinding the expected land, began to mutiny, and placed Columbus in a\nsituation in which any other man would have yielded to their entreaties\nto return. Fertile in expedients, possessing a thorough knowledge ot\nmankind, an insinuating address, and a happy talent at governing, he\nsucceeded day after day in beguiling the discontented seamen far\nbeyond their own determinations, until every succeeding hour present-\ned stronger and stronger indications that land could be at no great\ndistance. For some days the sounding line had reached the bottom\nthe flocks of birds increased, and some of them of a kind supposed to\nfly not far from shore the clouds around the sun assumed a new\nappearance the air was more mild, and, during the night, the wind\nbecame unequal and variable. On the evening of Oct. 11, he ordered\nthe ships to lie to, in the fear of running ashore. That night Colum-\nbus observed a light, which seemed to be carried about from place to\nplace and a little after midnight, was heard from the Pinta the joyful\ncry of Land\n8. When the morning dawned, an island was seen about two leagues\nto the north its verdant fields were well stored with wood, presenting\nthe aspect of a delightful country. All the boats were immediately\nmanned and armed. The Spaniards rowed towards the shore with\ntheir colours displayed. As they approached the beach, they saw it\ncovered w 7 ith a multitude of people, whose attitudes and gestures dis-\ncovered wonder and amazement. Columbus was the first who set foot\non this new world which he had discovered. His men followed and\nall kneeling, kissed the ground that they had long desired, but never\nexpected to behold here he erected a. crucifix, returned thanks to\nGod, and with the usual formalities took possession of the country.\nTo this island, called by the natives Guanahana, Columbus gave the\nname of St. Salvador it is one of the large cluster called the Baha-\nmas, more than three thousand miles west, but only four degrees south\nof Gomera, the port of the Canaries which he last left.\n9. After discovering several other islands, amongst which were\nCuba and Hayti and using every precaution to secure the benefit of\na first discovery, by erecting a fort and leaving a party of men on the\nisland of Hayti on the 4th of January, 1,493, Columbus set sail for\nEurope. The shattered condition of his vessels would have rendered\nthe voyage at any time unsafe but a succession of storms had well\nnigh committed to the bosom of the deep, and with it ths secret of\nhis discovery, his little flotilla. The whole, however, arrived.\n10. At first it was generally supposed, from a similarity in the","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0432.jp2"},"431":{"fulltext":"UNITED STATES. 4*7\nproductions, that the discovered country was a part of those vast re-\ngions of Asia, comprehended under the general name of India. The\nname of India was given to it by Ferdinand and Isabella and, after\nthe error which gave rise to the opinion was detected, the name ot\nWest Indies has remained, and the aborigines are called Indians.\n11. In 1,498, Columbus, on his third voyage, reached the continent,\nand landed in several places in the provinces of Paria and Cumana.\nBut he was deprived of the honour of associating his name with this\nvast portion of the earth, being supplanted by Amerigo Vespucci, a\nnative of Florence, who, in 1,499, went on a voyage to America, and\nwho published an aocount of his adventures so ingeniously framed as\ntc make it appear that he had the glory of first discovering the conti-\nnent of the new world.\n12. On the 20th of November, 1,497, Vasco de Gama, employed by\nthe king of Portugal, first doubled the Cape of Good Hope, which\nopened a passage to the East Indies and twenty-three years after\nthe first discovery of America by Columbus, Magellan, a native of\nPortugal, in the service of Spain, penetrated into the Pacific ocean,\nby the strait which bears his name, situated at the southern extremity\nof the American continent.\nSECTION II.\nDISCOVERIES BY THE ENGLISH. SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA.\n1. The English were the second people that discovered the new\nworld, and the first that discovered the continent of America. On the\n24th of June, 1,497, Giovanni Caboto, (or Cabot,) and his son Sebas-\ntian, who were commissioned by Henry VIII. to sail in quest of new\ncountries, discovered a large island, to which they gave the name of\nPrima Vesta, or first seen now called Newfoundland From this,\nthey steered to the north, in search of a passage to India but finding\nno appearance of a passage, they tacked about, and ran as far as\nFlorida, the island of Cuba, as he relates, being on his left.\n2. On the accession of Elizabeth to the crown of England, a period\ncommenced, highly auspicious to mercantile extension. The coast of\nLabrador was explored by Martin Frobisher, under her auspices, in\nthe years l,576- 7- 8 and sir Francis Drake, about this time, accom-\nplished his celebrated voyage around the globe.\n3. In 1,584, sir Walter Raleigh, a favourite at that time of the\nqueen, despatched two small vessels, under the command of Philip\nAmidas and Arthur Barlow, which reached the coast of North Carolina\non the 4th of July, making their passage in sixty-seven days by way\nof the Canary islands and the West Indies. On their return Amidas\nand Barlow gave a splendid description of the country of its beauty,\nfertility, mildness or climate, and serenity of atmosphere and Eliz-\nabeth gave to the country the name of Virginia, as a memorial that\nthis happy land was discovered under a maiden queen.\n4. In 1,585, sir Walter Raleigh fitted out a squadron of seven small\nvessels, with one hundred and eighty adventurers, which sailed from\nPlymouth, under the command of sir Richard Greenville. This\ncoiony was left on the island of Roanoke, under the care of captaia\nLane but through bad management, turning all their attention to the","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0433.jp2"},"432":{"fulltext":"428 UNITED STATES.\nsearch for gold and silver, they were soon assailed by a two-fold\ncalamity, the hostility of the natives and the prospect of famine. Sir\nFrancis Drake, on his return from the West Indies, at the unanimous\nrequest of the colonists, carried them back to England, and thus ended\nthe ill-conducted experiment, after a trial of nine months.\n5. Early in the following year, three more vessels arrived at the\nsame spot, with one hundred and fifty settlers. In about one month\nafter, the daughter of captain White, who commanded the expedition,\nand the wife of Ananius Dare, one of his assistants, gave birth to the\nfirst English female child, which was named Virginia. Misfortune\npursued this infant settlement. The threatened Spanish armada\nengrossing the attention of the parent country, the colony received no\nsupplies, and the inhabitants perished miserably by famine, or by the\nhands of their surrounding enemies.\n6. Sir Walter Raleigh being engaged in other ambitious under-\ntakings, so vast and various as were beyond his power to accomplish,\nand becoming cold to the unprofitable scheme of effecting settlements\nin America, assigned his interest in that country to sir Thomas Smith\nand a company of merchants in London, in 1,596. These were satis-\nfied for the present to pursue a petty traffic with the natives, and made\nno attempt to take possession of the soil.\n7. But in the succeeding reign of James, who having concluded an\namicable treaty with Spain, and terminated a tedious war, the period\nwas more auspicious for settlements in America. The attention of the\nmonarch was called to this suoject by the efforts of distinguished\ngeographers and men of science. James divided into districts of\nnearly equal extent, that portion of North America which stretcnes\nfrom the 34th to the 45th degree of north latitude, excepting the\nterritory of any other christian prince or people already occupied\none called the First, or South Colony, the other the Second, or North\nColony of Virginia. In 1,606, he authorized certain gentlemen, most-\nly residents of London, to settle in a limited district of the former\nan equal extent of the latter he allotted to several gentlemen of\nBristol, Plymouth, and other parts of the west of England. These\ngrants laid the first foundation of states which in a few centuries were\ndestined to become rivals to the mother country in wealth, in science,\nand in power. The supreme government of the colonies was vested\nin a council resident in England, to be nominated by the king the\nsubordinate jurisdiction in a council which was to reside in America,\nand also to be named by the crown, and act conformably to its in-\nstructions. Whatever was required for their sustenance, or for the\nsupport of commerce, he permitted to be shipped from England free\nof duty, during the space of seven years and as an incitement to in-\ndustry, granted them the liberty of trading with other nations, appro-\npriating the duties to be laid on foreign traffic for twenty-one years, as\na fund for their exclusive benefit.\n8. A vessel of one hundred tons, and two barks, under the command\nof captain Newport, sailed with one hundred and five mew, destined\nto remain in the country among these was a Mr. Percy, brother of the\nearl of Northumberland, and several officers who had served with rep.\nutation in the pieceding reign. The first land that was discovered was\na promontory, the southern boundary of the Chesapeake, April, 1,607\nthis was named cape Henry, in honour of the prince of Wales. The\nspacious inlet was entered, and the expedition coasted the southern\nsnore, and up a river sixty miles, called by the natives Powhatan, to\nwhich the English gave the name of James river, in honour of their","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0434.jp2"},"433":{"fulltext":"UNITED STATES. 429\nsovereign. Here a site was fixed for the infant settlement, which was\nnamed James Town.\n9. Imprudent in their conduct towards the natives, this feeble socie-\nty was early involved in war. Scarcity of provisions introduced dis-\neases and in a few months half their original number was swept away,\nand the remainder left sickly and dejected*\n10. The government soon devolved on captain John Smith, who\nwas originally one of the council appointed by the king, but who had\nunjustly been deprived of his authority by the colonists. This gentle-\nman, who was emphatically the father of Virginia, was a native of\nLincolnshire he had distinguished himself in feats of courage and\nchivalry, particularly while engaged in the Hungarian army against\nthe Turks. His undaunted temper, deeply tinctured with the ro-\nmantic spirit of the times, was happily adapted to the present trying\nsituation of the colony. Soon after he had been called as their leader,\nwhile hunting in the woods, he was attacked by two hundred Indians,\nwho poured in upon him a continued flight of arrows. After perform-\ning wonderful feats, he sunk in the unequal contest, and was made a\nprisoner. Charmed by his arts and his valour, they released him\nfrom captivity. Afterwards he was beset by three hundred more of\nthese ferocious people, pursued into a marsh, and, after he had thrown\naway his arms, which he could no longer use by reason of the cold, he\nwas taken and carried in triumph to Powhatan, the principal chieftain\nof Virginia. Here the doom ot death was pronounced upon him, and\nhe was about to receive the fatal blow, when the favourite daughter of\nPowhatan, interposed in his behalf. This amiable child (not then\nthirteen years of age) not only prevented the execution of Smith by\nher entreaties and tears, but caused him to be set at liberty, and sent\nhim, from time to time, seasonable presents of provisions.\n11. The colony was now reduced to thirty-eight persons. Soon\nafter, however, succours arrived from England, and an addition of one\nhundred new planters was added to their number. But the culture of\nthe land, and other useful employments, were neglected, in the futile\nidea that gold had been discovered issuing from a small stream which\nemptied into James river. The effects of the delusion were soon\nseverely felt in the prospect of approaching famine. In the hope of\nobtaining relief, Smith, in a small open boat, and with a feeble crew,\nwent in search of aid from the Indians. In two different excursions,\nthat occupied upwards of four months, he visited ail the countries on\nthe eastern and western shores of the Chesapeake bay, entering the\nprincipal creeks, and tracing the rivers as far as their falls, and ob-\ntained a supply of food for the suffering colony. In these tours, he\nsailed upwards of three thousand miles, amidst almost incredible\nhardships, and brought back with him an account of that large tract of\ncountry, now comprehended in the two states of Virginia and Mary-\nland, so full and correct, that his map is the original from which all\nsubsequent delineations have been formed until lately.\n12. About this period, the old charter being found inconvenient and\noppressive, a new charter was granted by James, by which the boun-\ndaries of the colony were enlarged the council in Virginia was abolish-\ned, and the government vested entirely in one residing in London, the\nmembers of which were to be chosen by the proprietors, and these to\nnominate a governor, who was to reside in Virginia and carry their\norders into execution. Lord Delaware was at first appointed to this\noffice but as this nobleman could not immediately leave England,\ne power was vested in sir Thomas Gates and sir George Somers,","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0435.jp2"},"434":{"fulltext":"430 UNITED STATES.\nwho were despatched from England with five hundred planters. A\nviolent hurricane separated the fleet on their way and the ships with-\nout the officers only arrived at James Town. Presently every thing-\nwas reduced to a state of anarchy captain Smith, at once the shiela\nand the sword of the colony, being disabled by an accidental explosion\nof gun-powder, the wretchedness which followed is beyond descrip-\ntion and the arrival of Gates and Somers, who had been cast away\non one of the Bermuda islands, although it saved the wretched sur-\nvivors at James Town from immediate death, was unable to preserve\nthem until the autumn. Nothing remained but to seek immediate\nassistance and with only sixteen days provision, the colony set sail,\nin hopes of reaching the banks of Newfoundland, and getting relief.\nBut before they had arrived at the mouth of the river, they met lord\nDelaware, who brought a large supply of sustenance, new settlers,\nand every thing requisite either for cultivation or defence. Under\nthe skilful administration of this nobleman, the colony began, once\nmore, to assume a promising appearance. He was succeeded by sir\nThomas Dale, who concluded a treaty of friendship with the Powha-\ntans, one of the most powerful and warlike tribes of Virginia.\n13. Pocahontas, the amiable female who had preserved the life of\ncaptain Smith, frequently visited the English settlements and during\nthis intercourse, she was betraj ed on board a vessel, and there im-\nprisoned. Her father, who loved her with the most, ardent affection,\nwas obliged to discontinue hostilities on such conditions as were dic-\ntated by his treacherous enemy. She was afterwards solicited by\nMr. Rolfe, a respectable planter, in marriage. Powhatan consented,\nand the marriage was celebrated with extraordinary pomp. From\nthis time, the most friendly intercourse subsisted between the colonists\nand the Indians. Rolfe and his wife went to England, where, by the\nintroduction of captain Smith, Pocahontas, was received by the court\nwith the respect due to her birth she was instructed in the christian\nreligion, and publicly baptized. About returning to America, Poca-\nhontas died at Gravesend leaving one son, from whom are sprung\nsome of the most respectable families of Virginia.\n14. Hitherto no individual right of property in lands was establish-\ned all was holden and dealt out in common. But the governor, in\n1,616, divided a considerable extent of land into small lots, and grant-\ned one of these for ever to each individual from which period the\ncolony rapidly extended. The culture of tobacco, since become the\ngreat staple of Virginia, was introduced but the eager demand for\nthe article in England caused for some time a scarcity of food in the\ncolony.\n15. About this time, a Dutch ship from the coast of Guinea, having\nsailed up James river, sold to the planters a part of her negroes\nwhich race has been augmented in Virginia by successive importations\nand by natural increase, till it forms more than one third part of the\npopulation.\n16. In 1,619, sir George Yeardley, the governor, impelled by that\npopular spirit of freedom which has ever been the characteristic of\nAmericans, called the first general assembly which was held in Vir-\nginia. At this time eleven corporations sent representatives to the con-\nvention, which was permitted to assum* legislative power, the natural\nprivilege of man. The supreme authority was lodged partly in the\ngovernor, partly in a council of state appointed by the company, and\nin a genera] assembly, composed of lepresentatives of the people. A\nnatural effect of He happy change wa^ ?n increase of agriculture,","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0436.jp2"},"435":{"fulltext":"UNITED STATES. 431\nThe company extended the trade of the colony to Holland and other\ncountries. This measure produced the first difference of sentiment\nDetween the colony and the parent state. Jealous at seeing a com-\nmodity, (tobacco,) for which the demand was daily increasing, con-\nducted to foreign ports beyond its control, thereby causing a diminu-\ntion of revenue, the latter endeavoured to check this colonial enterprise,\nwithout considering that the restraint was a breach of the sacred prin-\nciples of justice.\n17. The suspicion of the monarch James was soon roused, and the\ncharter, by decision of the king s bench, was declared forfeit, and the\ncompany dissolved. Charles I. adopted all his father s maxims in\nrespect to Virginia, which during a great part of his reign knew no\nother law than the royal will. But the colonists resisting, Charles\nyielded to the popular voice he recalled Harvey, the obnoxious\ngovernor, and appointed sir William Berkeley, a man of great abili-\nties, prudent, virtuous, and popular whose influence was directed in\nfinally restoring to the people much the same share in the government\nas they had enjoyed previously to the revocation of the charter.\n18. After the execution of the king, and the establishment of the\ncommonwealth under Cromwell, through the influence of the governor,\nthe colonists continued to adhere to their loj^alty to the king. In 1 ,651,\nthe English commonwealth took vigorous measures to reduce the Vir-\nginians to obedience. A numerous squadron, with land forces, was\ndespatched for this purpose. Berkeley resisted, but was unalle to\nmaintain an unequal contest, and was soon defeated. The pt ople\nwere, however, allowed to retain the privileges of citizens but\nBerkeley retired as a private citizen. Cromwell s parliament framed\nacts prohibiting all intercourse between the colonies and foreign states,\nand allowing no trade but in English ships. On the death of Mathews,\nthe last governor appointed by Cromwell, the Virginians burst out in\nnew violence. They called sir William Berkeley from his retirement,\nboldly erected the royal standard, and proclaimed Charles II., son ot\ntheir late monarch, to be their lawful sovereign. Charles was, how-\never, soon placed on the throne, and the Virginians were thus saved\nfrom the chastisement to which they were exposed by their previous\ndeclaration in his favour. But the new king and parliament rewarded\ntheir fidelity by increasing the restraints upon colonial commerce\n13. The number of inhabitants in Virginia in 1,688, exceeded sixty\nthousand, and its population in the previous twenty-eight years was\ndoubled. In 1,691, the college of William and Mary was founded.\nTo aid in its erection and support, the sovereigns whose name it\nbears, gave nearly two thousand pounds out of their private purse, and\ngranted twenty thousand acres of land, and a duty on tobacco, for its\nfurther encouragement.\nSECTION III.\nSETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS, RHODE ISLAND, CON-\nNECTICUT, NEW HAMPSHIRE, MAINE, MARYLAND, NORTH\nAND SOUTH CAROLINA, NEW YORK, NEW JERSEY, PENN-\nSYLVANIA, DELAWARE,- AND GEORGIA.\n1. The partition of the great territory of Virginia into North and\nSouth colonies has already been mentioned. Still more feeble were","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0437.jp2"},"436":{"fulltext":"432 UNITED STATES.\nthe operations of the Plymouth company, to whom was assigned the\nconduct of the northern division, although animated by the zeal of sir\nJohn Popham, chief justice of England, sir Ferdinando Gorges, and\nother public spirited gentlemen of the west.\n2. In the year 1,607, the same in which James Town was foundedj\na small settlement was commenced on the river Sagadahoc, now called\nthe Kennebec but this was soon abandoned. Some fishing vessels\nvisited Cape Cod several times among them, one commanded by\ncaptain Smith, who returned with a high-wrought description of the\ncoast and country exhibiting a map of the bays, harbours, c, on\nwhich he inscribed New England the prince of Wales, delighted\nwith the representations of Smith, immediately confirmed the name.\n3. To the operations of religion, rather than to the desire of pecu-\nniary emolument, are the various settlements of New England indebt-\ned for their origin. The sacred rights of conscience and of private\njudgment were not then properly understood nor was the charity\nand mutual forbearance taught christians by their divine master prac-\ntised in any country. Every church employed the hand of power in\nsupporting its own doctrines, and opposing the tenets of another. In\nreforming the rituals and exterior symbols of the church of England,\nElizabeth, lest by too wide a departure from the Romish church shs\nmight alarm the populace, had allowed many of the ancient ceremonies\nto remain unaltered. With several of these a large number of her\nsubjects being dissatisfied, they wished to address Jheir Creator ac-\ncording to their own opinions, but were subjected to veiy rigorous\npenalties. Those who dissented from the established church obtained\nthe general name of Puritans, a term applied to them because they\nwished for a purer form of discipline and worship. Among the most\npopular and strenuous declaimers against the established church were\nthe Brownists, a sect formed about 1,581, by Robert Brown, who after-\nwards renounced his principles of separation, and took orders in the\nchurch against which he had so loudly declaimed. The Rev. John\nRobinson, the father of the first settlement of New England, is said to\nhave been a follower of Brown, but afterwards renounced the principles\nof the Brownists, and became the founder of a new sect, denominated\nIndependents.* Mr. Robinson affirmed that all christian congregations\nwere so many independent religious societies, that had a right to be\ngoverned by their own laws, independent of any foreign jurisdiction.\nBeing persecuted in England, he, with many others embracing his\nopinions, removed to Holland, where they formed churches upon their\nown principles. Remaining there some years, the society were de-\nsirous to remove to some other place they turned their thoughts to\nAmerica, and applied to James, who though he refused to give them\nany positive assurance of toleration, seems to have intimated some\npromise of passive indulgence.\nBy several respectable historians of this country, the Independents\nhave been connected with the Brownists, between the opinions and prac-\ntices of whom was a wide difference. The Independents excelled the\nBrownists in the moderation of their sentiments, and in the order of their\ndiscipline. They possessed candour and charity, believing that true re-\nligion and solid piety might flourish in those communities under the juris-\ndiction of bishops, or the governments of synods or presbyteries. They\napproved of a regular ministry. While the Brownists allowed promiscu-\nously all ranks and orders of men to teach in public, the Independents ie-\nquired a proper examination of the capacity and talents of their teachers.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0438.jp2"},"437":{"fulltext":"UNITED STATES. 43S\n4. They readily procured a tract of land from the Plymouth com\nparry. One hundred and twenty persons sailed from Plymouth in\n1,620, their destination being Hudson s river by some treachery of\nthe Dutch, who then contemplated and afterwards effected a settlement\nat thet place, they were carried to the north, and landed on cape Cod,\nthe eleventh of November of that year. They chose for their resi-\ndence a place called by the Indians Patuxet, to which they gave the\nname of New Plymouth. Before spring, half their number were cut\noff by famine or disease. In a few days after they landed, captain\nStandish was engaged in skirmishing with the Indian-^ and the many\ndisasters which followed, together with the implacable hostility of the\nIndians, which always has subsisted, are perhaps more owing to the\nimprudence of the first settlers, than to the bad disposition of the\nnatives.\n5 This colony, like that of Virginia, at first held their goods and\nproperty in common and their progress was retarded as ^ell by this\ncircumstance, as by the impulse of imaginary inspiration, which reg-\nulated all their actions. At the end of ten years, these well meaning\npeople, when they became incorporated with their more powerful\nneighbours of Massachusetts bay, did not exceed three hundred.\n6. In the year 1,629, Mr. White, a non-conformist minister at\nDorchester, having formed an association, purchased from the Ply-\nmouth company a tract extending in length from three miles north of\nMerrimack river to three miles south of Charles river, and in breadth\nfrom Sue Atlantic to the Southern ocean and obtained a charter from\nfriaries, similar to that given to the two Virginian companies by James-\nFive ships were fitted out, on board of which were embarked upwards\nof three hundred souls, amongst whom were several eminent non-\nconforming ministers. On their arrival, they found the remnant of a\nsmall party that had left England the preceding year, under the con-\nduct of Mr. Endicott, who had been appointed by his companions\ndeputy governor. They were settled at a place called by the Indians\nNaumkeag, to which he had given the scripture name of Salem. The\nnew colonists immediately formed a church, elected a pastor, teacher,\nand elder, disregarding the intentions of the king. They disencum-\nbered their public worship of eveiy superfluous ceremony, and re-\nduced it to the lowest standard of calvinistic simplicity.\nBut much as we respect that noble spirit which enabled them to part\nwith their native soil, we must condemn the persecuting spirit of the\ncolonists themselves. Some of the colonists, retaining a high venera-\ntion for the ritual of the church oi England, refused to join the colonial\nstate establishment, and assembled separately to worship Endicott\ncalled before him two of the principal offenders, expe iled them from\nthe colony, and sent them home in the first ships returning to England\n7. The government of the colony was soon transferred to America,\nand vested in those members of the company who should reside there.\nJohn Winthrop was appointed governor, and Thomas Dudley deputy\ngovernor, with eighteen assistants. In the course of the next year,\n1,630, fifteen hundred persons arrived in Massachusetts from England,\namongst whom were several distinguished families, some of them in\neasy, and others in affluent circumstances and Boston, Charlestown,\nDorchester, Roxbury, and other towns, were settled.\n8. The first general court, held at Charlestown, ventured to deviate\nfrom their charter in a matter of great moment a law was passed,\ndeclaring that none should be freemen, or be entitled to any share in\nthe government, except those who had been received as members of\nO o 5*","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0439.jp2"},"438":{"fulltext":"434 UNITED STATES\nthe church. The fanatica, spirit continued to increase. A miniate!\nof Salem, named Roger Williams, having 1 conceived an aversion to\nthe cross of St. George, a symbol in the English standard, declaimed\nagainst it with great vehemence, as a relic of superstition and Endi-\ncott, in a transport of zeal, cut out the cross from the ensign displayed\nbefore the governor s gate. This frivolous matter divided the colony\nbut the matter was at length compromised by retaining the cross in\nthe ensigns of forts and vessels, and erasing it from the colours of the\nnilitia.\n9. In 1,636, Williams was banished from Salem and, accompanied\nby many of his hearers, the exile went south, purchased a tract of\nland of the natives, to which he gave the name of Providence and a\nMr. Coddington, with seventy-six others, exiled from Boston, bought\na fertile island on Narraganset. bay, that acquired the name of Rhode-\nIsland. Mr. Coddington embraced the sentiments of the Quakers, or\nFriends he received a charter from the British .parliament, m which\nit was ordered, that none were ever to be molested for any difference\nof opinion in religious matters yet, the very first assembly conven-\ned under this authority, excluded Roman catholics from voting at\nelections, and from every office in the government\n10. To similar causes the state of Connecticut is indebted for its\norigin, Mr. Hooker, a favourite minister of Massachusetts, with\nabout one hundred families, after a fatiguing march, settled on the\nwestern side of the river Connecticut, and laid the foundation of Hart-\nford, Springfield, and Weathersfield. Their right to this territory\nwas disputed by the Dutch, who had settled at the mouth of the\nHudson, and by the lords Saj T -and-Seal and Brook, who had com-\nmenced the settlement called Say-Brook. The Dutch were soon ex-\npelled and the others uniting with the colony, all were incorporated\nby a royal charter\n11. New-Hampshire was first settled in the spring of 1,623, under\nthe patronage of sir Ferdinando Gorges, captain John Mason, and\nseveral others, who sent over David Thompson, a Scot, Edward and\nWilliam Hilton, and a number of people,, furnished with the requisite\nsupplies. One company landed at a place called Little Harbour the\nothers settled at Dover. Mr. Wheelwright, a clergyman banished from\nMassachusetts, founded Exeter, in 1 ,638.\n12. Maine was not permanently settled until 1,635. Gorges ob-\ntained a grant of this territory, which remained under its own govern-\nment until 1,652, when its soil and jurisdiction, as far as the middle of\nCasco bay, was claimed by Massachusetts.\n13. The mutual hostility of the English and Indians commenced\nwith the first settlement; but it was not until the year 1,637, that a\nsystematic warfare was begun. The Pequods, who brought into the\nfield more than a thousand warriors, were exterminated in a few\nmonths by the combined troops of Massachusetts and Connecticut.\nIn the night, the Pequods were attacked, near the head of Mistic, by\nthe Connecticut troops and Narraganset Indians, commanded by cap-\ntain Mason in a few moments* five or six hundred lay gasping in\ntheir blood, or were silent in the arms of death. M The darkness, of\nthe forest, observes a New-England author, the blaze of the\ndwellings, the ghastly looks of the dead, the groans of the dying, the\nshrieks of the women and children, the yells of the friendly savages,\npresented a scene of sublimity and terror indescribably dreadful.\n14. In 1,643, an alliance for mutual defence was formed between the\nNew-England colonies, excepting Rhode-Island, which Massachusetts","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0440.jp2"},"439":{"fulltext":"UNITED STATES. 435\nwas unwilling to admit. This alliance continued until the charters\nwere annulled by James the second.\n15. Up to 1,638, twenty-one thousand British subjects had settled\nin New-England and the country had begun to extend the fisheries,\nand to export corn and lumber to the West Indies. In 1,656, the per-\nsecution of the Quakers was at its height. A number of these inoffen-\nsive people having arrived in the Massachusetts colony, from England\nand Barbadoes^ and given offence to the clergy of the established\nchurch by the novelty of their religion, were imprisoned, and by the\nfirst opportunity sent away. A law was passed, which prohibited\nmasters of ships from bringing Quakers into Massachusetts, and them-\nselves from coming there, under a graduated penalty, rising, in case\nof a return from banishment, to death. In consequence, several were\nhanged These proceedings are still the more reprehensible and re-\nmarkable, when contrasted with a previous declaration of their govern-\nment, which tendered hospitality and succour to all christian\nstrangers, flying from wars, famine, or the tyranny of persecution.\nThe anabaptists were also persecuted many were disfranchised, and\nsome were banished.\n16. On the accession of James II., several of the New-England\ncolonies were deprived of their charters but these, with various un-\nimportant modifications, were restored after the revolution. Sir\nWilliam Phipps, a native of Maine, who rose to wealth and power in\na manner the most extraordinary, was the first governor of Massachu-\nsetts under the new charter. With a force of seven hundred men, he\nwrested from the French, L Acadie, now called Nova Scotia. He\nafterwards made an unsuccessful attempt on Quebec, with the loss of\none thousand men. The new charter, whilst it curtailed the liberties,\nextended the territory of Massachusetts to it were now annexed New\nPlymouth, Maine, and Nova Scotia, with all the country between the\nlatter and the river St. Lawrence also Elizabeth islands, Martha s\nVineyard, and Nantucket. The people, however, had just reason to\ncomplain that they no longer chose their governor, under whose control\nwas the militia, and who levied taxes without their consent, and tried\ncapital offences.\n17. About this time the pillars of society were shaken to the foun-\ndation, in and about Salem, by imaginary witchcraft. The delusion\ncommenced at Salem village, now Danvers, in the family of Rev.\nSamuel Paris. Two young girls, one a daughter of Mr. Paris, aged 9;\nthe other a niece, aged 11, were affected with singular nervous dis-\norders, which, as they baffled the skill of the physician, were thought\nto proceed from an evil hand. The children were believed oy\nthe neighbours to be bewitched, and the belief, sanctioned by the\nopinion of the physician, became general throughout the vicinity.\nThe more the girls were noticed and pitied, the more singular and\nextravagant was their conduct. Upon the advice of the neighbouring\nministers, two or three private fasts were first kept afterwards a pub-\nlic one in the village and other congregations and finally, the general\ncourt appointed a fast through the colony. This course gave the\noccurrences a solemn aspect, and probably contributed to the public\ncredulity, till the supposed witchcraft had extended throughout a great\npart of the county of Essex. The infatuation prevailed from March\nto October, 1,692, during which time twenty persons, men and women,\nwere executed. It was then that suspicion roused from its lethargy\ncondemnation ceased the accusers were silent those uiider sentence\nwere reprieved, and afterwards pardoned.","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0441.jp2"},"440":{"fulltext":"436 UNITED STATES.\n18. In the years 1,627 and 38, 63 and 70, New-England expe-\nrienced violent earthquakes. In the year 1,638, Harvard college,\nnear Boston, the oldest seminary of learning in the United States, was\nfounded. Four hundred pounds were voted to it by the general court\nand this sum was nearly doubled by a bequest from Mr. Jolm Harvard,\na minister of Charlestown. This institution is now the most richly\nendowed of all the American colleges. Yale college, at New-Haven,\nwas founded in 1,701. ten years after that of William and Mary, in\nVirginia and Dartmouth college, in New Hampshire, was founded\nin 1,769. The first printing press established in the British colonies\nwas in 1,639, at Cambridge, superintended by Stephen Daye but\nerected chiefly; at the expense of Mr. Glover, an English clergyman,\nwho died on his passage to America.\n19. Maryland, the first colony that, from its beginning, was directly\ngoverned as a province of the British empire, was founded by sir\nGeorge Calvert, baron of Baltimore, in Ireland a Roman catholic\nnobleman, born in England. He first went to Virginia but meeting\nan unwelcome reception there, on account of his religion, he fixed his\nattention to the lands north of the Potomac, and obtained a grant of\nthem from Charles 1. This country was called Maryland, in honour\nof the queen, Henrietta Maria. The religious toleration established\nby the charter, the first draft of which is said to have been written by\nsir George himself, is honourable to his memory. The grant was\ngiven to his eldest son, Cecilius, who succeeded to his titles but\nLeonard Calvert, brother to Cecilius, was the first governor, and made\nthe first stand, at an island in the Potomac, which he named St.\nClements, in 1,633. He made several purchases of the Indians, with\nwhom he cultivated a constant friendship, as well on the Potomac, as\non both shores of the Chesapeake. Never did any people enjoy more\nhappiness than the inhabitants of Maryland. Whilst Virginia harass-\ned all who dissented from the English church, and the northern colonies\nall who dissented from the puritans, the Roman catholics of Maryland\na sect who in the old world never professed the doctrine of toleration,\nreceived and protected their brethren of every christian church, and\nits population was rapidly increased.\n20. About the middle of the seventeenth century, some emigrants,\nchiefly from Virginia, began a settlement in the county of Albemarle\nand soon afterwards, another establishment was commenced at cape\nFear, by adventurers from Massachusetts. These were held together\ntry the laws of nature, without any written code, for some time. But\nCharles II. compelled the colonists to become subservient to his rule,\nnd granted to lord Clarendon and others the tract of land which now\ncomposes North and South Carolina perfect freedom in religion was\ngranted in the charter. The first settlement was placed under the\ncommand of sir William Berkeley, governor of Virginia, who assigned\nhis authority to Mr. Drummond. In 1,761, the proprietors extended\ntheir settlements to the banks of Ashley and Cooper rivers, where\nCharleston now stands and eventually this became the separate state\nof South Carolina. The culture of cotton commenced here in 1,700,\nand that of indigo in 1,748.\n21. New- York was first settled by the Dutch, and was by them\nheld for about half a century. It was, howevej, claimed by England\nas the first discoverer. Peter Stuyvesant, the third and last Dutch\ngovernor, began his administration in 1,647, and was distinguished no\nless for his fidelity than his vigilance. In 1,664 the colony surrendered\nto the English and the whole territory now comprising New- York*","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0442.jp2"},"441":{"fulltext":"UNITED STATES. 437\nNew-Jersey, together with Pennsylvania, Delaware, and a part of\nConnecticut, was assigned by Charles II. to his brother the duke ot\nFork. The Dutch inhabitants remained Stuyvesant retained his\nestate, and died in the colony. The country was governed by the\nduke s officers until 1,688 when representatives of the people were\nallowed a voice in the legislature.\n22. In 1,664, the duke of York sold that part of his grant now call-\ned New-Jersey to lord Berkeley and sir George Carteret. It had\npreviously been settled by Hollanders, Swedes, and Danes. The\ncounty of Bergen was the first inhabited and very soon the towns of\nElizabeth, Newark, Middleton, and Shrewsbury were settled. The\ncollege, originally established at Newark, was, in 1,748, finally fixed\nat Princeton its chief benefactor was governor Belcher. Among the\ngovernors of New-Jersey was the celebrated Barclay, author of the\nApology for the Quakers, of v/hich sect a large number had establish-\ned themselves there.\n23. Pennsylvania was fo jnded by William Penn, son of a distin-\nguished admiral of the same name. From principle this excellent\nman joined the Quakers, then an obscure and persecuted sect. As\none ot the members, and a preacher, Penn was repeatedly imprisoned\nbut he plead his own cause with great boldness, and procured his own\nacquittal from an independent jury who with himself were imprisoned\nuntil an unjust penalty was paid. In 1,681, he purchased of Charles\nthe tract now called Pennsylvania, for an acquittance of sixteen thou-\nsand pounds due to his father and soon after, he obtained from the\nduke of York a conveyance of the town of New-Castle, with the\ncountiy which now forms the state of Delaware. The first colony,\nwho were chiefly of his own sect, began their settlement above the\nconfluence of the Schuylkill and Delaware rivers. In August, 1,682,\nthis amiable man embarked, with about two thousand emigrants, and\nin October, arrived in the Delaware. Besides his own people, he\nwas aided in the first settlement by Swedes, Dutch, Finlanders, and\nother English. The first legislative assembly was held at Chester, at\nthat time called Upland. Among the first laws was one which de-\nclared that none, acknowledging one God, and living peaceably in\nsociety, should be molested for his opinions or his practice nor be\ncompelled to frequent or maintain any ministry whatever. Philadel-\nphia was begun in 1,683 and in 1,699, it contained seven hundred\nnouses, and about four thousand inhabitants. During the first seventy\nyears of this settlement, no instance occurred of the Indians killing\nunarmed people. The wise and good man, Penn, made every exer-\ntion and sacrifice to promote the peace and prosperity of his favourite\ncolony and between the persecution he had to encounter in England\nand the difficulties in Pennsylvania, his life was^ a continued scene of\nvexation his private fortune was materially injured by the advances\nhe made he was harassed by his creditors, and obliged to undergo a\ntemporary deprivation of his personal liberty. He died in London, in\n1,718, leaving an inheritance to his children, ultimately of immense\nvalue, which they enjoyed until the revolution, when it was assigned\nto the commonwealth for an equitable sum of money. In the interval\nbetween 1,730 and the war of the revolution, in this state, there was a\ngreat influx of emigrants, principally from Germany and Ireland and\nthese people early brought the useful arts and manufactures into Penn-\nsylvania. To the Germans, she is indebted for the spinning and\nweaving of linen and woollen cloths to the Irish, for various trades\nindispensable to useful agriculture.\nO o2","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0443.jp2"},"442":{"fulltext":"1\n438 UNITED STATES,\n24. Delaware was first settled in 1,627, by the Swedes and Fin-\nlanders, and the colony bore the name of New-Sweden. It was\nafterwards conquered by the Dutch from New- York, and remained\nsubservient to that colony until it passed into the hands of the\nEnglish.\n25. Georgia was the last settled of the thirteen colonies that re-\nvolted from Britain. It received its name from George II. In\nNovember, 1,732, one hundred and sixteen persons embarked at\nGravesend, under general Oglethorpe and early in the ensuing year\narrived at Charleston. From this port they proceeded to their destin-\ned territory, and laid the foundation of Savannah. The Spaniard\nlaid claim to this territory, and made extensive preparations to attack\nit. But through the finesse of Oglethorpe in practising an innocent\ndeception, their plans were defeated. For many years, this settle-\nment languished from a variety of causes. General Oglethorpe was\ndistinguished as a soldier, a statesman, and a philanthropist. At the\nbeginning of the American revolution, he was offered the command of\nthe British army in America, but this from principle he declined.\nAfter the contest was decided, he died at the age of ninety-seven\nyears, being the oldest general in the British service.\nSECTION IV.\nWAR WITH FRANCE, AND CONQUEST OF CANADA. DIS-\nPUTES WITH GREAT BRITAIN, AND WAR OF THE REVO-\nLUTION.\n1. Nearly coeval with the first English settlement at James Town,\nin Virginia, was the establishment of a French colony at Quebec, on\nthe great river St. Lawrence. The question of boundary between\nEngland and France, had long been a subject of unavailing negotia-\ntion. France, beside having Canada in the north, had also discovered\nand settled on Mississippi in the south and in 1,753, she strove, by a\nmilitary chain, the links of which were to be formed by outposts\nstretching along the Ohio and the lakes, to connect these two extrem-\nities, and thus restrain the British colonists to a small territory on the\nAtlantic ocean, if not entirely expel them from the country. The\nquestion of jurisdiction remained to be decided by the sword. Re-\npeated complaints of violence having come to the. ears of the governor\nof Virginia, he determined to send a suitable person to the French\ncommandant at fort Du Quesne, (now Pittsburgh,) demanding the\nreason of his hostile proceedings, and insisting that he should evacuate\nthe fort which he had recently erected. For this arduous undertaking,\nGeorge Washington, a major of militia, then little more than twenty-\none years of age, offered his services. The execution of this task\nseems to have been accomplished with all that prudence and courage\nwhich were so eminently displayed by this hero in after life. A*\nimminent peril, being waylaid and fired at by Indians, he not only\nfaithfully accomplished the errand on which he had been sent, bu*\ngained extensive information of the distances and bearings of places,\nand of the number, size, ana strength of nearly all the enemy s\nfortresses.\n2. The reply of the French commander brought matters to a crisiB\nand in 1,754 the Virginian assembly organized a regiment, to support","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0444.jp2"},"443":{"fulltext":"UNITED STATES. 439\nthe claims of the English over the territory in dispute of thu regi-\nment a Mr. Fry was appointed colonel, and the young Wash! igton\nlieutenant colonel. Colonel Fry dying, the command of the A hole\ndevolved on Washington. The French having been strongly rein-\nforced, Washington was obliged to fall back, was attacked in works\nwhich he had not time to complete, and, after a brave defence, was\nobliged to capitulate the enemy allowing him to march out with the\nhonours of war, and to retire unmolested to the inhabited parts of\nVirginia.\n3. The next year, 1,755, general Braddock was sent from Europe\nto Virginia, with two regiments, where he was joined by as many\nprovincials as made his force amount to twenty-two hundred. Braa-\ndock was a brave man, but lacked that courtesy which could conciliate\nthe Americans, and that modesty which should profit from the knowl-\nedge of those w r ho better knew the ground over which he w r as to pass,\nand the mode of French and Indian warfare, than himself, He push-\ned on incautiously, until, within a few miles of fort Du Quesne, he fell\ninto an ambush of French and Indians. In a short time, Washington,\nwho acted as aid to Braddock, and whose duty called him to be on\nhorseback, was the only person mounted who was left alive, or not\nwounded. The van of the army was forced back, and the w T hole\nthrown into confusion. The slaughter was dreadful. Braddock was\nmortally wounded. What was remarkable, the provincial troops pre-\nserved their order, and covered the retreat under Washington while\nthe regulars broke their ranks, and could not be rallied.\n4. Three successive campaigns procured nothing but expense and\ndisappointment to the English. With an inferior force, the French\nhad succeeded in every campaign and gloomy apprehensions were\nentertained as to the destiny of the British colonies. But in 1,756, a\nchange of ministry in England took place. William Pitt was placed\nat the helm. To despair, succeeded hope and to hope victory-\nSupplies were granted with liberality, and given without reluctance:\nsoldiers enlisted freely, and fought with enthusiasm. In a short time,\nthe French were dispossessed, not only of all the territories in dispute,\nbut of Quebec, and her ancient province of Canada so that all which\nremained to her of her numerous settlements in North America, was\nNew-Orleans, with a few plantations on the Mississippi. Full of\nyouth and spirit, the gallant general Wolfe, who led the European and\ncolonial troops to victory, fell before the walls of Quebec, in the\nmoment of success. In 1,762, hostilities having raged nearly eight\nyears, a general peace was concluded France ceded Canada, and\nSpain relinquished, as the price of recovering Havana, which had\nbeen taken by the British, both the Floridas to Great Britain.\n5. Although the American colonies had principally contributed to\nthe great extension of the power of Great Britain, co-operating with\nthe vigilance of more than four hundred cruisers on the sea, and\nfurnishing more than twenty-four thousand soldiers yet the latter re-\ngarded her plantations as mere instruments in her hands. On the\ncontraiy, the high sentiments of liberty and independence nurtured in\nthe colonies from their local situation and habits, w r ere increased by\nthe removal of hostile neighbours. Ideas favourable to independence\nincreased and whilst combustible materials were collecting in the\nnew world, a brand to enkindle them was preparing in the old.\n6. In 1,765, under the auspices of the minister, George Grenville,\nthe obnoxious stamp act passed in the British parliament by which\nthe instruments of writing in daily use were to be null and void, unless","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0445.jp2"},"444":{"fulltext":"440 UNITED STATES.\nexecuted on paper or parchment stamped with a specific duty law\ndocuments, leases, deeds, and indentures, newspapers and advertise-\nments, almanacs and pamphlets, executed and printed in America-\nall must contribute to the British treasury. The bill did not pass\nwithout the decided opposition of patriots in the British legislature,\nwho foretold the result, and who declared that, the colonies being\nplanted by British oppression, and having assisted the mother country,\nthat the mother had no claim on the child to derive from it a revenue.\nThe bill did not take effect until seven months after its passage thus\ngiving the colonists an opportunity of leisurely examining and viewing\nthe subject on every side. They were struck with silent consterna-\ntion but the voice of opposition was first heard in Virginia. Patrick\nHenry, on the 20th of May, brought into the house of burgesses in\nthat colony a number of resolutions, which were adopted, and which\nconcluded with declaring, That every individual, who, by speaking\nor acting, should asser 1 or maintain, that any person or body of men,\nexcept the genera, assembly of the province, had any right to impose\ntaxation there, should be deemed an enemy to his majesty s colony.\nThese resolutions were immediately disseminated through the other\nprovinces the tongues and the pens of well-informed men laboured\nin the holy cause the fire of liberty blazed forth from the press. The\nassembly of Massachusetts passed a resolution in favour of a continental\ncongress, and fixed a day for its meeting at New- York, in October.\nThe other colonies, with the exception of four, accepted this invita-\ntion, and assembled at the appointed place. Here they agreed on a\ndeclaration of their rights. There was, however, a considerable de*\ngree of timidity evinced in this congress. The boldest and most im-\npressive arguments were offered by James Otis of Massachusetts.\n7. The time arrived for the act to take effect and the aversion to\nit was expressed in still stronger terms throughout the colonies. By a\ncommon consent, its provisions were disregarded, and business was\nconducted, in defiance of the parliament, as if no stamp act was in\naxistence associations were formed against importing British manu-\nfactures until the law should be repealed and lawyers were prohib-\nited from instituting any action for money due to any inhabitant oi\nEngland. The spirited conduct of the colonists, affecting the interests\nof the British merchants, had the desired effect. Warm discussions\ntook place in the British parliament and the ablest speakers in both\nhouses denied the justice of taxing the colonies. The opposition\ncould not be withstood and in March, 1,766, the law was repealed.\n8. Simultaneously, however, with repealing this act, the British\nparliament passed another, declaring that the British parliament had\na right to make laws binding the colonies in all cases whatever and\nsoon after another bill was passed, imposing in the colonies duties on\nglass, paper, painters colours, and tea. The fire of opposition was\nnow rekindled with additional ardour, by the same principle, exhibited\nin its new form. The best talents throughout the colonies were\nengaged, in the public prints and in pamphlets, to work up the public\nfeeling against the arbitrary measures of the British parliament. New\nassociations were formed to suspend the importation of British manu-\nfactures. The Massachusetts assembly, having passed resolutions to\nthis effect, drew forth the marked.di.spleasure of the crown and, on\ntheir refusal to cancel their resolutions, were dissolved.\n9. In 1,768, Mr. Hancock s sloop Liberty was seized at Boston, for\nnot entering all the wines she had brought from Madeira this inflamed\nthe populace to a high degree of resentment. Soon afterwards, two","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0446.jp2"},"445":{"fulltext":"UNITED STATES. 441\nBritish regiments, and some armed vessels, were sent to Boston, to\nassist the revenue officers. The parliament, encouraged by the ex-\npectation of quelling the refractory by their arms, continued to dis-\nsolve the opposing assemblies but the colonies remained firm in their\npurposes.\n10. Lord North succeeded the duke of Grafton, as British premier\nin 1,770 and the act was repealed imposing a duty on glass, paper,\nand painters colours but that on tea was retained. Some slight\nKrospect of allaying the difficulties succeeded. But on the second of\n[arch an affray took place in Boston, between a private soldier and\nan inhabitant. This was succeeded, in a few days afterwards, by a\nmob meeting a party of British soldiers under arms, who were dared\nto fire, and who at length did fire, and killed five persons. The cap-\ntain who commanded, and the troops who fired, were afterwards tried\nfor murder, and acquitted.\n11. Things continued in this mode of partial irritation until 1,773,\nwhen the British East India company were authorized to export their\ntea to all places, free of duty. As this would enable them to sell that\narticle cheaper in America, with the government exactions, than they\nhad before sold it without them, it was confidently calculated that teas\nmight be extensively disposed of in the colonies. Large consignments\nof tea were sent to various parts, and agents appointed for its disposal.\nThe consignees, in several places, were compelled to relinquish their\nappointments. Popular vengeance prevented the landing at New-\nYork or Philadelphia. In Boston it was otherwise. The tea for the\nsupply of that port was consigned to the sons and particular friends of\ngovernor Hutchinson. The tea was landed by the strenuous exertions\nof the governor and consignees. But soon a party of men, dressed as\nIndians, boarded the tea ships, broke open the cargoes, and threw the\ncontents into the sea. Enraged against the people of Boston, the par-\nliament resolved to take legislative vengeance on that devoted town.\nDisregarding the forms of the British constitution, by which none are\nto be punished without trial, they passed a bill, closing, in a commer-\ncial sense, its port its custom house and trade were soon after re-\nmoved to Salem. The charter of the colony was new modelled, so\nthat the whole executive government was taken from the people, and\nthe nomination to all important offices vested in the crown and it was\nenacted, that if any person was indicted for any capital offence com-\nmitted in aiding the magistrates, he might be sent to Great Britain or\nanother colony for trial. Property, liberty, and life, were thus subject\nto ministerial caprice. The parliament went still further, and passed\nan act extending the boundaries of Canada, southward to the Ohio,\nwestward, to the Mississippi, and northward, to the borders of the\nHudson s bay company, assimilating its laws with the French, which\ndispensed with the trial by jury, and rendering the inhabitants passive\nagents in the hands of power.\n12. The flame was now kindled in every breast and associations-\nwere formed, and committees of correspondence were established,\nwhich produced a unity of thought and action throughout the colonies.\nGeneral Gage, the British commander-in-chief, arrived in Boston, in\n1,774, with more troops, with the avowed intention of dragooning the\nrefractory Bostonians into compliance. A general sympathy was\nexcited for the suffering inhabitants of Boston addresses poured in\nfrom all quarters Marblehead offered to the Boston merchants the\nuse of her wharves, and Salem refused to adopt the trade, the offer oi\n.^iakh had been proffered as a temptation to her cupidity. Affairs\nM","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0447.jp2"},"446":{"fulltext":"442 UNITED STATES.\nrapidly approached a crisis. The preparations foi offence and defence,\ninduced general Gage to fortify Boston, and to seize on the powder\nlodged at the arsenal at Charlestown.\n13. In September, deputies from most of the colonies met in con-\ngress, at Philadelphia. These delegates approved of the conduct of\nthe people of Massachusetts wrote a letter to general Gage pub-\nlished a declaration of rights formed an association not to import or\nuse British goods sent a petition to the king of Great Britain an\naddress to the inhabitants of that kingdom another to the inhabitants\nof Canada and another to the inhabitants of the colonies. In the\nbeginning of the next year, (1,775,) was passed the fishery bill, by\nwhich the northern colonies were forbidden to fish on the banks ot\nNewfoundland for a certain time. This bore hard upon the commerce\nof these colonies, which was in a great measure supported by the\nfishery.\n14. Soon after, another bill was passed, which restrained the trade\nof the middle and southern colonies to Great Britain, Ireland, and the\nWest Indies, except under certain conditions. These repeated acts\nof oppression on the part of Great Britain, alienated the affections of\nAmerica from her parent and sovereign, and produced a combined\nopposition to the whole system of taxation. Preparations began to be\nmade to oppose by force the execution of these acts of parliament.\nThe militia of the country were trained to the use of arms great\nencouragement was given to the manufacture of gunpowder, and\nmeasures were taken to obtain all kinds of military stores.\n15. In Februaiy, colonel Leslie was sent with a detachment of\ntroops from Boston, to take possession of some cannon at Salem. But\nthe people had intelligence of the design took up the drawbridge in\nthat town, and prevented the troops from passing, until the cannon\nwere secured so that the expedition failed. In April, colonel Smith\nand major Pitcairn were sent with a body of troops, to destroy the\nmilitary stores which had been collected at Concord, about twenty\nmiles from Boston. At Lexington the militia were collected on a\ngreen, to oppose the incursion of the British forces. These were fired\nupon by the British troops, and eight men killed on the spot.\n16. The militia were dispersed, and the troops proceeded to Con-\ncord where they destroyed a few stores. But on their return they\nwere incessantly harassed by the Americans, who, inflamed with just\nresentment, fired upon them from houses and fences, and pursued them\nto Boston. Here was spilt the first blood in the war which severed\nAmerica from the British empire. Lexington opened the first scene\nof the great drama, which, in its progress, exhibited the most illustri-\nous characters and events, and closed with a revolution, equally\nglorious for the actors, and important in its consequences to the human\nrace. This battle loused all America. The militia collected from\nail quarters, and Boston was in a few days besieged by twenty thou-\nsand men. A stop was put to all intercourse between the town and\ncountry, and the inhabitants were reduced to great want of provisions.\nGeneral Gage promised to let the people depart, if they would deliver\nup their arms. The people complied b«t when the general had\nobtained their arms, the perfidious wretch refused to let the people go\n17. In the mean time, a small number of men, under the command\nof colonel Allen and colonel Easton, without any public orders, sur-\nprised and took the British garrison at Ticonderoga, without the loss\nof a man.\n18. In June following, our troops attempted to fortify Bunker s hill","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0448.jp2"},"447":{"fulltext":"UNITED STATES. 443\nwhich lies in Charlestown, and but a mile and a half from Boston.\nThey had, during the night, thrown up a small breastwork, which\nsheltered them from the fire of the British cannon. But the next\nmorning, the British army was sent to drive them from the hill and\nlanding under cover of their cannon, they set fire to Charlestown, which\nwas consumed, and marched to attack our troops in the entrenchments.\nA severe engagement ensued, in which the British suffered a very\ngreat loss, both of officers and privates. They were repulsed at first,\nand thrown into disorder but they finally carried the fortification\nwith the point of the bayonet. The Americans suffered a small loss\ncompared with the British but the death of the brave general Warren,\nwho fell in the action, a martyr to the cause of his country, was severe-\nly felt and universally lamented.\n19. About this time, the continental congress appointed George\nWashington, Esq. to the chief command of the continental army,\nThis gentleman had been a distinguished and successful officer in the\npreceding war, and he seemed destined by Heaven to be the saviour\nof his country. He accepted the appointment with a diffidence which\nwas a proof of his prudence and his greatness. He refused any pay\nfor eight years laborious and arduous service and by his matchless\nskill, fortitude, and perseverance, conducted America, through inde-\nscribable difficulties, to independence and peace. While true merit is\nesteemed, or virtue honoured, mankind will never cease to revere the\nmemory of this hero and while gratitude remains in the human\nbreast, the praises of Washington shall dwell on every American\ntongue\n20. General Washington, with other officers appointed by congress,\narrived at Cambridge, and took command of the American army in\nJuly. From this time, the affairs of America began to assume the\nappearance of a regular and general opposition to the forces of Great\nBritain.\n21. In autumn, a body of troops, under the command of general\nMontgomery, besieged and took the garrison at St. John s, which\ncommands the entrance into Canada. The prisoners amounted to\nabout seven hundred. General Montgomery pursued his success, and\ntook Montreal, and designed to push his victories to Quebec. A body\nof troops, commanded by Arnold, was ordered to march to Canada,\nby the river Kennebec, and through the wilderness. After suffering\nevery hardship, and the most distressing hunger, they arrived in\nCanada, and were joined by general Montgomery, before Quebec.\nThis city, which was commanded by governor Carleton, was imme-\ndiately besieged. But there being little hope of taking the town by\na siege, it was determined to storm it. The attack was made on the\nlast day of December, but proved unsuccessful, and fatal to the brave\ngeneral, who, with his aid, was killed in attempting to scale the walls.\nOf the three divisions which attacked the town, one only entered, and\nthat was compelled to surrender to superior force. Alter this defeat,\nArnold, who now commanded the troops, continued some months before\nQuebec, although his troops suffered incredibly by cold and sickness.\nBut the next spring the Americans were obliged to retreat from Canada.\n22. About this time the large and flourishing town of Norfolk, in\nVirginia, was wantonly burnt by order of lord Dunmore, the royal\ngovernor. General Gage went to England in September, and was\nsucceeded in command by general Howe. Falmouth, a considerable\ntown in the province of Maine, in Massachusetts, shared the fate of\nNorfolk being laid in ashes by order of the British admiral.","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0449.jp2"},"448":{"fulltext":"444 UNITED STATES.\n23. The British king entered into treaties with some of the German\nprinces for about seventeen thousand men, who were to be sent to\nAmerica the next year, to assist, in subduing the colonies. The British\nparliament also passed an act, forbidding all intercourse with America\nand while they repealed the Boston port and fishery bills, they declar-\ned all American property on the high seas forfeited to the captors.\nThis act induced congress to change the mode of carrying on the war\nand measures were taken to annoy the enemy in Boston. For this\nEurpose, batteries were cpened on several hills, from whence shot and\nombs were thrown into the town. But the batteries which were\nopened on Dorchester point had the best effect, and soon obliged,\ngeneral Howe to abandon the town. In March, 1,776, the British\ntroops embarked for Halifax, and general Washington entered the\ntown in triumph.\n24. In the ensuing summer, a small squadron of ships, under the\ncommand, of sir Peter Parker, and a body of troops under the gene-\nrals Clinton and Cornvvallis, attempted to take Charleston, the capital\nof South Carolina. The ships made a violent attack upon the fort on\nSullivan s island, but were repulsed with great loss, and the expedition\nwas abandoned.\n25. In July, congress published their declaration of independence,\nwhich for ever separated America from Great Britain. This great\nevent took place two hundred and eighty-four years after the first dis-\ncovery of America by Columbus one hundred and seventy from the\nfirst effectual settlements in Virginia and one hundred and fifty-six\nfrom the first settlement of Plymouth in Massachusetts, which were\nthe earliest English settlements in America. Just after this declara-\nTinn, general Howe, with a powerful force, arrived near New- York,\narid landed the troops upon Staten Island. General Washington was\nin New-York, with about thirteen thousand men, encamped either in\nthe city, or in the neighbouring fortifications.\n26. The operations of the British began by the action on Long\nIsland, in the month of August. The Americans were defeated, and\ngeneral Sullivan and lord Sterling, with a large body of men, were\nmade prisoners. The night after the engagement, a retreat was\nordered, and executed with such silence, that the Americans left the\nisland without alarming their enemies, and without loss. In Septem-\nber, the city of New- York was abandoned by the American army, and\ntaken by the British.\n27. In November, fort Washington, on York Island, was taken, and\nmore than two thousand men made prisoners. Fort Lee, opposite to\nfort Washington, on the Jersey shore, was soon after taken, but the\ngarrison escaped. About the same time, general Clinton was sent,\nwith a body of troops, to take possession of Rhode Island, and suc-\nceeded. In addition to all these losses and defeats, the American\narmy suffered by desertion, and more by sickness, which was epidemic,\nand very mortal.\n28. The northern army, at Ticonderoga, was in a disagreeable\nsituation, particularly after the battle on lake Champlain, in which the\nAmerican force, consisting of a few light vessels, under the command\nof Arnold and general Waterbury, was totally dispersed. But general\nCarleton, instead of pursuing his victory, landed at Crown Point, re-\nconnoitered our posts at Ticonderoga and Mount Independence, and\nreturned to winter quarters in Canada.\n29. At the close of this year, the American army was dwindled to a\n.andful of men and general Lee was taken prisoner in New-Jersey,","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0450.jp2"},"449":{"fulltext":"UNITED STATES. 445\nFar fiom being discouraged at these losses, congress took measures to\nraise and establish an army. In this critical situation, general Wash-\nington surprised and took a large body of Hessians, who were canton-\ned at Trenton and soon after, another body of the British troops, at\nPrinceton. The address in planning and executing these enterprises,\nreflected the highest honour on the commander, and the success revive\ned the desponding hopes of America. The loss of general Mercer, a\ngallant officer, at Princeton, was the principal circumstance that allay\ned the joy of victory.\n30. The following year, (1,777,) was distinguished by very memo-\nrable events in favour of America. On the opening of the campaign,\ngovernor Tryon was sent, with a body of troops, to destroy the stores\nat Danbury, in Connecticut. This plan was executed, and the town\nmostly burnt. The enemy suffered in their retreat, and the Americans\nlost general Wooster, a brave and experienced officer. General Pres-\ncott was taken from his quarters on Rhode Island, by the address and\nenterprise of colonel Barton, and conveyed prisoner to the continent.\nGeneral Burgoyne, who commanded the northern British army, took\npossession of Ticonderoga, which had been abandoned by the Ameri-\ncans. He pushed his successes, crossed lake George, and encamped\nupon the banks of the Hudson, near Saratoga. His progress was\nhowever checked by the defeat of colonel Baum, near Bennington, in\nwhich the undisciplined militia of Vermont, under general Stark, dis-\nplayed unexampled bravery, and captured almost the whole detach-\nment. The militia assembled from all parts of New-England, 1o stop\nthe progress of general Burgoyne. These, with the regular troops,\nformed a respectable army, commanded by general Gates. After\ntwo severe actions, in which the generals Lincoln and Arnold, behaved\nwith uncommon gallantly, and were wounded, general Burgoyne found\nhimself enclosed with brave troops, and was forced to surrender his\nwhole army, amounting to seven thousand men, into the hands of the\nAmericans. This happened in October. This event diffused a uni-\nversal joy over America, and laid a foundation for the treaty with\nFrance.\n31. But before these transactions, the main body of the British\nforces had embarked at New- York, sailed up the Chesapeake, and\nlanded at the head of Elk river. The army soon began their march\nfor Philadelphia. General Washington had determined to oppose\nthem, and for this purpose made a stand upon the heights near Brandy-\nwine creek. Here the armies engaged, and the Americans were over\npowered, and suffered great loss. The enemy soon pursued their\nmarch, and took possession of Philadelphia towards the close of Sep-\ntember. Not long after, the two armies were again engaged at Ger-\nmantown, and in the beginning of the action the Americans had the\nadvantage but by some unlucky accident, the fortune of the day\nwas turned in favour of the British. Both sides suffered considerable\nloss on the side of the Americans was general Nash.\n32. In an attack upon the forts at Mud Island and Red Bank, the\nHessians were unsuccessful, and their commander, colonel Donop,\nkilled. The British also lost the Augusta, a ship of the line. But\nthe forts were afterwards taken, and the navigation of the Delaware\nopened. General Washington was reinforced with part of the troops\nwhich had composed the northern army, under general Gates and\nDoth armies retired to winter quarters.\n33. In October, the same month in which general Burgoyne waa\ntaken at Saratoga, general Vaughan, with a small fleet, sailed up\nPp","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0451.jp2"},"450":{"fulltext":"446 UNITED STATES,\nHudson s river, and wantonly burnt Kingston, a beautiful Dutch settle-\nment, on the west side of the river.\n34. The beginning of the next year (1,778) was distinguished by a\ntreaty of alliance between France and America by which we obtain-\ned a powerful ally. When the English ministry were informed that\nthis treaty was on foot, they despatched commissioners to America,\nto attempt a reconciliation. But America would not now accept their\noffers. Early in the spring, count de Estaing, with a fleet of fifteen\nsail of the line, was sent by the court of France to assist America.\n35. General Howe left the army, and returned to England the\ncommand then devolved upon sir Henry Clinton. In June, the British\narmy left Philadelphia, and marched for New- York. On their march\nthey were much annoyed by the Americans and at Monmouth a very\nregular action took place between part of the armies the enemy were\nrepulsed with great loss and had general Lee obeyed his orders, a\nsignal victory must have been obtained. General Lee, for his ill con-\nduct that day, was suspended, and was never afterwards permitted to\njoin the army.\n36. In August, general Sullivan, with a large body of troops, at-\ntempted to take possession of Rhode Island, but did not succeed\nSoon after, the stores and shipping at Bedford, in Massachusetts, were\nburnt by a party of British troops. The same year, Savannah, the\ncapital of Georgia, was taken by the British, under the command of\ncolonel Campbell. In the following year, (l,77 general Lincoln\nwas appointed to the command of the southern army. Governor\nTrvon and sir George Collier made an incursion into Connecticut,\nana burnt, with wanton barbarity, the towns of Fairfield and Norwalk.\n37. But the American arms were crowned with success in a bold\nattack upon Stony Point, which was surprised and taken by general\nWayne, in the night of the 15th of July. Five hundred men were\nmade prisoners, with a small loss on either side. A party of British\nforces attempted, this summer, to build a fort on Penobscot river, for\nthe purpose of cutting timber in the neighbouring forests. A plan was.\nlaid, by Massachusetts, to dislodge them, and a considerable fleet col-\nlected for the purpose. But the plan failed of success, and the whole\nmarine lorce fell into the hands of the British, except some vessels,\nwhich were burnt by the Americans themselves.\n38. In October, general Lincoln and count de Estaing made an\nassault upon Savannah but they were repulsed with considerable\nloss. In this action, the celebrated Polish count Polaski, who had ac-\nquired fhe reputation of a brave soldier, was mortally wounded. In\ntliis summer, general Sullivan marched, with a body of troops, into\nthe Indian country, and burnt and destroyed all their provisions and\nsettlements that iell in his way.\n39. On the opening of the campaign, the next year, (1,780,) the\nBritish troops left Rhode Island. An expedition under general Clin-\nton and lord Cornwallis, Avas undertaken against Charleston, South\nCarolina, where general Lincoln commanded. This town, after a close\nsiege of about six weeks, was surrendered to the British commander\nand general Lincoln, and the whole American garrison, were made\nprisoners.\n40. General Gates was appointed to the command in the southern\ndepartment, and another army collected. In August, lord Cornwallis\nattacked the American troops at Camden, in South Carolina, and rout-\ned them with considerable loss. He afterwards marched through the\nsouthern states, and supposed them entirely subdued. The same","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0452.jp2"},"451":{"fulltext":"UNITED STATES. 447\nsummer, the British troops made frequent incursions from New- York\ninto the Jerseys ravaging and plundering the country. In some of\nthese descents, the Rev. Mr. Caldwell, a respectable clergyman and\nwarm patriot, and his lady, were inhumanly murdered by the savage\nsoldiery.\n41. In July, a French fleet, under Monsieur de Ternay, with a\nbody of land forces, commanded by count de Rochambeau, arrived at\nRhode Inland, to the great joy of the Americans.\n42. This year was also distinguished by the infamous treason of\nArnold. General Washington having seme business to transact at\nWeathersfield, in Connecticut, left Arnold to command the important\npost of West Point, which guards a pass in Hudson s river, about sixty\nmiles from New-York. Arnold s conduct in the city of Philadelphia,\nthe preceding winter, had been censured, and the treatment he receiv-\ned in consequence had given him offence. He determined to have\nrevenge and for this purpose he entered into a negotiation with sir\nHenry Clinton, to deliver West Point and the army into the hands of\nthe British. While general Washington was absent, he dismounted\nthe cannon in some of the forts, and took other steps to render the\ntaking of the post easy for the enemy. But by a providential discov-\nery, the whole plan was defeated. Major Andre, aid to general\nClinton, a brave officer, who had been up the river as a spy, to con-\ncert the plan of operations with Arnold, was taken, condemned by a\ncourt-martial, and executed. Arnold made his escape by getting on\nboard the Vulture, a British vessel which lay in the river. His con-\nduct has stamped him with infamy, and, like all traitors, he is despised\nby all mankind. General Washington arrived in camp just after\nArnold had made his escape, and restored order in the garrison.\n43. After the defeat of general Gates, in Carolina, general Green\nwas appointed to the command in the southern department. From\nthis period, things in this quarter wore a more favourable aspect.\nColonel Tarleton, the active commander of the British legion, was\ndefeated by general Morgan, the intrepid commander of the riflemen.\nAfter a variety of movements, the two armies met at Guilford, in North\nCarolina. Here was one of the best fought actions during the war.\nGeneral Greene and lord Cornwallis exerted themselves, at the head\nof their respective armies, and, although the Americans were obliged\nto retire from the field of battle, yet the British army suffered an im-\nmense loss, and could not pursue the victory. This action happened\non the 15th of March, 1,781.\n44. In the spring, Arnold, who was made a brigadier-general in the\nBritish service, with a small number of troops, sailed for Virginia, and\nplundered the country. This called the attention of the French fleet\nto that quarter, and a naval engagement took place, between the\nEnglish and French, in which some of the English ships were much\ndamaged, and one entirely disabled.\n45. After the battle at Guilford, general Greene moved towards\nSouth Carolina, to drive the British from their posts in that state.\nHere lord Rawdon obtained an inconsiderable advantage over the\nAmericans, near Camden. But general Greene more than recovered\nthis disadvantage, by the brilliant and successful action at the Eutaw\nsprings where general Marion distinguished himself, and the brave\ncolonel Washington was wounded and taken prisoner. Lord Corn-\nwallis finding general Greene successful in Carolina, marched to Vir-\nginia, collected his forces, and fortified himself in Yorktown. In the\nmean time, Arnold made an incursion into Connecticut, burnt a part","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0453.jp2"},"452":{"fulltext":"448 UNITED STATES.\nof New-London, took fort Griswold by storm, and put the garrison to\nthe sword. The garrison consisted chiefly of men suddenly collected\nfrom the little town of Groton, which, by the savage cruelty of the\nBritish officer who commanded the attack, lost, in one hour, almost\nall its heads of families. The brave colonel Ledyard, who command-\ned the fort, was slain with his own sword, after he had surrendered.\n46. The marquis de la Fayette, the brave and generous nobleman,\nwhose services command the gratitude of every American, had been\ndespatched from the main army to watch the motions of lord Corn-\n.vallis, in Virginia. About the last of August, count de Grasse arrived\nwith a large fleet in the Chesapeake, and blocked up the British troops\nat Yorktown. Admiral Greaves, with a British fleet, appeared ff the\nCapes, and an action succeeded, but it was not decisive. General\nWashington had, before this time, moved the main body of his army,\ntogether with the French troops, to the southward and, as soon as he\nheard of the arrival of the French fleet in the Chesapeake, he made\nrapid marches to the head of the Elk, where embarking, the troops\nsoon arrived at Yorktown. A close siege immediately commenced,\nand was carried on with such vigour by the combined forces of Amer-\nica and France, that lord Cornwallis was obliged to surrender. This\nglorious event, which took place on the 19th of October, 1,781, de-\ncided the contest in favour of America, and laid the foundation of a\ngeneral peace. A few months after the surrender of Cornwallis, the\nBritish evacuated all their posts in South Carolina and Georgia, and\nretired to the main army in New- York.\n47. The next spring (l,782) sir Guy Carlton arrived in New- York,\nand took command of the British army in America. Immediately\nafter his arrival, he acquainted general Washington and congress, that\nnegotiations for a peace had been commenced at Paris. On the 30th\nof November, 1,782, the provisional articles of peace were signed at\nParis, by which Great Britain acknowledged the independence and\nsovereignty of the United States of America.\n48. Thus ended a long and arduous conflict, in which Great Britain\nexpended near a hundred millions of money, with a hundred thousand\nlives, and won nothing. America endured every cruelty and distress\nfiom her enemies lost many lives, and much treasure— but delivered\nherself from a foreign dominion, and gained a rank among the nations\nof the earth.\nSECTION V.\nESTABLISHMENT OF THE STATE AND NATIONAL GOVERN-\nMENTS. WARS WITH TRIPOLI AND THE INDIANS, c.\n1. The important revolution, as regarding the dependance of the\ncolonies on Great Britain, required a corresponding alteration in then\ngovernments. Conventions were assembled in the several states,\nwhich formed new constitutions, agreeably to the strictest principles\nof republicanism retaining whatever was desirable in the original\ninstitutions, and at the same time providing additional security against\ntyranny or corruption. The statute and common laws of England,\nformerly observed in the provincial courts of justice, remainin prac-\ntice as before. The inestimable privilege, of British origin, a trial\nby J UI 7 the freedom of the press, with the additional right, in case\nof prosecuting for a libel, of giving the truth in evidence are de-","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0454.jp2"},"453":{"fulltext":"UNITED STATES. 449\ndared to be fundamental principles. The governments resemble, in\ntheir principal organization, the frame of the new federal constitution\nthey consist of three branches a governor, a senate, and a lower\nhouse of representatives. The elections recur frequently, in which,\nin most of the states, every freeman has a right to participate.\n2. As yet the general government was not established on a solid\nfoundation. The articles of union, formed under! lie pressure of com-\nmon danger, were found inadequate to the efficient management of the\nsame country in the selfish periods of peace and security. No efficient\nfund had been provided to pay the interest of the national debt, and\nthe public securities fell to one tenth of their nominal value. An open\nresistance to the government was made in Massachusetts, headed by a\nperson of the name of Shays. Danger increased, and the friends of\nrational liberty became alarmed.\n3. The Virginia legislature, in 1,787, in accordance with a motion\nmade by James Madison, made a proposal to the other states to meet\nin convention for the purpose of digesting a system of government\nequal to the exigencies of the union. The convention met at Phila-\ndelphia, May 25, 1,787, and chose general Washington president;\nand, after deliberating with closed doors until the 17th of September,\nagreed on a new plan of national government this was afterwards\nratified by the several states. This new constitution not only fixes the\nnational government on a republican basis, but guaranties to each state\nof the family a republican form of government, and binds the whole\nto protect each against foreign invasion or domestic violence. Gen-\neral Washington was unanimously chosen first president under the new\nconstitution. March 4, 1,789, the first congress under the new consti-\ntution assembled at New- York and, in 1,790, duties were levied on\nimported merchandise, to replenish an empty treasury. The public\ndebt incurred during the revolutionary war was funded, and brought\nat once to its par value. A national bank was established, not how-\never without opposition. An excise duty laid on domestic spirits, pro-\nduced an insurrection in the western part of Pennsylvania but the\nlaws were executed, and on the intervention of an armed force, tran-\nquillity was restored without bloodshed.\n4. Two new states were admitted into the confederacy, viz. Ver-\nmont in 1,791, and Kentucky in 1,792. A war with the Creek Indians,\nwhose fighting men amounted to about six hundred, some time existed\non the frontier of Georgia peace, however, was restored there in\n1,790. A sanguinary warfare, with various success, was for some time\nkept up with the north-western Indians. In 1,791, general Harmar\nwas defeated, in the Ohio country, with the loss of three hundred and\nsixty men killed. General St. Clair, at the head of two thousand\nmilitia and regulars, was subsequently worsted, near the Indian villages\non the Miami, with the loss of thirty-eight officers, and nearly six\nhundred privates. St. Clair was succeeded by general Wayne, who\ncompletely louted the savage foe, and drove the Indians out of the\ncountiy. In the year after, Wayne negotiated a satisfactory treaty\nof peace with the hostile Indians and at this time commenced a\nhumane system f or ameliorating their condition.\n5. Whilst the United States were employed in quelling the refrac-\ntory, and restraining the inroads of a subtle enemy within their own\nbosom, new sources of difficulty discovered themselves in the great\nconvulsions of Europe. The French revolution had commenced, and\nthat nation was under the wild misrule of its directory. Claims for\nassistance were made on the United States- Genet, the French envoy,\nPp2 67","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0455.jp2"},"454":{"fulltext":"450 UNITED STATES.\nhaving arrived at Charleston, undertook to authorize the arming of\nvessels in that port, and the enlisting of men giving commissions, in\nthe name of the French government, to cruise at sea, and commit hos-\ntilities on land, against nations with whom the United States were at\npeace. The British minister remonstrated. The president issued\norders for defeating the unwarrantable interference of the French am-\nbassador. Genet threatened an appeal to the people, but was soon\nafter recalled. Afterwards, the French directory authorized the in-\ndiscriminate capture of all vessels sailing under the flag of the United\nStates and ordered the American envoys to leave France. Two\nsevere actions occurred in the West Indies, between the American\nfrigate Constellation, of thirty-eight guns, and the French frigate\nL Insurgente, of forty, and the same frigate and the La Vengeance, of\nfifty guns, in which L Insurgente was captured, and La Vengeance\nworsted.\n6. In 1,797, John, Adams was chosen president and in the year\nafter, Washington was called to the head of the army, in the prospect\nof a protracted war with France. But speedily after the overthrow\nof the directory government, all the disputes between France and the\nUnited States were amicably arranged.\n7. Although, since the definitive treaty of Paris, there occurred no\nopen hostilities between England and the United States, yet they were\nfar from being on terms of amity and conciliation. On various pre-\ntexts, the English retained possession of the forts on the south side of\nthe lakes, forming the northern boundary of the United States and\nirritation was continually excited by the English insisting on the right\nof searching American ships for enemy s property. Mr. Jay was de-\nputed envoy to London, and negotiated a treaty, in 1,795, which set-\ntled the differences between the two nations, but the terms of which\nwere much opposed in the United States.\n8. December 14, 1,799, died the illustrious Washington, of an in-\nflammatory sore throat and fever, contracted from a slight exposure to\nthe wet weather, after an illness of only about twenty-four hours.\n9. The seat of government had been removed from New- York (o\nPhiladelphia, both of which places being deemed inconvenient, pro-\nvision was made, at the second session after the formation of govern-\nment, for the removal of the government to a district on the Potomac,\nwhich was ceded to the United States by Virginia and Maryland and,\nin 1,800, the public offices were removed to the infant capital, ob\nwhich magnificent buildings had been erected. This city bears the\nname of Washington, and the district that of Columbia.\n10. The war with Tripoli commenced in 1,801, by an engagement\nof the Enterprise, captain Sterrett, with a Tripolitan corsair, offMalta,\nin which the American was victorious. Commodore Murray, the\nfollowing year, in the frigate Constellation, was attacked, while cruis-\ning off Tripoli, by a formidable number of gun boats, but obliged\nthem to retire in confusion. In 1,803, the Philadelphia frigate, cap\ntain Bainbridge, ran upon a rock, in the very jaws of the pirates was\nobliged to strike, and her officers and crew, amounting to three hun-\ndred, were made prisoners. This vessel was, however, recaptured\nand burnt, while lying in the harbour of Tripoli, February 16, 1,804,\nby captain Stephen Decatur, jr., and seventy men one of the most\ndaring and gallant exploits on record. From the 3d to the 29th of\nAugust following, commodore Preble made three general attacks upon\nthe Tripolitan batteries. The barbarian enemy continued to treat\nthe American prisoners with the most atrocious cruelty. Another","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0456.jp2"},"455":{"fulltext":"UNITED STATES. 461\nexpedient was tried by the American government. General Eaton\nwas despatched to co-operate with Hamet, who had been driven from\nthe government of Tripoli by the usurpation of his brother. Travel-\nling to Egypt, he found the exile, and proceeding fifty-two days\nthrough a hideous desert, he arrived before Derne, a city in the\nregency of Tripoli, and carried the town at the point of the bayonet.\nTwice did the enemy attempt to retake the town but, against fearful\nodds, they were repulsed by Eaton. This brought the reigning\nbashaw to terms a peace was concluded by colonel Lear, and the\nprisoners long detained in captivity, were released.\n11. Tennessee in 1,796, and Ohio in 1,800, were added to the states\nof the union. In 1,803, Louisiana was purchased from the French\ngovernment, for the sum of fifteen millions of dollars and in 1,812, a\nSortion of this extended territory was erected into a state by that name,\nly this cession, the United States have acquired a territory of vast\nmagnitude, and extraordinary fertility, from which new states will\ncontinue to be incorporated.\n12. In the autumn of 1,806, Aaron Burr was detected in an enter-\nprise of great moment, the separation of the western states from the\nunion, and the subjugation of New-Orleans his plan was defeated by\nthe vigilance of the government Burr was arrested on a charge of\nhigh treason but no overt act being proved on him, he was released.\nSECTION VI.\nWAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN, c.\n1 We come now to treat of those interesting events which brought\non a second contest between Great Britain and the United States.\nThe custom of searching American vessels on the ocean, and impress-\ning from them British seamen, had long been practised by the English.\nBut hitherto the custom had been confined to private vessels now, it\nwas extended in some instances to public armed vessels. Four seamen,\ndeserters from the British navy, were reported to have entered the\nservice of the United States, and to have been received on board the\nfrigate Chesapeake, at the time lying at Hampton roads, preparing for\nthe Mediterranean. Admiral Berkeley ordered captain Humphries,\nof the Leopard, to follow the Chesapeake beyond the waters of the\nUnited States, and demand the deserters this he did, and, after\ndemanding the seamen, fired a broadside upon the American frigate\nThis unexpected attack so disconcerted captain Barron, that he im-\nmediately struck the colours of the Chesapeake, and permitted the\nfour seamen to be taken without resistance. The Leopard carried\nfifty, the Chesapeake only thirty-six guns. On board the latter, four\nmen were killed and sixteen wounded. One of the impressed seamen\nwas afterwards hanged, and one died in prison and there was reason\nfor supposing that three of them w^ere native Americans. Captain\nBarron, for neglect of duty, was suspended from command for five\nyears. This tragical occurrence produced a general indignation.\nThe British, however, disavowed admiral Berkeley s orders, and re-\nmoved him from the station, but soon after appointed him to a more\nimportant one.\n2. New systems of blockade were invented by the belligerents*\ncommencing with the French decree of Berlin, of November 21,","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0457.jp2"},"456":{"fulltext":"452 UNITED STATES.\n1,806 January 7, 1,807, came the British order prohibiting coasting\ntrade; November 11, the celebrated British orders in council; and\nDecember 7, the French Milan decree. December 22, of the same\nyear, congress, on the recommendation of Mr. Jefferson, then presi-\ndent, ordered an embargo, prohibiting the exportation of every article\nfrom the United States. March 4, 1,809, the embargo was removed,\nand non- intercourse substituted. April 19, an arrangement was made\nwith Mr. Erskine, which induced the American government to renew\nthe trade with England this arrangement was subsequently disavow-\ned by the British government. The insulting deportment of the suc-\nceeding negotiator, Mr. Jackson, heightened the resentment of the\nrepublic and a rencounter between the American and British ships\nof war, President and Little Belt, increased the unfriendly sentiments\nof England.\n3. Mr. Foster, a new British minister, offered honourable reparation\nfor the indignity on the Chesapeake but no change could be procur-\ned in the systems practised by Great Britain and France against\nAmerican trade. The United States now offered to either of the\nbelligerents, or both, as soon as they ceased to violate the neutral\ncommerce of the republic, that the non-intercourse arrangement\nshould be discontinued. The French artfully embraced the offer, by\ninformation that the French Berlin and Milan decrees had been re-\nvoked and non-intercourse with France was discontinued by procla-\nmation of the president.\n4. War was declared by the United States against Great Britain,\nJune 18, 1,812, too late to avail themselves of the retraction of the\nBntisn orders in council, which followed the repeal of the Berlin and\nMilan decrees. The congress voted an addition to the regular army,\nof twenty-five thousand men authorized a loan of eleven millions\nand nearly doubled the duties on imports.\n5. Previous to the declaration of war, indications of hostility had\nappeared among the Indians on the frontiers bordering on Canada.\nA body of troops, under governor Harrison, was attacked on the 7th\nof November, 1,811, near a branch of the Wabash, by a larger body\nof Indians, who were defeated, not without considerable loss to the\nAmericans.\n6. On the 12th of July, general Hull, governor of the Michigan\nterritory, crossed from Detroit into the province of Canada, with a\nconsiderable force. In this situation, he soon received intelligence of\nthe capture of the American post at Michillimackinac. On the 8th\nof August, he returned to Detroit, followed by the British general\nBrock, with his regulars and Indians and he soon surrendered to the\nBritish, not only his army, but included the whole territory of Michi-\ngan in the articles oi capitulation. He was afterwards tried, and\nfound guilty of cowardice and neglect of duty, and sentenced to be\nshot but, in consideration of his revolutionary services, and his age,\nthe court recommended him to mercy, and the president withdrew the\npunishment of death. He has since endeavoured, by letters address-\ned to the people of this country, to justify his conduct and with many\npersons his endeavours have been successful.\n7. On the 19th of August, the Constitution frigate, captain Hull,\ncaptured the British frigate Guerriere, captain Dacres, after an action\nof thirty minutes: loss of the Guerriere, fifteen killed, sixty-four\nwounded, and twenty-one missing that of the Constitution, seven\nkilled and seven wounded. October 25, the frigate United States,\ncaptain Decatur, met the British frigate Macedonian, off the western","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0458.jp2"},"457":{"fulltext":"UNITED STATES. 453\nisles, and captured her after an action of one hour and a half British\nloss, thirty-six killed and sixty-eight wounded American loss, seven\nkilled, five wounded. The next naval achievement was the capture\nof the British brig Frolic by the American sloop Wasp, commanded\nby captain Jones British loss, thirty killed and fifty wounded—\nAmerican, five killed, five wounded. In December, the Constitution,\ncaptain Bainbridge, again met the enemy, and the frigate Java was\ncaptured British loss, sixty killed, and one hundred and one wound-\ned American, nine killed, twenty-five wounded. Besides these vic-\ntories of public ships, numerous privateers swarmed the ocean, and\nbefore the meeting of congress, in November, nearly two hundred and\nfifty vessels were captured from the enemy.\n8. In November, general Van Rensselaer, with about one thousand\ntroops, crossed the Niagara river into Upper Canada, and attacked\nthe British at Queenstown and, after an obstinate engagement, was\nobliged to surrender, with a loss of sixty killed, and about one hundred\nwounded. In this engagement the British general Brock was killed.\n9. Early in 1,813, an action was fought at the river Raisin, between\nan American detachment, under general Winchester, and a British and\nIndian force under colonel Proctor. The Americans were defeated, and\nthe greater part of five hundred prisoners were immediately massacred,\nProctor being unable or unwilling to protect them, as he had expressly\nstipulated Soon after, general Harrison was attacked and besieged,\nby the combined British and Indians at fort Meigs. A desultory war\nwas kept up for some time. Colonel Dudley Was detached from the\nfort, to attack the enemy s battery on the opposite side of the river.\nHe succeeded in capturing the battery, but his troops, imprudently\npursuing the enemy, were soon surrounded by an Indian army, three\ntimes their number, headed by the Indian general Tecumseh a des-\nperate fight, and a scene of slaughter almost as terrible as that at\nRaisin, ensued. Of eight hundred men composing the detachment,\nonly about one hundred and fifty escaped.\n10. On the 21st of February, the British attacked Ogdensburgh, on\nthe river St. Lawrence, with a force of twelve hundred, and compelled\nthe Americans to evacuate the place. In April, the Americans, under\ngeneral Pike, landed at York, in Upper Canada and, after some se-\nvere fighting, succeeded in capturing or destroying a large amount ot\npublic stores. The British lost seven hundred and fifty men, in killed,\nwounded, and captured. The brave Pike was mortally wounded, by\nthe explosion of a magazine, which had been purposely set on fire.\nThe object of the expedition being gained, the American forces evac-\nuated York on the 1st of May, and re-embarked.\n11. Fort George, commanded by general Vincent, was taken by\nthe American forces, under general Boyd and colonel Miller, May 27\nafter a sharp conflict. The British lost, in killed and wounded, about\ntwo hundred and fifty men, besides six hundred prisoners their an-\ntagonists, thirty-nine killed and one hundred and eight wounded.\nSoon afterwards, generals Chandler and Winder, who had advanced\nwith a considerable force, were attacked in the night, by general\nVincent, who had been reinforced, between fort George and Burling-\nton bay, and, in a scene of confusion, were both made prisoners their\ntroops retired to fort George.\n12. Captain James Lawrence, of the Hornet, fell in with, and cap-\ntured, the British sloop of war Peacock, February 24. The action\nlasted eisrht minutes and the British captain and several others were\nkilled, and twenty-nine wounded the Hornet had three wounde4s","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0459.jp2"},"458":{"fulltext":"454 UNITED STATES.\nThe Peacock sunk soon after the action, and thirteen British sailors\nwent down with her. Captain Lawrence was afterwards appointed to\nthe command of the ill-fated Chesapeake, then lying in Boston harbour.\nThe British frigate Shannon, commanded by captain Broke, had been\nfor some time in the bay, seeking an engagement with an American\nfrigate. Lawrence, burning with impatience to meet the enemy, did\nnot wait to inquire into the relative condition of the vessels. The\nShannon had a picked crew, and was accoutred for the express pur-\npose of engaging an American frigate of the largest size. The Ches-\napeake, not of the largest description of frigates, had recently dis-\ncharged a part of her crew, and enlisted others several of her officers\nwere sick. Lawrence sailed on the first of June and when he came\nwithin sight of the Shannon, addressed his crew, but they listened with\nno enthusiasm some complained that they had not received their\nprize money murmurs and dissatisfaction were general in fact the\ncrew were almost in a state of mutiny. The Chesapeake closed with\nthe enemy and gave the first broadside and at the first fire of the\nShannon, captain Lawrence was mortally wounded. A second and a\nthird broadside gave the British a decided advantage, which was fol-\nlowed up by boarding the Chesapeake. A scene of carnage ensued\ncaptain Lawrence was carried below, exclaiming, as he left the deck,\nDon t give up the ship. Every officer qualified for command in\nthe Chesapeake, was either killed or disabled about eighty were\nkilled, and as many wounded. Of the British, twenty-three were\nkilled and fifty-six wounded. The captured frigate was carried in\ntriumph to Halifax. The brilliant achievements of Wellington and\nNelson scarcely called forth more lively expressions of exultation m\nEngland, than did the capture of the Chesapeake. The tower guns\nat London were fired on reception of the news, and the prince regent\nconferred on captain Broke the order of knighthood.\n13. On the 4th of August, the American sloop of war Argus was\ncaptured by the Pelican, a vessel of her own class, but said to be two\nguns superior. Captain Allen commander of the Argus, was mortally\nwounded at the first broadside of the enemy. In the following month,\nthe American brig Enterprize captured the Boxer, a vessel superior\nin effective force. The only person killed on board the Enterprize\nwas her gallant commander, lieutenant Burroughs, and thirteen were\nwounded. The British loss was greater among the slain was captain\nBlythe, who commanded the Boxer, and who was buried by the side\nof his antagonist in the town of Portland, off whose harbour the action\nwas fought.\n14. But the most brilliant achievement this year was that of th*\nyouthful Perry on lake Erie. The British force consisted of six ves-\nsels, having sixty-three guns that of the Americans, of nine vessels\nand fifty-six guns. The conflict was tremendous. The flag ship of\nPerry suffered dreadfully in the loss of men, and was on the point of\nsinking he left the ship in the midst of the hottest fire, and proceed\ned to another vessel and after three hours conflict, the laurel of\nvictory was assigned to Perry the triumph was complete not a single\nvessel of the enemy escaped. This action took place on the 10th of\nSeptember, and made the Americans masters of the lake. The gallant\nPerry announced this victory in the following laconic epistle to general\nHarrison We have met the enemy and they are ours two ships,\ntwo brigs, one schooner, and one sloop.\n15. Chesapeake bay was blockaded by the British during the spring\nof this year, and several predatory incursions by their troops were","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0460.jp2"},"459":{"fulltext":"UNITED STATES. 45\nmade. Much property was plundered and destroyed, and many dis-\ngraceful scenes occurred, particularly at Hampton and Havre dp.\nGrace.\n16. An attack was made, May 29, on Sackett s harbour by about one\nthousand British, who were repulsed with considerable loss. General\nBrown commanded the American, and sir George Prevost the British\ntroops. About the same time the British attacked Craney Island,\nnear Norfolk, and were defeated with loss.\n17. General Dearborn, the American commander, retired from ser-\nvice this year. Fort Sandusky was invested by a large force of British\nand Indians and the exploit of major Croghan in repulsing the assail-\nants with great loss, called torth general admiration. In October,\nDetroit was abandoned by the British, on the approach of a large\narmy under general Harrison who, soon after, defeated the enemy\nunder the command of general Proctor, in Upper Canada in this\nbattle the celebrated Tecumseh was killed.\n18. Little was done this year towards the conquest of Canada.\nGeneral Wilkinson descended the St. Lawrence from lake Ontario in\nNovember and an engagement took place at Williamsburgh, in\nwhich the Americans were repulsed with the loss of three hundred\nkilled, wounded, and prisoners. A disagreement between the generals\nHampton and Wilkinson, prevented that concert which was necessary\nto secure success the design of attacking Montreal was relinquished,\nand the army retired to winter quarters. Fort George was evacuated\nin the month of December and misconceiving his instructions, general\nM Clure, who commanded the fortress, set fire to the village of New-\nark. Niagara was afterwards surprised and retaken by the British.\nThe British crossed over to the American side, and in resentment for the\ndestruction of Newark, burnt Buffalo and some other villages, and laid\nwaste the whole frontier.\n19. The Creek Indians, who had been for some time in open hos-\ntilities with the United States, w r ere completely subdued this season\nand the succeeding spring, principally by troops commanded by gen-\neral Andrew Jackson.\n20. In January, 1,814, propositions having been made by the prince\nregent for a negotiation, Messrs. Russell and Clay were appointed to\njoin Messrs. Adams, Bayard, and Gallatin, already in Europe, as\ncommissioners to meet such as the British government might appoint\nand Messrs. Gambier, Golbourn, and William Adams were appointed\nto meet them. The place of assembling was first fixed at Gottenburg,\nbut afterwards changed to Ghent in Flanders where the commission-\ners met in August.\n21. The frigate Essex, captain David Porter, after having long\ncruised in the Pacific and captured a great number of British vessels,\nwas herself captured in the harbour of Valparaiso, by the British\nfrigate Phebe and the sloop Cherub. The Peacock captured the\nBritish brig Epervier, April 29, after an action of forty-two minutes.\nThe Hornet sloop of war captured the English national brig Penguin\nand the old Constitution, under captain Stewart, overcame the united\nforces of the Cyane and Levant.\n22. In the beginning of July, fort Erie was taken by the Americans.\nOn the 4th of July, a brilliant victory was gained by general Brown\nit Chippewa. On the 25th, one of the most sanguinary battles on rec-\nord took place at Bridgewater in this action the American generals\nScott, Ripley, and Porter, with colonel Miller, majors Hindman, Jes\ngup, Leavenworth, and M Neil. distinguished themselves. The","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0461.jp2"},"460":{"fulltext":"456 UNITED STATES.\nBritish forces were led by generals Drummond and Rial. The battle\nlasted from four o clock, P. M. until midnight. The British lost nine\nhundred, killed, wounded, and prisoners the American loss was less\nThe latter maintained their ground while the former retired.\n23. The town of Eastport in the bay of Passamaquoddy, was this\nyear taken by a British naval force and soon after the British took\npossession of Castine and all that part of the new state of Maine, lying\nbetween that place and Penobscot river, and compelled many of the\ninhabitants to take the oath of allegiance to Great Britain. The\nBritish this year landed marauding parties, at Saybrook, Wareham,\nScituate, and other places, and destroyed much shipping in an at-\ntempt on Stonington, they were beaten off hy the gallant inhabitant\nwith loss.\n24. From the 16th to the 20th of August, about sixty sail of the\nBritish arrived in the Chesapeake, intending to invade the States in\nearnest. More than fifty of them landed at Benedict, on the Patuxent,\nabout forty miles from Washington. On the 22d the British flankers\nreached Wood Yard, fourteen miles from Washington. Commodore\nBarney here blew up a flotilla of gun boats to prevent their falling into\nthe hands of the enemy. On the 23d the British forces, estimated at\nsix thousand, reached Bladensburgh, about six miles from Washington.\nHere a short engagement took place but the greater part of the\nAmerican militia fled. Commodore Barney, with a few eighteen\npounders and about four hundred men, made a gallant resistance from\nBladensburg to the city but he was wounded and taken prisoner.\nThe British here destroyed the capitol, the president s house, and\nseveral other public buildings, mutilated the monument in the navy\nyard, and committed many excesses. In the night of the 25th, me\nBritish retired, gained their shipping by rapid marches, and embark-\ned on board their ships on the 27th. Several British ships under cap-\ntain Gordon, at the same time, ascended the Potomac, appeared be-\nfore Alexandria, robbed the defenceless inhabitants of a vast quantity\nof flour and other plunder and escaped down the river without mo-\nlestation.\n25. August 14, General Drummond was repulsed in an attack on\nfort Erie, after a severe conflict, with a loss of five hundred and eighty;\ntwo in killed, wounded, and prisoners, two hundred and twenty-one\nbeing killed American loss in killed and wounded, two hundred and\nforty-five.\n26. On Sunday, the 11th of September, admiral Cochrane appeared\noff Baltimore with about fifty sail. The larger vessels landed at\nNorth Point, ten miles from the city, about seven thousand troops\nunder general Ross and admiral Cockburn. The next day, as they\nadvanced towards the city, they were met by general Strieker with\nabout three thousand militia, and a severe engagement took place, in\nwhich the British general was killed. The Americans were however\nrepulsed by superior numbers and on Tuesday evening, the Bjitish\nadvanced to within about two miles of the American entrenchments.\nBut so strong was the American force, and so valiantly had they fought\nthe preceding day, that the British retreated before morning, and\nhastily re-embarked. A grand attack was made on Tuesday on fort\nM Henry, on the other side of the city and commanding the water\npassage to it, from frigates, bomb, and rocket vessels, which lasted the\nwhole day and a part of the night, doing but little damage. In the\nnight about a thousand of the enemy landed between the tort and the\ncity, but were soon repulsed The loss of the Americans in killed,","height":"3574","width":"2121","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0462.jp2"},"461":{"fulltext":"UNITED STATES.\ntyounded, and prisoners, was two hundred and thirteen t\nBritish is not known. The enemy, thus discomfited, moved\nbay.\n27. The governor-general of Canada, sir George Prevost, with\nfrom twelve to fourteen thousand men, made an attack on Pittsburgh,\nSeptember 11. At the same time a naval engagement, on lake Cham-\nplain, took place in sight of the land forces. The American fleet\nhaving eighty-six guns and eight hundred and twenty-six men, was\ncommanded by captain M Donough the British, consisting of ninety-\nfive guns and one thousand and fifty men, was commanded by com-\nmodore Downie. The action ended in the surrender of the British\nvessels, viz. one frigate, one brig, and two sloops of war. Some of\ntheir gallies were sunk others escaped. American loss, fifty-two\nkilled, fifty-eight wounded British loss, eighty-four killed, one\nhundred and ten wounded. At the same time that the fleets were\nengaged, governor Prevost attacked the forts at Plattsburgh with his\nand forces, throwing shells, halls, and rockets he attempted to cross\n/he Saranac, but was repulsed at three different places. So effectual\nwas the fire of the Americans, that, before sunset, the batteries he had\nerected were all silenced; and at nine o clock in the evening his\nwhole army began a rapid retreat, leaving many wounded, and much\nammunition, provision, and baggage. The American loss this day,\nand in skirmishes previous on land, was thirty-nine killed, sixty-two\nwounded, and twenty missing: the loss of the British, in killed*\nwounded, and deserters, besides those on board the fleet, was estimat-\ned at two thousand five hundred. General Alexander Macomb com-\nmanded the American land forces.\n28. As on Erie and Champlain, so on the lake Ontario, each party\nstrove for a naval ascendency. Several large ships were built by the\nAmericans at Sackett s harbour, and by the British at Kingston. The\nAmerican fleet was commanded by captain Chauncey, and the British\nby commodore Yeo. As at no time, one side equalled the other in\nstrength, so at all times one avoided as the other sought for an engage-\nment. A partial action once took place but the British commander,\nat that time supposing his force inferior, took the advantage of cir-\ncumstances to make his port. One of the British vessels ready for\nsea at the close of the war manned nearly one hundred guns ana two\nof the largest class of vessels in the world vvere at the same time\nerecting at Sackett s harbour.\n29. In a sortie from fort Erie, under the command ot general Jacob\nBrown, after a severe engagement, the British were defeated with the\nloss of nearly a thousand, in killed, wounded, and prisoners the\nAmerican loss exceeded five hundred.\n30. The frigate President, commodore Decatur, sailed from New-\nYork, January 14, 1,815, and was the next day pursued by four frigates\nand a brig of the enemy. An engagement took place between the\nforemost of the pursuing vessels, the Endymion and the President\nafter a severe action of two hours, the Endymion was silenced and\nbeaten off. The Pamone and Tenedos in one hour coming up, the\nPresident was obliged to surrender.\n31. One of the most splendid events on the part of the Americans\nclosed the late war it was the discomfiture and repulse of the British\nat New-Orleans. A very large British force entered lake Pontchar-\ntrain, near New-Orleans, early in December, 1,814, defeating, after\nill obstinate conflict the smalf American naval force stationed there\nThe British were commanded by general Packenham, one of Welling\nQ.q 58","height":"3536","width":"1992","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0463.jp2"},"462":{"fulltext":"453 UNITED STATES.\nton s invincibles who had conquered the great Napoleon the Atneri*\ncan army was led by general Andrew Jackson. Several skirmishes\ntook place, in which the British were almost the exclusive sufferers.\nOn Sunday morning early, January 8, a grand attack was made by\nthe British on the American troops in their entrenchments. After an\nengagement of more than an hour, the enemy were cut to pieces to a\ndegree almost beyond example, and fled in confusion, leaving on the\nfield of battle their dead and wounded. The British loss was seven\nhundred killed, fourteen hundred wounded, and five hundred prisoners:\nthe generals Packenham and Keane, were among the slain, and gen-\neral Cobb was dangerously wounded. The American loss was said lo\nbe only seven killed and six wounded The attack was not renewed,\nand in a short time after, the British left the west.\n32. Up to the close of 1,814, the British ministry, calculating to\nbring the Americans to their terms, had discovered an indisposition to\ntreat with the commissioners of the United States but the defeat of\ndie British before Plattsburgh, gave a new turn to the negotiation, and\na treaty of peace was signed at Ghent, December 24, 1,814. Both\nnations agreed to appoint commissioners to settle disputed boundaries.\nNo allusion was made in the treaty to the causes of the war. Security\nagainst their recurrence rests, however, on a much firmer basis than\nthe provisions of the most solemn treaty. Britain has been taught to\nappreciate the strength of the republic. By this war the public debt\nof the United States was increased a hundred millions of dollars.\n33. It would too much extend this sketch of the history of the re-\npublic, to trace to its source the origin of parties which have divided\nthe country into two great sections with different appellations. The\ndistinction was unknown until subsequent to Mr. Jay s treaty with\nGreat Britain in 1,795. George Washington was elected president in\n1,788, and re-elected in 1,792. He was succeeded by John Adams,\nelected in 1,796, between whom and Thomas Jefferson the parties\ndivided in 1,800: the latter was chosen at that time, not however\nuntil he had been balloted for thirty-six times by the house of repre-\nsentatives in congress, the vote by s ates being at each balloting\nequally divided between Mr. Jefferson and Aaron Burr. In 1,804,\nMr. Jefferson was re-elected. Declining an election in 1,808, Mr.\nJefferson gave place to James Madison. The latter continuing eight\nyears, James Monroe was elected to the presidency in 1,816 and so\ngeneral was the satisfaction with the administration, that in 1,820, he\nhad all the electoral votes save one for the same office.\n34. Since the peace the attentipn of the countiy has been called to\nthe propriety of augmenting the national defence. Congress having\nmade appropriations for the purpose, extensive fortifications have been\naid continue to be erected tor the security of the commercial towns.\nOne million of dollars annually is likewise appropriated for the grad-\nual augmentation of the navy, to which, independent of smaller\nvessels, nine ships of the line, twelve frigates, and three floating batte-\nries are to be added.\n35. By an act of congress in the year 1,818, a yearly pension, suffi-\ncient for Iheir decent maintenance, having been granted to those officers\nand privates who served more than nine months at any one time in the\nwar of the revolution, more than thirty thousand individuals made ap-\nplication for relief. The sum required much exceeded general ex-\npectation and the following year an additional act was passed which\ncircumscribed the applicants to a narrow space. Importations having\nlessened, the amount received into the treasury from duties became","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0464.jp2"},"463":{"fulltext":"UNITED STATES. 459\nless than the calculations and in 1,821, the standing military force\nwas reduced from ten to six thousand, and the building of ships of war\nwas, in some degree, suspended.\n36 Since the admission of Louisiana in 1,812, six other states have\nbeen admitted into the Union Indiana in 1,816, Mississippi in 1,817\nIllinois in 1,818, Alabama in 1,819, Maine in 1,820, and Missouri in\n1,821. Indiana and Illinois are sections of the same territory from\nwhich Ohio was made a state. Mississippi and Alabama belonged to\nGeorgia and Louisiana Maine was separated from Massachusetts, and\nMissouri from the vast tract ceded by the French, under the name of\nLouisiana.\n37. A treaty was concluded at Washington in 1,819, by which Spain\nceded to the United States that portion of her territory, known by the\nname of Florida. Five millions of dollars was the price and the\nsum, io pursuance of the treaty, has been paid as indemnity to Amer-\nican citizens for illegal seizures of their property in Spanish ports.\n38. Besides the different state governments, territorial governments,\nwith magistrates appointed by the president and senate, exist in\nMichigan, Arkansas, and Florida.\n39. In the year 1,820, the fourth authorized census of the inhabitants\nwas recorded. The progress of population has been rapid almost\nbeyond a parallel. In 1,790, the population was three millions line\nhundred and twenty-one thousand in 1,800, five millions tnree\nhundred and twenty thousand in 1,810, seven millions two hundred\nand forty thousand and in 18,20, nine millions six hundred and thirty-\neight thousand.","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0465.jp2"},"464":{"fulltext":"PART FIFTH.\nSECTION I,\nADDITIONAL FACTS, BRINGING DOWN THE GENERAL HIS-\nTORY TO THE PRESENT TIME.\n1. In 1,820, some commotion was caused in France by the assassina-\ntion of the Duke of Berri nephew of Louis XVIII. and son of the\npresent king. He was stabbed at the door of the opera house by an\nobscure person named Louvel. It appeared that the assassin was\ninstigated to this horrid deed merely by a thirst ibr revenging -an al-\nleged injury, which he suffered many years previous.\n2. Napoleon Bonaparte died at St Helena, May 5th 1,821, aged 52.\nHe was a man of talents which few other men are competent to esti-\nmate of astonishing foresight and intrepidity of insatiable ambition.\nHis career was marked by the most splendid achievements. He was\ndestined by Providence to humble the pride of the Princes of the\nearth, to shake the foundations of arbitrary power, and then, to be\nhimself humbled and debased. To France he s^ave a code of laws,\nthe influence of which has been felt throughout Europe, and will ex-\nlend through the world. He gave to the lower classes of the commu-\nnity, an activity and importance, which they had never felt but which,\nhaving been once appreciated, they are not likely to surrender. His\npolitical maxims, however selfish in their ends, were utterly at vari-\nance with that baser love of arbitrary dominion, which is regardless\nof the welfare of its subjects. He loved to govern but his ambition\nmade him wish to govern an industrious, enlightened, and happy\nworld and wherever he extended his conquests, he endeavoured to\nelieve the oppressed, and break the shackles under which humanity\ngroaned. The efforts which are now making by the lower classes in\nalmost every arbitrary government, to obtain free constitutions which\nshall elevate them from the rank of slaves to that of citizens, are to\nbe ascribed, in a great measure, to the influence of his institutions, and\nhis example. We can mark no limits to the blessings which, under\nHeaven, he dispensed while he lived, and bequeathed to posterity.\nIf we judge him by the effects of his conquests, his institutions and his\nadministration of government, he will appear one of the greatest bene-\nfactors of mankind but if as Christians, we estimate his character by\nthe motives which he manifested throughout his career, we shall find\nittle in it to applaud, but much to condemn. Although it was a part\nof his policy to ameliorate the condition of men, a wish to extend and\nto secure his own sovereignty over them appears to have been his\nruling motive. An all-wise Providence converted his deeds into\nblessings, but they cannot entitle him to the praise of Christian virtue.\nIf his rise and reign was all that men call glorious, his downfall ex-\nhibited a reverse no less signal. Confined on one of the most barren\nand dismal islands in the world, guarded and controlled by gaolers,\nwho exercised towards him a petty tyranny, which denied not unfre-\nquently the common civilities of life, wasted by a long and painful\ndisease, all the circumstances about him combined to mock his for-\nmer greatness, and to witness to an ambitious world that he who\nexaiieth himself shall be abased.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0466.jp2"},"465":{"fulltext":"ADDITIONAL FACTS, c. 461\n3. In 1,823, France obtained permission from the Congress of Allied\nSovereigns, held at Verona, to invade Spain, and re-establish the king\nin his former authority. It was expected that the friends of the new\nconstitution would have been able to make a powerful resistance to\nthis invasion but the conquest proved easy and this revolution,\nlike that of 1,820, was accomplished with very little bloodshed. On\nthe 16th day of Sept. 1,824, Louis XVIII. died of the dropsy; his\nbrother succeeded to the throne and took the title of Charles a.\n4. A revolution similar in its character to that in Spain took place\nin Portugal in 1,820. In 1,821, the Royal Family, with the exception\nof the Prince Royal, the king s son, returned from Brazil. The king\nswore to the free constitution, and the kingdom enjoyed a good de-\ngree of tranquillity until May 1,823, when a counter-revolution was\ncommenced, and on the 3d of June the king issued his proclamation\nannouncing the restoration of the Ancient Monarchy.\n5. In England, George IV. succeeded to the throne upon the death\nof his father George III. He had for many years been Prince\nRegent The year was distinguished by domestic commotions, of\nwhich the disturbances among the labouring classes in Manchester\nand other manufacturing towns, were the most alarming. The al-\nleged cause of complaint was the low price of wages, which was\ndeclared to be quite disproportionate to their services. Large meet-\nings were held in many places, and very riotous proceedings passed,\nand the nation was much alarmed by the prospects of a civil war\nThe malecontents found several able leaders, among whom Hunt and\nThistlewood were prominent. The commotions were, however,\nquelled without their objects being obtained. Hunt suffered a long\nimprisonment Thistlewood and tour others were executed, and five\nwere transported.\n6. But this year was principally memorable tor the trial ol the\nQueen on a charge of adultery. This affair produced a remarkable\ndegree of excitement not only throughout that kingdom, but also on\nthe continent and in America.\n7. Since the termination of these difficulties the nation has enjoyed\ntranquillity and a high degree of prosperity.\n8. The summer of 1,821, was remarkable for tne scantiness ot the\ncrops in Ireland. The following winter brought a most distressing\nfamine, of which great numbers perished.\n9. Since the establishment of peace in 1,815, the Northern States\nof Europe have enjoyed a good degree of tranquillity, lew events\nhave occurred, to serve as items ot general history. By a decree ot\nthe Emperor of Russia in 1,811, the government of that empire was\ndeclared to be a constitutional monarchy. Little was done till alter\nthe peace to limit its despotic character, but since that period some\nconstitutional privileges have been granted to the subjects. Similar\nimprovements have been made, and are making, in the governments\nof most of these States. Prussia has established assemblies, which\nbear a representative character.\n10. In 1,815, the Congress of Vienna, composed of the authorities ot\nAustria, France, Great-Britain, Prussia, and Russia, made a solemn\ndeclaration of their resolution to put a stop to he African Slave Trade.\nThis wicked traffic was not, however, diminished by this measure be-\ncause France was totally unfaithful to her promise. At the Congress\nof Verona in 1,823, the same powers, with the exception of France,\ndeclared that this crime ought to be assimilated with that ot piracy,\nand hence punishable with death.\nQq2","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0467.jp2"},"466":{"fulltext":"462 HISTORY OF NEW SPAIN.\n11. In 1,816, the Jesuits were expelled from Moscow and Peters-\nburgh, and in 1,820, from the whole Russian empire, and forbidden\never to return.\n12. Pope Pius VII. died Aug. 20, 1,823, in the eighty-second year\nof his age, and the twenty-fourth of his pontificate. He was succeed-\ned by the Cardinal Delia Genga, who assumed the title of Leo XII.\nThe present Pope, was born on the 2d of Aug. 1,760. He was Nun-\ncio fourteen years in the electorates of the Rhine. At the period of\nthe persecutions exercised by Bonaparte against the Catholic Church,\nhe was obliged to quit Rome with the other prelates and cardinals.\nAt the restoration, he was the cardinal selected by Pius VII. to\ncongratulate Louis XVIIL on his return. The commencement of his\npontificate has been signalized by his refusal to restore the Inquisition\nm Spain, declaring it inconsistent with the liberal spirit of the age.\n13. In the summer of 1,820, an insurrection broke out in Naples\nand Sicily, and so feeble was the established government, that the\ninsurgents soon compelled the king to grant them a free constitution.\nThe Allied Sovereigns of Europe at their session at Troppau, near the\nclose of the same year, made a formal declaration of irreconcilable\nhostility to this new government. In 1,821, they decided at the Con-\ngress of Laybach, that a portion of the Austrian army should occupy\nNaples, to restore the authority of the king. This was readily ac-\ncomplished, and with little opposition. The Spanish constitution ot\n1,812, was granted to Naples and Sicily, and tranquillity was restored\nSimilar disturbances took place at the same period in some of the\nSardinian States, but they were quieted by the result of those in Na-\nples and Sicily.\n14. Turkey has enjoyed little tranquillity for many years. The\nGrreeks revolted from the Ottoman power in 1,821 and from that\nperiod to the present a bloody war has been carried on between them\nand the Turks. The latter have committed frequent and horrible\nmassacres of the Christians in Constantinople, Scio, and other places\nand have endeavoured to reduce their revolted subjects by every act\nof cruelty and oppression. The Greeks have maintained their strug-\ngle for independence with much bravery and spirit, which has some-\ntimes become ferocity but they are neither sufficiently virtuous nor\ncivilized to act in full concert in resisting oppression. It is impossible\nto judge how far they have been really successful, and what are their\nprospects of ultimate success, owing to the want of authentic channels\nof information but at this moment the existing probability is decid-\nedly in favour of their success.\nSECTION SECOND.\nHISTORY OF NEW SPAIN.\nCOMPILED PRINCIPALLY FROM POINSETT S NOTES ON MEXICO.\n1. When this country was first visited by the Spaniards in 1,519,\nit had attained a high degree of civilization. Of this we may judge\nby the form of its government, its laws, and its civil institutions.\n2. The monarch was chosen from among the members of the reign-\ning family by six electors, chosen from among the thirty princes of\nthe first ranlc. The political system was feudal. The first class of\nnobles, consisting of thirty families, had each one hundred thousand","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0468.jp2"},"467":{"fulltext":"HISTORY OF NEW SPAIN. 463\nvassals. The second class consisted of more than three thousand\nfamilies. The lords exercised the right of life and death over their\nvassals. All the lands were divided into allodial, hereditary, and\ncontingent estates,— the latter depending upon places in the gift of the\ncrown.\n3. The priests were charged with the education of youth and on\ntheir testimony of the merit of their scholars, depended their future\nrank. Under Montezuma, the emperor at this period, the government\nwas despotic, but he was subject to the high priest. Each province\nwas subject to a tribute but certain nobles were excepted, who were\ncompelled to take the field in case of a war, with a stated number oi\nfollowers. The tribute was paid in kind, and was fixed at one thir-\ntieth part of the crop. The governors of provinces also vied with\neach other in the magnificence of their presents to the emperor.\n4. Sacrilege, murder, and treason, were punished with death and\nthe laws of the empire were generally as much respected as in the\nmost civilized European nations of that age. The attention of the\ngovernment was principally directed towards the internal commerce,\nso as to secure an abundant supply to the people. Posts were estab-\nlished between the capital and the remotest provinces. A court of\nten magistrates determined the validity of contracts and officers were\nconstantly employed to examine the measures and the quality of goods\nexposed for sale.\n5. Besides the empire of the Mexicans, of which we have been\nsneaking, there were other powerful states, whose form of government\n«*as republican. The most powerful of these was Tlascala, the gov-\nernment of which continued for some time after the conquest of,\nVTexico. It was a thickly settled, fertile, and populous country, di-\nfided into districts, each under the authority of a chief. These chiefs\nadministered justice, levied the tribute, and commanded the military\nforces, but their decrees were not valid, or of force, until confirmed by\nthe senate of Tlascala, which was the true sovereign. A certain num-\nber of citizens, chosen from the different districts by popular assem-\nblies, formed this legislative body. The senate elected its own chief.\nThe laws were strictly and impartially executed and the people are\nrepresented as numerous, wealthy, and powerful.\n6. The Mexicans possessed some knowledge of Astronomy, and\ntheir calendar was constructed with more exactness than that of the\nGreeks, the Romans, or the Egyptians. Their hieroglyphics, drawings,\nand maps their cities and artificial roads, causeways, canals, and im-\nmense pyramids their government and hierarchy, and administration\nof laws their knowledge of the art of mining, and of preparing metals\nfor ornament and use their skill in carving images out of the hardest\nstone in manufacturing and dying cloths, and the perfection of their\nagriculture, afford ample evidence of the high degree of civilization\nattained by the Mexicans. If we recollect that at this period, the art\nof printing was not used in Europe, that the Reformation had not\ntaken place, that most of the great improvements in arts and science\nare of more modern date, we shall see no reason to call the Mexicans\nbarbarous, compared with their proud invaders, or with other nations\nof that period. Their religion was disgraced by gross superstition\nand the sacrifice of human victims was not unfrequent. But, still,\nwhen compared with other nations, they were not deficient in practi-\ncal virtue. Indeed nothing in their character appears to have been\nhalf so gross and antichristian, as the merciless conduct of their inva-\nders, We cannot estimate them by the degraded state of the remain-","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0469.jp2"},"468":{"fulltext":"464 HISTORY OF NEW SPAIN.\ning natives for when the country was conquered, its aits, and sciences,\nand civil and religious institutions ceased, because those classes in the\ncommunity by whom knowledge was possessed and transmitted, were\nutterly exterminated.\n7. Shortly after the Spaniards under Cortez landed at Vera Cruz,\nhe received messengers from Montezuma, biinging with them presents\nto a considerable amount, and entreating Cortez not to advance far-\nther into the country. But the sight of this display of wealth stimu-\nlated the cupidity of the Spaniards, and confirmed their resolution to\npenetrate to the capital. In their route they had to contend against\nthe republic of Tlascala, a nation continually at war with the empire\nof Mexico. Cortez vanquished them in two battles, and found no\ndifficulty in enlisting them against Montezuma. Six thousand Tlasca-\nlans were added, as auxiliaries, to his European troops, and he con-\ntinued his march upon the capital of the empire under the guise of\nfriendship. As he advanced, he continued to augment his forces by\ntreaties with other nations and tribes which were inimical to Monte-\nzuma and with a European force of five hundred infantry and fifteen\nhorsemen, and a large army of Indians, he reached the city of Tenoch-\ntitlan on the 8th of Nov. 1,519. The emperor received him with a\ndegree of magnificence that excited the astonishment of the Spaniards.\nThe whole army was lodged and entertained sumptuously, and Cortez\nreceived presents to a great amount.\n8. Montezuma soon found that by admitting an armed and power-\nful friend into his capital, lit had delivered himself and his people\ninto the hands of a ferocious enemy. Cortez demanded that the\nMexican general, Qualpopoca, who had committed some hostilities on\ntile colony left at Vera Cruz, should be delivered up to him, bound\nhand and foot, and he caused him to be burnt alive. He next got\npossession of the person of the emperor and detained him prisouer.But\nthe indignation of the people was most excited by the contempt with\nwhich their religious rites and idols were treated by the Spaniards.\n9. Cortez was now compelled to leave the force at Tenoehtitlan\nthe capital, in the command of Alvarado, and inarch against Narvaez\nwho had arrived on the coast to deprive him of his command. Having\nvanquished Narvaez and obtained a considerable accession of force,\nhe returned toTenochtitlan,and found that the Mexicans had burnt the\nvessels which he had constructed on the Lake,and had just laid siege\nto the building in which the Spaniards were lodged. The siege was\nvrosecuted with vigour by the natives, and the place defended with\nobstinacy by the Spaniards. Montezuma having ascended a terrace\nwas killed by a stone or arrow,and hisbrotherQuetlavaca proclaimed\nhis successor. This gave such vigour to the Mexicans,that the Span-\niards were obliged to retreat with great loss. At Otumba, Cortez was\nobliged to turn and give them battle. He was victorious, and pro-\nceeded to Tlascala without further trouble. To secure his ascenden-\ncy over this repubiic,he made frequent incursions into the territories\nof neighbouring nations, and with uniform success.\n30. In December 1,52], he returned to the vale of Tezcuco, and\nfiorn this place continued to carry on the war against, the Mexicans\nand their allies. He ordered to be constructed at Tlascala the frames\nof thirteen vessels,and they were brought by an immense number of\nIndians to the Lake Tezcuco. When these vessels were ready, lie\nsent for his allies,amounting to fifty thousand troops,who soon arrived.\nAltera siege of seventy-five days the city was captured, Aug. 13th.\n1,523. The captured Mexicans were divided among the conquerors","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0470.jp2"},"469":{"fulltext":"HISTORY OF NEW SPAIN. 465\n-one fiftn being reserved for the king of Spain and they continued\nto be treated as slaves for centuries, notwithstanding the humane laws\npassed in Spain for their relief. This conquest was completed in the\nreign of Guatimozin son of Montezuma, who had succeeded to the\nthrone after the death of Quetlavaca.\n11. There is little interesting in the history of Mexico from this\nperiod till the commencement of the Revolution in 1,810. Almost the\nonly bright spot in the page of its history during this period, is the\nadministration of the viceroy Revillagigedo. Good roads, leading\nfrom the capital to different parts of the kingdom, were made by his\norders the streets of the principal cities were paved and lighted,\nand good police regulations established. An authentic statistical\naccount of the country was made, and almost every salutary law and\nregulation, now in existence, may be traced to his administration.\n12. To understand the nature of the authority which Spain exer-\ncised ever her American Colonies, it is necessary to remark that all\nacquisitions in America were considered as belonging to the crown,\nrather than to the state. Pope Alexander VI. first bestowed them as\na tree gift, upon Ferdinand and Isabella. They and their successors\nwere to be held as the universal proprietors of the regions which had\nbeen, or should be discovered. All officers in the colonies, whether\ncivil or ecclesiastic, were appointed by their authority, and remova-\nble at their pleasure. The Spanish possessions were, at first, divided\ninto two viceroyalties, New Spain and Peru but subsequently, a\nthird was established at Santa Fe de Bogota, the jurisdiction of which\nextended over Terra Firma and the province of Quito.\n13. The authority of the viceroys was supreme in every depart-\nment of government, civil, military, and criminal. To aid them in the\nadministration of government in provinces remote from their residence,\nmagistrates of various orders were appointed, subject to the viceroy\nand courts, called Audiences, were established, whose decisions were,\nin most cases, final. Upon the death of a viceroy without any pro-\nvision of a successor by the king, the supreme power was vested in\nthe court of Audience resident in the capital of the viceroyalty, and\nthe senior judge, assisted by his brethren, exercised all the functions\nof the viceroy, while the office continued vacant.\n14. The supreme government of all the Spanish possessions in\nAmerica was, however, vested in the Council of the Indies. This\nCouncil was first established by Ferdinand in 1,511. Its jurisdiction\nextended to every department, ecclesiastical, civil, military, and com-\nmercial. All laws and ordinances relative to the government and\npolice of the colonies originated there, and must be approved by two\nthirds of the members, before being issued in the name of the king.\nTo it each person employed in America, from the viceroy downwards,\nwas accountable. Before it was laid all intelligence public or secret,\nreceived from the colonies, and every scheme of improving the ad-\nministration, police, or commerce, was submitted to its considera-\ntion.\n15. Another tribunal was established at Seville in 1,501, called\nCasa de la Coniratacion, or the house of trade. It was designed to\nregulate such commercial affairs as required the immediate and per-\nsonal inspection of those appointed to superintend them. Such is an\noutline of the system of government which Spain established in her\nAmerican colonies.\n16. In 1,808, the viceroy of Mexico, Don Jose Iturrigaray, received\nsuch contradictory orders from the supreme authorities in Spain, as\n59","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0471.jp2"},"470":{"fulltext":"466 HISTORY OF SPAIN.\nto render it necessary to call a Junta composed of a representative\nfrom each province. This measure excited the jealousy of the Eu-\nropeans in the capital,as it was calculated to place the Creoles on an\nequal footing with themselves in the government. They therefore\nconspired against the viceroy, surprised him, and sent him and his\nfamily prisoners to Spain. Shortly after the arrival of the next vice-\nroy, Vanegas, the Creoles formed a conspiracy to overthrow his\npower. They collected a large force under Hidalgo a priest of some\ndistinction, and for several months their success seemed almost cer-\ntain. But Hidalgo,by a most unaccountable mismanagement suffered\nhis army to be defeated with great slaughter in Oct. 1,809, and their\ntotal defeat followed in January 1,811.\n17. Another attempt was soon made by the Creoles and Indians\nunder Rayon, a lawyer of great influence, but the revolt was sup-\npressed. A more formidable army was gathered by Morelos in 1,814\n15,and the contest for independence again appeared more hopeful;\nbut he was defeated, taken prisoner, and executed. In Nov. 1,816\nthe Patriots were cheered by the arrival of General Mina with a small\nforce from England. Uniting himself with the army already in ope-\nration, he sustained the conflict with great bravery Tor one year, but\nwas then defeated and executed. The Independent army was now\ntoo feeble for offensive operation, and little was done until the revo-\nlution of Spain in 1,821. The decrees of the Cortez confiscating the\nestates, and reducing and reforming some of the higher orders of the\nclergy, excited the indignation of the church in Mexico, and from\nthat time, the priests used their influence in favour of a separation\nfrom Spain. Although their influence had been somewhat diminished,\nit was still sufficient to produce the adoption of almost any measure\nwhich they should recommend. They were aided by the wealthy\nEuropeans who were anxious to preserve the country in the pureness\nof despotism, that it might serve as a refuge for the king of Spain\nfrom the persecutions of the Cortez, and from the new constitution.\n18. Don Augustin Iturbide was fixed upon as a proper agent to\ncarry their plans into effect. He had distinguished himself in the\nprevious contests as an enemy to the patriots, and the clergy little an-\nticipated that his love of tyranny would soon be exercised at the cost\nof their dearest plans. He at this time commanded a considerable\narmy, and on receiving money to proceed into the southern provinces,\nhe united himself with Guerrero, one of the patriot chiefs, and offered\npardon to all who would unite themselves to his standard. From the\nvery energetic operations of the revolutionists in the capital, the whole\nnation was soon roused in favour of independence. The viceroy was\ndeposed Iturbide was made admiral of the navy, generalissimo of\nthe army, and president of the Regency which was established by the\nnew Junta. His ambitious designs now became manifest, and he found\nlittle difficulty in raising himself above the established authorities, and\nsecuring the reins of government. The Cortez were decidedly op-\nposed to him, but the soldiery were his friends, and they compelled\nthe Cortez to declare him emperor on the 19th of May 1,822. After\nhaving attained this object of his ambition, he sought by every means\nto render his authority absolute, and elevated the members of his own\nfamily to offices of state. Many of the clergy were far from being\nsatisfied with the elevation of Iturbide. The archbishop of Mexico\nrefused to crown him, and retired from the capital.\n19. The emperor did not long enjoy his despotic reign. Santana,\nthe governor of Vera Cruz could not brook the control of a supe-","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0472.jp2"},"471":{"fulltext":"HISTORY OF THE WEST INDIES. 46*\nrior. Enjoying an independent command, and possessing the confi-\ndence of a great part of the community, he found no difficulty in raising\na formidable force. He was soon joined by Guadalupe Victoria, who\nnad from the commencement 01 the revolution been a most faithful\nfriend to the cause of liberty, but had been obliged, under the exist-\ning despotism, to conceal himself in the mountains. Santana found\nthat the great popularity of Guadalupe Victoria made it necessary\nto yield to him the supreme command. This being readily granted,\nthey possessed each others confidence, and the confidence of the em-\npire. The army in all parts declared for the republican principles\nof Santana, and the commander in chief, and Iturbide found it neces-\nsary first to summon the Cortez which he had forcibly dissolved, and\nafterwards, on the eighth of March 1,823, to abdicate the throne. He\nwas permitted to leave the empire, and he sailed with his family for\nLeghorn on the 11th of May. He returned in the summer of 1,824,\nbut was received by republicans who justly appreciated him. An\norder had been passed by the Congress for his immediate execution\nin case of his arrival and as soon as he was identified, he was im-\nprisoned, and, a few days after, was brought forth by public order\nand shot.\n20. Immediately after his abdication the nation declared for a re-\npublican government, and on the 2d of February 1,824, a federal\nconstitution was adopted, amidst the shouts of the people and it is\nobviously the form of government best suited to the interests and wishes\nof a majority of the community. The principal defect in their con-\nstitution is the establishment of the Catholic religion. The nation\ncannot expect to enjoy the real freedom of republican institutions,\nwhile their minds are subjected under the real despotism of a national\nreligion. In other respects the Constitution of this republic very near-\nly resembles that of the United States.\n21. The former Captain-Generalship of Guatimala, with the ex-\nception of Chiapa, declared its independence at the same time with\nMexico, but refused to unite with that government. It has establish-\ned an independent, federal government, under the title of the Confed-\nerated States of the Centre of America. The Roman Catholic religion\nis established here also, to the exclusion of all others and in most\nrespects their constitution agrees with that of the Mexican Republic.\nSECTION THIRD.\nHISTORY OF THE WEST INDIES.\n1. The Bahamas were the first land discovered by Columbus,—\nOct. 12th 1,492. The first settlement was made at Nassau in New\nProvidence by the English, 1,672. These islands soon after became\nthe resort of pirates. Their leader was John Teach, called Black\nBeard, who for about ten years was the sovereign of these islands,\nand the terror of the North American coast. He was killed off the\ncoast of N. Carolina in 1,718. During most of the remaining period\nthe English have quietly possessed the Bahamas, but they have con-\nstantly served as lurking places for some pirates. These have multi-\nplied greatly in all the West Indies within the last ten years, and no\neffectual means have been devised for exterminating them.\n2. When the Bahamas were discovered, the population was esti-\nmated at about 40,000. The inhabitants called themselves Lucayans.","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0473.jp2"},"472":{"fulltext":"468 HISTORY OF THE WEST INDIES.\nThey were mostly devoted to maritime life, and subsisted principal-\nly upon fish. They were ignorant of the use of iron, but made some\nuse of cotton and of gold. They were a kind, friendly people,\naverse to war. Scarcely 20 years, however, had elapsed, before the\nrapacious Spaniards transported them all by force or artifice, to dig\nin the mines of Hispaniola. Being remarkably expert divers, some\nof them were afterwards transported to tne coast of Cumana, and em-\nployed in the pearl fishery.\n3. The Greater Antilles when first discovered, were inhabited\nby a race called Arrowauks. The} also possessed a great part of\n1 rinidad. It appears that they were descended from the Arrowauks\nof Guiana. All of this name spoke one language, and had the same\ninstitutions. They believed in an invisible, omnipotent Creator*\nnamed Jocahuna, but admitted a plurality of subordinate deities, and*\nlike the American Indians generally, they believed in a future state\nof retribution. Their children were entirely naked, but the adults\nwore a slight covering of cotton cloth round the waist. They were\na mild ar.d hospitable people, but effeminate and sensual. The cli-\nmate, and fertility of the soil naturally made them indolent. From\nevening till dawn they were much engaged in dancing, and as many\nas 50,000 sometimes joined at once in this favourite amusement.\n4. These islands were divided into great kingdoms, subject to\ncaciques or hereditary monarchs. Each kingdom was subdivided\ninto numerous principalities. The regal authority was absolute, but\nwas administered with great mildness. The aboriginal population\nhas been estimated at 3,000,000 but within 20 years after the dis-\ncovery by Columbus, the great body of them were exterminated. A\nvery few only remain in the island of Cuba 5 but the Arrowauks h»\nGuiana are still a distinct tribe.\n5. There is little in the history of colonial governments that is inter*\nesting and valuable and none of the West India islands, except St.\nDomingo, have become independent. The Spaniards have lost many\nof the islands to which they first laid claim but the present posses-\ntors are well known from common geographies, and the time when\nthese trifling revolutions took place is of little consequence, while the\neffects produced, were so unimportant. One fact is worthy of record\nin favour of the Spaniards whose rapacity and cruelty has been\nequalled by no other nation in modern times, and who have, of late\nyears, been suffering a natural and just retribution of their enormities.\nBut to their credit be it said, their treatment of negro slaves has\nbeen more humane than that of other nations and the Spanish laws\nenacted in their favour, have had a powerful influence to enlighten the\nEnglish and French in this cause of humanity.\n6. The Buccaniers, who were the forefathers of the present pirates,\ndeserve some notice. They consisted originally of a body of French\nand English planters expelled by the Spaniards from the island of St.\nChristophers in 1,629, with circumstances of outrageous barbarity.\nThey first established themselves on the small island of Tortuga, near\nthe N. W. part of St. Domingo. They were here joined by some\nDutch emigrants, who had been expelled in the same manner from\nSanta Cruz. Their first occupation was hunting wild cattle on the\nplains of St. Domingo, which they buccaned and brought to the place\nof their retreat. The word buccan signified a grate or hurdle on\nwhich meat was prepared before the fire and from their abundant\nuse of it, these people were called buccaniers, buccaners, or buccaneers.\nA few years after their establishment herej a Spanish armament,","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0474.jp2"},"473":{"fulltext":"HISTORY OF THE WEST INDIES. 469\nwithout any provocation, invaded them, and barbarously murdered\nall their women and children. This roused the Buccaniers to re-\n1 nge and they soon became the most terrible antagonists the\nSpaniards ever encountered. Many others joined them, and they\nbecame formidable both from their numbers and their desperate brave-\nry. By their means tne Spaniards lost the western part of St. Do-\nmingo, and the whole island of Jamaica, besides an almost incredible\namount of property, and a great number of human lives. Their most\nrenowned leaders were Montbars, a native of Languedoc, and Henry\nMorgan, a Welshman. The war between England and France in\n1,688, occasioned a disunion of the English and French Buccaniers,\nand greatly weakened their force, and they possessed little powei\nafter the year 1,700.\n7. St. Domingo or Hayti furnishes tne most important items in\nthe history of the West Indies. Spain ceded the western half of the\nisland to France by the treaty of Ryswick in 1,697. It did not be-\ncome a prosperous colony till thirty years after. In 1,791 an alarm*\ning insurrection of the negroes broke out in the French colony, which\ndeluged half of the northern province in blood. The next year, the\nnational assembly proclaimed the political equality of the whites,\nand free people of colour. The commissioners of the French govern\nment, in 1,793, decreed the emancipation of all the slaves in the colo-\nny. On the 21st of June of the same year, Mocaya, a black, at the\nhead cf 3,000 negroes, began an indiscriminate slaughter of the whites\nat cape Francois, and multitudes were massacred.\n8. An expedition from Jamaica in 1794-5-6, attempted to reduce\nthe island, but was, each year, driven off by the yellow fever. The\neastern half was ceded to France in 1,795, but it was of little import-\nance to that country. In 1,801, July 1st, the blacks rose and declared\nthemselves independent, but its independence was not well established\ntill 1,804. The first sovereign assumed the title of Jaques I. Empe-\nror of Hayti. He enjoyed his power but a short time, being killed\nin a conspiracy and was succeeded by Christophe under the title of\nHenry I. King of Hayti. His dominions were on the north part of\nthe island the southern was occupied by a republican party, most-\nly mulattoes, under Petion who assumed the title of President\nof Hayti. Frequent and bloody conflicts occurred between these\ntwo parties. On the death of Petion in 1,817, Boyer was appointed\nPresident and, on the death of Christophe, the two parties united\nunder President Boyer, and have now established a very efficient\ngovernment. He is an intelligent, energetic, and humane sovereign\nand his administration is highly calculated to promote the happiness\nof his subjects. In 1,808. the Spaniards, aided by the English, re-\ntook the eastern part of the island, but their colony has little force,\nand lives on friendly terms with the blacks.\n9. The Caribbean Islands, when discovered, were inhabited by a\nnumerous, cultivated, and powerful nation, called Caraibes or Canb-\nbees. They were more warlike than the Arrowauka. Towards each\nother they were faithful, friendly, and affectionate but regarded all\nstrangers as enemies. They were well skilled in most of the arts of\nlife and their religion acknowledged one supreme, independent.\nDeity and taught a future state of retribution. Nearly all of this\nrace have been exterminated on these islands, but they stili remain\non the continent of South America a very powerful nation.\n10. There is little else that i? -oteresting in the history of the West\nIndies, except to those who wis« to learn more of the aborigines, and\nRr","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0475.jp2"},"474":{"fulltext":"470 HISTORY Of SOUTH AMERICA.\nof the merciless treatment they received from tne Spaniards. A very\nminute history of these islands has been written by Edwards.\nSECTION FOURTH.\nHISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA.\nUNITED PROVINCES.\n1 The river La Plata was discovered in 1,516. Buenos Ayres\n*vas settled in 1,535. From the settlement of the country until 1,778\nits history comprises only a series of vexations from the despotism of\nviceroys, of privations from monopolies, and commercial restrictions,\nand of sufferings from wars foreign to its interests. From this period\nto 1,781, the Indians from the upper country continually harassed\nthe provinces, burnt many towns, and destroyed many of the inhabi-\ntants but they were at length defeated by the combined armies oi\nBuenos Ayres and Lima.\n2. In 1,806, the country was invaded by the British, and Buenos\nAyres was taken without opposition. An army from the interior soon\nexpelled them. A second attempt was made in 1,807, but the people\nbeginning to acquire confidence in their own strength, attacked the\narmy while in the city, and were completely successful.\n3. On the 25th of May 1,810, in consequence of the renunciation\nof Ferdinand VII. in favour of Napoleon, and the deranged state of\naffairs in Spain, a junta was convened at Buenos Ayres to take the\ngovernment into their own hands, still administering it, however, in\nthe name of Ferdinand. This was the commencement of a revolt;\ntion which delivered ihem from the slavery they had suffered foi\nnearly 300 years. Since that period, they have been in reality inde-\npendent.\n4. Since 1,810, there have been four revolutions, each of which has\nchanged the government, but there has constantly been a representa-\ntive assembly. On the 9th of July 1,816, the congress made, and\npromulgated a declaration of absolute independence. In December\nof the same year the country was invaded by the Portuguese, and a\nconsiderable part was conquered. It has, however, reclaimed its\npossessions, and its government has become so well established, that its\nindependence has been acknowledged by other nations.\nBRAZIL.\n1. This country was discovered by Pedro Alvarez Cabral, a Por-\ntuguese, in 1,500. As little gold or silver was found near the coast,\nit was for a while wholly neglected, and none but criminals and aban-\ndoned women were sent hither. In 1,548, the inquisition, after plun-\ndering the Jews of their property, banished them to Brazil. A\ngovernor was sent over the following year, who immediately built\nSt. Salvador. It was reduced in 1,624, by the Dutch, and taken\nfrom them in 1,625, by the Spaniards. Portugal reclaimed it in\nabout 1,645, and remained in undisturbed possession of the whole\ncountry till the late revolutions throughout South America.\n2. In the latter part of 1,806, in consequence of the invasion of\nPortugal by the French, the royal family embarked for Brazil, under\nprotection of an English squadron. Rio de Janeiro continued to be\ntheir residence from 1,807 till 1,821. When they left Brazil, tfeis","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0476.jp2"},"475":{"fulltext":"HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA. 471\nprince royal, the king s eldest son, remained at the head of the\ngovernment. The unsettled state of the government of the mother\ncountry, soon excited a revolutionary spirit in most of these provin-\nces, and they declared for independence. The crown was offered to\nthe prince royal, and accepted under the title of emperor.\nGUIANA.\nThe history of these colonies presents little worth relating. They\nhave frequently changed masters, but with little detriment or advan-\ntage. Their present situation is well known from common geogra-\nphies. A great part of the country is occupied by Indians. Of these,\nthe Caraibes are the most numerous, brave, warlike, and industrious.\nREPUBLIC OF COLOMBIA.\n1. New-Granada originally constituted a part of Peru. Two au-\ndiences were erected in 1,547, the one at Panama, the other at Santa\nFe de Bogota, and the territories under the jurisdiction of both, con-\nstituted a captain-generalship. Quito was made the seat of an audi-\nence in 1,563, but the territories belonging to it, still remained attached\nto Peru. In 1,718, New-Granada was erected into a vicer^yalty\nQuito and Venezuela were annexed to it, and the audiences of Pana-\nma and Quito were abolished. These weue afterwards restored, ahd\nin 1,739, the territories dependent on the three audiences of Panama^\nSanta Fe, and Quito, were again erected into a viceroyalty. A con-\ngress assembled at Carthagena in Nov. 1,811, and declared the coun-\ntry independent, but it was afterwards reclaimed by the royalists,\n2. Venezuela was discovered by Columbus in 1,498. After several\nineffectual attempts to settle it by missionaries, it was finally reduced\noy force, and assigned by Charles V. to the Welsers, a German mer-\ncantile house. Their administration was so tyrannical, that they\nwere dispossessed in 1,550, and a supreme governor was appointed\nby the king of Spain. From this period till 1,806, it remained in\nquiet subjection to the mother country.\n3. In 1,806, general Miranda, a native of Caraccas, placed himself\nat the head of an expedition, fitted out partly at St. Domingo, and part-\nly at New-York, with the design of liberating this country from the\nSpanish yoke. Finding his force inadequate, he abandoned his men\nto the mercy of the provincial government.\n4. In 1,811, the inhabitants revolted from the Spanish yoke, and\ndeclared themselves independent. The declaration bears date July\n5th. 1,811, exactly 35 years and one day after that of the United\nStates. This revolution, like that of the United Provinces, was\ncaused by the disorders in Spain. This country and New-Granada,\ncontinued in a revolutionary state till 1,819, when they both achieved\ntheir indenendence under the renowned Bolivar.\n5. On tfie 17th of Dec. 1,819, the congress of Venezuela, at St.\nThomas of Angostura, made a declaration of the fundamental law of\nunion of the Republic of Colombia. On the 17th of July 1,821, the\nrepresentatives of New-Granada and Venezuela, in general congress\nat the city of Rosario de Cucuta, declared the following among others,\nfundamental laws of the union of the people of Colombia That the\npeople of New-Granada and Venezuela be united in one body as a\nnation, under the name of the Republic of Colombia That the govern-\nment be popular and representative The nation free, and indepen-\ndent of the Spanish monarchy, as well as of all other powers 1 hat","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0477.jp2"},"476":{"fulltext":"472 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA.\nthe government consist of legislative, executive, and judiciary au-\nthorities That the territory be divided into six departments, having\nan administration dependent on the national government That when\nthe state of the nation shall admit, a new city snail be founded, as the\ncapital of the Republic, which shall bear the name of the liberator\nBolivar, the site to be determined by congress That there be an\nannual festival of three days on the 25th, 26th, and 27th of Dec.\nThe constitution resembles that of the United States. Since its adop-\ntion the country has been prosperous, and its independence seems to\nbe firmly established.\nPERU.\n1. A few tribes inhabiting this country had made considerable ad-\nvances in civilization when it was first visited by the Spaniards.\nBeing destitute of the art of writing, the early history of the Ameri-\ncan Indians exists only in tradition. There were indeed some\nrecords preserved by the Mexicans and Peruvians, but these were\nmostly destroyed by their conquerors, and the few that remained\nwere not very intelligible to the Spaniards. Some credit however\nmust be given to the tradition of the kingdom established at Cuzco,\nin order to account for its great superiority over others.\n2. The story is as follows Peru was originally possessed by small\nindependent tribes, all of which were strangers to almost every spe-\ncies of cultivation or regular industry, without any fixed residence,\nand roamed about naked in the forests. After they had struggled for\nseveral ages with the hardships and calamities which are inevitable\nin such a state, and when no circumstance seemed to indicate the ap-\nproach of any uncommon effort towards improvement, there is said\nto have appeared on the banks of the lake Titicaca, a man md wo-\nman of majestic form, and clothed in decent garments. They de-\nclared themselves children of the Sun, sent by their beneficent parent,\nwho beheld with pity the miseries of the human race, to instruct and\nto reclaim them. The Peruvians worshipped the Sun and, there-\nfore, the commands of these strangers were regarded as heavenly in-\njunctions. Several of the dispersed savages united together, and\nfollowed their guides to Cuzco, where they settled and began to lay\nthe foundation of a city.\n3. Manco Capac and Mama Ocollo, for such were the names of\nthose extraordinary personages, having thus united some wandering\ntribes, formed that social union, which by multiplying the desires,\nand uniting the efforts of the human species, excites industry, and\nleads to improvement. Manco Capac instructed the men in agricul-\nture, and other useful arts Mama Ocollo taught the women to spin\nand weave. The blessings of civilized life were gradually extended\nto neighbouring tribes, and the dominions of succeeding chiefs, called\nIncas, or Children of the Sun, comprised all the regions west of the\nAndes from Chili to Quito.\n4. To preserve the succession of the Incas pure and unpolluted by\nmixture with less noble blood, the sons of Manco Capac married\ntheir own sisters. As these Incas assumed the rank not only of legis-\nlators, but messengers from Heaven, the whole system of civil policy\nwas founded on religion. Their precepts were received as mandates\nof the Deity. Hence their authority was unlimited and absolute\nin the most extensive meaning of the words. All crimes were con-\nsidered not only as violations of civil duty, but as insults offered to","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0478.jp2"},"477":{"fulltext":"HISTOKY OF SOUTH AMERICA. 473\nthe Deity and they were all punished capitally. But so great was\nthe veneration for the Incas, that the number of offendeis was ex-\ntremely small. The genius of their religion was exceedingly mild,\nand as divine authority was ascribed to the Incas, the minds of the\npeople were not humbled and depressed by a forced subjection to\nthe will of a superior and obedience implied no degradation.\n5. Thus during twelve successive reigns this happy nation ad-\nvanced in knowledge and virtue, in wealth and power, and m all the\nessential arts of civilized life. Agriculture was in a state of high\nimprovement architecture was advanced to a state equal to their\nwants their roads, bridges, and manufactures their use of gold and\nsilver for utensils and works of ornament, all bear testimony that they\nhad advanced far above the common state of savage life. Bat there\nwas no very distinct arrangement of professions no cities were es-\ntablished except Cuzco, to give activity to commerce they knew\nnot the use of iron, and hence were little qualified to work in wood\nand stone they appear to have had no good method for lighting theii\nhouses, to have been ignorant of the construction of arches, of every\nconvenient method of recording events, and of perpetuating the\nknowledge they possessed.\n6. When the Spaniards first visited Peru in 1,526, Huana Capac*\nthe twelfth Inca, was seated on the throne. He is represented ass\neminent for his virtues, his knowledge, and his military talents. He\nhad subjected the kingdom of Quito and added it to his dominions.\nHe was fond of residing in the capital of that province and contrary\nto the fundamental law of the monarchy, he married the daughter of\nthe vanquished monarch of Quito. She bore him a sonname^ Ata-\nhualpa, whom at his death, whicn seems to haveoccured about the.\nyear 1,529, he appointed his successor toQui to, leaving the rest of his\ndominions to Huascar, his eldest son. This was no sooner known at\nCuzco, than it excited general disgust. The Peruvians were shocked\nat this violation of a fundamental law, coeval with the empire, and\nfounded on sacred authority. Huascar was hence encouraged to re-\nquire of his brother to renounce the government of Quito but Ata-\nhualpa had a large part of the Peruvian army under his control, and\nwas little inclined to yield to the demand. Hence arose a civil\nwar, which continued to rage until Pizarro with his cruel and per-\nfidious band, came among them in 1,532.\n7. The Spaniards, availing themselves of the existing dissensions,\nfound the conquest easily attainable. Both the Incas were put to\ndeath under circumstances of most awful barbarity. No language\ncan describe the detestable cruelties of these graceless invaders. A\nfew, indeed, among them were found to protest against it, but in the\nheart of Pizarro, the common feelings of humanity had been ab~olute-\nly annihilated by his avarke. Cuzco furnished more valuable spoil\nthan was ever found in any other city. The whole country was soon\nsubjected and its mines were seized in the name of the kirg of Spain.\n8. Since 1,533, Peru has remained a Spanish province, subject to a\nviceroy. Fcr the form of government in all the Spanish provinces in\nAmerica, see Sec. I. Part V. The country is now much smaller\nthan when governed by the Incas. In 1,718, Quito on the north as\nfar as the river Tumbez, was annexed to New-Granada and in 1,778,\nPotosi and other rich districts on the southeast were annexed to Bue-\nnos Ayres.\nf. For several years Peru has been in a revolutionary state. The\nlea tr of the patriots is Jose San Martin. The capital has several\nRr2 60","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0479.jp2"},"478":{"fulltext":"474 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA.\ntimes fallen into their hands, but has been retaken by the royalists.\nTheir prospect for independence is yearly increasing*, and the royal-\nists now possess only a small part of Upper Peru. This is the only\nterritory now possessed by the Spaniards on the continent of America.\nIt cannot be many years before the New World which they discovered,\nand which has suffered so much from their rapacity and tyranny, will\nbe completely wrested from their cruel despotism.\nCHILI.\n1. We know nothing of the history of Chili previous to the middle\nof the fifteenth century. From the Peruvian annals it appears that\nYupanqui, the tenth Inca, made an attempt to subject the Chilese.\nHe met with little opposition till he anived as far as the river Repel.\nBeyond this was a formidable nation named Promaucians or free dan-\ncers. In a long battie they were successful, completely routed the\nPeruvians, and drove them from their territories. The Inca imposed\nan annual tribute of gold on the conquered tribes, but no innovation\nwas attempted, either in their customs, manners, or government.\n2. The country was invaded by the Spaniards under Almagro in\n1,535. He left Cuzco with 570 Spaniards and 15,000 Peruvian aux-\niliaries. Disregarding the remonstrances of hrs confederates, he\npreferred passing the Cordilleras, to the entrance, less dangerous at\nthat season, by the desert of Atacama. Winter had commenced\nwhen they reached the Cordillera Nevada, and the snow fell in such\nabundance, and t»he cold was so intense, that not less than 10,000 Pe-\nruvians and 150 Spaniards perished. In a second expedition Alma-\ngro found the natives exceedingly friendly. They looked up to the\nSpaniards as beings of a superior order, and were ready to yield sub\nmission. But when they arrived among the Promaucians, they met\nwith such powerful resistance, as determined them to abandon the\nenterprise.\n3. Returning to Cuzco a contest ensued between Almagro and\nPizarro, in which the former was slain. Pizarro, now sole master of\nPeru, determined on the conquest of Chili. He entrusted the expe-\ndition to Valdivia, one of the ablest generals among the Spanish ad-\nventurers. He met with very inveterate animosity from a 1 the tribes,\nbut their opposition was too feeble to arrest the progress of 2,000\nSpaniards, under such a leader. Having overcome the Mapochinians\nwho resided on the river Mapocho, he laid the foundation of St. Jago\nand erected a strong citadel for protection. The natives continued\nfor six years their feeble attempts to regain their beautiful plain, but\nfinding their object hopeless, the few that remained destroyed their\ncrops, and retired to the mountains. Valdivia, having received a\nreinforcement from Peru, invaded and conquered the JPromaucians,\nand established colonies in many places. Endeavouring to penetrate\nstill farther southward, he encountered the most formidable enemy\nwhich the Spaniards ever met with in America. This was the na-\ntion of the Araucanians. He gained some victories over them, but\nwas frequently repulsed, and at length was completely defeated, him-\nself taken prisoner, and his whole army slain, with the exception of\ntwo Promaucian auxiliaries. Villagran, the successor of Valdivia,\nmade a desperate attempt to revenge the death of that favourite\ngeneral, but was repulsed with great slaughter. He was, how-\never, successful in a very important subsequent engagement, in which\nLautaro, the Araucanian general, was slain.\n4. The contest continued for several years with various success,","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0480.jp2"},"479":{"fulltext":"HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA. 475\ntill the Araucanians were mruch enfeebled. They have not, however,\nbeen conquered, and they retain to this day a considerable part of\ntheir ancient territories. They preserve their ancient customs and\nlanguage in a considerable degree of purity- There are few lan-\nguages so regular in their structure, or so copious in their inflections,\nas the Araucaman. They had made considerable advancement in\ncivilization, were remarkably active and energetic in their bodily and\nmental habits, generous and dignified in their disposition and deport-\nment. Connected with the perfection of their language, was their\nhabit of cultivating the art of oratory and we know very few civilized\nnations that have so faithfully observed the common duties of charity.\n5. From the period of the conquest of Chili till its revolution in\n1,810, few occurrences of much interest are recorded. At this time\nthe Chilese, finding the same embarrassments which were suffered by\nother provinces on account of the disorders in Spain, took the govern-\nment into their own hands, still holding out the idea, however, of a\nreunion with the mother country when circumstances would permit.\nIn 1,814, the royal troops from Peru invaded Chili, entirely defeated\nthe patriots at Kaneagua, and reconquered the country. A remnant\nof the patriot forces fled over the Andes, where, with other Chilian\nrefugees and two regiments of negroes, and some officers, they were\nreorganized by general San Martin under the name of the United Army\nof the Andes. In 1,817, they re-entered Chili, entirely vanquished\nthe royal troops at Chacabuco, and restored independence to the\ncountry. The passage of this army over the Andes with its artillery,\ndeserves to be ranked among the most celebrated achievements re-\ncorded in history. It was effected with the loss of about 5,000 horses t\nand mules, and a small number of men who perished with the cold.\n6. On the 12th of February 1,818, the nation made a formal declara-\ntion of absolute independence. The royal troops who escaped from\nthe battle of Chacabuco being reinforced by all the royal forces n\nPeru, about 5,000 in number, renewed the contest wilh the patriots\nbut after a temporary success, they were finally defeated in the de-\ncisive battle of Maypo, April 5th, 1,818. This event is celebrated\nby the Chilese in their songs, festivals, and histories, with the most\nenthusiastic expressions of gratitude and admiration.\n7. The government established in Chili is republican. Education\nis making considerable progress, and every ray of light confirms the\npeople more absolutely in the love of liberty. Their independence\nis acknowledged by other nations. They live in amity with the\nAraucanians, Who have a minister at the capital. Were they exempt\nfrom the tyranny of the Catholic religion, we might regard them as\ndestined to oecome a great and happy nation but while this exists,\nthey will make slow progress in that real knowledge which can result\nonly from the free use of the faculties, with which Heaven has en-\ndowed the children of men.\n8. Too much can hardly be said in praise of the disinterestedness,\nprudence, bravery, and steady perseverance of Don Jose San Martin,\nin maintaining the cause of South American independence. Fond of\nthe retirement of private life, he has uniformly laid aside the high digni-\nties with which the grateful patriots of Chili, Buenos Ayres, and\nPeru, have repeatedly invested him, wrenever the good of their cause\nwould permit it and, although in times of such public excitement.\nthe best men are subject to suspicion, e.nvy, and slander, we have\ngood reason for ranking this distinguished veteran among those, who\nregard not their own, tut the public good.","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0481.jp2"},"480":{"fulltext":"476 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA.\n9 Nor is that distinguished hero and statesman, Bolivar, entitled\nto less renown. To him the Republic of Colombia principally oweg\nits independence, and he has been one of its most efficient agents m\norganizing the new government. He is now President ot the Re-\npublic and, his career not being closed, we cannot decide on the\nrank to which his whole life will entitle him but he has hitherto trod\nin the footsteps of the Leader of the first American Revolution, and\nif he persist in this course to the end, his name will be ranked by pos-\nterity with that of Washington. 1 825.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0482.jp2"},"481":{"fulltext":"CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.\nEXPLANATION OF THE TABLE OF CHRONOLOGY\nTo give a distinct view of the succession of princes in the chief empires\nor kingdoms, without employing different columns, (which distracts the\nattention, and occupies too much space,) the series of the sovereigns of\ndifferent nations is distinguished in this table by different typographical\ncharacters. By this method the succession of the sovereigns in the different\nkingdoms is immediately distinguishable, and also the duration of their\nreigns. In the intervals of time between every two successive reigns are\nrecorded the remarkable events which occurred in those periods, in all parts\nbrok thus the connexion of general history is preserved un-\nThe series of the kings and emperors of Rome is printed in a larger Ro-\nman type than the rest of the table as, 6\n1 4 Tiberius, Emperor of Rome\nThe series of the popes is distinguishable by this character t prefixed to\neacii name; as,\n1513 U Pope Leo X.\nThe names of the emperors of Germany are printed in Italic capitals; as,\n887 ARJYOLD, Emperor of Germany.\nThe kings of England are designated by the black Saxon type; as,\n1066 SWf litam (the Conqueror) king of England.\nThe kings of Scotland are denoted by a larger capital beginning ili9\n1390 Robert III., king of Scotland.\nThe kings of France are distinguished by the Italic type; as,\n1498 Lewis XII., king of France.","height":"3562","width":"2057","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0483.jp2"},"482":{"fulltext":"CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.\nB. C.\n1004 The Creation of the World, according to the Hebrew text of the\nScriptures.\nAccording to the version of the Septuagint 5872.\nAcording to the Samaritan version 4700.\n2348 The Universal Deluge.\n2247 The Building of Babel; the Dispersion of Mankind; and the Confu-\nsion of Languages.\n2217 Nimrod supposed to have built Babylon, and founded the Babylonish\nMonarchy and Assur to have built Nineveh, and founded the\nMonarchy of Assyria.\n2188 Menes (in Scripture Misraim) founds the Monarchy of Egypt.\n2084 The Shepherd Kings conquer Egypt.\n2040 Moeris King of Thebes and Memphis in Egypt.\n1996 The Birth of Abram.\n1897 Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed by lire from Heaven.\n1896 Isaac born.\n1856 Inachus founds the Kingdom of Argos in Greece.\n1836 Jacob and Esau born.\n1825 The Shepherd Kings abandon Egypt.\n1823 Death of Abraham.\n1796 The Deluge of Ogyges in Attica.\n1 722 Sesostris or Rameses King of Egypt.\n1635 Joseph dies in Egypt.\n1582 The Chronology of the Arundelian Marbles begins with this year.\n1571 Moses born in Egypt.\n1556 Cecrops founds the kingdom of Athens.\n1546 Scamander founds the Kingdom of Troy.\n1532 Judgment of the Areopagus between Mars and Neptune, two princes\nof Thessaly.\n1529 The Deluge of Deucalion in Thessaly.\n1522 The Council of the Amphictyons instituted.\n1520 Corinth built.\n1506 Erectheus or Erycthonius institutes the Panathenaean Games.\n1493 Cadmus builds Thebes, and introduces Letters into Greece.\n1491 Moses brings the Israelites out of Egypt.\n1453 The first Olympic Games celebrated in Greece.\n1452 The Pentateuch, or five Books of Moses, written.\n1451 The Israelites led into the land of Canaan by Joshua\n1438 Pandion King of Athens.\n1406 Minos reigns in Crete, and gives laws to the Cretans.\n1376 Sethos reigns in Egypt.\n1322 Belus reigns in Babylon.\n1267 Ninus reigns in Assyria.\n1266 Oedipus marries his Mother Jocasta, and reigns in Thebes.\n1263 The Argonautic Expedition. According to the Newtonian Chronoi\nogy 937.\n1257 Theseus unites the Cities of Attica.\n1252 Tyre, the capital of Phoenicia, built.\n1225 Siege of Thebes. War between Eteocles and Polyi","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0484.jp2"},"483":{"fulltext":"CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 479\nB.C.\n1225 Eurysthenes and Procles Kings of Lacedtemon.\n1915 Second War of Thebes, or War of the Epigonoi.\nSemiramis supposed to have reigned at Babylon.\n1207 Gideon Judge of Israel.\n1202 Teuccr built Salamis.\n1193 The Trojan War begins.\n1184 Troy taken and burnt by the Greeks. According to the Arundelian\nMarbles 1209.\n1182 iEneas lands in Italy.\n1155 Samson born.\n1104 Return of the Heraclidse into Peloponnesus.\n1099 Samuel delivers Israel.\n1079 Saul King of Israel.\n1070 Medon first Archon of Athens.\n1069 Codrus King of Athens devotes himself for his country.\n1055 David King of Israel.\n1004 Dedication of Solomon s Temple.\n980 Rehoboam King of Israel.\n889 Athaliah, wife of Jehoram, usurps the throne of Judah.\n886 Homer s Poems brought from Asia into Greece.\n884 Lycurgus reforms the Constitution of Laceda?mon.\n869 The city of Carthage built by Dido.\n820 Nineveh taken by Arbaces and Belesis, which finishes that kingdom.\n776 The first Olympiad begins in this year.\n769 Syracuse built by Archias of Corinth.\n767 Sardanapalus King of Assyria.\n760 The Ephori, popular Magistrates, instituted at Lacedaemon\n757 Halyattes King of Lydia.\n754 Decennial Archons elected at Athens.\n752 The foundation of Rome by Romulus.\n748 Rape of the Sabine Women.\n747 The Era of Nabonassar made use of by Ptolemy.\n738 Candaules King of Lydia.\n724 Hezekiah tenth King of Judah.\n721 Salmanazar takes Samaria, and carries the Ten Tribes into captivity,\nwhich puts an end to the Israelitish Kingdom.\n715 Numa Pompilius second King of Rome.\n711 Sennacherib, King of Assyria, invades Judea.\n710 Dejoces King of Media.\n708 Habakkuk prophesied.\n703 Corcyra founded by the Corinthians.\n696 Manasseh sixteenth King of Judah.\n688 Judith kills Holofernes the Assyrian General.\n684 Annual Archons elected at Athens.\n681 Esarhaddon unites the Kingdoms of Babylon and Assyria.\n672 Tullus Hostilius third King of Rome.\n670 Psammeticus King of Egypt.\n667 The Combat between the Horatii and Curiatii.\n658 Byzantium founded by Pausanias King of Sparta\nPhraortes King of Media.\n640 Ancus Martius fourth King of Rome\n627 The Forty Years of Ezekiel began.\n626 Periander Tyrant of Corinth.\nNabopolassar, father of Nebuchadnezzar, begins to reign at Babylon.\n624 Draco Arcbon and Legislator of Athens.\n616 Tarquinius Priscus fifth King of Rome.\n606 Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem, and carries the Jews into captivity.\n601 Battle between the Medes and Lydians, who are separated by a great\neclipse ot the sun, predicted by Thales. (Newton. Chron. 585.)","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0485.jp2"},"484":{"fulltext":"480 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE\nB.C.\nC01 End of the Assyrian Empire. Nineveh taken by Nebuchadnezzar\n600 Jeremiah prophesied.\n599 Birth of Cyrus the Great.\n594 Solon Archon and Legislator of Athens.\n578 Servius Tullius sixth King of Rome.\n572 Nebuchadnezzar subdues Egypt.\n571 Phalaris Tyrant of Agrigentum.\n562 Comedies first exhibited at Athens by Thespis.\nCroesus reigns in Lydia.\n551 Confucius, the Chinese Philosopher, born.\n550 Pisistratus Tyrant of Athens.\n548 The Ancient Temple of Delphos burnt by the Pisistratidae.\n538 Babylon taken by Cyrus. End of the Babylonian Empire.\n536 Cyrus ascends the throne of Persia. He puts an end to the Jewish\ncaptivity, which had lasted seventy years.\n534 Tarquinius Sliperbus seventh King of Rome.\nDaniel prophesied.\n529 Death of Cyrus the Great. Cambyses King of Persia.\nDeath of Pisistratus Tyrant of Athens.\n522 Darius, son of Hystaspes, King of Persia.\n520 The Jews begin to build the second Temple, which is finished in four\nyears.\n510 The Pisistratidae expelled from Athens, and the Democracy restored.\nStatues erected at Athens to Harmodius and Aristogiton.\n509 The Tarquins expelled from Rome and the Regal Government abol\nished.\n508 The first Alliance between the Romans and Carthaginians.\n504 Sardis taken and burnt by the Athenians.\n498 The first Dictator created at Rome (Lartius.)\n497 Institution of the Saturnalia at Rome\n493 The port of Piraeus built by the Athenians.\n490 The Battle of Marathon, ifi which Miltiades defeats the Persians.\n488 The first Tribunes of the People created at Rome. According to\nBlair 493.\nMiltiades dies in prison.\n486 Xerxes succeeds his father Darius in the kingdom of Persia.\n485 Coriolanus banished from Rome.\n483 Quaestors instituted at Rome.\nAristides banished from Athens by the Ostracism.\n480 The Spartans, under Leonidas, slain at Thermopylae.\nNaval Victory gained by the Greeks over the Persians at Salamis\n479 Attica laid waste and Athens burnt by Mardonius.\nVictories over the Persians at Plataea and MycaJe.\nXerxes leaves Greece.\n477 300 Fabii killed by the Veientes.\n476 Themistocles rebuilds Athens.\nValerius triumphs over the Veientes and Sabines.\nThe Roman Citizens numbered at 103,000.\nA great Eruption of iEtna.\nHiero King of Syracuse.\n471 Volero, the Roman Tribune, obtains a law for the election of magif\ntrates in the comitia held by tribes.\n479 Cimon, son of Miltiades, defeats the Persian army and fleet in onv\nday, at the mouth of the river Eurymedon.\n469 Capua founded by the Tuscans.\n464 Artaxerxes (Longimanus) King of Persia.\nCimon banished by the Ostracism.\n463 Egypt revolts from the Persians.\n462 The Terentian Law proposed at Rome.\n456 Cincinnatus Dictator at Rome.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0486.jp2"},"485":{"fulltext":"CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 49\nB.C.\n456 The Ludi Sacu ares first instituted at Rome.\n455 Commencemant of the Seventy Prophetical Weeks of Daniel.\n453 The number of the Tribunes of the people at Rome increased from\nFive to Ten.\n452 The two Books of Chronicles supposed to have been written at this\ntime by Ezra.\n451 Creation of the Decemviri at Rome, and Compilation of the Laws of\nthe Twelve Tables.\n449 Peace between the Greeks and Persians concluded by Cimon, glorious\nfor Greece.\nDeath of Virginia, and Abolition of the Decemvirate.\n445 The Law of Canuleius for the Intermarriage of the Patricians and\nPlebeians at Rome.\nMilitary Tribunes created.\n437 The Censorship first instituted at Rome.\n436 Pericles in high power at Athens.\n432 Meton s Cycle of the Moon of nineteen years.\n431 The Peloponnesian War begins, which lasted twenty-seven years\n430 The History of the Old Testament ends about this time.\nGreat Plague at Athens, eloquently described by Thucydides.\nMalachi the last of the Prophets.\n428 Death of Pericles.\n423 Darius Neth s King of Persia.\n418 Disturbances at Rome on account of the Agrarian Law.\n414 The Athenians defeated before Syracuse.\n413 Alcibiades, accused at Athens, flies to the Lacedaemonians.\n412 A Council of 400 governs Athens.\n405 Lysander defeats the Athenians at iEgos Potamos.\n404 Artaxerxes II. (Mnemon) King of Persia.\nEnd ct the Peloponnesian War.\n403 Lysandei takes Athens. Government of the Thirty Tyrants.\n401 The younger Cyrus dftfeated by his brother Artaxerxes, and killed\nRetreat of the Ten Thousand Greeks.\nPersecution and Death of Socrates.\nThrasybulus drives out the Thirty Tyrants, and delivers Athens\n399 A Lectisternium first celebrated at Rome.\n397 The Lake of Alba drained by the Romans.\n396 Syracuse unsuccessfully besieged by the Carthaginians.\n391 Marcus Furius Camillus Dictator at Rome. Veii taken.\n387 Dishonourable Peace of Antalcidas between the Spartans and Per\nsians.\n385 Rome taken by the Gauls under Brennus.\n382 Phaebidas, the Spartan, seizes the Citadel of Thebes.\n380 Pelopidas and Epaminondas deliver Thebes from the Lacedaemonians.\n371 Battle of Leuctra, in which the Lacedaemonians are defeated by the\nThebans under Epaminondas.\n364 Pelopidas defeats the Tyrant of Pfieraea, but is killed in battle.\n363 Battle of Matinea, in which Epaminondas is killed.\n362 Curtius leaps into a Gulf in the Forum at Rome.\n361 Darius Ochus (or Artaxe? s III.) King of Persia. According to\nBlair, 358.\n358 War of the Allies against Athens.\nPhilip of Macedon takes Amphipolis, Pydna, and Potidea.\n357 Dion overcomes tho party of Dionysius at Syracuse.\n386 Alexander the Great born at Pella in Macedonia.\nThe Temple of Diana, at Ephesus, burnt by Erostratus.\nThe Phocian or Sacred War begins in Greece.\nPhilip conquers the Thracians, Paeonians, and Illyrians.\n350 Darius Ochus subdues Egypt.\n248 Philip of Macedon takes Olynihus.\nSs 61","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0487.jp2"},"486":{"fulltext":"482 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.\nB.C.\n343 End of the Sacred War.\n347 Dionysius restored at Syracuse, after an exile of ten years.\n346 Philip admitted a Member of the Amphictyonic Council.\n343 Syracuse taken by Timoleon, and Dionysius the Tyrant finally ban\nished.\nThe War between the Romans and Samnites, which led to the con\nquest of all Italy.\n340 The Carthaginians defeated near Agrigentum.\nP. Decius devotes himself for his country.\n338 Battle of Cheronsea gained by Philip over the Athenians and Thebans\n337 Philip chosen Generalissimo of the Greeks.\n33G Philip murdered by Pausanias.\nAlexander the Great King of Macedon.\nAlexander the Great destroys Thebes.\n335 Darius III. (Codomannus) King of Persia.\nAlexander chosen Generalissimo by the States of Greece.\n334 Alexander defeats the Persians on the banks of th.3 Gjetc. s\n333 The Persians defeated by Alexander at Issus.\n332 Alexander conquers Egypt, and takes Tyre.\n331 Darius defeated by Alexander at Arbela.\n330 Darius Codomannus killed. End of the Persian Empire.\nAlexander takes possession of Susa, and sets fire to the Palace of\nPersepolis.\n328 Alexander passes into India, defeats Porus, founds several citie*^\npenetrates to the Ganges.\nThe Voyag« of Nearchus from the Indus to the Euphrates.\n325 Papirius Cursor, Dictatoi at Rome, triumphs over the Samnites.\n324 Alexander the Great dies at Babylon, at the age of thirty-three.\n321 The Samnites make the Roman Army pass under the yoke at\nCaudium.\n320 Ptolemy carries 100,000 Jews captives into Egypt.\n317 Agathocles Tyrant of Syracuse.\n312 Era of the Selucidae.\n311 Cassander, Lysimachus, and Ptolemy, conclude a peace with Antig-\nonus.\n304 Demetrius besieges Rhodes.\n303 Demetrius restores the Greek Cities to their liberty.\n301 Battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, in which Antigonus ia defeated and slain.\nFabiug Maximus and Valerius Corvus Dictators.\n300 Seleucus founds Antioch, Edessa, and Laodicea.\n298 Athens taken by Demetrius Poliorcetes.\n294 Seleucus resigns his Wife Stratonice to nis son Antiochus.\n286 Law of Hortensius, by which the decrees of the people were allowed\nthe same force as those of the senate.\n285 The Astronomical Era of Dionysius of Alexandria.\n284 Ptolemy Philadelphus King of Egypt.\n283 The Library of Alexandria founded.\n281 Commencement of the Achaean League.\n280 Pyrrhus invades Italy.\nAntiochus Soter King of Syria.\n277 The Translation of the Septuagint made by order of Ptolemy Phila-\ndelphus. Playfair, 285\nAntigonus Gonatus reigned in Macedon thirty-six years.\n275 Pyrrhus unsuccessful against the Carthaginians in Sicily.\n274 Pyrrhus, totally defeated by the Romans near Beneventum, evacuate*\nItaly.\n272 The Samnites finally subdued by the Romans.\n266 Silver Money is coined at Rome fbr the first time.\n265 The Citizens of Rome numbered at 292,224.\n264 The first Punic War begins. The Chronicle of Paros composed","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0488.jp2"},"487":{"fulltext":"CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 468\nB.C.\n260 Provincial Quaestors instituted at Rome.\nFirst Naval Victory obtained by the Romans under the Consul Duilius.\n255 Regulus defeated and taken prisoner by the Carthaginians under\nXantippus\n253 Manasseh chosen High Priest of the Jews.\n251 Great Victory of Metellus over Asdrubal.\n250 The Romans besiege Lilyboeum are defeated by Hamilcar.\n241 End of the first Punic War.\nAttalus King of Pergamus succeeds Eumenes.\n240 Comedies are first acted at Rome.\n235 The Temple of Janus shut the first time since the reign of Numa.\n228 Hamilcar killed in Spain.\n225 Great Victory of the Romans over the Gauls.\n219 Hannibal takes Saguntum.\n218 The second Punic War begins.\n217 Hannibal defeats the Romans under Flaminius.\nFabius Maximus Dictator.\n216 Battle of Cannae, in which the Romans are totally defeated by Han-\nnibal.\n212 Philip II. of Macedon defeats the ^Etolians.\nMarcellus takes Syracuse, after a siege of two years.\n211 Capua surrenders to the Romans.\nAntiochus the Great conquers Judaea.\n210 Asdrubal vanquished in Spain by the Scipios.\nPublius Scipio, sent into Spain, takes New-Carthage.\n206 Philopoemen Praetor of the Achaeans.\n203 The Carthaginians recall Hannibal to Africa.\nSophonisba poisoned by Massinissa.\n201 Syphax led in triumph to Rome by P. Scipio.\n197 Philip defeated by the Romans at Cynocephale.\n196 The Battle of Zama, and end of the second Punic War.\n190 The Romans enter Asia, and defeat Antigonus at Magnesia.\n183 The elder Cato Censor at Rome.\n173 War between the Romans and Perseus King of Macedon.\n172 Antiochus defeats the generals of Ptolemy in Egypt.\n170 Antiochus Epiphanes takes and plunders Jerusalem.\n169 Terence s Comedies performed at Rome.\n167 Perseus defeated by Paulus iEmilius, and brought prisoner to Rome\nEnd of the kingdom of Macedon.\n166 Judas Maccabeus drives the Syrians out of Judea.\n164 The Roman Citizens numbered at 327,032.\n149 The third Punic War begins.\n147 Metellus defeats the Achaeans.\n146 Corinth taken by the Consul Mummius.\nCarthage taken and destroyed by the Romans.\n137 The Romans shamefully defeated by the Numantines.\n135 The History of the Apocrypha ends.\nAntiochus besieges Jerusalem.\n133 Tiberius Gracchus put to death.\nNumantia taken. Pergamus becomes a Roman Province.\n121 Caius Gracchus killed.\n113 Carbo the Consul drives the Cimbri and Teutones out of Italy.\nIll The Jugurthine War begins.\n108 Marius defeats Jugurtha.\n103 Jugurtha starved to death at Rome.\n102 Marius defeats the Teutones and Cimbri.\n91 The War of the Allies against the Romans.\n90 Svlla defeats the Marsi, Peligni, Samnites, C.\n89 The Mithridatic War begins.\n88 Civil War between Marius and Sylla. Sylla takej pOMMBQB MOM","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0489.jp2"},"488":{"fulltext":"484 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.\nB. C.\n86 Mithridates Bang of Pontus defeated by Sylla.\n83 Sylla defeats Norbanus. The Capitol burnt.\n82 Sylla perpetual Dictator. His horrible Proscription.\n80 Julius Caesar makes his first Campaign.\n79 Cicero s first Oration for Roscius.\n78 Sylla resigns all power, and dies.\n77 The War of Sertorius.\n72 Lucullus repeatedly defeats Mithridates, and reduces Pontus to a\nRoman province.\n70 Crassus and Pompey chosen Consuls at Rome.\n63 Victories of Pompey. He takes Jerusalem, and restores Hyrcanw» o\nthe government of Judea.\n62 Catiline s Conspiracy quelled at Rome by Cicero.\n61 Pompey enters Rome in triumph.\n69 The first Triumvirate j Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar.\nCaesar proposes a new Agrarian Law.\n58 Clodius the Tribune procures the Banishment of Cicero.\n57 Caesar defeats Ariovistus in Gaul.\nCicero brought back from Exile with high honour.\n55 Caesar lands in Britain, and makes a short campaign.\n54 Caesar invades Britain a second time, and conquers part of it\n53 Crassus killed in Mesopotamia.\n52 Milo defended by Cicero for the slaughter of Clodius.\n49 Caesar passes the Rubicon, and marches to Rome.\nCommencement of the Era of Antioch, October, 49 A. C.\n48 Battle of Pharsalia, in which Pompey is defeated.\nPompey slain in Egypt.\nThe Alexandrian Library of 400,000 volumes burnt.\n46 Cato besieged in Utica, kills himself.\n45 The Kalendar reformed by Julius Caesar, by introducing the Solat\nYear instead of the Lunar The first Julian Year began January 1,\n45 A. C.\n44 Julius Caesar Kiuea in the Senate-House.\nOctavius, grand-nephew and heir of Julius Caesar, comes to Rome,\nand is opposed at first by Antony.\n43 Second Triumvirate Octavius, Mark Antony, and Lepidus.\n42 Battle of Philippi, in which Brutus and Cassius are defeated.\n40 Herod marries Mariamne, daughter of Hyrcanus, and obtains from tho\nRomans the Government of Judaea.\n34 Antony divides Armenia among the children of Cleopatra.\n33 Mauritania reduced into a Roman Province.\n32 War declared by the Senate against Antony and Cleopatra.\n31 Battle of Actium and end of the Roman Commonwealth.\nOctavius Emperor of Rome.\n30 Death of Mark Antony and Cleopatra. Alexandria token by Octa-\nvius.\nOctavius receives the title of Augustus.\n23 Death of Marcellus. Agrippa in Spain.\n20 Porus King of India sends an Embassy to Augustus.\n17 Agustus revives the Secular Games.\n15 The Rhaeti and Vindelenci defeated by Drusus.\n10 The Temple of Janus shut by Augustus for a short time.\n8 Augustus corrects an Error of the Roman Kalendar.\nDeath of Maecenas.\n5 Augustus ordains a Census of all the people in the Roman Empire.\n4 JESUS CHRIST is born four years before the commencemcm of the\nvulgar era.\nA.D.\n9 The Roman Legions under Varus, destroyed in Germany\nOvid the Poet banished to Tomos.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0490.jp2"},"489":{"fulltext":"CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 485\nA.D.\n14 Tiberius Emperor of Rome.\n19 Germanicus dies at Antioch.\nTiberius banishes the Jews from Rome.\n58 John the Baptist preaches in Judaea the Coming of the Messi\n27 Tiberius retires to the island of Capreae.\nPilate made Governor of Judaea.\n31 Sejanus disgraced, and put to death by Tiberius\n33 IT St. Peter first Pope.\nJESUS CHRIST is crucified.\n35 The Conversion of St. Paul.\n37 Caligula Emperor of Rome.\n39 St. Matthew writes his Gospel.\n40 The name of Christians first given to the Disciples of Christ at An*\ntioch.\n41 Claudius Emperor of Rome.\nHerod persecutes the Christians, and imprisons Peter.\n42 Sergius Paulus, proconsul, converted by St. Paul.\n43 Expedition of Claudius into Britain.\n44 St. Mark writes his Gospel.\n45 Vespasian in Britain.\n47 The Ludi Sceculares (secular games) performed at Rome.\n48 Messalina put to death by Claudius, who marries Agrippina the\nmother of Nero.\n50 St. Paul preaches in the Areopagus at Athens.\n51 Caractacus, the British King, is carried prisoner to Rome.\n54 Nero Emperor of Rome.\n55 Britannicus poisoned by Nero.\n59 Nero puts to death his mother Agrippina.\n60 Suetonius Paulinus defeats the Britons.\n61 The Britons, under Queen Boadicea, defeat the Romans.\n64 The first Persecution of the Christians raised by Nero.\nRome set on fire by Nero.\n66 Bareas Soranus and Thrasea Paetus put to death by Nero.\nIT Pope Linus.\n67 Massacre of the Jews by Florus, at Caesarea, Ptolemais, and Alex-\nandria.\nSt. Peter and St. Paul put to death.\nJosephus, the Jewish historian, governor of Galilee.\nIT Pope St. Clement.\n68 Galoa Emperor of Rome.\n69 Otho Emperor of Rome.\n_ Vitellius Emperor of Rome.\n70 Vespasian Emperor of Rome.\nJerusalem taken and destroyed by Titus.\n77 IT Pope St. Cletus.\n78 A great Pestilence at Rome, 10,000 dying in one day.\n79 TitUS Emperor of Rome.\nHerculaneum and Pompeii destroyed by an Eruption of Vesuvius.\n80 Conquests of Agricola in Britain.\n81 Domitian Emperor of Rome.\n83 IT Pope Anacletus.\n89 Apollonius of Tyanea defends himself before Domitian against an\naccusation of Treason.\n95 Dreadful Persecution of the Christians at Rome, and in the prov.\ninces.\nSt. John writes his Apocalypse, and his Gospel.\n96 Nerva Emperor of Rome.\nSs2","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0491.jp2"},"490":{"fulltext":"486 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.\nA.D.\n96 IT Pope Evaristus.\n98 Trajan Emperor of Rome.\nTrajan forbids the Christian Assemblies.\nfOO\n103 The Dacians subdued by Trajan.\n107 Trajan s Victories in Asia.\n103 St. Ignatius devoured by wild Beasts at Rome.\n1T Pope Alexander I.\n115 The Jews in Cyreno murder 200,000 Greeks and Romans.\n117 IT Pope Sixtus I.\n118 Adrian Emperor of Rome.\nPersecution of the Christians renewed by Adrian, but afterward\nsuspended.\n120 Adrian s Wall built across Britain.\n127 IT Pope Telesphorus.\n131 Adrian visits Egypt and Syria.\ni32 Adrian publishes his perpetual Edict or Code of the Laws.\n135 The Romans destroyed 580,000 Jews in Judaea.\n137 Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem by the name of iElia Capitolina.\n138 IT Pope Hyginus.\nAntonius Pius Emperor of Rome.\n142 IF Pope Pius I.\n150 1T Pope Anicetus.\n154 Justin Martyr publishes his Apology for the Christians.\n161 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus and Lucius Verus Emperors of\nRome.\n162 H Pope Soter.\n167 Polycarp and Pionices suffered Martyrdom in Asia.\n169 War with the Marcomanni.\n171 Death of Verus. Marcus Aurelius sole Emperor.\nIT Pope Eleutherius.\n177 Persecution of the Christians at Lyons.\n180 Commodus Emperor of Rome.\n185 IT Pope Victor I.\n189 The Saracens defeat the Romans. This people first mentioned in\nhistory.\n193 Pertinax Emperor of Rome. DidlUS JulianUS purchases the\nEmpire.\nPescennius Niger declared Emperor in the East.\nSeptimius Severus Emperor of Rome.\n194 Niger defeated by Severus, and put to death.\n195 Byzantium besieged, surrenders to Severus.\n196 Albinus proclaimed Emperor in Britain.\n197 Albinus, defeated by Severus, kills himself.\nV Pope Zephyrinus.\n200\n202 The fifth Persecution against the Christians, principally in Egypt.\n208 Severus, with his sons Caracalla and Geta, in Britain.\n209 The Caledonians repulsed, and a Wall built between the rivers Forth\nand Clyde.\n211 Caracalla and Geta Emperors of Rome.\n212 Caracalla murders Geta.\n217 Caracalla put to death.\nMacrinus Emperor of Rome.\nIT Pope Calixtus I.\n213 Hellogabalus Emperor of Rome.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0492.jp2"},"491":{"fulltext":"CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.\nAD.\n222 Alexander Severus Emperor of Rome.\nA Tribute paid by the Romans to the Goths.\nIT Pope Urban I.\n226 The Persians totally defeated by Alexander Several\n230 IT Pope Pontianus.\n235 IT Pope Anterus.\nMaximinus assassinales Alexander Severus, and is proclaimed En\nperor of Rome.\nC36 The sixth Persecution of the Christians.\nIT Pope Fabianus.\n237 Maximinus defeats the Dacians and Sarmatians.\n238 Maximus and Balbinus Emperors of Rome.\nGordian Emperor of Rome.\n242 Gordian defeats the Persians under Sapor.\n244 Philip the Arabian Emperor of Rome.\n248 The Secular Games celebrated at Rome. Pompey s Theatre burnt\nSt. Cyprian elected Bishop of Carthage.\n249 Decius Emperor of Rome.\n250 The seventh Persecution of the Christians under Decius.\nIF Pope St. Cornelius.\n251 Vibius Volusianus Emperor of Rome\nGallus Emperor of Rome.\n252 1T Pope Lucius I.\n253 The Goths, Burgundians, c make an Irruption into M Bsia and\nPannoniau\n254 Valerianus Emperor of Rome.\nU Pope Stephen I.\n257 The eighth Persecution of the Christians*\nIT Pope Sixtus II.\n259 The Persians ravage Syria.\nIT Pope Dionysius.\n260 Gallienus Emperor of Rome.\nThe Temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt.\n261 Sapor, the Persian, takes Antioch, Tarsus, and Csesare\n267 The Heruli invade and ravage Greece.\n268 Claudius II. Emperor of Rome.\n269 The Goths and Heruli, to the number of 320,000, defoa, 4 by\nClaudius.\nIT Pope Felix I.\n270 Aurelian Emperor of Rome.\n271 The Alemanni and Marcomanni ravage the Empire.\n272 The ninth Persecution of the Christians.\n273 Zenobia Queen of Palmyra defeated by Aurelian at Edesaa\n274 1T Pope Eutychianus.\n275 TacitUS Emperor of Rome.\n276 Florianus Emperor of Rome.\n277 Probus Emperor of Rome.\n289! Carus Emperor of Rome defeats the Quadi and Sarmafiana\n282 Carinus, Numerianus, Emperors of Rome.\n283 IT Pope Caius.\nFingal King of Morven died.\n284 Diocletian Emperor of Rome.\n386 The Empire attacked by the Northern Nations\nCaiaunui usurps the government of Britain, and reign* i","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0493.jp2"},"492":{"fulltext":"488 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.\nAD.\n290 The Grogoiian and Hermogenian Codes published.\n292 Partition of the Empire by Diocletian between two Emperors and two\nCaesars.\n295 TT Tope Mareellinus.\nAlexandria in Egypt taken by Diocletian.\n300\n302 The tenth Persecution of the Christians.\n304 IT Pope Marcellus.\nResignation of Diocletian and Maximian\nGalerius and Constantius Emperors of Rome.\n305 Maximinus Emperor of Rome.\n306 Constantine the Great Emperor of Rome. He stops the Per\nsecution of the Christians.\n310 1T Pope Eusebius.\nIT Pope Melchiades.\n314 IT Pope Sylvester.\n325 Constantine abolishes the Combats of Gladiators.\nHe assembles the first General Council at Nice, where the Doctrines\nof Anus are condemned.\n326 St. Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, introduces MonarcJiism in the\nRoman Empire.\n329 Constantine removes the Seat of Empire to Constantinople.\n336 IT Pope Marcus.\n337 IT Pope Julius I.\nDeath of Constantine. The Empire divided among his three Sons.\nConstantine II., Constans, and Constantius, Emperors of\nRome.\n352 IT Pope Liberius.\n356 U Pope Felix I.\n357 The Germans defeated by Julian at Strasburg.\n358 IT Pope Felix II.\n361 Julian Emperor of Rome. He abjures Christianity, is elected Pon-\ntifex Maximus, and attempts fruitlessly to rebuild the Temple of\nJerusalem.\n363 Jovian Emperor of Rome.\n364 Valentinian Emperor of the West.\nValens Emperer of the East.\n366 IT Pope Damasus.\n367 Gratian Emperor of the West.\n375 Valentinian II. Emperor of the West.\n376 Valens allows the Goths to settle in Thrace.\n378 The Goths advance to the Gates of Constantinople. Death of Valens.\n379 Theodosius the Great Emperor of the East.\n381 Second General Council held at Constantinople.\n383 The Huns overrun Mesopotamia are defeated by the Goths.\n384 Symmachus pleads the cause of Paganism against St. Ambrose m the\nSenate.\n385 IT Pope Syricius.\n392 Theodosius Emperor of the West and East.\n395 Arcadius Emperor of the East, and HonoriUS of the West.\nThe Huns invade the Eastern Provinces.\n397 St. Chrysostom chosen Patriarch of Constantinople.\n399 !T Pope Anastasius.\nGainas the Goth obtains Honours f om Arcadius.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0494.jp2"},"493":{"fulltext":"CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 489\nA. IX\n400\nAlario the Goth ravages Italy.\n401 IT Pope Innocent I.\n403 Stilicho, General of Honorius, defeats Alaric near Pollentia,\n404 Jc ergus I. King of Scotland, supposed to have begun his reign.\n406 The Vandals, Alans, c. invade France and Spain.\n408 Theodosius II. Emperor of the East.\n410 Rome sacked and burnt by Alaric. Death of Alaric.\n411 The Vandals settled in Spain.\n416 The Secular Games celebrated at Rome.\nThe Pelagian Heresy condemned by the Bishops of Afhcn.\n417 IT Pope Zozimus.\n418 IF Pope Boniface I.\n420 Pkaramond first King of the Franks supposed to have oegun his\nreign.\n422 H Pope Caelestinus.\n424 Valentinian III. Emperor of the West.\n426 The Romans withdraw finally from Britain.\n428 iEtius, the Roman General, defeats the Franks and Goths.\n431 The third General Council held at Ephesus.\n432 IT Pope Sixtus III.\n435 The Theodosian Code published.\n439 Generic the Vandal invades and plunders Italy.\nEudocia the Empress, wife of Theodosius, retires to Jerusalem.\nCarthage taken by the Vandals. Kingdom of the Vandals in Africa.\n440 IT Pope Leo the Great.\n442 Theodosius forced to make a disgraceful Peace with Attila the Hun.\nAttila causes his brother Bleda to be murdered.\n445 The Britons in vain solicit the Romans to assist them against the Picts\nand Scots.\n445 Attila the Hun overruns Illyrium, Thrace, Dacia, Mcesia, and Scythia.\n448 The Romans engage to pay a heavy Tribute of Gold to Attila.\n440 Merovceus King of the Franks.\n450 Marcian Emperor of the East.\nAttila ravages Germany and France.\n451 Theodoric King of the Visigoths killed in battle. The Hans defeated\nby iEtius.\nThe Saxons arrive in Britain under Hengist and Horsa.\nThe fourth General Council held at Chalcedon.\n452 Foundation of the city of Venice.\n455 Petromius Maximus Emperor of the West.\nAvitUS Emperor of the West.\nRome taken and plundered by Genseric the Vandal.\n456 Childeric King of the Franks.\n457 Leo the Great Emperor of the East.\nMajorianilS Emperor of the West.\n461 Severus Emperor of the West, raised by Ricimer.\nIT Pope Hilarius.\n467 Antnemius Emperor of the West.\n468 Eric King of the Visigoths drives the Romans out of Spain.\n1T Pope Simplicius.\n470 iElla the Saxon takes possession of the Kingdom of Sussex.\n471 iEUa defeats all the British Princes.\n479 Great Eruption of Mount Vesuvius, seen from\n01ybiu8 Emperor of the West.","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0495.jp2"},"494":{"fulltext":"49t CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.\nA.D.\n473 GlycerillS, Emperor of the West, degraded and stripped by\n474 Julius Nepos Emperor of the West.\nZero Emperor of the East.\nAugUStulus Romulus Emperor of the West, raised by his father\nOrestes, General of Nepos.\n476 Orestes put to death by Odoacer King of the Heruli.\nRome taken by Odoacer now king of Italy.\nExtinction of the Western Empire of the Romans, 507 years\nfrom the battle of Actium, and 1224 from the building of Rome.\n481 Clovis King of the Franks.\nZeno makes Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, his General, and creates him\nConsul.\n483 IT Pope Felix III.\n485 Battle of Soissons gained by Clovis\n488 Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, entirely defeats Odoacer, and is acknowl-\nedged King of Italy by the Emperor Zeno.\n490 The Burgundians, under Gondebald, ravage Italy.\nIreland, called the Isle of Saints, famous for its Schools.\n491 Anastasius Emperor of the East.\n493 Odoacer put to death by Theodoric\n496 H Pope Anastasius II.\n497 Clovis and the Franks converted to Christianity.\n498 U Pope Symmachus.\n499 Alliance between Clovis and Theodoric the Great\n500\nGondebald, the Burgundian, becomes tributary to Clovis.\n501 The Burgundian Laws published by Gondebald.\n502 Cabades King of Persia ravages part of the Eastern Empire.\n504 The Eastern Empire makes peace with Cabades.\n507 Clovis defeats Alaric the Visigoth, and receives a congratulatory em-\nbassy, with a diadem, from Anastasius.\n508 Theodoric the Great defeats Clovis in the battle of Aries, and then\nmakes peace with him.\n510 Clovis makes Paris the capital of the kingdom of the Franks.\n511 Death of Clovis. Division of his kingdom among his four sons,\nChildebert, Thierry, Clotaire, and Clodomir, Kings of the Franks.\n512 The Heruli allowed by Anastasius to settle in Thrace.\n514 fi Pope Hormisdas.\n515 Arthur king of the Britons supposed to have begun his reign.\n516 The Computation of Time by the Christian ^Era introduced by Did\nnysius the Monk.\n517 The Getae ravage Illyrium, Macedonia, and Epirus.\n518 Justin I. Emperor of the East raised from obscurity.\n519 Justin restores the Orthodox Bishops, and condemns the Eutychians.\nCabades King of Persia proposes that Justin should adopt his so*.\nCosroes, and makes war on a refusal.\n523 IT Pope John I.\n525 The Arian Bishops deposed by Justin, and this act highly resented ky\nTheodoric.\nAntioch and many other cities almost destroyed by an earthquake, and\nrebuilt by Justin, who adopts his nephew Justinian.\n526 Theodoric puts to death Boethius and Symmachus.\nIT Pope Felix IV.\n527 Justinian I. Emperor of the East.\n529 Belisarius, General of Justinian, defeats the Persians.\nThe Books of the Civil Law published by Justinian.\n530 f Pope Boniface II.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0496.jp2"},"495":{"fulltext":"CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 491\nA.D.\n532 Justinian congratulates Cosroes on succeeding to the throne of Persia\nand concludes a perpetual peace with him.\nGreat Insurrection at Constantinople quelled with prodigious slaughtoi\nby Belisarius.\n533 Athalaric King of the Qstrogotns dies, and is succeeded by his mother\nAmalasonta.\nA Pope John II.\n534 Theodobert King of Metz.\nBelisarius defeats Gelimer and the Vandals in Africa.\n535 IT Pope Agapetus.\n536 IT Pope Sylvester.\n537 Belisarius subdues the Ostrogoths in Italy, and takes Rome.\n538 IT Pope Vigilius.\n540 Belisarius refuses to accept the crown of Italy.\n543 Totila, the Goth, recovers Italy from the Romans.\n547 Totila takes and plunders Rome.\n548 Theobald King of Metz.\n549 Rome retaken by Belisarius.\n550 Commencement of the kingdom of Poland under Lechus.\nRome recovered by Totila.\n551 The manufacture of Silk introduced into Europe.\n553 Totila defeated by Narses the Eunuch, and put to death.\n555 IT Pope Pdagius I.\n558 The Huns, breaking into Thrace, are defeated by Belisarius.\n559 Belisarius degraded, and ungratefully treated by Justinian.\nClotaire sole King of France.\n560 IT Pope John III.\nBelisarius restored to his Honours and Command.\n562 Carlbert, Gontran Sigebert, and Chilperic, Kings of France.\n565 Justin II. Emperor of Rome.\n566 Narses, recalled from Italy, invites the Lombards to take possession\nof the country.\n568 Italy conquered by the Lombards.\n571 Birth of Mahomet the false Prophet.\n574 IT Pope Benedict I.\n578 Tiberius II. Emperor of the East.\n1F Pope Pelagius II.\n580 The Latin Tongue ceases to be spoken in Italy about this time.\n582 Maurice Emperor of the East.\n584 Clotaire II. King of Soissons.\n590 Antioch again destroyed, with 30,000 inhabitants, by an Earthquake\n1T Pope Gregory the Great.\n596 Thierry II. and Theodobert II. Kings of Paris and Austrasui.\nAugustine the Monk converts the Saxons to Christianity.\n600\n602 Phocas Emperor of the East acknowledges the Supremacy of the\nPopes.\n604 IT Pope Sabinianus.\n607 IT Pope Boniface IV.\nThe Pantheon at Rome Dedicated to God, the Virgin, and the Saints\n608 IT Pope Boniface IV. i\n609 The Jews of Antioch massacre the Christians.\n611 Heraclius Emperor of the East.\n613 The French Maires du Palais first introduced by Clotaire as Regents,\n614 Clotaire II. sole King of France. t\nQueen Brunechilda, accused of numberless crimes, is put to death by\nClotaire II.","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0497.jp2"},"496":{"fulltext":"4S« CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE\nA.D.\n615 IT Pope Deus-dedit.\n616 Jerusalem taken by the Persians under Cosroee II.\n618 IT Pope Boniface V.\n622 Era of the Hegyra, or Flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina.\n625 IT Pope Honorius I.\nThe Persians under Cosroes II., with the Huns, Abari, and Sclavo\nnians, besiege Constantinople.\n628 Dagobert and Charibert Kings of France.\n632 Death of Mahomet. Abubeker succeeds him as Caliph of the Sara-\ncens.\n633 Abubeker dies, and is succeeded by Omar in the Caliphate.\n636 Jerusalem taken by Omar and the Saracens, who keep possession of it\n463 years.\n638 Sigebert II. and CUvis II. Kings of France.\n640 IT Pope Severinus.\nIT Pope John IV.\nThe Library of Alexandria, founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, ia\nburnt by the Saracens.\n641 Constantine, Emperor of the East for a few months, poisoned by\nhis step-mother.\nHeraclionas and Tiberius III. Emperors of the East.\n642 Constans, son of Constantine, Emperor of the East.\nft Pope Theodorus.\n645 Otman succeeds Omar m the Caliphate.\n648 Cyprus taken by the Saracens under Mawia.\n649 U Pope Martin I.\n653 The Saracens take Rhodes, and destroy the Colossus.\n654 Childeric II. King of Austrasia.\nIT Pope Eugenius I.\n655 Ali Caliph of Arabia. Mawia Caliph of Egypt.\n657 TT Pope Vitalianus.\n658 The Saracens obtain Peace of the Emperor Constans, and agree to\npay a yearly tribute.\n668 Constantius V. (Pogonatus) Emperor of the East.\n669 Sicily ravaged by the Saracens.\n672 IT Pope Adeodatus\nThe Saracens ineffectually besiege Constantinople. Their fleet de-\nstroyed by the Greek Fire used by Callinicus.\n675 The Saracens attempt to land in Spain, but are repulsed by Wamba\nKing of the Visgoths.\n676 IT Pope Djonus,\n679 Thierry IV. King of all France.\n1T Pope Agatho.\nG80 The sixth General or (Ecumenical Council of Constantinople.\n682 IF Pope Leo II.\n684 IT Pope Benedict II.\n685 IT Pope John V.\nJustinian II. Emperor of the East.\nThe Britons, totally subdued by the Saxons, retreat into Wales and\nCornwall.\n686 IT Pope Canon.\n686 Ceadwalla King of Wessex subdues Sussex and Kent.\n687 1T Pope Sergius.\n690 Pepin Heristel, Maire du Palais, defeats Thierry, and acquires the\ndhief power in France.\n692 Clovis III. King ef France.\n694 Justinian II. dethroned, mutilated, and banished by Leontius.\n695 Gildeberl III King of France.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0498.jp2"},"497":{"fulltext":"CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 493\nAD\n695 Leontius Emperor of the East. Dethroned and mutilated by\n697 Apsimar or Tiberius Emperor of the East.\n699 The Saracens defeated by John the Patrician.\n700\nThe Saracens again defeated with great slaughter by Heraclius, brother\nof Tiberius.\n701 1T Pope John VI.\n704 Justinian escapes from prison, defeats Tiberius, and is restored to tho\nthrone.\n707 Justinian II. defeated by the Bulgarians.\n708 II Pope Sisinnius.\nIT Pope Constantino.\n711 Philippicus Bardanes Emperor of the East.\nDagobert III. King of France.\n713 AnastasiUS II. Emperor of the East.\nSpain conquered by the Saracens under Muca, the general of tha\nCaliph Walid.\n714 IT Pope Gregory II.\nTheodosius Emperor of the East.\nCharles Martel, Maire du Palais, governs all France for 26 years.\n716 Childeric II. King of France.\nLeo (the Isurian) Emperor of the East.\n720 Omar II. besieges Constantinople without success,\nThierry IV. King of France.\n726 Leo forbids the Worship of Images, which occasions a great rebellion\nof his subjects. The Pope defends the practice.\n728 Leo orders Pope Gregory to be seized and sent to Constantinople;\nbut the order is frustrated, and Leo confiscates the Imperial Do-\nmains of Sicily and Calabria.\n729 The Saracens ravage Gallia Narbonnensis.\n731 1T Pope Gregory III.\n732 Charles Martel defeats the Saracens between Tours and Poictiers.\n736 Leo persecutes the Monks.\n737 Death of Pelagius, who preserved the Christian Monarchy in Asturia.\n740 The Duchy of Spoleto seized by the Normans. Recovered by the\nPope.\n741 1T Pope Zachary.\n742 Childeric III. King of France.\nConstantine (Copronymus) Emperor of the East. An enemy to\nimages and saint worship.\n743 He defeats and puts to death Artabazdus, who had seized Constan-\ntinople.\n745 He destroys the fleet of the Saracens.\n749 The Race of the Abassidae become Caliphs of the Saracens.\n751 Pepin (le Bref) King of France, founder of the second or Carlovin*\ngian Race.\n752 IT Pope Stephen III.\n753 Astolphus King of the Lombards erects the Dukedom of Ravenno,\nand claims from the Pope the Dukedom of Rome.\n754 Pope Stephen requests the assistance of Pepin against the Lombards.\nPepin invades Italy, and strips Astolphus of his new possessions, con-\nferring them on the Pope as a temporal sovereignty.\nAlmanzor Caliph of the Saracens, a great encouragerof learning.\n756 Desiderius, or Dider, proclaimed King of the Lombards, with th«\nPope s consent.\n_ Abdalrahman I. takes the title of King of Cordova, and is the founder\nof the splendid dominion of the Moors in Spain\nTt","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0499.jp2"},"498":{"fulltext":"494 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.\nA.D.\n757 H Pope Paul I. renews the alliance with Desiderius.\n759 1T Pope Stephen III. quarrels with Desiderius.\n762 Almanzor builds Bagdat, and makes it the seat of the Empire of the\nCaliphs.\n767 The Turks ravage Asia Minor.\n768 Charles (the Great) and Carloman, Kings of France.\nTT Pope Stephen IV.\n770 Constantine dissolves the Monasteries in the East.\n772 Charlemagne sole Monarch of France.\nHe makes war against the Saxons.\nIT Pope Adrian I.\n774 Charlemagne defeats Desiderius, and puts an end to the kingdom of\nthe Lombards, which had subsisted 206 years.\n775 Leo IV. Emperor of the East.\n778 Battle of Roncezvalles between the Christians and Moors in Spain,\nwhere Rolando is killed.\n779 Charlemagne conquers Navarre and Sardinia.\n781 Constantine (Porphyrogenitus) Emperor of the East.\nIrene, Empress, is Regent in her son s minority, and keeps him in\nentire subjection.\nShe re-establishes the worship of images.\n785 Charlemagne subdues the Saxons.\nHaroun Alraschid Caliph of the Saracens.\nHe invades and ravages a part of the Empire.\n786 Constantine assumes the government of the Empire, and imprisons\nhis mother.\n787 The Danes first land in England.\nThe seventh General Council, or second of Nice.\n788 Irene puts to death her son Constantine, and is proclaimed so.e Em-\npress.\n793 Irene proposes to marry Charlemagne, which being disapproved by\nher subjects, she is dethroned, and confined to a monastery.\nNicephorilS Emperor of the East.\n794 Charlemagne defeats and extirpates the Huns.\nIF Pope Leo HI.\n797 The Saracens ravage Cappadocia, Cyprus, Rhodes, c.\nNicephorus associates his son Saturacius in the Empire.\n800\nNew Empire of the West. Charlemagne crowned Emperor at\nRome.\n807 Haroun Alraschid courts the alliance of Charlemagne.\n811 Michael (-Curopalates) Emperor of the East.\n813 Leo (the Armenian) Emperor of the East.\nAlmamon, Caliph of the Saracens, a great encourager of learning.\n814 Lewis (le Debonnaire) Emperor of France.\n316 The Eastern Empire ravaged by Earthquakes, Famine, Conflagra-\ntions, c.\n816 IT Pope Stephen V.\n817 IT Pope Pascal I.\nLewis (le Deb.) divides the Empire among his sons.\n821 Michael (Balbus or the Stammerer) Emoeror of the East.\n824 TT^Pope Eugene II.\n827 |2gt)0tt unites the kingdoms of the Saxon Heptarchy. Beginning\nof the kingdom of England.\nf Pope Valentine\n828 Gregory IV.\n829 TheophilllS Emperor of the East.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0500.jp2"},"499":{"fulltext":"CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.\nA.D.\n838 2Etf)£ltoOK King of England.\nThe Scots under Kenneth entirely subdue the Picts.\n840 LOTHARIUS Emperor of Germany.\nCharles (the Bald) King of France.\n841 Lotharius defeated by his two brothers in the battle of Fontenai,\n842 LEWIS (of Bavaria) Emperor of Germany.\nMichael III. Emperor of the East.\n843 The Normans plunder the city of Rouen.\n844 IT Pope Sergius III.\n845 The Normans plunder Hamburgh, and penetrate into Germany.\n847 IT Pope Leo IV.\n848 The Venetian Fleet destroyed by the Saracens.\n851 IT Pope Joan supposed to have filled the Papal chair for two yean.\nBasillUS associated Emperor of the East.\n855 LEWIS II. Emperor of Germany.\n857 12tl)tltJaltr and IStfjelfoXtt Kings of England.\n858 IT Pope Nicholas I.\n866 IStljClretf King of England.\n667 The Danes ravage England.\nBasilius sole Emperor of the East.\ntf Pope Adrian II.\nPotius, Patriarch of Constantinople, excommunicates Pope Adrian.\n372 ElCretT (the Great) King of England.\nII Pope John VIII.\n875 CHARLES (the Bald) Emperor of Germany.\n877 LEWIS (the Stammerer) Emperor of Germany and King of France\n879 Lewis III. and Carloman, Kings of France.\nThe kingdom of Aries begins.\n880 CHARLES (the Gross) Emperor of Germany and King of France.\nRavagers of the Normans in France.\n882 IT Pope Marinus.\n884 IT Pope Adrian III.\n886 Leo (the Philosopher) Emperor of the East.\nThe University of Oxford founded by Alfred.\n887 ARNOLD, Emperor of Germany.\nThe Normans besiege Paris, which is gallantly defended by Bishop\nGoselin and Count Eudes.\n888 Eudes or Odo King of France.\n890 Alfred the Great composes his Code of Laws, and divides Enj\ninto Counties, Hundreds, and Tithings.\n891 H Pope Formosus.\n896 IT Pope Stephen VII.\n897 T Pope John IX.\n898 Charles III. (the Simple) King of France.\n900\n11 Pope Benedict IV.\nLEWIS IV. Emperor of Germany.\n901 IStttoatft (the Elder) succeeds Alfred as King of England\n904 IT Pope Leo V.\n905 IT Pope Sergius III.\n911 CONRAD I. Emperor of Germany.\nConstantine IX. Emperor of the East.\n912 The Normans are established in Normandy under Rollo.\n913 U Pope Anastasius.\n914 tf Pope Landon.\n915 Constantine and Romanus Emperors of the East.","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0501.jp2"},"500":{"fulltext":"496 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.\nA.D.\n915 1T Pope John X.\nThe University of Cambridge founded by Edward the Elder.\n920 HENRY (the Fowler) Emperor of Germany.\n923 Rodolph King of France.\n925 ft)tl8tan King of England.\n928 IT Pope Leo VI.\n929 f Pope Stephen VIII.\n931 IT Pope John XI.\n936 OTHO (the Great) Emperor of Germany.\nIT Pope Leo VII.\nLewis IV. (d Outremer) King of France.\n939 IT Pope Stephen IX.\n940 Howel-Dha, King of Wales, an eminent Lawyer.\n941 SStrmUtttr I. King of England.\n943 IT Pope Marinus XIII.\n946 IT Pope Agapet.\n948 IHtrrrtT King of England.\n954 Lotharius King of France.\n955 lEfatog King of England.\n956 IT Pope John XII.\n959 Romanus II. Emperor of the East.\nIStTflar King of England.\n963 1T Pope Leo VIII.\nNicephorus Phocus Emperor of the East.\n964 Otho the Great conquers Italy.\n965 IT Pope John XIII.\n967 Antioch recovered from the Saracens by Nicephorus^\n969 John Zemisses Emperor of the East.\n972 IT Pope Benedict VI.\n973 OTHO II. Emperor of Germany.\n974 IT Pope Boniface VII.\n975 IT Pope Benedict VII.\nBasilius and Constantine X. E#aperors of the East.\n976 SStttoartt IL King of England.\n978 SStfjetotr II. King of England.\n983 OTHO III. Emperor of Germany.\n984 1T Pope John XIV.\n986 IT Pope John XV.\nLewis V. {le Faineant) King of France.\nHugh Capet, King of France, founder of the Third Race qf the\nKings.\n991 The Arabic numeral Ciphers first introduced into Europe.\n996 Robert (the Wise) King of France.\nIT Pope Gregory V.\n999 IT Pope Sylvester II.\n1000\n1002 HENRY II. Emperor of Germany.\nGreat Massacre of the Danes by Ethelred Sing of England.\n1003 1T Pope John XVI.\nIT Pope John XVII.\n1004 IT Pope John XVIII.\n1005 Churches first built in the Gothic flttle.\n1009 IT Pope Sergius IV.\n1012 IT Pope Benedict VIII.\n1013 The Danes, under Sueno, get possession of England.\n1015 The Manichean Doctrines prevalent in France and Italy.\nM 1« lETrimWTr II. (Ironside) King of England.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0502.jp2"},"501":{"fulltext":"CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 491\nAD.\n1016 Six Battles fought with the Danes under Canute in England.\n1017 (tmUte the Dane (the Greats King of England\n1018 The Normans invade Italy. 8 g\n1024 IT Pope John XIX. or XX.\nCONRAD II. (the Salic) Emperor of Germany.\n025 Musical Characters invented by Guido Aretino.\n1028 Romanus Argyrus Emoerorof the East.\n1031 Henry I. King of France,\n1033 IT Pope Benedict IX.\n1034 Michael IV. Emperor of the East.\n1036 ffyaVOlU II. (Harefoot) King of England.\n1039 HEJVR Y III. Emperor of Germany.\nanuti ii. or Jfy artricamtte King of England.\n1040 Macbeth usurps the Throne of Scotland by the murder of Duncan.\n1041 li fttotlt tl III. (the Confessor) King of England, restores the Sax-\non line.\nMichael (Calaphales) Emperor of the East.\n1042 Constantine (Monomachus) Emperor of the East.\n1043 The Turks, under Tangrolipix, subdue Persia.\n1045 IT Pope Gregory VI.\n1046 IT Pope Clement II.\n1048 IT Pope Damasus II.\n1049 IT Pope Leo IX. the first Pope who maintained a regular army.\n1054 Theodora Emperor of the East.\nPope Leo IX. taken prisoner by the Normans.\n1055 IT Pope Victor II.\nThe Turks take Bagdat, and overturn the Empire of the Caliphs.\n1056 HENRY IV. Emperor of Germany.\n1057 Malcolm III. (Canmore) King of Scotland.\nIsaac (Comnenus) Emperor of the East.\nIT Pope Stephen X.\n1058 IT Pope Nicholas II.\n—r The Saracens driven out of Sicily by Robert Guiscard the Norman.\n1059 Constantine XII. (Ducas) Emperor of the East.\n1060 Philip I. King of France.\n1061 M Pope Alexander II.\n1065 The Turks take Jerusalem from the Saracens.\n1066 ffy tOltl II- King of England reigned nine months.\nSfetlltam (the Conqueror) King of England.\n1068 Romanus Diogenes Emperor of the East.\nEdgar Atheling seeks refuge in Scotland.\n1068 Margaret, sister of Edgar Atheling, married to Malcolm King of Scot-\nland.\n1070 The Feudal Law introduced into England.\n1071 Michael Ducas Emperor of the East.\n1073 IT Pope Gregory VII.\n1076 The Emperor Henry IV. excommunicated and deposed by the Popn,\n1078 Nicephorus (Boton) Emperor of the East.\n1079 Doomsday-book begun by William the Conqueror.\n1081 Alexius I. (Comnenus) Emperor of the East.\nHenry IV. Emperor besieges Rome.\n1034 He is re-crowned Emperor of Germany.\n1086 IT Pope Victor III.\n1087 IT Pope Urban II.\nTt2 6S","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0503.jp2"},"502":{"fulltext":"498 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE,\nA.D,\n1087 WL tlltam II. (Rufus) King of England.\n1093 St. Margaret Queen of Scotland died,\nDonald Bane King of Scotland.\n1095 Duncan II. King of Scotland.\nThe first Crusade to the Holy Land. Peter the Hermit.\n1098 The Crusaders take Antioch.\ncLdgar King of Scotland.\n1099 Jerusalem taken by Godfrey of Boulogne. The Knights of St. John\ninstituted.\nIT Pope Pascal II.\n1100\nJIf Wtg I. (Beauclerc) King of England.\n1102 Guiscard of Normandy takes the title of King of Naples.\n1104 Baldwin King of Jerusalem takes Ptolemais.\n1106 HENRY V. Emperor of Germany.\n1107 Alexander I. King of Scotland.\n1108 Lewis VI. {le Gros) King of France.\n1118 IT Pope Gelasius II.\nThe order of Knights Templars instituted.\nJohn (Comnenus) Emperor of the East.\n1 119 IT Pope Calixtus II.\n1124 David I. King of Scotland.\nTi Pope Honorius II.\n1125 LOTHARIUS II. Emperor of Germany.\n1130 IT Pope Innocent II.\n1135 ^tepljeil King of England.\n1137 Lewis VII. {le Jeune) King of France. Married to Eleanor of Gui-\nenne.\nThe Pandects of the Roman Law discovered at Amalphi.\n1138 CONRAD III. Emperor of Germany.\nThe Scots, under David I., defeated by the English in the battle of the\nStandard.\n1139 Alphonso I. King of Portugal rescues his kingdom from the Saracens.\n1140 The Canon Law first introduced into England.\n1141 Stephen King of England taken prisoner in the battle of Lincoln by\nthe troops of Matilda.\n1143 He recovers his kingdom.\nH Pope Caelestinus II.\nManuel (Comnenus) Emperor of the East.\n1144 IT Pope Lucius II.\n1145 IT Pope Eugene III.\n1147 The second Crusade excited by St. Bernard.\n1150 The study of the Civil Law revived at Bologna.\n1151 The Canon Law is collected by Gratian, a Monk of Bologna.\n1152 FREDERICK I. (Barbarossa) Emperor of Germany.\n1153 Malcolm IV. King of Scotland.\n1T Pope Anastasius IV.\nTreaty of Winchester. Compromise between King Stephen and\nPrince Henry.\n1154 pKJtrg H- (Plantagenet) King of England.\nIT Pope Adrian IV.\nThe parties of the Guelphs and Ghibellines disturb Italy.\n1157 The Bank of Venice instituted.\n1158 Interview between Henry II. and Malcolm IV. at Carlisle.\n1159 IT Pope Alexander III.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0504.jp2"},"503":{"fulltext":"CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 4M\nA.D.\n1160 The Albigenses maintain heretical doctrines.\n1164 Institution of the order of the Teutonic Knights in Gemtanv,\nT. Becket condemned by the Council of Clarendon.\n1165 William (the Lion) King of Scotland.\n1171 T. Becket murdered at Canterbury.\n1172 Conquest of Ireland by Henry II.\n1180 Philip Augustus King of France.\n1181 Alexius II. (Comnenus) Emperor of the East.\n1183 IT Pope Lucius III.\nAndronicus (Comnenus) Emperor of the East.\n1185 IT Pope Urban III.\nIsaac Angelus Emperor of the East.\n1187 IT Pope Gregory VIII.\nThe city of Jerusalem taken by Saladin.\n1188 IT Pope Clement III.\n1189 literal*}! I. (Coeur de Lion) King of England.\nThe third Crusade under Richard I. and Philip Augustus.\n1190 HENRY VI. Emperor of Germany.\n1191 IT Pops Caelestinus HI.\n1192 Richard I. defeats Saladin in the battle of Ascalon.\nGuy of Lusignan King of Jerusalem.\n1195 Alexius Angelus (the Tyrant) Emperor of the East.\n1198 PHILIP Emperor of Germany.\nIT Pope Innocent III.\n1199 H Ofltt King of England.\n1200\n1202 The fourth Crusade sets out from Venice.\nConstantinople taken by the French and Venetians.\n1203 Alexius and Murbzuphlus Emperors of the East.\n1204 Baldwin I. Emperor of Constantinople, and Theodore I.\ncaris) Emperor of Nicsea.\nThe Inquisition established by Pope Innocent III.\n1206 Henry Emperor of Constantinople.\n1208 OTHOIV. Emperor of Germany.\nLondon incorporated, obtains a charter for electing a Mayor and\nMagistrates.\n1210 Crusade against the Albigenses, under Simon de Montfort.\n1212 FREDERICK II. Emperor of Germany.\n1214 Alexander II. Kmg of Scotland.\n1215 Magna Charta signed by King John.\n1216 ffimtg HI. King of England.\nPeter and John Ducas Emperors of the East.\n1219 Robert Emperor of the East.\nDamietta taken by the Crusaders\n1223 Lewis VIII. King of France.\n1226 IT Pope Honorius III.\nSt. Lewis IX. King of France.\n1227 IT Pope Gregory IX.\nGengiskan and the Tartars overrun the Empire of the Saracen*.\n1228 Baldwin II. French Emperor of Constantinople.\n1234 The Inquisition committed to the Dominican Monks.\n1237 Russia brought under subjection by the Tartars.\n1241 IT Pope Caelestinus IV.\n1243 IT Pope Innocent IV.\n1248 The fifth C-usade under St. Lewis.","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0505.jp2"},"504":{"fulltext":"500 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.\nA.D.\n1249 Alexander III. King of Scotland.\n1251 CONRAD IV. Emperor of Germany.\n1254 IT Pope Alexander IV.\nInterregnum in the Empire of Germany, from the death of Conrad IV.\nin 1254, to the election of Rodolph in 1273.\n1255 Theodore II. (Lascaris) Emperor of Nicaea.\n1258 Bagdat taken by the Tartars. End of the Empire of the Saracens.\nL259 John (Lascaris) Emperor of Nicaea.\n»260 Michael (Palaeologus) Emperor of Nicaea.\nThe Flagellants preach Baptism by Brood.\ni261 IT Pope Urban IV.\nThe Greek Emperors recover Constantinople from the French.\n1263 The Norwegians invade Scotland, and are defeated by Alexander III.\nin the battle of Largs.\n1264 IT Pope Clement IV.\nThe Deputies of Boroughs first summoned to Parliament in England.\nHenry III. of England taken prisoner in the battle of Lewes.\n1265 Charles Count of Anjou King of Sicily.\n1270 Philip III. (the Bold) King of France.\n1271 IT Pope Gregory X.\n1272 ISfrtoaVtf I. (Longshanks) King of England.\n1273 RODOLPH (of Hapsburg) Emperor of Germany, first of the Austri-\nan Family.\n1276 IT Pope Innocent V.\n11 Pope Adrian V.\nIT Pope John XXI\nL277 IT Pope Nicholas III.\n1281 1T Pope Martin IV.\n1282 The Sicilian Vespers, when 8,000 French were massacred.\n1283 AndronicilS I. (Palaeologus) Emperor of the East.\nThe conquest of Wales by Edward I.\n1285 1T Pope Honorius IV.\nPhilip IV. (the Fair) King of France.\n1286 Margaret (of Norway) Queen of Scotland.\n1288 IT Pope Nicholas IV.\n1290 Interregnum in Scotland for two years. Competition between Brace\nand Baliol for the crown, decided by Edward I.\n1291 Ptolemais taken by the Turks. End of the Crusades.\n1 292 John Baliol King of Scotland. M\nADOLPHUS (of Nassau) Emperor of Germany.\nIT Pope Caelestinus V.\n£293 From this year there is a regular succession of English Parliaments.\n1294 IT Pope Boniface VIII.\n1295 Michael Andronicus Emperor of the East.\n1296 Interregnum in Scotland for eight years. Sir William Wallace nobly\nsupports the liberty of his country, defeats the English at Sterling\nand drives them out of the kingdom.\n1298 Wallace chosen Regent of Scotland, defeated at Falkirk.\nALBERT I. (of Austria) Emperor of Germany.\nThe present Turkish Empire begins under Ottoman in Bithynia.\n1300\n1301 Quarrel between Philip the Fair and Pope Boniface VIII.\n1302 Comyn and Fraser defeat the English thrice in one day.\nThe Mariner s Compass said to be discovered at Naples.\n1304 Wallace betrayed, delivered up, and put to death by Edward I.\n1306 Robert I. (Bruce) King of Scotland-","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0506.jp2"},"505":{"fulltext":"CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 501\nAD.\n1307 The Establishment of the Swiss Republic!.\nIStJtoattt II. King of England\n1308 HENRY VII. Emperor of Germany.\nU Pope Clement V.\nThe seat of the Popes transferred to Avignon for seventy years.\n1310 Rhodes taken by the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem.\n1311 Pierce Gaveston, favourite of Edward II., put to death.\n1312 The Knights Templars suppressed by Philip the Fair.\n1314 The Scots under Robert Bruce defeat the English under Edward II.\nat Bannockburn.\nLEWIS V. (of Bavaria) Emperor of Germany.\nLewis X. (Hutin) King of France.\n1315 John King of France.\n1316 IT Pope John XXII.\nPhilip V. {the Long) King of France.\n1320 Andronicus II. (Palaeologus) Emperor of the East.\n1321 Charles IV. (the Fair) King of France.\n1327 IStltoartr III. King of England.\n1328 Philip VI. (of Valois) King of France.\n1329 David II. King of Scotland. Randolph Earl of Murray Regent.\n1331 The Teutonic Knights settle in Prussia.\n1332 Edward Baliol, assisted by Edward III., is crowned at Scone King of\nScots, but is soon driven out of the kingdom.\n1333 Casimir III. (the Great) King of Poland.\n1334 IF Pope Benedict XII.\n1340 Gunpowder invented by Swartz, a Monk of Cologne.\nOil Painting invented by John Van Eyke.\n1341 John V. (Palaeologus) Emperor of the East.\nJohn Cantacuzenos, his governor, usurps the throne.\n1342 IT Pope Clement VI.\n1346 Battle of Cressy won by Edward III. and the Black Prince over the\nFrench.\nBattle of Durham, in which David II. of Scotland is taken prisoner.\n1347 CHARLES IV. Emperor of Germany.\nCola Rienzi assumes the Government of Rome.\n1350 The Order of the Garter instituted by Edward III.\nPeter (the Cruel) King of Castile.\n1351 John II. King of France.\n1352 11 Pope Innocent VI.\nThe Turks first enter Europe,\n1356 The Battle of Poictiers, in which John II. King of France ia taken\nprisoner, and afterwards brought to London.\n1362 IT Pope Urban V.\nThe Law-pleadings in England changed from French to English.\n1346 Charles V. King of France.\n1370 IT Pope Gregory XI.\nRobert II. King of Scotland.\n1377 The Seat of the Popes removed back from Avignon to Rome.\nittti)arTr II. King of England.\nWicklhfe s Doctrines propagated in England.\n1378 The Schism of the double Popes at Rome and Avignon begins and\ncontinues thirty-eight years.\nIT Pope Urban VI. of Rome\nH Pope Clement VII. of Avignon.\n1378 WEJfCESLAUS Emperor of Germany, deposed in 1400.\n1380 Charles VI. King of France.\nTamerlane invades and subdues Chorassar.\n1381 Wat Tyler s and Jack Straw s Insurrection in England.","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0507.jp2"},"506":{"fulltext":"502 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.\nA.D.\n1381 Peace between Venice and Genoa.\nBills of Exchange first used in England.\n1383 Cannon first used by the English in the defence of Calais.\n1384 Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, succeeds to the Earldom of\nFlanders.\n1386 Tamerlane subdues Georgia.\n1388 Battle of Otterburn between Percy (Hotspur) and Douglas.\n1389 IT Pope Boniface IX.\n1390 Robert III. king of Scotland\n1391 Manuel II. (Palaeologus) Emperor of the East.\n1392 The Cape of Good Hope discovered by the Portuguese.\n1394 The Jews banished from France by Charles VI.\nU Pope Benedict XIII.\n1395 Sigismund King of Hungary defeated by Bajazet I.\n1398 Tamerlane subdues part of Hindoostan, and takes Delhi.\n1399 fZftnrg IV. King of England.\n1400\n1402 Bajazet is taken prisoner by Tamerlane in the battle of Angoria.\nBattle of Halidoun Hill, in which the Scots are defeated.\n1403 Battle of Shrewsbury, in which Hotspur is killed.\n1404 IT Pope Innocent VII.\n1405 Death of Tamerlane.\n1406 J ames I. King of Scotland.\nH Pope Gregory XII.\n1409 Council of Pisa, where Pope Gregory is deposed.\nII Pope Alexander V.\n1410 JOSSE (Marquis of Brandenburgh) Emperor of Germany\nU Pope John XXIII.\n1411 SIGISMUND Emperor of Germany.\nThe University of St. Andrews in Scotland founded.\n1413 JfyttlVg V. King ef England.\n1414 Council of Constance, in which two Popes were deposed, and Pope-\ndom remained vacant near three years.\n1415 Henry V. defeats the French at Agincourt.\nJohn Huss condemned by the Council of Constance for Heresy and\nburnt.\n1416 Jerome of Prague condemned by the same Council, and burnt.\n1417 IT Pope Martin V.\nPaper first made from linen rags.\n1420 The Island of Madeira discovered by the Portuguese.\n1421 John VI. (Palaeologus) Emperor of the East.\n1422 Amurath besieges Constantinople.\ntirg VI. King of England.\nCharles VII. King of France.\nJames I. King of Scots liberated from captivity by the English.\n1425 The Court of Session in Scotland instituted by James I.\n1428 Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, compels the English to raise the\nsiege of that town.\nk431 IT Pope Eugene IV.\nRise of the Medici family at Florence.\n1436 Paris recovered by the French from the English.\n1437 James II. King of Scotland.\n1438 ALBERT II. Emperor of Germany.\n1439 Reunion of the Greek and Latin Churches.\nThe Pragmatic Sanction established in France.\n1440 FREDERICK III. Emperor of Germany.\nInvention of the art of Printing by John Guttenberg at Strasburg.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0508.jp2"},"507":{"fulltext":"CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 5W\nA.D.\n1444 Ladislaus King of Hungary killed in battle with the Turks.\n445 Constantine (Palaeologus) Emperor of the East.\n1446 Great Inundation of the sea in Holland.\n1447 IT Pope Nicholas V.\nRise of the Sforza Family at Milan.\nL453 Constantinople taken by the Turks Extinction of the Eastern\nEmpire of the Romans.\nEnd of the English government in France.\n1455 IT Pope Calixtus III.\nBattle of St. Albans, where Henry VI. is taken prisoner by the Dukt\nof York.\n1458 IF Pope Pius II. (^Eneas Sylvius.)\n1459 The art of Engraving on copper invented.\n1460 James III. King of Scotland.\nBattle of Wakefield, in which the Duke of York is killed\n1461 SStJtUartr IV. King of England.\nLewis XI. King of France.\n1470 Henry VI. restored to the throne of England.\n1471 Battle of Barnet, where Warwick is killed. Battle of Tewksburj,\nwhere the Lancastrians are totally defeated.\nEdward IV. restored. Prince Edward of Lancaster basely murdered\nby Clarence and Gloucester. Death of Henry VI.\nIT Pope Sixtus IV.\n1474 The Cape de Verd Islands discovered by the Portuguese.\n1475 Edward IV. invades France. Peace of Pecquigni purchased by tfc\nFrench.\n1479 Ferdinand and Isabella unite the kingdoms of Arragon and Castile.\nRussia freed from subjection to the Tartars by John Basilwitz.\n1483 Charles VIII. King of France.\nISttfcUattf V. King of England. Duke of Gloucester Protector.\nEdward V. and his brother murdered.\nIfttCijartT HI. King of England.\n1484 IT Pope Innocent VIII.\n1485 Battle of Bosworth, in which Richard III. is killed.\nf^ttirg VII. King of England, first of the house of Tudor. Union\nof the houses of York and Lancaster.\n1488 James IV. King of Scotland.\n1491 Granada taken by Ferdinand and Isabella. End of the kingdom of\nthe Moors in Spain.\n1492 II Pope Alexander VI. (Borgia.)\nHispaniola and Cuba discovered by Christopher Columbus.\n1493 MAXIMILIAN I. Emperor of Germany.\n1494 Expedition of Charles VIII. into Naples.\nAlgebra first known in Europe.\nAmerica discovered by Columbus.\n1497 The Portuguese, under Vasco de Ganca, double the Cape of Good\nHope and sail to the East Indies.\n1498 Leiois XII. king of France.\nSavanorala burnt by Pope Alexander VI. for preaching against the\nvices of the clergy.\n1499 Lewis XII. takes possession of the Milanese.\nSebastian Cabot lands in North America.\n150Q\nBrazil discovered by the Portuguese.\nMaximilian divides Germany into six Circles, and adds four more in\n1512.\n1503 U Pope Pius III.","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0509.jp2"},"508":{"fulltext":"504 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.\nAD.\n1503 IT Pope Julius II.\nBattle of Cerizoles, in which the French lose Naples.\n1504 Philip I. King of Spain.— 1506 Jane his Queen.\n1507 Madagascar discovered by the Portuguese.\n1508 League of Cambray against the Venetians.\n1509 ftfnrj) VIII. King of England.\nBattle or Agnadello, May 14.\n1511 Cuba conquered by the Spaniards.\n1513 Battle of Flodden, fatal to the Scots.\n«J ames V. King of Scotland.\nIT Pope Leo X.\n1515 Francis I. King of France.\n1516 Charles I. (Emperor Charles V.) King of Spain.\nBarbarossa seizes the Kingdom of Algiers.\n1517 The Reformation in Germany begun by Luther.\nThe Turks put an end to the reign of the Mamelukes ii Egypt.\n1518 Leo X. condemns Luther s Doctrines.\n1519 CHARLES V. Emperor of Germany.\nFernando Cortez engages in the conquest of Mexico.\n1520 Sweden and Denmark united.\nMassacre at Stockholm by Christiern II. and Archbishoj Trollo.\n1521 IT Pope Adrian VI.\nGustavus Vasa King of Sweden.\nCortez completes the conquest of Mexico.\n1522 The first Voyage round the World performed by a ship c* Magellan i\nsquadron.\n1523 Solyman the Magnificent takes Belgrade.\nIT Pope Clement VII.\n1524 Sweden and Denmark embrace the Protestant faith.\n1525 Battle of Pavia, in which Francis I. is taken prisoner by Charles V.\n1526 Treaty of Madrid between Charles V. and Francis I., wh«H the Utter\nis set at liberty.\n1527 Rome taken and plundered by Charles V.\nPizarro and Dalmagro invade the Empire of Peru\n1528 Revolution of Genoa by Andrea Doria.\nGustavus Eriscon crowned King of Sweden.\n1529 Diet of Spires against the Huguenots, then first termed F*e^«atants\nPeace of Cambray, August 5\n1530 The League of Smalcald between the Protestants.\n1531 Michael Servetus burnt for heresy at Geneva.\n1532 The Treaty of Nuremberg, August 2.\nThe Court of Session in Scotland new modeled by James\n1534 The Reformation in England.\nIT Pope Paul III.\nBarbarossa seizes the Kingdom of Tunis.\nJack of Leyden heads the Anabaptists at Munster.\n1535 The Society of the Jesuits instituted by Ignatius Loyola.\nExpedition of Charles V. against Tunis.\n1538 Treaty of Nice between Charles V. and Francis 1.\n1540 Dissolution of the Monasteries in England by Henry VIII\n1542 iVlary Queen of Scotland.\n1544 The French defeat the troops of Charles V. in the battle of Ce i woi«s.\nThe treaty of Crepi.\n1545 The Council of Trent begins, which continued eighteen years.\n1546 Cardinal Beaton, of St. Andrew s, assassinated.\n1547 Fiesco s Conspiracy at Genoa.\nThe Battle of Mulberg, in which the Protestants are defeated, *»d the\nElector of Saxony taken prisoner.\nISfcfcarfc VI. King of England.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0510.jp2"},"509":{"fulltext":"CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. ju\nA.D.\n1547 Henry II. King of France,\n1548 The Interim granted by Charles V. to the Protest nti.\n1550 1F Pope Julius III.\n.552 The Treaty of Passau between Charles V. and the Elector of Saxony,\nfor the Establishment of Lutheranism.\n1553 J^atg Queen of England.\nLady Jane Grey beheaded.\n1555 IT Pope Marcellus II.\nIT Pope Paul IV.\nMany Bishops burnt in England by Mary.\n1556 FERDINAND I. Emperor of Germany.\nPhilip II. King of Spain.\n1557 Philip II. defeats the French at St. Quintin,\n1558 SEltfafcetf) Queen of England.\n1559 IT Pope Pius IV.\nFrancis II. King of France.\nTreaty of Catteau-Cambresis.\n1560 Charles IX. King of France.\nConspiracy of Amboise formed by the party of Conde against that of\nGuise. Beginning of the Civil Wars in France.\nThe Reformation completed in Scotland by John Knox.\n1561 Mary Queen of Scots arrives in Scotland from France.\n1562 Battle of Dreux. Victory of the Guises over Conde,\n1564 MAXIMILIAN II. Emperor of Germany.\n1566 11 Pope Pius VI.\nRevolt of the Netherlands from Philip II.\n1567 The Duke of Alva sent by Philip to the Netherlands.\n*l ames VI. King of Scotland.\n1568 Mary Queen of Scots flees to Englan d for protection.\nPhilip II. puts to death his son Don Carlos.\n1509 The Earl of Murray, Regent of Scolland, assassinated by Hamilton.\nThe battles of Jarnac and Moncontc ur in France, in which the ProU\nestants are defeated.\n1571 Naval Victory at Lepanto, where th Turks are defeated by Don Johl\nof Austria.\n1572 IT Pope Gregory XIII.\nThe Massacre of St. Bartholomew, August 24.\n1574 Henry HI. King of France.\nSocinus propagates his opinions.\nDon Sebastian King of Portugal invades Africa.\n1576 RODOLPHUS II. Emperor of Germany.\nThe League in France formed against the Protestants.\n1579 Commencement of the Republic of Holland, by the union of Utrecht\n1580 Philip II. takes possession of Portugal.\nThe World circumnavigated by Sir Francis Drake.\n1582 The New Style introduced into Italy by Pope Gregory XIII., the 6th\nof October being counted the 15th.\n1584 William I. Prince of Orange murdered at Delft.\nVirginia discovered by Sir Walter Raleigh.\n1585 IT Pope Sixtus V.\n1587 Mary Queen of Scots beheaded at Fotheringay.\n1588 Destruction of the Spanish Armada by the English.\n1589 Henry III. of France murdered by Jaquez Clement.\nHenry IV. {the Great) King of France.\n1590 The battle of Ivry, which ruins the league in France,\nIT Pope Urban VII.\nH Pope Gregory XrV.\n1591 The University of Dublin erected.\nH Pope Innocent IX.\nUu","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0511.jp2"},"510":{"fulltext":"m CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.\nAD.\n1592 Presbyterian Church Government established in Scotland.\nTI Pope Clement VIII.\n1594 The Bank of England incorporated.\n1598 Edict of Nantes, tolerating the Protestants in France.\nPeace of Verins concluded between France and Spain,\nPhilip III. King of Spain.\nTyrone s rebellion in Ireland.\n1600\nGowrie s Conspiracy in Scotland.\nThe Earl of Essex beheaded.\nThe English East India Company established.\n7.602 Decimal Arithmetic invented at Bruges.\n1603 fltUtS I. King of Great Britain. Union of the crowns of England\nand Scotland.\ni605 The Gunpowder Plot discovered.\nIT Pope Paul V.\n1608 Galileo discovers the Satellites of Jupiter.\nArminius propagates his opinions.\n1610 Henry IV. of France murdered by Ravaillac.\nLewis III, King of France.\n-r— The Moors expelled from Spain by Philip III.\nHudson s Bay discovered.\n1611 Baronets first created in England by James I.\n1612 MATTHIAS Emperor of Germany.\n1614 Logarithms invented by Napier.\n1616 Settlement of Virginia by Sir Walter Raleigh.\n1618 The Synod of Dort in Holland.\n1619 Discovery of the Circulation of the Blood by Dr. Harvey.\nFERDINAND II. Emperor of Germany.\nVanini burnt at Thoulouse for Atheism.\n1620 The Battle of Prague, by which the Elector Palatine loses his Elec-\ntorate.\nThe English make a settlement at Madras.\nNavarre united to France.\n1621 Philip IV. King of Spain.\nBatavia, in the Island of Java, built and settled by the Dutch.\nIf Pope Gregory XV.\n1623 11 Pope Urban VIII.\n1625 £f)atleS I. King of Great Britain.\nThe Island of Barbadoes the first English settlement in the West\nIndies.\n1626 League of the Protestant Princes against the Emperor.\n1632 Guatavus Adolphus killed in the battle of Lutzen.\nChristina Queen of Sweden.\n1635 The French Academy instituted.\n1637 FERDINAND III. Emperor of Germany.\n1638 Bagdat taken by the Turks.\nThe Solemn League and Covenant established in Scotland.\n1640 John Duke of Braganza recovers the kingdom of Portugal.\n1641 The Irish Rebellion, and Massacre of the Protestants, October 23.\nThe Earl of Strafford beheaded.\n1642 Beginning of the Civil War in England. The battle of Edgehill,\nOctober 23.\n1643 Lewis XIV. King of France.\nAnn of Austria Regent of France.\nArchbishop Laud condemned by the Commons, and beheaded.\n1644 U Pone Innocent X.\nRevolution in China by the Tartars.\n1645 Charles I. defeated in the battle of Naseby.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0512.jp2"},"511":{"fulltext":"CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 507\nA.D.\n1648 The Peace of Westphalia. The Civil War of the Fronde at Pari*.\n1649 Charles I. of England beheaded.\nCommonwealth of England begins.\n1650 The Marquis of Montrose put to death.\nBattle of Dunbar. Covenanters defeated by Cromwell.\n1651 The battle of Worcester won by Cromwell.\n1652 Tiie first War between the English and Dutch.\n1654 End of the Commonwealth of England. Oliver Cromwell Lord Pro-\ntector.\nThe English, under Admiral Penn, take possession of Jamaica.\nChristina Queen of Sweden resigns the Crown to Charles X.\n1655 tf Pope Alexander VII.\n1653 LEOPOLD I. Emperor of Germany.\nRichard Cromwell Lord Protector of England.\n1659 The Peace of the Pyrenees between France and Spain.\n1660 i)8Vlt8 II. King of Great Britain. Restoration of Monarchy.\nThe Peace of Oliva between Sweden, Denmark, and Poland.\n1662 The Royal Society instituted in England.\n1663 Charter of Carolina, and a colony settled soon after.\nThe French Academy of Inscriptions instituted.\n1664 The second Dutch War begins.\n1665 Charles II. King of Spain.\nGreat Plague in London.\n1666 Great Fire in London.\nThe Academy of Science instituted in France.\nSabatei Levi, in Turkey, pretends to be the Messiah.\n1667 The Peace of Breda, which confirms to the English Pennsylvania,\nNew- York, and New-Jersey.\nIT Pope Clement IX.\n1668 The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.\n1669 The Island of Candia taken by the Turks.\n1670 IT Pope Clement X.\n1672 Lewis XIV. conquers great part of Holland.\nThe De Witts put to death in Holland.\n1674 John Sobieski King of Poland.\n1676 II Pope Innocent XL\n1678 The Peace of Niraeguen, July 31.\nThe Habeas Corpus act passed in England.\n1679 The Long Parliament of Charles II. dissolved.\n1681 Peter the Great Czar of Muscovy.\n1683 Execution of Lord Russel, July 21.\nExecution of Algernon Sydney, December 7.\nThe Siege of Vienna by the Turks raised by John Sobioaki.\n1685 $amZU II. King of Great Britain.\nRevocation of the Edict of Nantes by Lewis XIV.\nDuke of Monmouth beheaded.\n1686 The Newtonian Philosophy first published in England.\nThe League of Augsburg against France.\n1688 Revolution in Britain. King James abdicates tne throne, Decem-\nber 23.\n1689 OTltiltant and J^atg King and Queen of Great Britain.\nEpiscopacy abolished in Scotland by King William.\nU Pope Alexander VIII.\n1690 Battle of the Boyne, July 1.\n1691 IT Pope Innocent XII.\n1692 Battle of La Hogue, May 19.\nThe Massacre of Glencoe in Scotland, January 31. O. S.\nBattle of Steedkirk. King William defeated by Luxemburg, Jul j 24\nHanover made the ninth Electorate of the Empire.","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0513.jp2"},"512":{"fulltext":"508 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.\nA. IK\n1695 Namur taken by King William, June 25.\n1697 Peace of Riswick concluded, September 11\nCharles XII. King of Sweden.\n1699 Peace of Carlovitz concluded, January 26.\n1700\nPhilip V. King of Spain.\nIf Pope Clement XI.\n170 1 Death of James II. at St. Germain s.\n1702 ^ttTHC Queen of Gteat Britain. Wai against France and Spain.\nThe English and Dutch destroy the French Fleet at Vigo.\nThe French send colonies to the Mississippi.\n1703 Gibraltar taken by Admiral Rooke, July 24.\n1704 Battle of Blenheim. The French defeated by Marlborough and\nPrince Eugene, August 2.\nPeter the Great founds St. Petersburgh.\n1705 The English take Barcelona.\nJOSEPH I. Emperor of Germany.\n1706 Battle of Ramilies. The French defeated by the Duke of Marlbo-\nrough, May 12.\nThe Treaty of Union between England and Scotland, signed July 22\n1707 The battle of Almanza. The French and Spaniards, under the Duke\nof Berwick, defeat the allies, April 14.\n1708 Battle of Oudenarde. The French defeated by Marlborough and\nEugene, June 30.\nMinorca taken by General Stanhope, September 18.\n1709 Battle of Pultowa. Charles XII. defeated by Czar Peter, June 30.\nBattle of Malplaquet. The French defeated by Marlborough and\nEugene, September 11.\n1711 CHARLES VI. Emperor of Germany.\n1713 The Peace of Utrecht signed March 30.\n1714 tQVQZ I. Elector of Hanover, King of Great Britain.\n1715 Leiois XV. King of France.\nThe Rebellion of Scotland. Battle of Sheriff-muir, November 13.\n1716 Prince Eugene defeats the Turks at Peterwaradin.\n1718 Charles XII. of Sweden killed at the sieg« of Frederickshall.\n1721 If Pope Innocent XIII.\n1724 If Pope Benedict XIII.\n1725 Death of Peter the Great, Czar of Muscovy Catharine Empress.\n1726 Great Earthquake at Palermo, August 21.\n1727 t0VQZ II. King of Great Britain.\n1727 Treaty of Copenhagen between Great Britain and Denmark.\nThe Spaniards besiege Gibraltar, May 20.\n1728 Treaty between Great Britain and Holland, May 27.\nThe Congress of Soissons, June 14.\n1729 Treaty of Seville between Great Britain, France, and Spain, Novem-\nber 9.\n1730 IT Pope Clement XII.\nChristian VI. King of Denmark.\nThe Persians under Kouli-Khan defeat the Turks.\n1731 Treaty between Great Britain, the Emperor, and King of Spain,\nJuly 22.\n1733 The Jesuits expelled from Paraguay, January.\nFrederick III. King of Poland.\n1734 Commercial Treaty between Great Britain and Russia, December 2.\n1735 The French defeat the Imperialists in Italy.\n1736 Peace between Spain and Austria.\nKouli-Khan (Nadir-Schah) proclaimed King of Persia, September 29.\n1737 War declared between the Emperor and the Turks, July 2*\n1738 The Russians invade the Crimea.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0514.jp2"},"513":{"fulltext":"CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. KMk\nA,l 6W\n1739 Nadir-Schah conquers the greater part of the Mogul Empire.\nTreaty between Great Britain and Denmark. ««»F»*\nPeace between the Emperor and the Turks, August 21\nPeace between Russia and the Turks, November.\n1/40 Frederick III. (the Great) King of Prussia.\nIT Pope Benedict XIV.\nWar between Poland and Hungary.\n1741 War declared between Russia and Sweden.\nThe Prussians masters of Silesia, October 20.\n1/42 Peace between Austria and Prussia, June 11.\nDefensive Alliance between Great Britain and Prussia, November 18.\nCHARLES VII. (of Bavaria) Emperor of Germany.\n1743 Defensive Alliance between Great Britain and Russia, February\nWar in Germany between the British, Hungarians, French, and\nAustnans.\nThe French defeated by the allies at Dettingen, June 6.\n1744 War declared in Great Britain against France, March 31.\nThe King of Prussia takes Prague.\nCommodore Anson completes his Voyage round the World\n1745 FRANCIS I. (of Lorraine) Emperor of Germany.\nQuadruple Alliance between Britain, Austria, Holland, and Poland.\nJanuary 3.\nThe allied army defeated by the French at Fontenoy, April 30.\nLouisburg and Cape Breton taken by the British troops, June 6.\nThe Rebellion breaks out in Scotland, July.\nTreaty of Dresden between Prussia, Poland, Austria, and Saxony,\nDecember 25.\n1746 Ferdinand VI. King of Spain.\nFrederick V. King of Denmark.\nCount Saxe takes Brussels and Antwerp.\nVictory of Culloden, which puts an end to the Rebellion in Scotland.\nApril 16.\nLords Balmerino and Kilmarnock beheaded, August 18.\nCount Saxe defeats the allies at Raucoux, October 11.\nDreadful Earthquake at Lima in Peru, October 17.\n1747 Kouli-Khan murdered. Revolution in Persia.\n1748 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle between Great Britain, France, Spain, Au\ntria, Sardinia, and Holland, October 7.\n1750 Joseph King of Portugal.\nAcademy of Sciences founded at Stockholm.\n1751 Adoiphus of Holstem King of Sweden.\nPeace between Spain and Portugal.\n1752 New Style introduced in Britain, September, 3 reckoned 14.\n1753 The Brkish Museum established in Montague house.\n1754 Great Eruption of iEtna.\nGreat Earthquake at Constantinople and Cairo, Septembers.\n1755 Lisbon destroyed by an Earth make, November 1.\n1756 War declared between Great llntain and France, May 18.\n1757 The King of Prussia conquers Silesia.\n1758 H Pope Clement XIII.\n1759 The French defeated by the allied army at Minden, August 1.\nCharles III. King of Spain.\nThe Jesuits expelled from Portugal, September 3.\nGeneral Wolfe takes Quebec in Canada, September 17.\n1760 Montreal and Canada taken by the British, September 8.\niffieOrge HI. King of Great Britain, October 25.\n1762 Peter III. Emperor of Russia.\nThe Jesuits banished from France, August.\nPeace between Great Britain and France at Fontainebleau, Novem\nber3.\nUu2","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0515.jp2"},"514":{"fulltext":"51 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.\nA. D.\n1763 Peace between Great Britain, France, and Spain, at Paris, February 10.\nCatharine II. Empress of Russia.\n1764 Stanislaus II. King of Poland.\nByron s Discoveries in the South Seas.\n1765 JOSEPH II. Emperor of Germany.\n1766 The Jesuits expelled from Bohemia and Denmark.\nChristian VII. King of Denmark.\n1767 The Jesuits expelled from Spain, Genoa, and Venice.\nDiscoveries of Wallis and Carteret in the South Seas.\n1768 Royal Academy of Arts established at London.\nThe Jesuits expelled from Naples, Malta, and Parma.\nBougainville s Discoveries in the South Seas.\n1769 IT Pope Clement XIV.\nCook s first Discoveries in the South Seas.\nCorsica taken by the French, June 13.\n1770 Earthquake at St. Domingo.\n1771 Gustavus III. King of Sweden.\n1772 Revolution in Sweden, August 10.\nPoland dismembered by Russia, Prussia, and Austria.\n1773 Cook s second Voyage and Discoveries.\nThe Society of Jesuits suppressed by the Pope s bull, August 25.\n1774 Lewis XVI. King of France.\n1775 Battle of Bunker s Hill in North America, June 17.\n1776 IT Pope Pius VI.\nThe Americans declare their Independence, July 4.\n1777 Mary Queen of Portugal.\nSurrender of the British Army under Burgoyne at Saratoga, in the\nstate of New- York, October 17.\n1778 League between the French and Americans, October 30.\n1779 Peace between the Imperialists and Prussians, May 13.\nGreat Eruption of Vesuvius, August 8.\nSiege of Gibraltar by the Spaniards, July.\nCaptain Cook killed in the Island of Owyhee.\n1780 Great Riots in London on account of the Popish Bill, June 2.\nWar declared between Great Britain and Holland, December 20.\n1781 Surrender of the British Army under Cornwallis to the Americans and\nFrench at Yorktown in Virginia, October 18.\n1782 Sir G. Rodney defeats the French fleet off Dominica, April 12.\n1783 Peace between Great Britain, France, and Spain, and the Independ\nence of America declared, January 20.\n1784 Peace between Great Britain and Holland, May 24.\n1785 Treaty of Alliance between Austria, France, and Holland, Novera\nber9.\n1786 Frederick IV. King of Prussia.\n1788 Defensive Alliance between England and Holland, April 25.\n1789 Selim III. Grand Seignior, April.\nGeorge Washington first President of the United States, April.\nThe Bastille at Paris taken and destroyed, and the Governor mass*\ncred, July 14.\n1790 Monastic Establishments suppressed in France, February 13.\nWar commenced in India with Tippoo Sultan, May 1.\nLEOPOLD II. Emperor of Germany.\n1792 FRANCIS II. Emperor of Germany.\nGustavus III. King of Sweden assassinated by Ankerstrom, March 29.\nGustavus IV. King of Sweden. Duke of Sudermania Regent in his\nminority.\nThe Thuilleries attacked. The King and Queen of France take\nrefuge in tbe National Assembly. The Swiss guards massacred by\nthe populace, August 10.\nThe Royal Family of France imprisoned in the Temple, August 14.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0516.jp2"},"515":{"fulltext":"CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 6n\nA.D.\n1798 A dreadful massacre of the state-prisoners at Paris, September 2, 3.\nThe National Convention is constituted, the King deposed, and France\ndeclared a Republic, September 21\nSavoy incorporated with the French Republic, November 27.\nLewis XVI. is brought to trial, and answers each article of accusation,\nDecember 14.\n1793 Lewis XVI. condemned to death by a majority of five voices, Janua-\nry 17, and beheaded, January 21.\nRussia declares war against France, January 31.\nThe French Convention declares war against England and Holland,\nFebruary 1.\nQueen of France condemned to death and beheaded, October 15.\n1794 Robespierre, with his chief partisans, guillotined, July 28.\n1795 The Stadtholder takes refuge in England. Holland overrun by the\nFrench, January.\nLyons bombarded, laid in ruins, and all its loyal inhabitants massacred,\nMay.\nLewis XVII. died in prison at Paris, June 8.\nThe Cape of Good Hope taken by the British, September 16.\nBelgium incorporated with the French Republic, September 30.\nStanislaus II. resigns the Crown of Poland. The kingdom divided\nbetween Russia, Austria, and Prussia, November 25.\n1796 The French overrun and plunder Italy.\nDeath of Catharine II. Paul Emperor of Russia, November 17.\n1797 John Adams President of the United States, March 4.\nThe Dutch Fleet beaten and captured by Admiral Duncan, Octo-\nber 11.\n1798 The Papal Government suppressed by the French. The Pope quits\nRome, February 26.\nIreland in open rebellion, May, June, c.\nAdmiral Nelson destroys the French Fleet in the battle of the Nile,\nAugust 1.\nThe Swiss finally defeated, and their Independence abolished, Sep-\ntember 19.\n1799 Seringapatam taken by General Harris, and Tippoo Sultan killed,\nMay 4.\nDeath of Pope Pius VI., September.\nA Revolution at Paris. Bonaparte declared First Consul, Decem-\nber 25.\n1800\nUnion of Britain and Ireland.\nBonaparte defeats the Austrians in the battle of Marengo in Italy,\nJune 14.\nArmistice between the French and Austrians in Germany, July 15.\nThe new Pope, Pius VII., restored to his government by the Emperor,\nJuly 25.\nMalta taken by the British, September 5.\n1801 First meeting of the Imperial Parliament of Britain and Ireland,\nJanuary.\nThomas Jefferson President of the United States, March 4.\nDeath of Paul. Alexander I. Emperor of Russia, March 23\nBattle of Copenhagen, in which the Danes are defeated by Lord Nel-\nson, April 3.\n1802 The Catholic Religion re-established in France, March.\nTreaty of peace between Britain and France.\nThe King of Sardinia resigns his crown to his brother, July.\nBonaparte declared Chief Consul for life, July.\nWar between France, and Germany, and Russia, in which the Frencli\nare successful.\n1803 War between Britain and France","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0517.jp2"},"516":{"fulltext":"6 £j CHKONOLOGICAL TABLE.\n1804 Emperor of Germany assumes the title of Emperor of Austria, Au-\ngust 11.\nBonaparte croicned Emperor of France, December 2.\n1805 Bonaparte King of Italy, March.\nLord Nelson defeats the combined fleets of France and Spain off Cape\nTrafalgar, takes or destroys 19 ships of the line, and is killed in the\nbattle, October 21.\nWar between England and Spain.\n1806 Louis Bonaparte crowned King of Holland, June.\nThe British Parliament vote the Abolition of the Slave Trade, June 10.\nFrancis II. resigns the office of Emperor of Germany, August 2.\nWar between France and Prussia.\nBattle of Jena and total defeat of the Prussians, October 14.\n1807 War between France and Russia, in which the French are successful\nCopenhagen taken by the British, and the Danish fleet carried to Eng\nland.\nTreaty of Peace between France, and Russia, and Prussia.\n1808 Abolition of the Slave Trade in the United States of America, Janua-\nry 1.\nWar between Russia and Sweden.\nBonaparte seizes Portugal, and the Royal Family flee to Brazil.\nBonaparte seizes the Royal Family of Spain. War between Franca\nand Spain.\n1809 Battle of Corunna, January 16.\nFall of Saragossa, February 21.\nJames Madison President of the United States, March 4.\nGustavus IV. King of Sweden deposed, and Charles XIII. proclaimed,\nMarch 13.\nWar between France and Austria, April 6.\nFrench enter Vienna, May 12.\nWar between Russia and Austria, May 22.\nThe Papal States united to France, June 1.\nBattle of Talavera, July 24.\nPeace of Vienna between Austria and France, October 14.\n1810 Bonaparte divorces the Empress Josephine, January 16.\nHe marries the Arch-Duchess Maria Louisa of Austria, April 1.\nLouis Bonaparte abdicates the throne of Holland, July 1.\nHolland annexed to the French.\nPopulation of the United States, 7,239,903.\n1811 Prince of Wales appointed Regent, February 8.\nTwo hundred buildings and large quantities of goods burnt in New\nburyport, Mass.\nMassacre in Cairo, when about 1,000 Mamelukes lost their live*\nMarch 1.\nA Son born to Napoleon Bonaparte, styled King of Rome, March 20\nBatavia captured by the English, August 8.\nAn unusually large comet appeared, September 1\nRichmond Theatre burnt, December 26.\n1812 Great Earthquake at Carraccas, March 26\nPerceval, Prime Minister of England, assassinated, May 11.\nWar against Great Britain declared by the United States, June 18\nGeneral Hull and his army taken prisoners in Canada, August 16.\nBattle of Smolensko, August 17.\nBattle of Moskwa, September 7.\nThe French army enter Moscow, 14th September.\nBritish Frigate Guerriere captured, August 29.^\ndo. do. Macedonia captured, October 25.\ndo. do. Java captured, December 29.\n1613 Lewis XVIII. publishes an Address to the people of France, Fab\nruary 1.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0518.jp2"},"517":{"fulltext":"CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 51*\nAD.\n1813 Treaty between Great Britain and Sweden, March 3.\nSweden declares War against France, March 3.\nThe Russian troops enter Hamburgh, March 18.\nPrussia joins Russia against France, March.\nSpanish Inquisition abolished by the Cortes, April.\nBattle of Vittoria, in Spain, June 2.\nAustria declares War against France, August 11.\nGeneral Moreau killed, August 28.\nCommodore Perry captures the British squadron, on lake Erie, Sep-\ntember 10. r\nBattle of Leipsic, October 19.\nThe Prince of Orange assumes the title of Sovereign Prince of the\nNetherlands, December 2.\nThe Russians and their Allies enter France, December 23.\n1814 The Pope released by Bonaparte, January 23.\nLord Wellington took possession of Bordeaux, February 13.\nParis capitulates to the Allies, March 30.\nTho Allies enter Paris, April 1.\nNapoleon Bonaparte dethroned, April 4, and banished to the Island of\nElba, for which he sails, April 28.\nLouis XVIII., being called to the throne of France, mado his entry\ninto Paris, May 3.\nGeneral Peace in Europe, May 30.\nThe Allied Sovereigns visit London, June 8.\nInquisition restored in Spain, July 18.\nNorway annexed to Sweden, August 14.\nCity of Washington taken by the British, August 24.\nBritish Squadron on Lake Champlain captured by Commodore M Don-\nough, September 11.\nGeneral Congress of Vienna, November 7.\nPensacola taken by General Jackson, November 7.\nTreaty of Peace between the United States and Great Britain signed\nat Ghent, December 24.\nThe British repulsed at New-Orleans, December 28.\n1815 The British completely defeated and General Packenham slain at\nNew-Orleans, January 8.\nUnited States Frigate President taken by a British squadron, Janua-\nry 15.\nPeace between Great Britain and the United States ratified Februa-\nry 24.\nBonaparte sailed from Elba, February 2(3 lands in France, March 1—\nenters Paris, March 26.\nBonaparte left Paris to meet the Allies, May 2.\nBattle of Waterloo, June 17 and 18.\nBonaparte surrenders himself to the British, July 15.\nJoachim Murat, King of Naples, shot for High Treason, October 13.\nBonaparte landed at St. Helena, October 13.\nMarshal Ney shot for High Treason, December 7.\n1816 Jesuits expelled from Petersburgh and Moscow, January 2.\nSt. Johns, Newfoundland, destroyed by fire, February 18.\nPrincess Charlotte of Wales married to Prince Leopold, May 2.\nLord Cochrane tried for breaking out of Prison, August 17.\nHe is released by a penny subscription, December 7.\nIndiana admitted into the Union as a State, December.\n1817 United States Bank opened for business at Philadelphia, January 1.\nAmerican Colonization Society for free Blacks organized, January 1,\nJames Monroe President of the United States, March 4.\nPernambuco declared itself Independent, April 5.\nPortuguese authority established at Pernambuco, May 18.\nDey of Algiers assassinated, September.\n65","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0519.jp2"},"518":{"fulltext":"1614 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.\nA. D.\n1817 Death of Princess Caroline, November 6.\nMississippi admitted into the Union as a State, December 11\n1818 Queen of England dies.\nCharles XIII. of Sweden dies, and is succeeded by Prince Bernadotte\nFrance evacuated by the Allies, October.\nIllinois admitted into the Union as a State, December 4.\nCommercial Treaties concluded between the United States on one\npart and Great Britain and Sweden on the other.\nAlleghany College established.\n1819 A Treaty for the cession of Florida to the United States signed at\nWashington, February 23.\nFirst Steam Ship sails for Europe, May.\nCommodore Perry dies in the West Indies, August 23.\nAlabama admitted into the Union as a State, December.\n1820 George III., King of England, dies January 29.\n($xt OtQZ IV. succeeds to the throne of Great Britain and Ireland.\nThe Duke of Berry assassinated, February 14.\nMaine admitted into the Union as a State.\nQueen Caroline of England prosecuted for Adultery.\nAnother Revolution, which gives a Free Constitution to the Spanish\nnation.\nPopulation of the United States, 9,625,734.\n1821 Missouri admitted into the Union as a State.\nAn attempt to destroy the Royal Family of France, January 27.\nBritish Government issue a Manifesto respecting the Holy Alliance,\nFebruary.\nNapoleon Bonaparte dies at St. Helena, May 5, 1821, aged 52.\nQueen Caroline of England dies, August 7, 1821.\nElias Boudinot, President of the American Bible Society, dies.\n1822 William Pinckney dies, February 26.\nIturbide declared himself Emperor of Mexico.\nColumbian College established.\nMassacre of Greeks at Scio.\nRevolution in Portugal with a Cortes and Free Constitution.\nDon Pedro, son of the King of Portugal, declared Emperor of Bi Jtils\n1823 Iturbide dethroned and banished to Italy.\nFrance declares War against Spain, and invades it with a large army\nCounter Revolution in Portugal.\nTreaty of Peace between Spain and Buenos Ayres, July 4.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0520.jp2"},"519":{"fulltext":"COMPARATIVE VIEW\nANCIENT\nAND OF\nMODERN GEOGRAPHY.\nIn the following Tables the Countries unknown to Ancients, or of which\nthe Names are uncertain, are left blank.\nThe same numbers in the two adjacent columns on each page indicate the\nancient and modern names of the same countries or places.\nMODERN EUROPE. ANCIENT EUROPE.\nGREENLAND, or the Arctic Conti-\nnent.\nSPITSBERGEN (Island.)\nICELAND, (Island,) belonging to\nNorway.\nNORWAY. SCANDINAVIA, SCANDIA, vei\n1. Wardhuis, or Norwegian Lap- BALTIA.\nland.\n2. Drontheim. 2. Nerigon.\n3. Bergen. 3. Sitones.\n4. Aggerhuis, or Christiana.\nSWEDEN.\n1. Lapland and West Bothnia. 1. Scritofinni.\n2. Sweden Proper. 2. Suiones.\n3. Gothland. 3. Gutas et Hilleviones.\n4. Finland. 4 Finningia.\n5. Islands of Gothland— Oeland, 5 Insula? Sinus Cedani.\nAland, Rugen.\nDENMARK.\nJutland. Chersonesus Cimbrica*\n1. Alburg. 1. Cimbri.\n2. Wyburg.","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0521.jp2"},"520":{"fulltext":"516 COMPARATIVE VIEW OF\nMODERN EUROPE, ANCIENT EUROPE.\n3. Aarhusen.\n4. Rypen.\n5. Sleswick.\nIslands in the Baltic.\n1. Zealand.\n2. Funen.\n3. Falster.\n4. Longeland.\n5. Laland.\n6. Feneren.\n7. Alsen.\n8. Mocn.\n9. Bornholm.\nRUSSIA IN EUROPE.\n1. Livonia and Estonia.\n2. Ingria, or the Government of\nPetersburg.\n3. Carelia, or the Government of\nWiburg.\n4. Novogrod.\n5. Archangel, Samoiedia.\nS. Moscow.\n7. Nishnei Novogrod.\n8. Smolenski.\n9. Kiew.\n10. Bielgorod.\n11. Woronesk.\n12. Azoff.\nFRANCE.\n1. Picardy.\n2. Isle of France.\n3. Champagne.\n4. Normandy.\n5. Bretany.\n6. Orleannois.\n7. Lionnois.\n8. Provence.\n9* Languedoc.\n10. Guiennc.\n11. Gascoigne.\n12. Dauphine.\n13. Burgundy and Franche-cemte.\n14. Lorraine and Alsace.\nUNITED PROVINCES, OR KING-\nDOM OF HOLLAND.\n1. Holland.\n2. Friesland.\n3. Zealand.\n4. Groningen.\n5. Overyssel.\n3. Harudes.\n4. Phundusii, Sigulones.\n5. Sabalingii.\nInsula Sinus Codani.\n1, 2. Teutones.\nSARMATIA EUROPiEA\n1. Hirri et iEstii vel Ostionef\n4. Budini.\n6. Basilici.\n8. Cariones.\n10 4. Budini.\n11. Roxolani.\n12. lazyges.\nGALLIA.\n1. Ambiani.\n2. Bellovaci, Parisii, Suessonea.\n3. Remi, Catalauni, Tricasses, 13\nLingones.\n4. Unelli vel Veneti, Saii, Lex-\novii, Veliocasses.\n5. Osismii, Veneti, Namnetes,\nAndes, Redonee.\n6. Aureliani, Carnutes, Seno-\nnes, Turones, Pictones,\nBituriges.\n7. iEdui, Segusiani.\n8. Salyes, Cavares.\n9. Volcae, Arecomici, Helvii, To\nlosates.\n10. Petrocorii, Bituriges, Cadurci,\nRuteni.\n11. Aquitani.\n12. Allobroges, Centrones.\n13. Lingones, ^Edui, Sequani.\n14. Leuci, Mediomatrici, Tribooi»\nNemetes.\nc2\nSAXONES.\n1, 2. Frisit\n4. Cauci vel Chauei\n5. Franci.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0522.jp2"},"521":{"fulltext":"ANOTSNT AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY. sir\nMODERN EUROPE. ANCIENT EUROPE.\n6. Guelderland and Zutphen,\n7. Utrecht.\n6. Bructeri, Catti, Sicambri.\n7. Batavi.\nNETHERLANDS,\n•SLONGING TO FRANCE AND HOLLAND.\nBELGiE, Ac.\n1. Brabant.\n1. Menapii, Tungrii.\n2. Antwerp.\n2. Toxandri.\n3. Mechlen or Malines.\n4. Limburgh.\n4, 5. Alemanni.\n5. Luxemburgb.\n6. Namur.\n6. TreverL\n7. Hainault.\n7. Remi.\n8. Cambreais.\n9. Artoie.\n9. Atrebates, Veromandui.\n10. Flanders.\n10. Belgse, Morini.\nGERMANY.\nNATIONES GERMANIC/E.\n1. Upper Saxony.\n1. Seuvi, Ling®, c.\n2. Lower Saxony.\n2. Saxones, Longobardi, Gam-\nbrivii.\n3. Cherusci, Chamavi, Gauchi,\n1\na\n3. Westphalia.\nGermania Inferior.\n33\n4. Upper Rhine.\n4. Germania Superior\n03\n5. Lower Rhine.\n5. Marci, Tinderi.\n6. Franconia.\n6. Marcomanni, Heitaonduri.\n7. Austria.\n7. Noricum.\n8. Bavaria.\n8. Rheetia.\n9. Saabia.\n9. Yindelicia.\nBOHEMIA.\n1. Bohemia Proper.\n1. Boiohoemuro.\n2. Silesia.\n2. Corconti.\n3. Moravia.\n3. Quadi.\nPOLAND.\nGERMANOSARMATiE.\n1. Greater Poland.\n1. Peucini.\n2. Less Poland.\n2. Lugii.\n3. Prussia Royal.\n3, 4. Burgundiones, Rugii, G*-\n4. Prussia Ducal.\nthones.\n5. Samogitia.\n5. Ombroges.\n6. Courland.\n6. Scyri.\n7. Lithuania.\n7 t 6. Germano-Sarmatia.\n8. Warsovia.\n9. Polachia.\n10. Polesia.\n11. Red Russia.\n11, 12, ia Bastams.\n12. Podolia.\n13. Yolhinia.\nSPAIN.\nHISPANIA, vel IBERIA.\n1. Gallicia.\n1, 2, 3. Galleecia Cantabri, As-\n2. Asturia.\ntures, Varduli.\n3. Biscay.\n4. Navarre.\n4, 5, 6. Tarraconensia— Vascones,\n5. Arragon.\n6. Catalonia.\nValetani.\n7. Valentia.\n7, 8. Carthaginensis iEditani,\n8. Murcia.\nContestani\n9. Granada.\n9, 10. Beetica Bastiani, Bastuli,\n10- Andalusia.\nTurdetani, c.","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0523.jp2"},"522":{"fulltext":"618 COMPARATIVE VIEW OF\nMODERN EUROPE. ANCIENT EUROPE.\n11. Old Castile.\n11. Gallaecise pars Accaei, Arevaci.\n12. New Castile.\n12. Tarraconensis para Carpetani,\nOretanj.\n13. Leon.\n13. OaHaciae pars Vettones.\n14. Estremadura.\n14. Lusitaniae pars Baeturia.\nSPANISH ISLANDS.\nINSULiE HISPANIC*.\nIvica.\nBaleares.\nMajorca.\nMinorca.\nPORTUGAL.\nLUSITANIA.\nEntre Minho e Douro.\nCalliaci, Lusitani, Celtici.\nTralos JHQOtes.\nBeira.\nEstremadvra\nEntre Tajo.\nAlentajo.\nAlgarva.\nSWITZERLAND.\nHELVETIA.\nt. Bern.\n1, 2, 3, 4. Ambrones.\n2. Friburg.\n3. Basil or Bale.\n4. Lucem.\n5. Soloturn.\n6. Schaffhausen.\n6, 7, 8, 9, 10. Tigurini.\n7. Zurick.\n8. Appenzel.\n9. Zug.\n10. Schweitz.\n11. Glaris.\n12- Uri.\n13. Underwald.\n14. Geneva.\n14. Nantuates.\n15. Grisons, fec\n15. Veragri, Vallis Pennina, L«-\npontii.\nITALY.\nITALIA.\n1. Savoy.\n1. Lepontii, Segusini, Taa-\nrini.\n2. Piedmont.\nOrobi.\n3. Montfenrat.\n4:insubre8.( Li uria\nid\n4. Milan.\nIt\n5. Genoa.\n5.\n6. Parma.\n6. Anamani.\nV\n7. Modena.\n7. Boii.\n8. Mantua.\n8. Cenomani.\nSS\n9. Venice.\n9. Venetia.\n5\n10. Trent.\n10. Tridentini. J\n11. The Popedom.\n11. Lingones, Senones, Picnum, Urn-\nbna, Sabini, Pars Latii.\n12. Tuscany.\n12. Tuscia vel Etruria.\n13 Lucca.\n13. Pars Tusciae.\n14. San Marino.\n14. Pars Umbriae.\n15. Kingdom of Naples.\n15. Samnium, Pars Latii* Apulia,\nCampania, Lucania, Bruttiura.\nITALIAN ISLANDS.\nINSULA ITALICiE.\n1. Sicily.\n2. Sardinia.\n1. Si cilia, Sicania, vel Trinacria.\n2. Sardo, vel Sardinia.\n3. Corsica.\n3. Cyrnus, vel Corsica.\n4. Malta.\n4. Melita.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0524.jp2"},"523":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY.\n61#\nMODERN EUROPE.\nANCIENT EUROPE.\n5. Lipari Islands.\n5.\nLipariae Insulae.\n6. Capri, Ischia, c.\nHUNGARY.\n6. Capreae, Ischia, c.\nTRANSYLVANIA.\nDACIA.\nSCLAVONIA.\nPANNONIA.\nCROATIA.\nILLYRICUM.\nTURKEY IN EUROPE.\n1. Dalmatia.\n1 Dalmatia.\n2. Bosnia.\n2. Maesia Superior.\n3. Servia.\n3. Dacia Ripensis.\n4. Wallachia.\n4. Getoe.\n5. Moldavia and Bessarabia.\n5. Pars Dacia?\n6. Bulgaria.\n6. Maesia Inferior.\n7. Albania.\n7. Epirus.\n8. Macedonia.\n8. Macedonia.\n9. Romania.\n9. Thracia.\n10. Livadia.\n*3\n10. Thessalia.\n11. Morea.\nS 1\n11. Peloponnesus.\n12. Scythia et pars Dacis.\n13. Parva Scythia.\n14. Taurioa Chersonesu.\n12. Budziac Tartary or\nBessarabia.\ne\n13. Little Tartary.\n14. Crimea.\nGREEK ISLANDS.\nINSULiE MARIS IONII.\n1. Corfu.\n1. Corcyra.\n2. Cephalonia.\n2. Cephalenia.\n3. Zante.\n3. Zacynthus.\n4. Ithace, Thiace, c.\n4. Ithaca, c.\nGREEK ISLANDS\nIN THE\nARCHIPELAGO.\nINSULA MARIS JEGJEl\n1 Candia.\n1. Creta.\n2. Negropont.\n3. Stalimene.\n2. Eubcea\n3. Lemnos.\n4. Scyro, c.\n4. Scyros, fec.\nGREAT BRITAIN.\nSCOTLAND.\nSCOTIA.\n1. Edinburgh.\n2. Haddington.\n1 JDamnii. Vecturiones.\n3. Berwick.\n3. Ottodini.\n4. Roxburgh.\n1\n5. Selkirk.\n6. Dumfries.\nI [Selgov».\n7. Kircudbright.\n7.\n8. Peebles.\n9\n9. Wigton.\n10. Lanerk.\n10 I Novantes.\n11. Air.\nii. J\n12. Dumbarton.\n12.\n13. Bute.\n13 f f\n14. Renfrew.\n14. Damnii. Picti.\n15. Stirling.\n\\l\n16. Linlithgow.\n16. J\n17. Fife.\n18. Clackmannan.\nJ° Caledonu. Picti.\n19. Kinross.\ni 1 1\n20. Perth.\n20.\n81. Argyle.\n21.\nEpidii, GaJwii, Ceronet","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0525.jp2"},"524":{"fulltext":"620 COMPARXf 1VE ViEW OF\nMODfettN feUttO*»E. ANCIENT EtfttOPE.\n22. Vernicones.\n23. Horesta\n24. VAttacoti.\nTaezali.\nVacomagi.\nCant®, f\n[ertae.\n33. Orcades.\n34. Thule.\nANGLIA.\n1* I Damnonii.\n3. Durotriges.\n4\n5. Beige.\n6. S\n22.\nKincardine.\n23.\nForfar.\n24.\nAberdeen.\n25.\nBanff.\n26.\nElgin.\nNairn.\n27.\n28.\nInverness.\n29.\nRoss.\n30.\nCromarty.\n31.\nSoutherland.\n32.\nCaithness.\n33.\nOrkney.\n34.\nShetland.\nENGLAND.\n1.\nCornwall.\n2.\nDevonshire.\n3.\nDorsetshire.\n4.\nHampshire^\n5.\nSomersetshire.\n6.\nWiltshire.\n7.\nBerkshire.\n8.\nOxfordshire.\n9.\nGloucestershire.\n10.\nMonmouthshire.\n11.\nHerefordshire.\n12.\nWorcestershire.\n13.\nStaffordshire.\n14.\nShropshire.\n15.\nEssex.\n16.\nHartfordshire.\n17.\nKent.\n18\nSurry.\n19.\nSussox.\n20.\nNorfolk.\n21\nSuffolk.\n22\nCambridgeshire.\n23\nHuntingdonshire.\n24\nBedfordshire.\n25\nBuckinghamshire.\n26\nLincolnshire.\n27\nNottinghamshire.\nDerbyshire.\n28\n29\nRutlandshire.\n30\nLeicestershire.\n31\nWarwickshire.\n32\nNorthamptonshire.\n33\nNorthumberland.\n34\nDurham.\n35\nYorkshire.\n36\nLancashire.\n87\nWestmoreland.\n38\nCumberland.\n39\nCheshire.\n4(1\nMiddlesex.\nScoti.\nSilures.\n7. Attrebatii.\n^Dobuni.\nio!\n11.\n12.\n13. VCornavii.\n14.\n15. Trinobarrtes.\n16. Catieuchlani.\n17. Cantii.\nSimoni, vel Ieeni.\n20.\n21.\n22.\n23. V Catienchlani.\n24.\n25. Attrebatii.\n26. -v\n27.\n28. VCoritani.\n29. V\n30. J\n31. Cornavi.\n32. Catieuchlani.\n38.\n39. uornavu.\n40. Attrebates et Catieuchlani.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0526.jp2"},"525":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 681\nMODERN EUROPE. ANCIENT EUROPE.\nWALES.\n1. Anglesey.\n2. Flintshire.\n3. Montgomery.\n4. Denbighshire.\n5. Carnarvonshire.\n6. Merioneth.\n7. Cardiganshire.\n8. Carmarthenshire.\n9. Pembrokeshire.\n10. Radnorshire.\n11. Brecknocksnire.\n12. Glamorganshire.\nIRELAND.\n1. Louth.\n2. Meath East.\n3. Meath West.\n4. Longford.\n5. Dublin.\n6. Kildare.\n7. King s County.\n8. Queen s County.\n9. Wicklow.\n10. Carlow.\n11. Wexford.\nk 12. Kilkenny.\n13. Donnegal or Tyrconnel.\n14. Londonderry.\n15. Antrim.\n16. Tyrone.\n17. Fermanagh.\n18. Armagh.\n19. Down.\n20. Monaghan.\n21. Cavan.\n22. Cork County.\n23. Waterford.\n24. Tipperary.\n25. Limorick.\n26. Kerry.\n27. Clare.\ng f28. Galway.\nw 29. Roscommon.\n3 30. Mayo.\ne 31. Sligoe.\nQ [32. Leitrim.\nBRITANNIC ISLANDS\n1. Shetland and Orkney.\n2. Western Isles of Scotland.\n3. Man.\n4. Anglesey.\n5. Wight Xft\n1. Mona Insula.\n2.\nOrdovices.\nDemetse.\nSilures.\nHIBERNIA,vel IRENE.\n1. Voluntii.\n3 SCauci.\n4. Auteri.\n5.\n6.\n7.\n8.\n9.\nI j ManapiL\n12. Coriondi.\n13. Vennicnii.\n14.\n15. Robogdii.\n16. S\n17. Erdini.\nBlanii.\nCorondi.\n(lanii.\nVoluntii.\n21. Cauci.\n22. Vodiffl, Inverni.\nBrigantea.\nVelabori.\nGangani.\nLUteri.\nJO.\nil. Nagnats.\nKb. j\nINSULiE BRITANNIC^\n1. Thule.\n2. Ebudes Insuls9.\n3. Monaeda vel Mona,\n4. Mona.\n5. Vectis.\n66","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0527.jp2"},"526":{"fulltext":"S2« COMPARATIVE VlfeW OF\nMODERN ASIA. ANCIENT ASIA.\nTURKEY IN ASIA.\nASIA MINOR.\n1. Natolia.\n1. Mysla, Lydia, Caria, Phrygia,\nBithynia, Galatia, Paphlago-\nnia.\n2. Pontui.\n2. Amasia or Siwas.\n3. Aladulia.\n3. Armenia.\n4. Caramania.\n4. Cappadoeia, Cilicia, c.\n5. Babylonia, Chaldea.\n5. Irak.\n6. Diarbeck.\n6. Mesopotamia.\n7. Curdistan.\n7. Assyria.\n8. Turcomania.\n9. Georgia.\na Armenia Major.\n10 Syria and Palestine.\n10. Syria, Palmyrene, Phcenicia, Jo-\ndaM.\nARABIA.\nARABIA.\nArabia Petreea.\nArabia Petrcea.\nArabia Deserta.\nArabia Deserta.\nArabia Felix.\nArabia Felix.\nPERSIA.\nPERSIA.\n1. Chorassan.\n1. Pars Hyrcanise et Sogdiaius.\n2. Balk, Seblustan, Candahar.\n2. Bactrania.\n3. Sigistan.\n3. Drangiana.\n4. Makeran.\n4.\n5. Kerman.\n5. Gedrosia.\n6. Farsistan.\n6. Persis.\n7. Chusestan.\n7. Susiana.\n8. Irak Agem.\n8. Parthia.\n9. Curdestan.\n9. Pars Assyria.\n10. Aderbeitzen.\n10. Media.\n11. Georgia.\n11.\n12. Gangea.\n12. Iberia, Colchis, et Albania.\n13. Dagestan.\n13. S\n14. Mazanderam.\n15. Gilan Taberistan.\n15. Pars Hyrcanise.\n16. Pars Albanise.\n16. Chirvan.\nINDIA.\nINDIA.\nMogol.\nIndie intra Gangem.\nDelhi.\nPalibothra.\nAgra.\nAgora.\nCambaia.\nRegna Pori et Taxiris.\nBengal.\nIndia within the Ganges.\nDecan.\nDachanos.\nGolconda.\nPrasii vel Gangarids.\nBisnagar.\nMalabar.\nMale.\nIsland of Ceylon.\nTaprobana Insula vel Salice.\nIndia beyond the Ganges.\nIndia extra Gangem.\nPegu\nTonquin\nCochinchina\nSiam.\nSinarum Regio.\nCHINA.\nNiuche.\nCorea.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0528.jp2"},"527":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY.\nMODERN ASIA.\nANCIENT ASIA.\nLaotong.\nmam.\nPekin.\nXansi.\nSerica.\nXensi.\nXantum.\nCathwu\nNanking.\nChekiam.\nHonan.\nHuquam.\nKiarasi.\nFokien.\nCanton.\nSuchuen.\nQuecheu.\nIfunara.\nCHINESE ISLANDS.\nFormosa.\nAinan.\nMacao.\nBashee Islands.\nRUSSIA IN ASIA.\n1. Astracan.\n1. Sarmatia Asiatics.\n2. Orenburg.\n2.\n3. Casan.\n4. Siberia Tobolsk, Jeniseia, Ir-\nJ Scythia .intra Imai\nkutsk, Kamschatka.\nINDEPENDENT TARTARY.\n1. Great Bucharia.\n1. Bactriana, Sogdiant.\n2. Karasm.\n2. Aria.\nALUTH TARTARS.\nSCYTHIA extra 11\n1. Little Bucharia.\n1.\n2. Casgar.\n3. Turkestan.\n2.\n3.\n4. Kabnac Tartars.\n4.\n5. Thibet.\n5.\n6. Little Thibet.\n6,\nCHINESE TARTARY.\nB1NM,\nKalkas.\nMongol Tartars.\nMantchou Tartars.\nCorea.\nISLANDS OF CHINESE TAR.\nTARY.\nSagalien-Ula-hata.\nJedso.\nISLANDS OF JAPAN.\nJapan or Niphon.\nXicoco.\nXimo.\nPHILIPPINE ISLES.\nLucon or Manilla.\nMindanao, c.\nMARIAN OR LADRONE\nISLANDS.\nTinian.","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0529.jp2"},"528":{"fulltext":"684 COMPARATIVE VIEW OF\nMODERN ASIA. ANCIENT ASIA.\nISLES OF SUNDA\nBorneo.\nSumatra.\nJava, c.\nMOLUCCA ISLES\nCelebes.\nAmboyna.\nCeram.\nTimor.\nFlores, c.\nMALDIVA ISLES.\nMODERN AFRICA.\nANCIENT AFRICA.\nBARBARY.\n1. Morocco.\n2. Algiers.\n3. Tunis.\n4. Tripoli.\n5. Barca.\n1. Egypt.\n2. BlLDULGERID.\n3. Zaara, or the Desert.\n4. Negroland.\n5. Guinea.\n6. Upper Ethiopia\nNubia, Abyssinia, Abex.\n7. Lower Ethiopia\n8. Lower Guinea-\nLoango, Congo, Angola, Ben-\nguela, Matanan.\n9. Ajan.\n10. Zanguebar.\n11. Monomotapa.\n12. monoemugi.\n13* Sofola.\n14. Terra de Natal.\n15. Cafraria, or country of the\nHottentots.\n1. Mauritania Tingitana.\n2. Mauritania Caesariensis.\n3. Numidia, Africa Propria.\n4. Tripolitana.\n5. Cyrenaica, Libya Superior.\n1. iEGTPTUS.\n2. Libya Inferior, Gatulia.\n3. solitudines.\n4. autololes.\n6. ^Ethiopia et Libya pars.\n7. /Ethiopia pan.\nNORTH AMERICA.\nBRITISH AMERICA.\n1. The countries on the east and west side of Baffin s and Hudson s Bays\n2. Labrador, or New Britain.\n3. Canada.\n4. Nova Scotia.\nNewfoundland, Cape Breton.\nIslands.\nBritish Islands in the West Indies.\nBermudas, Bahama Islands, Jamaica, St. Christopher s, Nevis, Montserrat\nAntigua, Dominica, St. Vincent, Tobago, Grenada, Barbadoes, Ac e","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0530.jp2"},"529":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 52j\nUNITED STATES OF AMERICA.\nNew England- Maine, New-Hampghire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connect-\nicut, and Rhode-Island.\nState of New- York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Vir-\nginia, North-Carolina, South-Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, Kentucky,\nOhio, Indiana, Louisiana, Alabama, Missouri, Mississippi, Illinois.\nThe district of Columbia, the territories of Michigan, Arkansas.\nSPANISH AMERICA.\nMexico or New Spain, New Mexico.\nNORTH AMERICA.\nSpanish Islands in the West Indies.\nCuba, Porto Rico, west part of St. Domingo, Trinidad, Margarita, Cuba\ngua, c.\nDutch Islands in the West indies.\nPart of St. Martin s Isle, Eustatius, Aves, Buenos Ayres, Curacoa, Araba.\nFrench Islands in the West Indies.\nMiquelon, St. Pierre, part of St. Martin s Isle, St. Bartholomew, Martinioo,\nGuadaloupe, Desiada, MariegaJant, St. Lucia, part of St. Domingo.\nDanish Islands in the West Indies.\nSt. Thomas, Santa Cruz.\nSOUTH AMERICA.\nFRENCH.\nPart of the Province of Guiana, Cayenne, c.\nSPANISH.\nTerra Firma, Country of the Amazons, Peru, Chili, Tern MagellesJca,\nParaguay, Tucuman.\nDUTCH.\nPart of Guiana, Surinam, Ac.\nPORTUGUESE.\nBrazil, and many Islands on the coast, part of Gtusm\nANCIENT EMPIRES.\nThe Empire of Assyria, under Ninus and Semiramis, about S\nJ. C, comprehended, Asia Minor, Colchis, Assyria, Media CfaaU**,\nEgypt.","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0531.jp2"},"530":{"fulltext":"626 COMPARATIVE VIEW OF\nThe Empire of Assyria, as divided about 820 before J. C, formed three\nKingdoms, Media, Babylo-Chaldea, (Syria and Chaldea,) Lydia, (all\nAsia Minor.)\nThe Empire of the Persians, under Darius Hystaspes, 522 before J. C,\ncomprehended, Persis, Susiana, Chaldea, Assyria, Media, Bactriana,\nArmenia, Asia, Parthia, Iberia, Albania, Colchis, Asia Minor, Egypt,\npart of Ethiopia, part of Scythia.\nThe Empire of Alexander the great, 330 before J. C, consisted of,\n1, all Macedonia and Greece, except Peloponnesus 2, all the Persian\nEmpire, as above described 3, India to the banks of the Indus on the\neast, and the Iaxartes or Tanais on the north.\nThe Empire of Alexander was thus divided, 306 before J. C, between\nPtolemy, Cassander, Lysimachus, and Seleucus.\nEmpire of Ptolemy.\nLybia, Arabia, Coelosyria, Palestine.\nEmpire of Cassander.\nMacedonia, Greece.\nThrace, Bithynia.\nEmpire of Lysimachus.\nEmpire of Seleucus.\nSyria, and all the rest of Alexander s Empire.\nThe Empire of the Parthians, 140 before J. C, comprehended Parthia,\nHyrcania, Media, Persis, Bactriana, Babylonia, Mesopotamia, India to\nthe Indus.\nThe Roman Empire, under the Kings, was confined to the city of Rome,\nand a few miles round it.\nThe Roman Empire, at the end of the Republic, comprehended all Italy,\ngreat part of Gaul, part of Britain, Africa Proper, great part of Spain,\nIllyria, Istria, Liburnia, Dalmatia, Achaia, Macedonia, Dardania, Mcesia,\nThracia, Pontus, Armenia, Judaea, Cilicia, Syria, Egypt.\nUnder the Emperors the following countries were reduced into Romao\nProvinces.\nAll Spain, the Alpes Maritimae, Piedmont, c. Rheetia, Noricum, Panno-\nnia, and Mcesia, Pontus, Armenia, Assyria, Arabia, Egypt.\nConstantius Chlorus and Galerius divided the Empire into Eastern and\nWestern and under Constantino each Empire had a distinct capital or\nseat of government.\nThe extent of each division was fluctuating from time to time but, in gen\neral, the Western Empire comprehended Italy, Illyria, Africa, Spain,\nthe Gauls, Britain.\nThe Eastern Empire comprehended Asia Minor, Pontus, Armenia, Assyria,\nMedia, c. Egypt, Thrace, Dacia, Macedonia.","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0532.jp2"},"531":{"fulltext":"ANCIENT AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY.\n5f7\nThe Empire of Charlemagne, A. D. 800, comprenended France, Marca,\nHispanica, (or Navarre and Catalonia,) Majorca, Minorca, and Ivica,\nCorsica, Italy as far south as Naples, Istria, Liburnia, Dalmatia Rhaetia,\nVindelica, Noricum, Germany, from the Rhine to the Oder, and to the\nbanks of the Baltic.\nFrance contained, 1, Neustria, comprehending Bretany, Normandy, Isle of\nFrance, Qrleannois 2, Austria, comprehending Picardy, and Cham-\npagne 3, Aquitania, comprehending Guienne, and Gascony 4, Burgun-\ndia, comprehending Burgundy, Lionnois, Languedoc, Dauphme, Provence.\nNAMES OF THE PRINCIPAL RIVERS IN EUROPE\nANCIENT.\n1. Rha.\n2. Tanais.\n3. Borystenes\n4. Tyras.\n5. Danubius or later.\n6. Padus.\n7. Rhodanus.\n8. Iberus.\n9. Boetis.\n10. Anas.\n11. Tagus.\n12. Durius.\n13. Garumna.\n14. Liger.\n15. Sequana.\n16. Samara.\n17. Scaldia.\n18. Mosa.\n19. Rhenua\n20. Visurgia.\n21. A Ibis.\n22. Viadrufl.\nMODERN.\n1. Wolga.\n2. Don.\n3. Nieper.\n4. Niester.\n5. Danube.\n6. Po.\n7. Rhone.\n8. Ebro.\n9. Guadalquiver.\n10. Guadiana.\n11. Tayo.\n12. Douro.\n13. Garonne.\n14. Loire.\n15. Seine.\n16. Somme.\n17. Scheldt.\n18. Maese.\n19. Rhine.\n20. Weser.\n21. Elbe.\n22. Oder.\nThe Viatula, the Dwina at Riga, and the Dwina at Archangel.\nEND.","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0533.jp2"},"532":{"fulltext":"","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0534.jp2"},"533":{"fulltext":"QUESTIONS\nFOR THS\nEXAMINATION OF SCHOLARS\niw\nTYTLER S ELEMENTS\nffissfsiusL sesstosi;\nBY AN EXPERIENCED TEACHER\nCONCORD, N. H.\nPUBLISHED BY JOHN F. BROWN\n1837.","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0535.jp2"},"534":{"fulltext":"DISTRICT OF NEW-HAMPSHIRE, to wit\nDistrict Clerk s office\nBE IT REMEMBERED, that on the fourth day of September, A. D.\n1,823, and in the forty-eighth year of the Independence of the United\nStates of America, ISAAC HILL, of the said District, hath deposited in\nthis office the title of a book, the right whereof he claims as proprietor, m\ntlie words following, to wit\nElements of Goneral History, ancient and modern. By Alexander\nFraser Tytler, F. R. S E. Professor of History in the University of Edin-\nburgh. With a continuation, terminating at the demise of King George 111.,\n1,820. By Rev. Edward Nares, D. D. Professor of Modern History m the\nUniversity of Oxford. To which are added, a succinct History ol the Unit-\ned States an improved Table of Chronology; a comparative view of\nAncient and Modern Geography and Questions on each section. Adapted\nfor the use of Schools and Academies. By an experienced readier.\nIn conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, entitled,\nAn act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps,\ncharts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during\nthe times therein mentioned; and also an act, entitled, An act supple-\nmentary to an act, entitled an act for the encouragement of learning, by\nsecuring the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and pro-\nprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned, and extending\ntiie benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching bistonca\n*nd other prints. WILLIAM CLAGGETT, Ccrk\nof the District of Ncw-Hampshir*.\nC °P y f *~tm WILLIAM CLAGGETT, Cleric","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0536.jp2"},"535":{"fulltext":"QUESTIONS.\nPART FIRST.\nSECTION 1.\n1. What books afford the earliest authentic history of the agei\ndiately following the deluge\n2. When were Babylon and Nineveh built\n3. By whom were they built\n4. Who are said to have raised Assyria to a high degree of splendour\n5. What is the condition of the early parts of Egyptian history\n6. Who was the first king of Egypt?\n7. How was Egypt divided\nSECTION II.\n8. What is the earliest mode of government\n9. Of what description were the first monarchies\n10. What was the rank of the kings of Scripture\n11. What was the character of the first penal laws in human society i\n12. What were the earliest laws formed for the benefit of society\n13. What singular usages prevailed among the ancient nations relating\nto matrimony\n14. What laws next succeeded in order to those of marriage\n15. What were the earliest methods of authenticating contracts\n16. What nation used hieroglyphics, and for what purpose were they\nused\n17. What were the methods for recording historical facts, and publishing\nthem among the ancients\n18. What are among the earliest institutions that have existed\n19. How was the priesthood anciently exercised\n20. Of what are useful arts the offspring\n21. Of what are some of the earliest of them\n22. What were the first sciences cultivated\nSECTION III.\n23. To what nation is most of the knowledge of ancient nations to be\ntraced\n24. How did that knowledge descend to modern nations\n25. What presumption does the country afford of the antiquity of the\nEgyptian empire\n26. To what are the inundations of the river Nile owing\n27. What was the government of Egypt\n28. What was the character of their penal laws\n29. What was the manner of conferring funeral rites in Egypt i\n30. What regulation was there concerning the borrowing of money\n31. In the knowledge and cultivation of what useful arts and\nwere the Egyptians distinguished\n32. What samples of their architecture still remain 1\n33. When were the pyramids built\n34. For what were they probably built","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0537.jp2"},"536":{"fulltext":"41 QUESTIONS.\n35. What was the national character of the Egyptians?\n36. What circumstances served to debase them in the opinion\nporary nations\nSECTION IV.\n37. By what name were the Phoenicians known in Scripture?\n38. For what are we indebted to them\n39. What is said of them in the time of Abraham\n40. What is the antiquity of their writings\nSECTION V.\n41. To what early nations were the Grecians indebted for their first rudi-\nments of civilization\n42. Who were the ancient inhabitants of Greece\n43. What colony settled in the country about the time of Moses\n44. Who settled Attica and at what time\n45. Who established the court of Areopagus?\n46. Who established the Amphictyonic Council\n47. Who introduced into Greece, and at what time, alphabetic writing f\n48. How many letters did the alphabet then contain\n49. What was then the mode of writing\nSECTION VI.\n50. What is said of the Pelasgi, of Ancient Greece\n51. What was a predominant characteristic of the early Greeks?\n52. What were the names of their four solemn Games, as they were\ntermed\n53. Of What did they consist\n54. What good political effects did these games have\nSECTION VII.\n55. Who instituted the Eleusinian mysteries\n56. What was the nature of these mysteries\n57. Who laid the foundation of the grandeur of Attica\n58. When and how did he do it\n59. What was the object of the Argonautis expedition?\n60. What was the character of the attack and defence in the sieges of\nThebes and Troy\n61. On whose authority rests the detail of the war of Troy\n62. What are the principal facts recorded of that war by Homer\n63. How were military expeditions then conducted\nSECTION VIII.\n64. When did the Greeks begin to colonize\n65. Who was elected the first chief magistrate of the Athenian republic\n66. What caused the Greeks to seek refuge in other countries by estab-\nlishing colonies\n67. What caused Greece to abolish the regal and establish a republican\ngovernment\n68. What distinguished civilians arose in Sparta and Athens at this time\nSECTION IX.\n69. What period was Lycurgus invested with the power of reforming and\nnew-modelling the constitution of his country\n70. What was the government of Sparta as new-modelled by Lycurgus\n71. To what did he particularly bend his attention?\n72. How didTie divide the territory","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0538.jp2"},"537":{"fulltext":"QUESTIONa S\n73. What regulation did he make concerning the use of money\n74. By whom were the necessary arts practised\n75. What was the course of Spartan education?\n76. By what was the general excellence of the institutions of Lycurgue\nimpaired\n77. How were the slaves treated\n78. What was the end of the institutions of Lycurgus\nSECTION X.\n79. What was the nature of the change in the Athenian constitution\nwhen the regal office was abolished\n80. What was the tenure by which the Archonship was held\n81. Who attempted a reform in the constitution, 624 B. C.\n82. When did Solon attain the Archonship\n83. What was his character\n84. How did he divide the citizens\n85. How did he counterbalance the weight of the popular assemblies\n86. How did the particular laws of Athens compare with her form of\ngovernment\n87. What was the nature of the laws relating to debtors and slaves\n88. What was the condition of women at this time in Athens\n89. What was one of the most iniquitous and absurd peculiarities of the\nAthenian and some of the other Grecian governments\n90. How were the arts viewed in Athens\n91. How did the character of the Athenians compare with that of the\nSpartans\n92. To whom were the liberties of Athens surrendered, 550 B. C.\n93. Who afterwards restored the democracy\nSECTION XI.\n94. Under whom did the first empire of the Assyrians terminate\n95. What three monarchies arose from its ruins\n96. What king of Assyria, led the Jews into captivity, took Jerusalem\nand Tyre, and subdued Egypt?\n97. Who was the successor of Cambyses in the throne of Persia?\n98. What countries did Cyrus annex to his empire\n99. What was the government of Persia\n100. To whose care was the children and youth of Persia committed fof\neducation\n101. What was the nature of the laws in Persia\n102. What was the religion of Persia\n103. What was the sacred book of the Persians called\n104. On what is the theology of the Zendavesta founded i\nSECTION XII.\n105. What king of Persia invaded Greece\n106. Where was the Persian army defeated?\n107. Who commanded the Greeks in the battle of Marathon\n108. What reward did Miltiades receive for his eminent services from the\nAthenians\n109. Who were the successors of Miltiades in the war with the Persians\n110. Who succeeded Darius in the command of the Persians?\n111. With what force did Xerxes attempt the conquest of Greece\n112. Who was Leonidas\n113. With what force did Leonidas contend with the vast army of\nXerxes\n114. At what place was it\n115. What was the result\n1*","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0539.jp2"},"538":{"fulltext":"6 QUESTIONS.\nJ 16. What was the success of Xerxes with his fleet at lea?\n117. Where were the Persians totally defeated on land, by the combined\narmy of the Athenians and Lacedaemonians\n118. What was the end of Xerxes?\n119 What was the national character of the Greeks at this time\nSECTION XIII.\n120. Who governed Athens after the Persian war?\n121. In what manner did he govern it?\n122. What gave rise to the war during the reign of Pericles between\nAthens and Lacedaemon\n1 23. On what account was Alcibiades condemned to death for treason\n124. By whom did the Lacedaemonians reduce the pjwer of the Athe-\nnians\n125. W r hat eminent philosopher was then in Athens at this time\n126. What was particularly disgraceful to the Athenians in regard to\nhim\n127. What* is the subject of the history written by Xenophon?\nSECTION XIV.\n128. On the decline of Athens and Sparta, what other Grecian Republic\nrose to a high degree of eminence among the contemporary states\n129. W T hat led to the war between Thebes and Sparta?\n130. What two distinguished Generals did Thebes employ in conducting\nthis war\n131. How did this war terminate?\nSECTION XV.\n132. Who at this time attempted to bring the whole of Greece under his\ndominion\n133. What caused what was called the Sacred War of this period\n134. What distinguished Grecian orator exposed the artful designs of\nPhHip\n135. In what battle was the fate of Greece, so that all her states became\nsubject to Philip\n136. What great enterprise did he attempt\n137. Did he complete it\nJ 38. Why not?\nSECTION XVI.\n139. Who was the successor of Philip\n140. At what age did Alexander ascend the throne of Mace don\n141. How large was his army at this time\n142. What was his first enterprise?\n143. Who was king of Persia at this time\n144. With what force did Darius meet Alexander?\n.45. Where did they meet\n146. What was the result of the battle of Granicus?\n147. What were the respective losses of the Greeks and Persians in tne\nbattle of Issus\n148. What opportunity did Alexander have for the display of generosity\nafter the battle of Issus\n»49. What was the consequence of the battle of Issus\n150. What caused Alexander to storm and subject the city of Tyre\n151. What was the fate of its inhabitants\n152. What was disgraceful to Alexander in his cajture of Gaza?\n153. What opened Egypt to Alexander s victorious arms?\n154. What city did he build in his return from EfVj* i","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0540.jp2"},"539":{"fulltext":"QUESTIONS. 7\n155. Who met Alexander at Arbela with an army of 700,000 men?\n156. What was the result of the battle at Arbela?\n157. When was Persia conquered by Alexander\n158. What project did he attempt after the conquest of Persia?\n159. What prevented his conquest of India\n160. What became of Alexander on finding a limit to his victories\nSECTION XVII\n161. What wish did Alexander express as to a successor?\n162. What became of his family\n163. Which were the most powerful monarchies formed from hie vart\nempires\nSECTION XVIII.\n164. What distinguished orator of Greece attempted to arouse his coun-\ntrymen, to shake off the yoke of Macedon, on the death of Alexan-\nder?\n165. What empire arose in Europe on the decline of the Macedonian\npower?\n166. How was Greece added to the Roman empire\n1 67. When was the conquest of Greece completed\nSECTION XIX.\n168. What is said of the nature of the Republican government of Greece\n169. What was the condition of the people under them\n170. In what periods of the Grecian history are we to look for splendid\nexamples of patriotism\n171. What is the most remarkable circumstance that strikes us on com-\nparing the latter with the more early periods of the history of the\nGreeks\nSECTION XX.\n172. In what description of the arts did the Grecians excel\n173. Which of the Fine Arts did they carry to the greatest degree of per-\nfection 3*6\n174. In whose reign did the Fine Arts flourish most\n175. What were their three orders of architecture\n176. What other orders of architecture are there\n177. What was the state of sculpture in Greece?\n178. How did the paintings and music of the Grecians compare with\nthose of the moderns\nSECTION XXI.\n179. How does poetry compare with prose as to antiquity?\n180. When did Homer flourish\n181. Who are some of the other principal poets of ancient Greece\n182. When was the origin of dramatic composition among the Greeks\nSECTION XXII.\n183. What eminent historians of Greece were contemporaries?\n184. When did they flourish\n185. Who were some of the latter distinguished historians of Greece\n186* What is said of Plutarch s Lives of Illustrious Men?\nSECTION XXIII.\n187. What was the most ancient school of philosophy in Greece","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0541.jp2"},"540":{"fulltext":"8 QUESTIONS.\n188. Who founded the Italian sect of philosophers in Greece f\n189. When did Socrates flourish\n190. Who founded the Academic sect?\n191. Who founded the Peripatetic sect?\n192. Who are some of the other Greek philosophers\n193. What is the effect of the Greek philosophy on morality and the prog\nress of useful knowledge\nSECTION XXIV.\n194. After the conquest of Greece what Power became an object of par-\nticular importance\n195. What was the character of the first inhabitants of Italy?\n196. Who were they?\n197. What is the opinion of Dionysius concerning the origin of Rome?\n198. What is the vulgar account of the origin of the city built by Rom-\nulus\n199. At what time was it founded\n200. Who were the most formidable enemies of the early Romans\n201. Who was the second king of Rome\n202. Who added 100 Plebeians to the Roman Senate\n203. Who removed the poorer citizens from all share in the government of\nRome\n204. What became of Servius Tullius\n205. Who succeeded him on the throne\n206. What caused the expulsion of Tarquinius\n207. What was the first retrenchment in the power of the Roman Sen-\nate?\n208. What use did the early Romans make of their victories\n209. How long did the regal government of Rome continue\n210. How many kings were there\n211. What is said of the wars in which Rome was almost continually en-\ngaged\nSECTION XXV.\n212. What government succeeded the regal one in Rome\n213. Who were the two first consuls\n214. What law is mentioned that was made under the direction of Vale-\nrius\n215. What gave rise to the office of Dictator\n216. What was the power of the Dictator\n217. What gave rise to the office of Tribune and what were the powers\nof that office\nSECTION XXVI.\n218. What effect had the office of Tribune on the powers of the Senate 1\n219. Under what circumstances was Valero made Tribune\n220. When did the Roman constitution become a complete democracy f\nSECTION XXVII.\n221. For what purpose were the Decemviri chosen\n222. What were the laws called, which they framed\n223. At what time were they made\n224. With what powers were the Decemviri invested\n225. Who was at the head of the Decemvirate\n226. What caused the abolition of this office\n227 How long did it exist","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0542.jp2"},"541":{"fulltext":"QUESTIONS. 9\nSECTION XXVIII.\n128. What two barriers separated the patricians and plebeians\n229. What two offices were created, 437 B. C.\n230. What successful expedient did the senate adopt for filling the Ro*\nman armies\n231. What city was taken by Camillus\n232. At what period and after how long- a siege\n233. To what event do the Roman writers attribute the loss of all the rec-\nords and monuments of their early history\n234. What is there singular in regard to most of the revolutions in\nRome\nSECTION XXIX.\n235. How long after the foundation of their city did Rome become mistress\nof all It?»\\y\n236. What was the policy observed by the Romans with respect to the\nnations they had conquered\n237. What gave rise to the Punic wars\nSECTION XXX.\n238. By whom and when was Carthage founded\n239. How many smaller cities were under the dominion of Carthage at\nthe time of the Punic wars\n240. What was the form of government\n241. To what was the wealth and splendour of Carthage owing\nSECTION XXXI.\n242. Who founded Syracuse\n243. What was the government of it\nSECTION XXXII.\n244. Where did the war between Rome and Carthage commence\n245. What Roman consul was taken by the Carthaginians in the first\nPunic war\n246. What patriotic act did Regulus perform when a prisoner to the\nCarthaginians\n247. How did the first Punic war terminate\n248. How long did the peace between Rome and Carthage continue\n249. How did the second Punic war begin\n250. Who was the Carthaginian general in this war\n251. How did Hannibal conduct this war\n252. Where did the Romans meet with complete defeat\n253. How many were slain in the battle of Cana\n254. What is supposed would have been the consequence had Hannibal\nimproved this victory\n255. In what way did the Romans compel the Carthaginians to sue for\npeace\n256. What Roman general carried war to the gates of Carthage\n257. At what time did the second Punic war close\n258. When did the third commence\n259. What was the issue of this war\n260. When was Carthage destroyed\n261. What other success attended the Romans this year?\nSECTION XXXIII.\n262 What two persons, at this time, undertook to reform the corruption*\nof the Romans","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0543.jp2"},"542":{"fulltext":"10 QUESTIONS.\n263. What circumstances attending the war of Jugurtha gave decisive\nproof of the corruption of the Roman manners\n264. What became of Jugurtha\n265. Between what two rivals did a civil war now break out in Rome\n266. What became of Marius\n267. To what office was Sylla afterwards elected\n268. What magnanimous act characterized the latter part of his life\n269. Between whom was the civil war revived after the death of Sylla\n270. What conspiracy, at this time, threatened the destruction oi\nRome\n271. By whosss provident zeal and patriotism was it extinguished\n272. What distinguished individual now rose into notice\n273. Under what circumstances was the first Triumvirate formed\n274. What Roman general invaded and conquered Britain, 54 B. C.\n275. Who procured the banishment of Cicero\n276. Who effected his recall from exile\n277. What dissolved the Triumvirate\nSECTION XXXIV.\n278. What proposition was made at this time by Caesar\n279. Did Pompey accede to it\n280. Did war ensue between them\n281. What decree did the senate pronounce\n282. Where was a decisive battle fought\n283. What became of Pompey\n284. In what war was the famous library of Alexandria burnt\n285. What was the character of Caesar s administration of the govern-\nment, after the complete overthrow of Pompey s partisans\n£86. To what offices was he appointed\n287. Whatwa3 the end of Caesar\n288. Under what circumstances was the second Triumvirate formed.\n289. For what did Antony summon Cleopatra to appear before him\n290. What caused the overthrow of Antony\n291. What became of him?\n292. What induced Cleopatra to destroy herself?\nSECTION XXXV.\n293. What power was given to every head of a family\n294. What were reckoned the highest points of female merit\n295. What qualifications contributed most to elevate persons to the high*\nest offices and dignities of the state\nSECTION XXXVI.\n296. What was the state of literature in the early ages of the Roman re-\npublic\n297 Who were the principal Roman historians\n298. Who were the principal Roman poets\nSECTION XXXVII.\n299. Was much attention paid to the study of philosophy in the early\nperiods of Rome\n800. At what time *ttd philosophy become an object of attention with the\nRomans\nS01. Who first diffused a taste for tb.3 study of philosophy among the\nRomans\n802. Who may be reckoned their most eminent philosopher","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0544.jp2"},"543":{"fulltext":"QUESTIONS. H\nSECTION XXXVIII.\n503. What were some of the most distinguishing traits of character in the\nearly Romans\n3C4. What contribute! chiefly to their change of character and man*\nners\n305. What were some of the amusements of the Romans\nSECTION XXXIX.\n306. To what may be ascribed the extensive conquests of the Romans\n307 What was the number of soldiers in a Roman legion\n308. When is it supposed that the tactic of the Romans was at its heigh 1\nof excellence\n309. By whom was the art of entrenchment carried to great perfection\n310. When was the naval military art first known among the Romans\nSECTION XL.\n311. When did the most material change for the worse in the national\ncharacter of the Romans take place\n312. What were the morals of the Romans in the last ages of the com-\nmonwealth\n313 From what circumstances did Roman virtue so rapidly decline\n314. To what did the Roman republic owe its dissolution\nSECTION XLL\n315. What battle decided the fate of the commonwealth ana made Octa-\nvius master of Rome\n316. By what name was he now called\n317. What event said to be productive of universal joy distinguished his\nreign\n318. What methods did he practice to keep himself in the favour of ttoi\npeople\n319. When did Augustus die and at what age\n320. How long did he reign\n321. Who succeeded him\n322. What was the character of Tiberius\n323. In what manner was he related to Augustus\n324. What was the end of Tiberius?\n325. In what year of his reign was Jesus Christ cruoined\n326. Who was the successor of Tiberius\n327. What was his character\n328. What became of him\n329. Who succeeded Caligula\nSECTION XLII\n330. By what acts of violence was the reign of Nero, the successor of Clan-\ndius, characterised\n331. Who were the three next Roman emperors?\n332. Under which of the emperors was Jerusalem taken\n333. Who succeeded Vespasian\n334. What was the character of Ti-fcus\n335. How was it suspected Titus came to his death\n336. What three emperors next in order succeeded Domitian\n337. What was the character of Trajan and Adrian\nSECTION XLIII.\n338. For what length of time did the Antonines reign\n339. What was their character","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0545.jp2"},"544":{"fulltext":"12 QUESTIONS\n340. What length of time was there from the death of the Antonines ta\nthe accession of Diocletian\n341. What was the character of the emperors that reigned in this period?\n342. What change in the government did Diocletian introduce\n343. Under whom was the seat of the Roman empire removed and when\n344. What was his religion\nSECTION XLIV.\n345. What was the general character of the government of Rome under\nConstantine f\n346. In what way did he injure the army\n347. What was the policy pursued by the emperor Julian towards Chris-\ntianity\n348. Who were the three emperors that succeeded in order to Julian\nSECTION XLV.\n349. In whose reign did Christianity become the established religion of the\nRoman empire\n350. Why were the Romans less tolerant towards the Christian than they\nwere towards the different pagan religions of other nations?\n351. When were the books of the New Testament collected into a vol-\nume\n352. When was the Old Testament translated into Greek from the origi\nnal Hebrew\n353. In what way did Christianity suffer in the third century\n354. Did Christianity become more or less pure as it received favo j*\nfrom the civil powers\nSECTION XLVI.\n455. When and by whom was the city of Rome sacked and plundered\n356. What is the length of time from the building of Rome to the extinc-\ntion of the empire\n357. What may be considered the ultimate cause of the ruin of the Ro-\nman Empire\n358. Who was die last emperor of Rome i\n359. When was he compelled to resign the throne\n360. By whom was he compelled to d-o it\nSECTION XLVII.\n361. From what country is it supposed that the Goths were originally de-\nrived\n362. What was the character of the ancient Scythians\n363. Of what nation were the Germans a branch?\n364. What effect had the religion of the Goths upon them, as a warlike\npeople\nSECTION XLVIII.\n365. Were the Roman laws retained after Italy was conquered by the\nGoths\n366. What character does Tytler give the conquerors cf Italy?\n367 What government did the Goths establish in Italy after its conquest I\n368 Was it elective or hereditary\nSECTION XLIX.\n36*} What are the most ancient books of history in existence\n370 VTio are some of the earliest writers of profane history whow fv- k#\n*t Jtill extant","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0546.jp2"},"545":{"fulltext":"QUESTIONS. Ig\n371 What modern histories of Greece and Rome are mott worthy of pe-\nrusal to the person who has attended to original works named\n372. What may be considered the greatest magazine of historical knowl-\nedge ever collected\n373. What are esteemed the lights of history\nPART SECOND.\nMODERN HISTORY.\nSECTION I.\n374. At what sera is the commencement of profane history dated\n375. What new and powerful dominion arose in the latter part of the sixth\ncentury\n376. To whom do the Arabians trace their descent?\n377. When and where was Mahomet born\n378. What was his descent and education\n379. What is the sacred book of the Mahometan religion called\n380. By whom and under what circumstances was it written\n381. What are the nature and substance of Mahometan religion\n382. What caused the banishment of Mahomet from Mecca\n383. What is his flight called\n384. When did it take place\n385. Did the Mahometan religion have a rapid increase\n386. What was the title of the head of this empire\nSECTION II.\n387. Who were the Franks\n388. From what did they receive this name\n389. Under whom and what circumstances were the Franks converted U\nChristianity\n390. Who delivered France from the ravages of the Saracens?\n391. At what time did this take place\n392. With whom and under what circumstances commenced the second\nrace of kings in France\n393. Who succeeded Pepin in the sovereignty of France\nSECTION III.\n394. How was the power of the government divided and exercised in the\nearly parts of the French monarchy\n395. What was the religious character of the ancient Germans?\nS96. What new system of policy arose at this time among the united\nGermans and Franks, which extended itself over most nations of\nEurope\n397. What is to be understood by the Feudal System\n398. What effect had the Feudal System on the power of the sovereign\n399. By what name is the second race of French kings called\nSECTION rv.\n400. How came Charlemagne into possession of the undivided sovereignity\nof France\n401. What was his private character\n402. When did he die\n403. Who was his successor? 2","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0547.jp2"},"546":{"fulltext":"M QUESTIONS\nSECTION V.\n404. What is said of Charlemagne in relation to commerce\n405. How did he view literature J\n406. What style of architecture was successfully studied and cultivated\nin that age\n107. What sanguinary and most iniquitous custom of the present time\nmay be traced to the age of Charlemagne?\nSECTION VI.\n408. What great heresies existed in the Christian church about this\ntime?\n409. By whom and when was the Arian heresy condemned\n410. What was a source of the most obstinate controversy in those ages\n411. What gave rise to penances and other religious voluntary suffering\n412. What effect had the conquests of Charlemagne on Christianity\nSECTION VII.\n413. Who was the immediate successor of Charlemagne\n414. Did his empire remain entire under his successors\n415. What was the character of his successors\nSECTION VIII.\n416. What was the condition of the Eastern empire during the eighth and\nninth centuries\n417. What was the character of the emperors\n418. What religious dispute prevailed at this time\nSECTION IX.\n419. Under whom did the Pope begin to acquire temporal power?\n420. What is said of the religious character of the temporal princes of this\nperiod\n421. What check was there, at this time, to the increasing power of the\nchurch of Rome\n422. What is the character of the clergy of this period\nSECTION X.\n423. By whom was the empire of Morocco founded\n424. When did the Saracens overrun and conquer Spain\n425. Was the Mahometan religion extensively professed?\n426. What prevented the Saracens from raising an extensive empire?\nSECTION XI.\n427. What had become the condition of the empire founded by Charle\nmagne, in the tenth and eleventh centuries\n428. How were the emperors at this time elected\n429. Who were some of the most distinguished monarchs of Germany in\nthe middle ages\n430. Were there frequent disputes between the Pop s of Rome and Ger\nman emperors\nSECTION XII.\n431. From whom is it probable the British isles derived their first inhabi-\ntants\n432. What was the condition of the country when invaded by the Ro»\nmans?\n•H3. When did Julius Caesar enter Britain 7","height":"3522","width":"2069","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0548.jp2"},"547":{"fulltext":"QUESTIONS. 18\n434. When did a complete reduction of the island take place, and put it\nunder the Roman power\n435. When did the Romans abandon the country\n436. What led the Saxons into Britain\n437. How long were the Saxons in conquering the Britons\n438. What was the government called, established by the Saxons\n439. When aud by whom was the Saxon Heptarchy brought under one\nsovereign\n440. What piratical people for a long period subsequent to this, desolated\nthe coasts of Britain\n441. What relationship was there between Alfred the Great and Egbert?\n442. What is the character of Alfred\n443. When did he die\n444. Who were the immediate successors of Alfred\n445. What people invaded and obtained the government of England sub-\nsequent to the time of Alfred\n446 When was William duke of Normandy put in possession of the throne\nof England?\nSECTION XIII.\n447. What was the character of the Anglo-Saxon government\n448. How many ranks of people were there\n449. How did the Anglo-Saxons compare with the Normans in point ot\ncivilization\nSECTION XIV.\n450. Who was elected to the throne of France, A. D. 987?\n451. What was the prevailing passion among the nations of Europe dur-\ning the tenth and eleventh centuries\n452. What was the state of the Northern powers of Europe in point of civ-\nilization, at this time\n453. What was a subject of dispute between the Popes and the Emperors\nSECTION XV.\n45 What was the consequence of the battle of Hastings\n455. What was the end of William the conqueror\n456. What important law did he introduce into England\n457. Which part of his subjects were treated with most favour\n458. Who were some of the immediate successors of William the conquer\nor?\n459. Who effected the conquest of Ireland\n460. What clouded the latter part of the reign of Henry II.\n461. What was the character of this monarch\n462. Who succeeded him on the throne\n463. How came Richard I. to be imprisoned in Germany\n464. Under what sovereign was the Mfegna Charta prodmced\nSECTION XVI.\n465. What two factions were there in Italy in the thirteenth century\n466. What occasioned them\n467. What was the political state of Europe at this time\nSECTION XVII.\n468. Who was the first promoter of the Crusades\n469. What was the object of the Crusades\n470. What was the number of Peter s army, and when did he\nhis crusade to the Holy Land","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0549.jp2"},"548":{"fulltext":"W QUESTIONS.\n471. What became of this army\n472. When was a second crusade undertaken and how many engaged is\n473. What was the fate of this expedition?\n474. Who headed the third crusade\n475. When was the fourth fitted out\n476. What particular success attended one, and what was its issue\n477. Who undertook the last crusade into the East\n478. What became of Lewis IX.\n479. How many, is it supposed, of the persons who engaged in the cro\nsades, perished\n480. What benefit resulted from the crusades\nSECTION XVIII.\n481. How was the profession of arms esteemed among the Germans?\n482. What is said to have been characteristic of the Gothic manners\n483. When did chivalry attain its perfection\n484. What writings accompanied the adventures of chivalry\n485. Are works of fiction capable of producing good moral effects\nSECTION XIX.\n486. When did the crusaders take Constantinople\n487. How long did the French emperors govern it\n488. When may the rise of the house of Austria be dated\n489. How did the states of Italy compare at this time with amt4 the\nother countries of Europe\n490. What severe and bloody measure was adopted in relation t# the\nKnights Templars\nSECTION XX.\n491. When did Switzerland become independent\n492. By what name was it then called\n493. To what government had it been subject\n494. What was the number of battles fought before it became indle^ ce-\ndent?\nSECTION XXI.\n495. What prince imposed a tribute on all the Italian states\n496. In whose time was the Popedom removed to Avignon\n497. How long did it remain there\n498. What act distinguished the reign of Charles IV.\n499. Who summoned the council of Constance, 1414\n500. What martyrdoms were the consequence of this council\n501. By whom was the wealth of the Germanic states possessed?\nSECTION XXII.\n502. What character is given of Henry III.\n503. By whom was he made a prisoner\n504. Who succeeded Henry III. on the throne of England?\n505. When and by whom was Wales conquered\nSECTION XXIII.\n506. What is the state of the Scottish history before the time of Malcolm\nwere the two next succeeding kings of Scotland\n508. Who became competitors to the crown, 1285.\n509. How was the dispute decided","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0550.jp2"},"549":{"fulltext":"QUESTIONS. 17\n10. What distinguished warrior arose, at this time, to assert the liberties\nof his country\n511. What became of Wallace?\n512. Who finally succeeded in delivering Scotland from the English and\nwas crowned sovereign of it, 1306\nSECTION XXIV.\n513. What statute was passed by Edward I. which related to taxes and\nimposts\n514. How many times in his reign is he said to have ratified the Magna\nCharta\n615. With how large an army did he invade Scotland?\n516. With what force did Bruce meet him?\n517. Who dethroned Edward II. and under what circumstances\n518. In what manner did Edward III. revenge the murder of his father?\n519. On what did he found his claim to the throne of France\n520. When are the English said for the first time to have used artillery in\nbattle\n521. What king of France was carried captive to England, and by whom\n522. What became of the captive king of France\n523. Who succeeded John in France and Edward III. in England\nSECTION XXV.\n524. What became of Richard II. and who succeeded him\n£25. What was the origin of the quarrels between the houses of Lanca*\nter and York\n526. What induced Henry V. to invade France\n527. What was the result of this expedition?\n528. On what terms did Henry V. receive a right to the throne of France\nduring the life of Charles VI.\n529. By what aid was Charles VII. enabled to secure the throne of France\nto himself?\n530. What became of the Maid of Orleans\n531. What was the state of society in Europe at this period?\n532. What circumstances show that it was in a low state\nSECTION XXVI.\n533. At what time did the Turks cross over into Europe\n534. What Asiatic conqueror arose in the 14th century, who for a time\nchecked the Turks in their career of conquest and oppression\n535. What effect did the death of Tamerlane have on the Turks\n536. What prince subjected Constantinople to the power of the Turks\n537. When did this take place, and how long had the eastern empire\nthen subsisted\n538. Did this terminate the empire of the East, as it was termed\nSECTION XXVII.\n539. What is the government of Turkey\n540. What limits and restraints are there upon a Turkish Sultan\n541. What is the character of the people\n542. With what officer are the principal functions of the government en*\ntrusted\n543. How are the revenues of the government obtained?\nSECTION XXVIII.\n644. What greatly increased the power of the French crown in the IStk\ncentury 2","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0551.jp2"},"550":{"fulltext":"18 QUESTIONS\n545. What was the character of Lewis XI.\n546. Who were the two immediate successors of Lewis XL, on the throat\nof France\n547. In what foreign enterprise did Charles VIII. of France engage?\nSECTION XXIX.\n548. What circumstance united the kingdoms of Arragon and Castile\nunder the same sovereigns\n549. What institutions were formed in this period for the discovery and\npunishment of crimes\n550. When did Ferdinand take the title, king of Spain\n551. How long time did the dominion of the Moors continue in Spain?\n552. On what account and when did Ferdinand expel the Jews from\nSpain\n553. How numerous were they\n554. What memorable discovery was made in this reign\nSECTION XXX.\n655. What was the character of pope Alexander VI.\n556. What became of him\n557. Who conspired to deprive Lewis XII. of Navarre\n558. When did he die\nSECTION XXXI.\n559. How did the partisans of York and Lancaster distinguish themselves\nfrom each other\n560. Which party triumphed?\n561. How many of the Lancastrians were slain in the battle near Touton\n562. To whom was Edward IV. in the first instance indebted for hit\nthrone\n563. What caused Warwick to turn against Edward\n564. What epithet was given to Warwick\n565. Who was the queen of Henry VI. and what is said of her character?\n566. What of Henry VI. of his queen Margaret and of the Prince,\ntheir son\n5C7. Who was Richard III\n568. How did he come to the throne\n569. What became of him\n570. What became of Edward V.\n571. How were the Houses of York and Lancaster united, which put ft\nperiod to the civil wars between them\n572. What is said of the government of Henry VII.\nSECTION XXXII.\n573. What was the state of the feudal system in Scotland\n574. What was a constant policy of the Scottish kings\n575. What Scottish king was prisoner in London in company with John,\nking of France\n576. How long was he held in captivity there\n577. How lcng was James I. held m captivity by the English\n578. What advantage did he derive from this captivity\n579. To what end did the five Jameses come\n580. With what English sovereign was James V contemporary, and en-\ngaged in war\nSECTION XXXIII.\n581. What was the constant policy of the Scottish kings","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0552.jp2"},"551":{"fulltext":"QUESTIONS 19\n*82. What rendered this policy necessary\nb83. In whom resided the legislative power\n684- Of what did the revenue of the sovereign consist?\nSECTION XXXIV.\n585. Who were the first restorers of learning in Europe\n586. What sovereigns in this age encouraged the revival of learning in\nEurope\n587. What distinguished genius appeared in the middle of the thirteenth\ncentury\n588. In what did the genius of Bacon discover itself?\n589. What led to a discovery of many of the ancient authors, during the\nfifteenth century\n590. What contributed most to the dissemination of knowledge at thii\nperiod\n591. To what is to be traced modern dramatic composition\nSECTION XXXV.\n592. What was the boldest naval enterprise of the ancients 1\n593. What parts of Europe were unknown to the ancients?\n594. To what sea was the commerce of the ancients mostly oonfined\n595. What cities of modern Europe first became commercial\n596. When and where was first established a national bank\n597. What weie the Italian merchants called in the middle ages?\n598. What gi.ve rise to bills of Exchange\n599. W r hen did commerce extend itself to the north of Europe\n600. For what purpose was the League of the Hanse towns formed\n601. When did the woollen manufactures of England become important?\n602. What English sovereigns in these ages particularly encouraged com-\nmerce and the useful arts\nSECTION XXXVI.\n603. When was the mariner s compass first used\n604. What nation became particularly distinguished in the fifteenth cen-\ntury for naval enterprise\n605. When and by whom was the Cape of Good Hope doubled\n606. How extensive did the Portuguese possessions in India become at\nthis time\n607. What effect had these discoveries on the commerce of Europe\n608. Who made repeated attempts to destroy the trade of the Portuguese?\n609. What besides the Portuguese discoveries produced a spirit of suc-\ncessful enterprise in England\n610. W T hat has been the increase of population in Britain since the reign\nof Elizabeth?\n611. What proportion of the population is supposed to be employed in\nmanufactures and commerce\n612. How does it appear that there has been a great increase ot national\nwealth in Britain\nSECTION XXXVII.\n613. Who were the parents of Charles V.\n614. When did he come to the throne of Spain?\n615. Who was the competitor of Charles V. for the throne of Austria oa\nthe death of Maximilian\n616. Who was king of England at this time\n617. How did the war terminate between Charles and Francis\n618. With whom did Henry VIII. take part on the renewal of the war?\n619. What induced Charles to conclude a treaty with Francis, in 1544","height":"3562","width":"1979","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0553.jp2"},"552":{"fulltext":"20 QUESTIONS.\n620. When and by whom was the order of Jesuit* founded\n621. What was the principle of the order\n622. What gave Charles perpetual disquiet in Germany?\n623. At what age and where did he resign his dominions\nSECTION XXXVIII.\n624. What was the condition of the Germanic empire previous to the reiga\nof Maximilian 1.?\n625. What emperor acquired the greatest power in Germany\nSECTION XXXIX.\n626. What important events distinguished the age of Charles V.\n627. Who was a leading character in producing the Reformation\n628. Who was Roman Pontiff at this time\n629. What practice of the Romish church did Luther first attack\n630. What procured Henry VIII. the title of Defender of the faith\n631. What distinguished reformer arose in Switzerland?\n632. What sovereign at this time was upon the thrones of Sweden, Den-\nmark, and Norway\n633. Who was Gustavus Vasa\n634. What act of Leo X and of Christiern II. contributed to the reforma\ntion in the north\n635. From what circumstance did the Lutherans derive the name of Prot\nestants\n636. Who became a distinguished convert to the doctrines of the refor-\nmation in Geneva\n637. What is said of the character of Calvin\nSECTION XL.\nreformer arose in\ntury i\n639. In what way had Wlckliffe prepared the minds of the people of Eng-\nland for the reformation\n840. Who was the immediate cause of it\n641. What led Henry VIII. to declare himself head of the church in Eng-\nland\n642. When did he die, and by whom was he succeeded\n643. What checked the progress of reformation in England, in the year\n1553\n644. How many Protestants suffered martyrdom during the reign of Mary,\nin England\n645. In whose reign did the Protestant religion become established accord-\ning to its present form in England\nSECTION XLI.\n646. Who discovered America?\n647. To whom did he apply in vain for aid in making discoveries\n648. Who finally furnished him for the voyage?\n649. How long after Columbus left the Canaries, before he discovered\nland\n650. In which of his voyages did he discover the continent of America\n651. From whom was the name of America received\n652 How did the Spaniards treat the inhabitants of the newly discovered\ncountries\n653. When and by whom was the continent of America explored\n654 How long had the Mexican empire been founded at this time\n655 Who was the sovereign of it","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0554.jp2"},"553":{"fulltext":"QUESTIONS. fj\n656. What was the result of the expedition against the Mexicans?\n657. Who and with what success attempted to supersede Cortez?\n658. What became of Montezuma\n659. Who was his successor, and what became of him\n660. When and by whom was an expedition undertaken against Peru\n66 J. What are some of the most important circumstances that attended\nthis expedition\n662. What became of D Almagro and Pizarro\n663. What constituted the principal value of the American Spanish pos-\nsessions\nSECTION XLII.\n664. What effect had the success of the Spaniards on the other nations ol\nEurope\n665. Who first settled Brazil, Florida, and Canada\n666. From what did England derive her right to her American settle-\nments\n667. Who first planted an English colony in America\n668. How do those parts of America at first settled by British colonists\ncompare in natural richness with the Spanish possessions\nSECTION XLIII.\n669. What was the state of the fine arts in Europe in the time of Leo X.\n670. What was their progress\n671. In what arts did the Italians excel\n672. Who were some of the most distinguished Italian painters\n673. Who were some of the most distinguished Italian sculptors\n674. When is the invention of engraving on copper dated\nSECTION XLIV.\n675. What is the character of the Turks in the fifteenth century\n676. From whom did the Turks take the island of Rhodes\n677. From what ancient nation are derived the principles of maritime ju-\nrisprudence existing among modern nations\n678. What conquests did the Turks make in the sixteenth century\nSECTION XLV.\n679. What occasioned a revolution in Persia in the latter part of the fif-\nteenth century\n680. What is the government of Persia\n681. From what country have proceeded the conquerors who occasioned\nthe principal revolutions of Asia\n682. What singular phenomenon does the kingdom of Thibet exhibit\nSECTION XLVI.\n683. Who has furnished the earliest accounts of India\n684. How do those accounts compare with the present condition of the\nHindoos\n685. When did the Mahometans begin an establishment in India?\n686. What was the condition of the Mogul empire in the beginning of the\neighteenth century\n687. Who conquered and obtained possession of the Mogul empire about\nthe middle of the eighteenth century\nSECTION XLVII.\n668. How have the remains of the ancient knowledge of the Hindoos beet\npreserved","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0555.jp2"},"554":{"fulltext":"72 QUESTIONS.\n689. How has the boily of Hindoo people been divided\n690. What inference is to be drawn from this classification of the Hindoos,\nas to their early civilization\n691. What was the civil policy of the Hindoos in the time of Alexander\nthe great\n692. What is the antiquity of some Hindoo compositions lately trans-\nlated\n693. What is the antiquity of some numerical tables lately obtained from\nthe Bramins by M. Gentil\n694. What do the writings of the Hindoo priests demonstrate\n695. What is the religion of India generally\nSECTION XLVIII.\n696. What is said of the laws and system of government in China?\n697. When did the Tartars establish themselves permanently in the soy-\nereignty of China\n698. When and by whom was the empire of Japan discovered\n699. Who carried on a beneficial trade with the people of Japan\n700. What caused this trade to be broken off\n701. Why is it that the Dutch are still allowed to trade with the Japa\nnese\nSECTION XLIX.\n702. To whom does Sir William Jones trace the origin of the Chinese\n703. What is the government of China\n704. How are honours bestowed in China\n705. What is the state of the sciences in China at this time\n706. What arts in China are carried to great perfection\n707. What are the morals of the Chinese\n708. What Chinese writer is said to have produced a good system of mo-\nrality\n709. What ia the religion of the emperor and the higher mandarins\nSECTION L.\n710. What was the opinion of Mr. Bailly concerning the arts and sciences\namong the nations of the east\n711. How long have they been stationary with the Chinese?\n712. At how early a period are the Chaldeans represented to have been\nan enlightened people\n713. Is the opinion of Mr. Bailly well founded\nSECTION LI.\n714. Who took Calais from the English for the French\n715. How long had it been in possession of the English?\n716. What was the character of Philip II.\n717. The government did he confer on the Prince of Orange?\n718. For what purpose did he establish the Inquisition in those provinces\n719. What led to the establishment of the republic of the seven united\nprovinces\n720. What is the chief magistrate called\n721. What became of the Prince of Orange\n722. Who aided this republic in obtaining independence\nSECTION LII.\n723. What was the government of the seven united provinces\n724. What important evil is there in the constitution of the government I\n725. What was the authority of the chief magistrate","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0556.jp2"},"555":{"fulltext":"QUESTIONS. 38\n716. Who almost annihilated the republic\n727. When wai the Stadtholdership made hereditary\nSECTION LIII.\n728. How was the loss of the Netherlands compensated to Philip II.\n729. When did he take possession of Portugal\n730. What naval enterprise engaged the attention of Philip\n731. What was the result of it?\n732. What is the character of Philip\nSECTION LIV.\n733. What accelerated the progress of reformation in France\n734. What- two parties were engaged in a civil war in the latter part\nthe sixteenth century\n735. When was the massacre of St. Bartholomew\n736. What was the character of Charles IX. of France\n737. Who were his two immediate successors\n738. What became of them\n739. What great project was Henry IV. meditating, when assassinated\nSECTION LV.\n740. When did Elizabeth come to the throne of England\n7J41. What was the state of the kingdom during her reign\n742. What fixed a stain on Elizabeth s character\n743. Under what pretence did Mary of Scots assume the arms and title of\nqueen of England\n744. What form of religion became established in Scotland, in the reign of\nElizabeth\n745. Who was a distinguished reformer in Scotland\n746. Who were the two husbands of Mary\n747. How came Mary in the hands of Elizabeth\n748. Under what pretence was Mary condemned and executed\n749. How long was she a captive in England\n750. At what age and when did Elizabeth die\nSECTION LVI.\n751. Who succeeded Elizabeth on the throne of England?\n752. What rendered James unpopular with his subjects\n753. What was the object of the gunpowder treason\n754. By whom was the conspiracy formed\n755. What was a favourite object with James\n756. Who was his successor\n757. What were some of the principal subjects of dispute between Charlei\nand his parliaments\n758. What caused the Scots to rebel and take up arms against the govern-\nment of Charles?\n759. What two distinguished individuals at this time were impeached by\nthe commons and beheaded\n760. What important occurrence was there at this time in Ireland\n761. When the civil war commenced, who were on the side of the king;,\nand who on that of the parliament\n762. Who directed the measures of the army of parliament\n763. In what way was Cromwell able to procure the death of Charles\n764. When was he beheaded\n765. How far were the proceedings of the commons justifiable?","height":"3523","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0557.jp2"},"556":{"fulltext":"w QUESTIONS.\nSECTION LVII.\n766. What part did the parliament of Scotland ^5^ ^f*\n76?! On what conditions Charles II. proclaimed king of Scotland\n768. Who were the Covenanters of Scotland Mmw u\n769. What became of Charles II. when overcome by Cromwell.\n770. What was the title of Cromwell\n771. What was the character of his government\n772 At what a *e did he die, and who was his successor?\nm Whlt h wa a s°the parliament called that put to deathkmg paries?\n774. Under what circumstances and when was Charles 11. restored.\nSECTION LVIII.\n77«i What was the character of Charles II.\n776. Wheniwere the epithets of Whig and Tory first known, and how\nwere they applied?\n777 Who was the successor of Charles 11.\n778. What made him unpopular with his subjects\n779. By what means was Charles removed from the throne\n780*. On whom was the crown then settled\n781. What became of James\nSECTION LIX.\n782. To what period may the rudiments of the English constitution to\ntraced 1\n783 In whose reign was instituted the trial by jury\n784* In whose reign did the Magna Charta originate\n785 n whose reig^i was the act of Habeas Corpus passed?\n786. Of what does the parliament of Great Britain consist\n787. Of what does the house of lords consist\n788. Of what does the house of commons consist f\n789! What is the act of Habeas Corpus\nSECTION LX.\n790 How are the pecuniary supplies of the sovereign obtained\n791. When did the English national debt arise\n792*. What constitutes the Sinking Fund\n793. Is it probable the debt will ever become extinct?\nSECTION LXI.\n794. To what minister was France indebted for much of her good succesi\nin the reign of Lewis XIII.\nIll ^^tt^tX^ot^t^^^U^\nXIII.\nIf 7. When did he die\nSECTION LXII.\n798. What weak and despicable act did Philip III. commit?\n799. When did Portugal become an independent sovereignty\n800. Who became her first king? _\n801. What is said of Spain in the reigns of Philip III. and IV.?\nSECTION LXIII.\n802. What was the condition of Germany when Charles V. abdicated th.\n803. WhaTwas then and for a long period afterwards a subject of conU*\ntion in Germany","height":"3587","width":"2069","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0558.jp2"},"557":{"fulltext":"QUESTIONS. 16\n604. What peace put a period to this contention?\n805. When did the peace of Westphalia take place\nSECTION LXIV.\n806. When did Lewis XIV. come to the throne of France?\n807. At what age?\n808. What led to a civil war in the early part of his reign\n809. When did Mazarin die\n810. What change took place in the affairs of France at this time\n811. What was reckoned one of the weakest and most impolitic measurei\nof Lewis XIV.\n812. What was the state of the finances of France in the latter part of\nthe reign of Lewis XIV.\n813. What character is given of Lewis XIV.\n814. At what age and when did he die\nSECTION LXV.\n815. What change took place in the government of France, under the\nCapetian race of kings\n816. What power arose to limit and check the royal prerogative, in and\nfrom the reign of Lewis XIII.\n817. What made the powers of parliament a constant subject of dispute\n818. In what way was the crown of France to descend?\n819. What was the established religion of France?\n820. What took place in the assembly of the Gallican church, in 1682\nSECTION LXVI.\n321. What two distinguished characters in the north of Europe were\ncontemporary with Lewis XIV.\n822. When is Russia said to have received Christianity\n823. What sovereign first published a code of laws in Russia\n824. When was Siberia added to the Russian empire\n825. When and how did Peter become master of the Russian empire\n826. How was the early part of his life spent\n827. What method did he adopt to improve himself in the sciences and\nuseful arts\n828. When and at what age did Charles XII. come to the throne of Sweden\n829. At what age and with what success was his first campaign made\n830. What change did he effect in the government of Poland\n831. By whom was he defeated?\n832. How many of his awny remained to him after this defeat\n833. To what means did Charles then resort to regain his lost power\n834. What became of Charles XII.\n835. When did Peter the Great die\nSECTION LXVII.\n836. Who were the principal philosophers in the seventeenth century\n837. For what was Galileo imprisoned\n838. What institutions were formed which contributed to the advance-\nment of science and the arts\n839. What work of Newton contains the elements of all philosophy\n840. What was Locke s theory concerning the human mind\n841. What are some of the most distinguished poetical productions of\nmodern times\n842. Who are some of the most eminent English Poets\n843. Who were distinguished writers in history during the 16th and Hlh\ncenturies 3","height":"3523","width":"1979","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0559.jp2"},"558":{"fulltext":"QUESTIONS.\nAPPENDIX\nHISTORY OF THE JEWS.\nSECTION I.\n844. What constitutes the basis of the first historical records\n846. How can we account for the fabulous relations of the first histo-\nrians\n846. From what period are the details in profane history to be received\nas facts\n847. What historical records are the most ancient as well as the most ra-\ntional\n848. What historical facts do they contain, not found in other history\nSECTION II.\n849. Who were the Israelites\n850. Why were they suffered to be subdued by the Romans\n851. In what condition do their descendants exist?\n852. What circumstance illustrates the truth and inspiration of the pro-\nphetic writings\nSECTION III.\n853. How long before Herodotus did Moses live\n854. What acknowledgment did Porphyry make as to the antiquity of\nthe writings of Moses\n;55. What pagan traditions confirm the truth of the Pentateuch\n856. What is said of Zoroaster\n857. What Jewish historian successfully vindicates the authority of the\nJewish scriptures\nSECTION IV.\n858. What are the principal facts recorded in the book of Genesis\n859. What remarkable prophecy of Isaiah is there concernimg Cyrus\n860. And what one concerning Babylon\n861. What was the length of time from the giving of the law to Moses to\nthe reformation in worship and government of the Jews by Nehe\nmiah\n862. What hereditary distinction of rank existed among the Jews\n863. What is said of Moses, El:sha, and Gideon\n864. What internal undoubted characteristic of truth is there in the scrip-\ntures\nSECTION V.\n865. When was the creation of the world accomplished\n366. What was one of the most remarkable circumstance! of the antedi-\nluvians\n667. How long did some of the oldest of them live\n868. Why did the Almighty destroy the world by a deluge of water t\n869. Who were saved from it and by what means\n870. Who were some of the first inventers of the useful art*\nSECTION VI.\n871. What it taid of the three sons of Noah","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0560.jp2"},"559":{"fulltext":"QUESTIONS. n\n*72. What is the most important event between the deluge and the Cflii\nof Abraham\n873. Of what city was Babel the beginning\nSECTION VII.\n874. From whom do the Jews derive theii origin\n875. What relationship was there between Jacob and Abraham\n876. How came Joseph, the son of Jacob, to be in Egypt?\n877. By what means was he made governor of Egypt\n878. How came his father and brethren to remove thither\n879. How long did the Israelites remain in Egypt\n880. What were some of the circumstances connected with their leaving\nit?\n881. How long after leaving Egypt did Moses die\nSECTION VIII.\n882. What caused a league to be formed between the Syrian chiefs?\n883. Who was the successor of Moses in the government of Israel\n884. How were the Israelites governed after the death of Joshua?\n885. Who were the two last Judges of Israel\n886. What change took place in the government on the death of Samuel/\nSECTION IX.\n887. What was the original government of Israel called\n888. What moral and political change took place on the death of Jo*hua\nin the condition of Israel\n889. Why was the regal government introduced\nSECTION X.\n890. How long did Saul reign over Israel?\n891. By what means was David raised to the throne as his successor?\n892. What prosperous events characterized the reign of David?\n893. What adverse ones characterized it\n894. How long did David reign, and who succeeded him\n895. What is the most remarkable event in the reign of Solomon\n896. What books are ascribed to him\n897. Under what circumstances was the kingdom divided\n898. By what names were the two kingdoms subsequently to this division\ncalled\n899. What became of the ten tribes who constituted the kingdom of Is*\nrael?\n900. Whence sprang the Samaritans\n901. When and in what manner ended the kingdom of Judah?\nSECTION XI.\n902. How long were the Jews held captive in Babylon?\n903. By whom were they released\n904. From what time and circumstance were the Israelites called Jews?\n905. What caused Alexander the great to march to Jerusalem with hos-\ntile intentions\n906. By what means was he appeased\n907. What favours did he then bestow on them\n908. What advantage did Ptolemy take of the regard which the Jews paid\nto the Sabbath\n909. In what manner did the five brothers named Maccabeus become dis-\ntinguished\n9\\0, Who was their father","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0561.jp2"},"560":{"fulltext":"oa QUESTIONS.\n911. When and by whom were the Jews subjected to the Romans\n912. Who was then placed on the throne of David under the protection\nof the Romans\n913. By what memorable event was the reign of Herod distinguished\n•14. By whom and when was the Jewish nation extinguished\n915. How many Jews are supposed to have perished in their last wai\nwith the Romans\nSECTION XII.\n916. What is the period of scriptural history\n917. Where is it supposed that the Jews obtained their knowledge of the\narts and sciences\n918. What was the state of commerce among the Jews\n919. With what inference does Tytler conclude his work on history?\nCONTINUATION, OR PART THIRD\nSECTION i.\n920. What was the age of Lewis XV. when the crown of France descend\ned to him\n921. When and what heirs to the crown »f France, died within a few\nmonths\n922. What made it necessary for France the death of Lewis XIV. to\npreserve peace with foreign states?\n923. Who was regent of France during the minority of Lewis XV.\n924. What distinguished minister was at the court of Spain, in this\nperiod\n926. What was the character of the duk* of Orleans, the regent of\nFrance\n926. By what means were the duchies of Loriiin and Bar made to revert\nto France\nSECTION II.\n927. Who succeeded queen Anne on the throne of Britain\n928. What acts of parliament had passed connected with the accession\nof George I. concerning religion\n929. When did he enter his new dominions\n930. How did the rebellion of 1715 in Scotland, terminate?\n931. By what name were the adherents to the Pretender called\n932. By what name was the party called to which George I. committed\nthe government of the realm\n933. Who was king of Sweden at this time\n934. For what purpose and by whom was he nearly instigated to invadt\nBritain\n935. What ruined the prospects of Alberoni\n936. In what way did he attempt obtaining revenge\n937. Why did he not succeed\n938. At what age and when did George I. die\nSECTION HI.\n939. When did Charles VI. become emperor of Austria and Germany r\n940. Who was the Austrian commander in the first war of Charles Vft\nwith the Tiuks?","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0562.jp2"},"561":{"fulltext":"QUESTIONS U\n941. What arrangement did he make for the descent of the Austrian\ncrown?\n942. What was this arrangement or his act in making it called\n943. When did Charles VI. die, and who succeeded him\n944. Was she permitted to enjoy unmolested the dominions descended to\nher?\n945. What circumstances were calculated to raise up competitors for dif-\nferent parts of her estates\n946. Who was the most forward and active of the queen s opponents\n947. What prevented the competitors of the queen from succeeding in\nobtaining their claims\n948. Which one of them succeeded in obtaining the imperial crown ii\n1741?\n949. How long after this did he live\n950. On his death who obtained the imperial crown\n951. When did the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle take place?\nSECTION IV.\n952. At what time and age did George II. come to the throne of Eng-\nland?\n953. Who was his queen\n954. Who was prime minister of England at this time\n955. What caused him to resign\n956. Upon what two occasions had his views been thwarted\n957. When did he die\n958. What interesting event occurred in Scotland the same year\n959. What was the object of the insurrection in Scotland\n960. In what battle were the hopes of the Stuart family for ever blasted\n961. What became of the heir of this family after that battle\n962. What is considered the most melancholy circumstance attending\nthe Scottish rebellion\n963. What singular act of parliament was passed in the year 1751\n964. When and at what age did George II. die\nSECTION V.\n965. By what treaty was the house of Hanover effectually established\non the British throne\n966. How was the British naval force left by this treaty compared with\nthe naval forces of other European nations\n967. What did Austria lose by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle\n968. What did Prussia gain by it\n969. How did it effect Holland\n970. By what means was Russia introduced into the southern states at\nEurope\nSECTION VI\n971. What became a subject of jealousy and future warfare, after the\npeace of Aix-la-Chapelle, between France and England\n972. In what respect did the peace of Europe, in 1748, extend to Asia\nand America\n973. What French governor in the East Indies attempted tx bring the\nMogul empire under the dominion of France\n974. In what way did the French in America gain an advantage over the\nEnglish\n975. When did the French war in America commence\n976. What number of French merchant vessels was captured and car-\nried intc the English ports the first year of the war\n3*","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0563.jp2"},"562":{"fulltext":"90 QUESTIONS.\n977. When the war was extended to Europe, what powen\nthemselves against each other\n978. Who was king of Prussia at this time\n979. What is his character\n880. What has this war been termed\n981. How many men have been supposed to have perished annually in\nthe campaigns of it\n982. What advantage did the English gain in America\n983. What new ally did France obtain in the year of 1761\n984. What induced him to join the league against England\n985. What advantages did England gain by this war\n986. What change in the ministry of England contributed to the peace 1\nSECTION VII.\n987. When did George HI. succeed to the throne of Britain?\n988. What was one of his first acts which showed him to be the friend\nof liberty\n989. What gave rise to distressing tumults in the year 1762\n990. How did the measures of lord Bute differ from those of Mr. Pitt?\n991. What contributed to make the first years of George III. unquiet?\n992. What besides public addresses and remonstrances contributed to the\npopular fervour and agitation of public feeling at this period?\n993. What constitutional question came under discussion at this time\n994. For what is the year 1764 remarkable\nSECTION VIII.\n995. What was the pretence for taxing the American colonies\n996. What was the first instance of imposing direct taxes without their\nconsent\n997. When was this imposed\n998. When was it formally repealed\n999. What reason is there for supposing that the Americans did not con-\ntemplate independence when they first made opposition to the\nBritish government\n1000. How long was it after the passing of the stamp act before the com\nmencement of hostilities\n1001. When and where was American independence declared?\n1002. Who were sent to France, and when, to solicit aid for the Ameri\ncans\n1003. What other powers besides that of France, united against England i\n1004. When did Great Britain ratify the treaty which admitted the Amer\nican independence\nSECTION IX.\n1005. Who laid the foundation for the French revolution\n1006. Why were the Jesuits banished from Portugal in the year 1750\n1007. What charge was attempted to be fixed on them at Paris, subse-\nquent to this\n1008. When was the order of Jesuits abolished in France\n1009. From what other countries were they expelled, and when?\n1010. Whom did the dauphin of France, afterwards Lewis XIV. marry?\niOll. When did he come to the throne\n1012. When was an alliance formed between the court of Versailles and\nAmerica\n1013. Who were the most eminent friends of liberty in the British parlia\nment\n1^14. What, at this time, produced an extraordinary effect on the Pan\nsians, agains* the extravagance of the French court?","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0564.jp2"},"563":{"fulltext":"QUESTIONS. 31\n1015. What particular difficulties had the king to encounter\n1016 What, in the year 1783, tended to hasten the French revolution\nand bring matters to a crisis\n1017. Who first called for the states-general\n1018. Who was in the French ministry when the states-general was call-\ned\nSECTION X.\n1019. What inconsistency was there in the conduct of Maria Theresa con-\ncerning Poland\n1020. What led to a war between Austria and Prussia, in the year 1778\n1021. What part did Austria take in regard to the war for American in-\ndependence\n1022. When and at what age did Maria Theresa die\nSECTION XL\n1023. How long before the death of his mother, Maria Theresa, did J«»\nseph II. come to the imperial throne of Austria\n1024. In what manner did he labour to acquire the information needful to\nhis subjects\n1025. What was the population of his dominions\n1026. What important edict was passed by him, October 31, 1781\n1027. When did the Netherlands declare themselves independent of Aus-\ntria\n1028. When did Joseph II. die, and by whom was he succeeded\n1029. How long did Leopold reign\n1030. Who succeeded him and when\n1031. What evil did he experience Irom taking part against the French\nrevolutionists\n1032. By whom were the Austrians assisted against the French in the\nwar of 17^9\nSECTION XII.\n1033. When was the states-general assembled\n1034. What was the French state prison called\n1035. What became of it\n1036. How many families were there at this time in France of the ancient\nhereditary nobility\n1037. In what way did the king attempt to rescue himself from the re-\nstraints imposed on him\n1038. When was the national assembly dissolved\n1039. What prevented Sweden and Russia from engaging in hostilities\nagainst the French\n1040. What furnished the demagogues with opportunity for charging thst\nking with making war upon his people\n1041. What has this period of the French history been called\n1042. Who was at the head of affairs in France\n1043. How many, suspected of being aristocrats, were assassinated on the\nsecond of September\n1044. When was the king brought to trial\n1045. When was he executed\n1046. Into how many factions were the revolutionists divided, tad\nwere they called\n1047y Which one triumphed\n1.04ft What became of the queen of France","height":"3523","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0565.jp2"},"564":{"fulltext":"3* QUESTIONS.\nSECTION XIII.\n1049. What change took place in the ministry of Great Britain after tin\npeace with America\n1050. Who succeeded Mr. Fox in the British ministry\nt051. What is the Sinking Fund of Great Britain\n1052. What important prosecution was undertaken at this time by the\nBritish parliament\n1053. How long did it last, and what was its result\n1054. When was the attention of the house of commons first called to the\nslave trade\n1055. When was it abolished\n1056. What event compelled the British parliament to meet on the 20th\nof November, 1788?\n1057. What occurrence arose to threaten war between England and\nSpain, in the year 1790\n1058. What led to the declaration of war against the king of Great\nBritain, by France, in the year 1793\n1059. With what success was the war prosecuted\n1060. What Important occurrence took place in Ireland, 1798?\n1061. What important event to Ireland succeeded the suppression of the\nrebellion\n1062. What took place in India during the last year of the eighteenth\ncentury\n1063. What led to the peace of Amiens, between France and England,\nOctober 1st, 1801\nSECTION XIV.\n1064. What was the situation of France towards the close of the year\n1793\n1065. What took place on the 17th of November, 1793?\n1066. What alteration was there made in the calendar?\n1067. When and where did Napoleon Bonaparte first distinguish himself?\n1068. What became of Robespierre\n1069. What was the government of France, established and proclaimed\nin 1795\n1070. What were the affairs of France externally at this time\n1071. Who were some of her most distinguished generals\n1072. What territories were added to the French republic?\n1073. What became of Lewis XVII.?\nSECTION XV.\n1074. When did Bonaparte receive the chief coiumand of the French\narmy in Italy?\n1075. What was his age at that time\n10.6. On the reduction of Mantua, what did he state to his soldiers had\nbeen their success\n1077. Why were the Venetians unwilling to take part either with the\nAustrians or French\n1078. Of what dishonourable conduct was Bonaparte guilty, in relation\nto the Venetians\n1079. What took place on the 4th and 5th of September, 1797\n1080. Upon what expedition did Bonaparte enter, in the year 1798?\n1081. What success did he have in this expedition\n!082. What lessened his triumph and gave a new turn to the war?\n1083. What change took place in the French government on Bonaparte U\nreturn from Egypt","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0566.jp2"},"565":{"fulltext":"QUESTIONS. 33\n.084. When, by whom and with what result was the battle of Mafenro\nfought\n1085. When and between whom was the treaty of Luneville signed\n1086. When and between whom was the treaty of Amiens signed?\n1087. What was the French power, and what were her possessions at this\ntime\nSECTION XVI.\n1088. What regulation did Bonaparte make for religion in France\n1089 What took place on the 2d of August, 1802\n1090. What led to a renewal of hostilities between France and England.\n1803\n1091. On the renewal of hostilities, what security did Bonaparte take for\nthe future good conduct of England?\n1092. What military enterprise did he project\n1093. What took place on the 18th of May, and the 2d of December,\n1804\n1094. Why did general Moreau come to America\n1095. What induced Russia, Prussia, and Austria, to unite in hostilities\nagainst Napoleon\n1096. What took place on the 21st of October, 1805\n1097. After what battle did the emperor of Austria solicit peace\n1098. What appeared to lead to the exaltation of Joseph Bonaparte to\nthe throne of Naples\n1099. What change took place in the government of Holland, in 1806\n1100. What change took place, in the same year, in the political condition\nof Germany\n1101. How came Bonaparte to be in Berlin, in November, of this year?\n1102. What extraordinary decree did he dictate, while there?\n1103. What concessions did the emperor of Russia make to the French\nemperor in the treaty of Tilsit\nSECTION XVII.\n1104. When did Charles IV. come to the throne of France\n1105. What caused the Spaniards, in 1793, to invade France\n1 106. What was the consequence of this invasion to Spain\n1107. By what means did St. Domingo fall into the hands of the French\n1108. What led to the war between England and Spain in 1805\n1 109. Why did the royal family of Portugal remove to America, and when\n1110. On what account was Ferdinand arrested and imprisoned by the\nSpanish authorities\n1111. By what means was the Spanish throne declared vacant and\nJoseph Bonaparte proclaimed king of Spain\n1 112. What foreign power aided Spain and Portugal, against the French?\n1 113. In what battle were the French beaten and compelled to evacuate\nPortugal\n1 1 14. When and under whom did the British army enter Spain\n1115. What became of Sir John Moore\n1116. When did Sir Arthur Welle sley, with fresh troops from England*\nenter Spain\n1117. For what service was he raised to a peerage\n1118. What battle caused the gates of Madrid to be thrown open to the\nSpanish patriots in 1812\n1119. When was the battle of Vittoria fought\nU20. What were the consequences of it to the French\nSECTION XVIII\n112 i. What was the partition treaty between France and Spain","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0567.jp2"},"566":{"fulltext":"34 QUESTIONS.\n1122. What was the Milan decree?\n1 123. Who was created king of Naples when Joseph Bonaparte removed\nto Spain\n1124. How long did the war of Austria last, which commenced in 1809\n1125. On what condition was Austria able to obtain peace\n1126. When did Bonaparte s second marriage take place?\n1127. When was the war renewed with Russia\n1128. With how large an army did Bonaparte invade Russia, in 1812\n1129. What was the success of this expedition\n1130. With what force did he commence hostilities in 1813?\n1131. What battle completely discomfited the French emperc*\n1132. When did the allies pass the Rhine\n1133. When did they reach Paris\n1134. On what conditions was Bonaparte permitted to abdicate the French\nthrone\n1135. When did the Bourbons return to Paris?\nSECTION XIX.\n1136. From what cause had Poland suffered much\n1137. What change did Charles XII. make in the state of Poland?\n1138. By the aid of whose power was the family of Augustus kept upon\nthe throne of Poland during the first half of the eighteenth cen-\ntury\n1139. Who succeeded Augustus III. and when\n1140. What internal dispute greatly distracted Poland at this time?\n1141. With whom did the plan of dismembering Poland, originate\n1142. What reasons were given by the partitioning powers for the dis-\nmemberment of Poland\n1 143. Did the Poles willingly acquiesce in the measure\n1 144. When was the division actually agreed upon and sanctioned by the\nPolish diet\n1145. When did a. second partition take place, and when a third?\n1 146. What became of Stanislaus, the last king of Poland\n1147. When and by whom was the kingdom declared re-established\n1148. What is the present political condition of it?\nSECTION XX.\n1 149. When were hostilities renewed by England against France\n1 150. What caused Spain also to be involved with Great Britain\n1151. How did the English violate the rules of justice in regard to Spain?\nWhat splendid victory did the English obtain over the French\nand Spanish, in 1805\n1152. Of what act of injustice were the English judged guilty towards the\nDanes\n1153. What caused the royal family of France to take refuge in England,,\nin 1807?\n1 154. What were the English orders in council issued in January and No-\nvember, 1807?\n1155. When was the prince of Wales appointed regent of Great Britain?\n1156. Why was he appointed\n1157. What distinguished personage was assassinated in the month of May,\n1812?\n1158. What interesting event took place in England, in May, 1816\n1159. By what melancholy event was it succeeded in November of the\nfollowing year\n160. When did George HI. die","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0568.jp2"},"567":{"fulltext":"QUESTIONS 85\nSECTION XXI.\n1161. How did the French army feei toward the emperor Napoleon, after\nhe was exiled\n1162. When did Bonaparte land in France, on his return from Elba?\n1163. When did he enter Paris?\nil64. When was the battle of Waterloo fought, which for ever terminat-\ned his prospects\n1165. When did he arrive at St. Helena, to which he was banished\n1166. What resolution was adopted by the allied military commanders in\nrelation to the works of art, which the French had collected in\nformer victories\n1167. What precaution did the allies adopt to prevent future revolutions\nin that country\nSECTION XXII.\n1168. Who were the three immediate successors of Peter I. upon the\nthrone of Russia\n1169. How long after the death of her father did the princess Elizabeth\ncome to the throne\n1170. How long did she reign, and who succeeded her\n1171. What became of Peter III.\n1172. What was the character of Catharine II. his widow, who succeed\ned?\n1173. When did Alexander, the present emperor of Russia, come to thf\nthrone\n1174. What became of his predecessor\n1175. How long has Prussia existed as a kingdom?\n1176 How many kings have reigned over it?\n177. Which of them did most toward raising the kingdom to the first\ndegree of power and renown\n1 178. What two factions were there in Sweden in the reign of Frederick\n1179. How long did Gustavus III. reign\n1180. How did he come by his death\n181. Why did Gustavus IV. abdicate the throne\n1 182. Who is the present king of Sweden\n1183. When did he come to the throne\n184. How many kings have reigned in Denmark since the close of the\nseventeenth century\n1185. In what war was Christian VII. connected with George III. of Eng\nland?\n1186. Why did his queen, Caroline Matilda, retire to, and end her daya\nin Germany\n1187. Who is the present king of Denmark?\nSECTION XXIII.\n1 188. In what disputes was Switzerland involved during the first part ol\nthe 18th century\n1189. Which of the popes of Rome suppressed the order of Jesuits?\n1190. Who was rasied to the papal chair in 1775\n1191. At what age, when, and where did he die\n1192. How came he at Valence\n1193. When was his successor chosen, and by what name is he called?\n1 194. When did he aid in establishing the catholic religion in France\n1 195. What injury did he afterwards receive from France\nSECTION XXIV.\n1 196. Who was the reigning prince of India in the beginning of the lHtk\ncentury","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0569.jp2"},"568":{"fulltext":"36 QUESTIONS.\n1197. Tc what age did he live?\n1198. In what manner did he come to the throne?\n1199. What singular fact is mentioned as evidence of the contentions\ncommon for the throne, with that semi-barbarous people\n1200. What chartered privilege has the English East India Company\nwith this people\n1201. When did tht Company receive this privilege i\n1202. What description of this people is called Sepoys\n1203. Who is regarded as the founder of the British empire in India\n1204. When did the British parliament make provision to prevent abuse*\nof power in India\n1205. What distinguished individuals were instrumental in the first re-\nforms under the new system\n1206. What is the reason why this system was not scrupulously adhered\nto?\n1207. What was the object of Tippoo in regard to the English\n1208. For what object was the East India College established\n209. What is the population of British India\nSTATE OF ARTS, SCIENCES, RELIGION, LAWS, GOVERN-\nMENT, c.\n1210. What countries have been particularly distinguished in literature,\narts, and science, in the 18th century\n1211. Which of the sciences in particular have been much cultivated and\nadvanced in that time\n1212. In what particulars has chemistry undergone important changes in\nthe latter part of the 18th century\n1213. Who claim to be the authors of the new theory of chemistry?\n1214. What is now ascertained to be the nature of atmospheric air?\n1215. By whom was the discovery of vital air, or oxygen gas, made\n1216. To what branch of chemistry is the discovery of the decomposition\nof water owing\n1217. Who discovered the constituent parts or principles of water?\n1218. What are they called\n1219. Who are some of the most distinguished chemists of the 18th cen-\ntury\nBOTANY.\n1220. Where and when was Linnaeus born\n12£1. What is the foundation of his systematic botany\n1222. With how many species of plants are botanists now said to be ac-\nquainted\n1223. What French botanist has done much for the benefit of the science\n1224. What is the difference between the system of Linnseus and that of\nJussieu\nELECTRICITY.\n1225. Who were some of the persons who first wrote learnedly on the\nsubject of electricity\n1226. Who proved that the electric fluid and lightning are the iam«\nthing\n1227. To what practical purposes did he apply this\n1228. Of whom was Galvanism the discovery\n1229. What is Galvanism called\n1230. What English philosopher has become much celebrated forhil elec-\ntro-chemical researches","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0570.jp2"},"569":{"fulltext":"QUESTIONS. t7\nMINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY\n1231. When did the modern scientific arrangements of minenu begin\noccupy the attention of naturalists\n1232. Who has the credit of reducing the science into classes and orders\n1233. From wbit did geology arise\n1234. What is geology\nGEOGRAPHY.\n1235. What two new quarters of the world have been presented to us, id\nthe last century, according to the French geographers\n1236. What does Australasia include\n1237. What does Polynesia include\n1238. What took place in 1761, in evidence of the improvements in civili-\nzation\nT239. What eminent Prussian traveller has contributed to the perfection\nof geographical knowledge\n1240. From what period have the Russian sovereigns made laudable ef-\nforts to obtain correct geographical information\n1241. Has the science of astronomy undergone as great changes as the\nother sciences nam°d during the last century\n1242. How many planets have been discovered in that time\n1243. What fact is stattd from which we can form some conjecture of the\nnumber of fixed stars f\n1244. What French writer did much to unsettle the minds of his country-\nmen on religion and politics\n1245. From whom has it been supposed that Voltaire imbibed his deisticai\nsentiments\n1246. Who were the principal deistical writers of England\n1247. What counteracted the tendency of their writings\n1248. What other eminent French philosopher visited England, beside*\nVoltaire, about the same time\n1249. To what did he principally confine his views\n1250. What were the political opinions of Rousseau\n1251. What was the origin of the French Encyclopedia\n1252. What courts of Europe were thrown open to the French philoso-\nphers\n1253. Is it to be supposed that the French philosophers, to whom the rev-\nolution has been imputed, contemplated the awful catastrophe\nof that event\n1254. Who was chiefly instrumental in introducing the improvements ol\nthe 1 8th century into Russia\nDISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS.\n1255. What are the principal discoveries and inventions of modern timer\n1256. What effect had the French revolution on the people of other co*w\ntries\n1257. What moral improvements have taken place in the condition v rn-\nrkni3 civilized nations\nRELIGION.\n1258. In what countries does paganism prevail\n1259. What is the present condition of the Jews\nIf 60. Where does Mahometanism prevail\n1261. What are the principal sects of the Christian religion\n1262. What sects have been most active as missionaries\n4","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0571.jp2"},"570":{"fulltext":"88 QUESTIONS.\n1263. What change has the papal authority experienced in the time tn\nder consideration\nHISTORY, POLITE LITERATURE, FINE ARTS, c.\ni264. What Germans have been distinguished in literature, and the fine\narts\n265. Who in France\n1266. Who in Great Britain\n1267. Who in Italy\nTREATY OF VIENNA, 1815.\n1268. What addition of territory was given to Russia, and what new ti-\ntle to the Czar\n1269. What is to be the condition of Cracow\n1270. How did this treaty aflect Saxony?\n1271. How did it affect Prussia\n1272. What change took place in the Netherlands\nPART FOURTH.\nUNITED STATES.\nSECTION I.\n1273-. When and by whom was America discovered\n1274. Under whose patronage was it discovered\n1275. What part of it was discovered first\n1276. Why were the islands first discovered called the West Indies\n1277. Why was the continent called America?\n1278. How long time after Columbus sailed from the Canaries before he\nreached St. Salvador\n1279. To what governments did he apply for patronage without success\nSECTION II.\n1280. By whom and when was the continent of North America discover-\ned?\n1281. On what account did Virginia derive its name?\n1282. Who made the first attempt to colonize this part of the continent\n1283. To whom did Sir Walter Raleigh afterward assign his interest in\nthe country?\n1284. F om what did James river take its name\n1285. On what account did capt. John Smith obtain his first release from\nthe Indians?\n1286. Who effected his second release from them\n1287. On what account was the cultivation of the soil neglected by the\nfirst colonists\n1288. What is the 1m story of Focahontas subsequent to saving the life of\ncapt. Smith\n1289. Who first brought, the African negroes into this part of the country?\n1290. What part did the Virginians take in relation to the revolution o/\nthe mother country under Cromwell\n1291. What was the population of Virginia, in 16J?6","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0572.jp2"},"571":{"fulltext":"QUESTIONS. W\nSECTION III.\n1292. What wu the origin of the Plymouth colony\ngt Of now many did it consist tthe y 1630?\ngfr XtTd^rr^rSe^tTSeniand Jd Provence\n298 ^fi£ foundation of Hartford, Springfield, and Weather.-\n,301 Wh f numbT/of British subject, had settled in New-England, up\n,302 Wn°at Sauces of religious persecution took place in Ma.sachu.etta,\n,306 By fi wnomw« New-York first settled!\n1309. Whin and by whom was Georgia settled?\nSECTION IV.\n13 10. What settlements t^a the Englbh within\n1311. In what W* d J™^4 t hem from the continent?\nnarrow limits, or to d ve A nem vL-inia assembly adopt to sup-\npointment to the English\ngg- itet £S*g Stt°* ia the capture .1\n^£S^rsS mF ^as^ i\nat New- York?\n1322 When was the law repealed\ni323 What bill was passed on the repeal of this\nIt Whal disturbances took P^ J^^ZSd North.\n1325. What change took place on the e n jy^ 1770\n1326. What disturbances took place in Boston, in Marcn\n1327. What took place in 1773? Briti$h\n1328 What resistance was made, 1773, in uosiou,\n,S: iy^%^ e, SSS^^ .pm th. SHK-\nthe revolutionary war\n332. What led to the burning of Charlestown","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0573.jp2"},"572":{"fulltext":"40 QUESTIONS.\n1333. Who Leaded an expedition into Canada?\n1334. With what success was it made\n1335. By whom was general Gage superseded\n1336. When did the British evacuate Boston?\n1337. When was published the declaration of American Independence\n1338. What tended much to raise the desponding hopes of America hi\nthe latter part of 1776\n1339. What splendid advantages did the Americans gain in 1777\n1340. When was a treaty of alliance formed between the French and\nAmericans\n1341. Who took the command of the English army on the return of gen-\neral Howe\n1342. Whv was general Lee suspended\n1343. What took place on the 15th July, 1779?\n1344. Where, and under what circumstances was count Folaski mortally\nwounded\n1345. What prevented West Point from falling into the possession of the\nEnglish\n1346. What distinguished French military and naval commanders were\nsent to the aid of America\n347. What event is reckoned to have decided the contest between Eng-\nland and America\n348. How much money did England expend, and how many lives did\nshe sacrifice in this war\nSECTION V.\n349. When did the convention meet to form a new constitution?\n1350. When and where did the first congress meet under the new consti-\ntution\n1351. What produced an insurrection in the western part of Pennsylva-\nnia?\n1352. What was the state of affairs between the United States and France,\nduring the revolution in the latter\n1353. When did congress first meet in the city of Washington\n1354. What are the principal particulars of the war with Tripoli?\n1355. When and for how much was Louisiana purchased\nSECTION VI.\n1356. What were the particulars that led to the suspension of commodore\nBarron\n1357. What led to the declaration of war on the 18th of June, 1812, be-\ntween the United States and Great Britain\n1358. What were some of the principal disasters on land, which the\nAmericans experienced during the war\n1359. What were their principal and most brilliant successes on land\n1360. What naval victories did they obtain\n1361. What naval losses did they experience\n1362. What American officers were killed during the war\n1363. What British officers were killed during it\n1364. When and where was a treaty of peace signed\n1365. Who were the commissioners\n1366. What states, since the admission of Louisiana in 1812, have been\nadmitted intc the union\n1367. What accession of territory did the United States receive In ltl9\n1368. What was the population of the United States in 1 8*0","height":"3522","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0574.jp2"},"573":{"fulltext":"arrsTioNa\nPART FIFTH.\nSECTION I.\n1360.\nWhat circumstance agitated France in 1820?\n1370 When did Bonaparte die, and at what age\n1371 What is said of him _»\n1372* What war occurred in 1823, and what were its effects\n1373: When did Louis XVIII. die and who ■^eededhim\n1374 What circumstances occurred in Portugal in 1820, in 1821, and m\n1823\n1375. Who succeeded George III. lson\n1376 What remarkable events occurred in England m IbM\n1377! For what was the Summer of 1821 remarkable, and what were its\n1378 WhTfrnPS decree was issued by the Emperor of Russi. t fa 1 1811 f\n1379. What chang. has since taken place m the constitution of that\n1380. WhaTwas the declaration of the Congress of Vienna in 1815, with\nregard to the slave trade M\n1381 How far were their purposes in this respect carried into effect\n1382*. What circumstances occurred with regard to the Jesuits m 1816 and\ni«W* When did Pone Pius VII. die, and who succeeded him\n1384 Wha were the principal events in the life of the present pope, pre-\nvious to his elevation to the papal throne\n1385 What occurred in Naples and Sicily in 1820 and lb^l.\n1386. When did the Greeks revolt against the lurks\n1387. What is said of this war\nSECTION II.\n1388. From what must we estimate the degree of civilization to which th«\nancient Mexicans had attained\n1389. What is said of the political system\n1390*. What of the ecclesiastical\n1391 What crimes were made capital j-.^*«j\n1392 To what was tLe attention of government principally directed?\nI303 What is said of the other governments in the country r\n1394 What of the arts and sciences known to them\n1395: Do they appear to have been less civilized than European nations of\n1396. What SccurredTwhen the Spaniards first landed, and how w«r« ttoj\naffected by it\n1397 What occurred in their route to Tenochtitlan or Mexico\n1398. When did they arrive at the capital\n1399. What force had Cortez at this time\n1400: How were they received? _\n1401 What was the first act of aggression\n1402* What most excited the indignation of the Mexicans\n1403 On what account did Cortez leave the city\n1404. In what state did he find things on Ata return f\n1405. How was Montezuma killed\n1406 Who was his successor\n4*","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0575.jp2"},"574":{"fulltext":"42 QUESTIONS\n1407. Where did the first battle occur, and what was its result\n1408. What measures did Cortez adopt to strengthen his force?\n1409. When did he return to the neighbourhood of Tenochtitlan, and what\nmeasures did he pursue to conquer the city?\n1410. What number of allies did he receive\n1411. When was the city conquered?\n1412. How did Cortez dispose of his captives\n1413. In whose reign did the conquest occur\n1414. What is said of the history of New Spain from this period till the\nrevolution\n1415. Whoso property were these colonies\n1416. How were they divided\n1417. What was the authority of the viceroy\n1418. What aids had the viceroys in the administration of government\n1419. On whom did the supreme authority devolve when a viceroy died?\n1420. When was the Council of the Indies established, and what were its\nfunctions\n1421. What other tribunal was there\n1422. What occurred in 1808\n1423. How did this affect the European part of the population, and what\ndid they do\n1424. Who was the next viceroy\n1425. What conspiracy was formed, and how did it terminate l\n1426. What other revolts arc mentioned\n1427. When did general Mina arrive\n1428. When was he defeated\n1429. When, and from what cause, did the last revolt from the authority of\nSpain occur\n1430. Who now united their influence in favour of a revolution\n1431. Who was selected to execute their plans\n1432. What measures did he adopt to raise himself to the supreme au-\nthority\n1433. Who were his friends, and who his opponents\n1434. When was he declared emperor\n1435. How were the cler-gy affected i\n1436. Who now arose to produce a new revolution, and what were kit\nmeasures\n1437. By whom was Santana assisted\n1438. When was this revolution completed\n1439. What became of Iturbide\n1440. What form of government was established\n1441. When was their constitution adopted?\n1442. What is its principal defect?\n1443. What other federal government was formed at the tame period f\n1444. What title does it assume?\n1445. What religion is established\nSECTION III.\n1446. When were the Bahamas discovered\n1447. When was the first settlement made\n1448. By whom were they soon after possessed\n1449. Who was their leader\n1450. Who have since possessed the Bahamas\n1451. What is said of the pirates?\n1452. What is said of the Aborigines\n1453. What of the Arrowauks\n1154 How were the Great Antilles divided?\n1455. What was the authority of the caciquee?\n1456. How populous wen; these islands","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0576.jp2"},"575":{"fulltext":"QUESTIONS.\n1457 What became of the inhabitants\n1458. What fact is worthy of record in favour of the Spaniard! j\n1459. Who were the Buc earners\n1460. Whence their name\n1461. Give the rest of their history\nSECTION IV\n1462 When was this country discovered and settled i\n1463. Character of its history till 1778\n1464. What events followed\n1465. When was the country invaded by whom and with what i\n1466. Where did the revolution commence, and what was its cause\n1467. What is the date of its declaration of Independence\n1468. By whom was it afterwards invaded\n1469. What is its present state\n1470. What is the early history of Brazil\n1471. When did the royal family arrive, and how long remain i\n1472. How was the government then left\n1473. What circumstances followed\n1474. Who is the Emperor of Brazil\n1475. What is said of the history of Guiana\n1476. What is the principal tribe of Indians in Guiana\n1477. Of what was New-Granada originally a part\n1478. What changes have taken place in the audiences and viceroy»Uievi\n1479. What occurred in 1811\n1480. History of Venezuela from 1498 to 1806\n1481. What is said of Miranda s expedition\n1482. What oocurred in 1811\n1483. When were Venezuela andNew-Gianada united?\n1484. What fundamental laws of the Republic are mentioned\n1485. What is said of the constitution\n1486. Why is the early history of Peru uncertain\n1487. Former state of the Peruvian tribes\n1488. Who appeared among them, and with what pretension*\n1489. What city was founded\n1490. What did these extraordinary persons teach\n1491. How extensive were their dominions\n1492. What were they called\n1493. How was the succession of Incas preserved pure\n1494. What is said of their religion and civil policy\n1495. How many Incas were there\nJ 496. How far did they advance in civilization\n1497. W 7 hen did the Spaniards first visit Peru?\n1498. What is the history of Huana Capac\n1499. What is the history of Huascar and .ahualpa\n1500. W T hat is said of the Spanish invader--\n1501. What were their measures\n1502. What is the subsequent history of Peru\n1503. What is its present condition\n1504. What possessions on the American continent do the Spaniards\nhold\n1505. What is the history of Chili before the invasion\n1506. Describe the first expedition and its result\n1507. Describe the second expedition\n1508. What occurred on the return of Almagro to Pern?\n1509. Who was entrusted with the third expedition\n1510. What is said of the subsequent contests\n1511. Give an account of the Araucanian*\n1512. What occurred in 1810","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0577.jp2"},"576":{"fulltext":"44 QUESTIONS\n1518. What in 1814 and in 1817\n1514. How was the patriot army re-organized\n1515. What is said of their passage over the Andes\n1516. What were the events of 1818\n1517. What government is established\n1518. Why will their progress in real knowledge r\n1619. What is said of Don Jose San Martin r\n1530. What is said of Bolivar","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0578.jp2"},"577":{"fulltext":"","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0579.jp2"},"578":{"fulltext":"","height":"3587","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0580.jp2"},"579":{"fulltext":"","height":"3562","width":"2018","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0581.jp2"},"580":{"fulltext":"Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process.\nNeutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide\nTreatment Date: ^y 2002\nPreservationTechnologies\nA WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION\n111 Thomson Park Drive\nCranberry Township, PA 16066\n(724)779-2111","height":"3587","width":"2121","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0582.jp2"},"581":{"fulltext":"","height":"3523","width":"2005","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0583.jp2"},"582":{"fulltext":"","height":"3613","width":"2095","jp2-path":"elementsofgenera06wood_0584.jp2"}}