K THK HI8TOET MARSHALL COUNTY, 1 o ^^r j^^ CONTAINING A Biographical Directory of Citizens, War Record of its Vol- unteers in the late Rebellion, General and Local Statistics, Portraits of Early Settlers and Prominent Men, His- tory of the Northwest, History of Iowa, Map of Marshall County, Constitution of the United States, Miscellaneous Matters, &c. IXjXjTJSTIRJLTEID CHICAGO: WESTERN HISTORICAL COMPANY, 1S78. 7^ Entered, according to Act ol Congress, in the year 1878, by THE WESTERN HISTORICAL COMPANY, In the OflSce of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. PREFACE. THE historian who delves among the records of the far past, and weaves in continuous thread the story of former generations, for the instruction of ages yet to come, must be governed in the methods of his work by one invariable rule, which is : The acceptance of such facts, and only such, as have become established, either by written evidence or by undoubted verbal testimony trans- mitted in consecutive order, and bearing on its face the impress of truthfulness from its consistency with known facts. The historian who writes of the near past, oftentimes finds more delicate questions arising for him to decide than does the cotemporary of the musty pages. While the latter has but his own sense of consentaneousness to satisfy, the former has a wider constituency to win over to his mode of thinking. The w^riter upon ancient events is stimulated to careful research by the hope of dis- covering that which will subvert the theories of his collaborators, and vindicate his own claim to literary fame. The man who treats of the early deeds of a generation yet living can have no such ambition. His duty is to tell the tale in simple manner, leaving to those who shall come after him the more agreeable task of embellishment. The compiler of this history has endeavored to adhere to the rules which should govern all volumes of its class. Rumors have been given only as such ; traditions find their appropriate place, and assumptions are treated with lightest stroke. Indisputable facts, based upon definite dates and corroborated by tes- timony admissible in courts of justice, alone stand recorded as facts. Herein lies the most unpleasant feature of the work performed : an impar- tial observance of the rules prescribed by us plays havoc with individual claims in more than one instance. It is just to ourselves that we say : We have been actuated by no motives but the highest in the discharge of our duty. If state- ments made within these pages conflict with personal assertion, let it be remem- bered by the critic that majority judgment has, in every case, prevailed Avith us on all disputed points. We do not expect to please every subscriber ; that would indicate a millennial condition of unity between the writer and the pub- lic which has never been attained, even in sacred history. We have tried to give a truthful record of events, as the facts have been made known to us. The most difficult task ever assigned us was the preparation of the chapter on the County Seat Conflict. The nature of the events precludes a full history PREFACE. of that absorbing contest. It is not a thing of the past, but is a transaction of the present. The participators therein still live to read these lines. The opi^o- sing factions have, in a great measure, doffed the panoply of war, and lifted the implements of peace ; but beneath the calm exterior rest the ragged remnants of former animosities. To expect other than this would be to'defj natural and moral laws and seek for miracles in these latter days. Our work has been to angle among the hidden snags of feeling and bring forth truth — truth of such indubitable form as to silence those who desire to criticise or complain. At the same time we have endeavored to be impartially fearless in the recital of the story of the contest. Much has been left unsaid on both sides, if we consider the acts of individuals ; but nothing of influence has been withheld from the record of actual occurrences. We came not to bring war, but to cement the bonds of peace ; and at the same time rescue from impending oblivion the most important chapter in the history of this county. We have done our Avork carefully, conscientiously, we trust, satisfactoriW. To the gentlemen in charge of the county records — especially to those in the Auditor's office — we express our cordial thanks for their assistance. Every- where we have been received in the most generous spirit. The Clergy, the Press, the Pioneers, all have aided us in a large degree. An individual mention of our obligations to Hon. William C. Smith, for the innumerable kindnesses extended to the Company, is due that gentleman. From the former History of Marshall County, prepared by Mrs. Nettie Sanford, we have taken many incidents relating to the early social life here, and we make this general credit for the assistance the volume has been to us. The people of this county owe Mrs. Sanford a debt of gratitude for the labor she has bestowed upon the work so well performed by her. The able chapter on the Geology of Marshall County, was prepared ex- pressly for this work by Dr. W. S. McBride, of Marshalltown. The character of the article is such as is rarely met with. It is a popular treatise upon an absorbing topic. It will be read with profit and pleasure by all. When the present generation has passed into the silent grave, and the his- torian is no longer able to converse face to face with those who laid the corner- stone of the fine structure of Marshall County, the value of this History will be conceded. THE PUBLISHERS. October, 187S. CONTENTS Page. History Northwest Territory 19 Geographical 'Position 19 Early Explorations 20 Discovery of the Ohio 33 English Explorations and Set- tlements 35 American Settlements 60 Division of the Northwest Ter- rltorv 06 Tecumseh and the War of 1812 70 Black Hawk and the Black Hawk War 74 Other Indian Troubles 79 Present Condition of the North- west 86 Chicago 95 Illinois 240 Indiana 242 Iowa 243 Michigan 244 Wisconsin 245 Minnesota 247 Nebraska 248 History of Iowa: Geographical Situation 109 Topography 109 Drainage System 110 Rivers Ill Lakes 118 Springs 119 Prairies 120 Geology 120 Climatology 137 Discovery and Occnpation 139 i Territory 147 j Indians 147 I Pike's Expedition 151 | Indian Wars 152 HISTORICAL.. Page. History ol Iowa : Black Hawk War 167 Indian Purchase, Resei'ves and Treaties 159 Spanish Grants 163 Half-Breed Tract.. 164 Early Settlements 166 Territorial History 173 Boundary Question 177 State Oiganization 181 Growth and Progress 185 Agricultural College and Farm.186 State University v 187 State Historical Society 193 Penitentiaries 194 Insane Hospitals 195 College for the Blind 197 Deaf and Dumb Institution 199 Soldiers' Orphans' Homes 199 State Normal School 201 Asylum for Feeble Minded Children 201 Reform School 282 Fish Hatching Establishment..203 Public Lands 204 Public Schools 218 Political Record 223 War Record 229 Number Volunteers 233 Number Casualties — Officers. ..234 Number Casualties — Enlisted Men 236 Population 238 Agricultural Statistics 274 History of Marshall County ; Physical Geography 307 Geology 311 Page. History of Marshall County : Advent of White Men 318 Settlement of the County 326 Organization 336 Election 342 First Courts 349 Fiscal Records 350 Social and Agricultural Statis- tics 353 Population in 1875 354 County Seat Contest 355 Railroads 410 Facts and Incidents 419 Statistical 433 FostOfiBcea 433 Press 4;i3 Agricultural Interests 436 Le Grand Quarry 448 Grist Mills 448 Speculative and Prophetic 449 War Record 453 Roster i55 Educational 464 Property Statement .543 Vote of 1876 and 1877 544 Survey of towns and Villages..542 Town Histories: Marshalltown 466 Albion 505 State Centre and Eden .522 Le Grand 529 Liscomb 533 Gilman 536 Edenville 539 Dillon 540 Lamoille 541 Quarry 541 Page. [ Mouth of the Mississippi 21 Source of the Mississippi 21' Wild Prairie 23 La Sail?- Landing on the Shore of Green Bay 2.") Buffalo Hunt 27 Trapping 29 Hunting .32 Iroquois Chief 34 Pontiac, the Ottawa Chieftain 43i Indians Attacking Frontiersmen.. 56 A Prairie Storm 59 ' ILiIillSTRATIONS. Page. A Pioneer Dwelling 61 Breaking Prairie 63 Tecumseh, the Shawanoe Chieftain 69'» Indians Attacking a Stockade 72 Black Hawk, the Sac Chieftain 75«r Big Eagle 80^ Captain Jack, the Modoc Chieftain 83-* Kinzie House 85v A Representative Pioneer 86 Lincoln Monument 87 A Pioneer School House 68 Page Pioneers' First Winter 94 ^ Great Iron Bridge of C, R. I. & P. R. R., Crossing the Mississippi at Davenport, Iowa 91 Chicago in 1833 95 Old Fort Dearborn, 1830 98r Present Site Lake Street Bridge, ' - Chicago, 1833 98 Ruins of Chicago 104-- View of the City of Chicago 106 — Hunting Prairie Wolves 249 LITHOGRAPHIC PORTR.\ITS. Page. I Page. \he\\, T 44r| Merrill, ,1. A 607 Dobbs, J. W 509-I Neidig, A. H 475 Hickox, Geo. S 373v( Smith W. C 527 Page. Turner, John 339 • Williams, Jas. C 407 > Woodbury, G. M 305 CONTENTS. MARSHAL.L. COrXTT VOLUNTEERS. Infantrv- Page. Infantry : Page. Fifth 455 Twenty-third 459 Eigbtii 456 ! Thirtj'-second 460 Eleventh 456 j Forty-fourth 460 Thirteenth 457 I Cavalry : Page. Second 461 Fifth 462 Eighth 462 Miscellaneous 463 BIOGRAPHIC AI. TOWNSHIP DIRECTOR F. Page, i Page Bangor 644 | Liscomb 580 Eden.... 586 " Green Castle 614 Iowa 664 Jefferson 672 Le Grand 591 Liberty 679 Logan 668 Lynn 545 Marshalltown 545 Marietta 683 Marion 655 Page. Minerva 640 State Centre 605 Taylor 648 Timber Creek 632 Washington 689 Vienna 6ii5 ABSTRACT OF IOWA STATE liAWS. Page, i Adoption of Children 287 Bills of Exchange and Promissory Notes 275 Commercial Terms 289 Capital Punishment 282 Charitable, Scientific and Religious Associations 300 [ Descent 275 Damages from Trespass 284 Exemptions from Execution 282 Esti-ays 283 1 Forms : 1 Articles of Agreement 291 Bills of Sale 292 Bond for Deed 299 j Bills of Purchase 290 Page. Forms : Chattel Mortgage 298 Confession of Judgment 290 Lease 296 Mortgages 294 Notice to Quit 293 Notes 290, 297 Orders 290 Quit Claim Deed 299 Receipts 290 Wills and Codicils 203 Warranty Deed 298 Fences 284 Interest 275 Intoxicating Liquors 301 Jurisdiction of Courts 281 Page. Juroi-s 281 Limitation of Actions 281 Landlord and Tenant 288 Married Women 282 Marks and Brands 284 Mechanics' Liens 285 Roads and Bridges 286 Surveyors and Surveys 28" Suggestions to Persons Purchasing Books by Subscription 303 Support of Poor 287 Ta.xes 277 Wills and Estates 276 Weights and Measures 289 Wolf Scalps 284 Page. Map of Marshall County Front. Constitution of United States 250 Vote for President and Vice Pres- ident 264 Practical Rules for Every-Day Use..265 United States Government Land Measure 268 MISCEIiEANKOIJS«i. Page. Surveyor's Measure 269 How to Keep Accounts 269 Interest Table 270 Miscellaneous TaMe 270 Names of the States of the Union and their Significations 271 Population of the United States 272 Pace. Population of Fifty Principal Cities of the United States 272 Population and Area of the United States 273 Population of the Principal Coun- tries in the World 273 Population of Marshall County 354 ^T ^.3T A ^ c o z^:y j # The Northwest Territory. GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION. When the Northwestern Territory was ceded to the United States by Virginia in 1784, it embraced only the territory lying between the Ohio and the Mississippi Rivers, and north to the northern limits of the United States. It coincided with the area now embraced in the States of Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, and that portion of Minnesota lying on the east side of the Mississippi River. The United States itself at that period extended no farther west than the Mississippi River ; but by the purchase of Louisiana in 1803, the western boundary of the United States was extended to the Rocky Mountains and the Northern Pacific Ocean. The new territory thus added to the National domain, and subsequently opened to settlement, has been called the "New Northwest," in contradistinction from the old "Northwestern Territory." In comparison with the old Northwest this is a territory of vast magnitude. It includes an area of 1,887,850 square miles ; being greater in extent than the united areas of all the Middle and Southern States, including Texas. Out of this magnificent territory have been erected eleven sovereign States and eight Territories, with an aggregate popula- tion, at the present time, of 13,000,000 inhabitants, or nearly one third of the entire population of the United States. Its lakes are fresh-water seas, and the larger rivers of the continent flow for a thousand miles through its rich alluvial valleys and far- stretching prairies, more acres of which are arable and productive of the highest percentage of the cereals than of any other area of like extent on the globe. For the last twenty years the increase of population in the North- west has been about as three to one in any other portion of the United States. (19) 20 THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. EARLY EXPLORATIONS. In the year 1541, DeSoto first saw the Great West in the New World. He, however, penetrated no farther north than the 35th parallel of latitude. The expedition resulted in his death and that of more than half his army, the remainder of whom found their way to Cuba, thence to Spain, in a famished and demoralized condition. DeSoto founded no settlements, produced no results, and left no traces, unless it were that he awakened the hostility of the red man against the white man, and disheartened such as might desire to follow up the career of discovery for better purposes. The French nation were eager and ready to seize upon any news from this extensive domain, and were the first to profit by DeSoto's defeat. Yet it was more than a century before any adventurer took advantage of these discoveries. In 1616, four years before the pilgrims " moored their bark on the wild New England shore," Le Caron, a French Franciscan, had pene- trated through the Iroquois and Wyandots (Hurons) to the streams which run into Lake Huron ; and in 1634, two Jesuit missionaries founded the first mission among the lake tribes. It was just one hundred years from the discovery of the Mississippi by DeSoto (1541) until the Canadian envoys met the savage nations of the Northwest at the Falls of St. Mary,, below the outlet of Lake Superior. This visit led to no permanent result; yet it was not until 1659 that any of the adventurous fur traders- attempted to spend a Winter in the frozen wilds about the great lakes, nor was it until 1660 that a station was established upon their borders by Mesnard, who perished in the woods a few months after. In 1665, Claude Allouez built the earliest lasting habitation of the white man among the Indians of the Northwest. In 1668, Claude Dablon and James Marquette founded the mission of Sault Ste. Marie at the Falls of St. Mary, and two years afterward, Nicholas Perrot, as agent for M. Talon, Governor Gen- eral of Canada, explored Lake Illinois (Michigan) as far south as the present City of Chicago, and invited the Indian nations to meet him at a. grand council at Sault Ste. Marie the following Spring, where they were taken under the protection of the king, and formal possession was taken of the Northwest. This same year Marquette established a mission at Point St. Ignatius, where was founded the old town of Michillimackinac. During M. Talon's explorations and iNIarquette's residence- at St. Ignatius, tliey learned of a great river away to the Avest, and fancied — as all others did then — that upon its fertile banks whole tribes of God's children resided, to whom the sound of the Gospel had never come. Filled with a wish to go and preach to them, and in compliance with a THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 21 22 THE NORTHWEST TERRITO^^Y. request of M. Talon, who earnestly desired to extend the domain of his king, and to ascertain whether the river flowed into the Gulf of Mexico or the Pacific Ocean, Marquette with Joliet, as commander of the expe- dition, prepared for the undertaking. On the 13th of May, 1673, the explorers, accompanied by five assist- ant French Canadians, set out from Mackinaw on their daring voyage of discovery. The Indians, who gathered to witness their departure, were astonished at the boldness of the undertaking, and endeavored to dissuade them from their purpose by representing the tribes on the Mississippi as exceedingly savage and cruel, and the river itself as full of all sorts of frightful monsters ready to swallow them and their canoes together. But, nothing daunted by these terrific descriptions, Marquette told them he was willing not only to encounter all the perils of the unknown region they were about to explore, but to lay down his life in a cause in which the salvation of souls was involved ; and having prayed together they separated. Coasting along the northern shore of Lake Michigan, the adventurers entered Green Bay, and passed thence up the Fox River and Lake Winnebago to a village of the Miamis and Kickapoos. Here Mar- quette was delighted to find a beautiful cross planted in the middle of the town ornamented with white skins, red girdles and bows and arrows, which these good people had offered to the Great Manitou, or God, to thank him for the pity he had bestowed on them during the Winter in giving them an abundant " chase." This was the farthest outpost to which Dablon and Allouez had extended their missionary labors the year previous. Here Marquette drank mineral waters and was instructed in the secret of a root which cures the bite of the venomous rattlesnake. He assembled the chiefs and old men of the village, and, pointing to Joliet, said: " My friend is an envoy of France, to discover new coun- tries, and I am an ambassador from God to enlighten them with the truths of the Gospel." Two Miami guides were here furnished to conduct them to the Wisconsin River, and they set out from the Indian village on the 10th of June, amidst a great crowd of natives who had assembled to witness their departure into a region where no white man had ever yet ventured. The guides, having conducted them across the portage, returned. Tlie explorers launched their canoes upon the Wisconsin, which they descended to the Mississippi and proceeded down its unknown waters. What emotions must have swelled their breasts as they struck out into the broadening current and became conscious that they were now upon the bosom of tli3 Father of Waters. The mystery was about to be lifted from the long-sought river. The scenery in that locality is beautiful, and on that delightful seventeenth of June must have been clad in all its primeval loveliness as it had been adorned by the hand of THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 23 Nature. Drifting rapidly, it is said that the bold bluffs on either hand '' reminded them of the castled shores of their OAvn beautiful rivers of France." By-and-by, as they drifted along, great herds of buffalo appeared on the banks. On going to the heads of the valley they could see a country of the greatest beauty and fertility, apparently destitute of inhab- itants yet presenting the appearance of extensive manors, under the fas- tidious cultivation of lordly proprietors. THE WILD PRAIRIE. On June 25, they went ashore and found some fresh traces of men upon the sand, and a path which led to the prairie. The men remained in the boat, and Marquette and Joliet followed the path till they discovered a village on the banks of a river, and two other villages on a hill, within a half league of the first, inhabited by Indians. They were received most hospitably by these natives, who had never before seen a white person. After remaining a few days they re-embarked and descended the river to about latitude 33°, where they found a village of the Arkansas, and being satisfied that the river flowed into the Gulf of Mexico, turned their course 24 THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. up the river, and ascending tlie stream to the mouth of the Illinois, rowed up that stream to its source, and procured guides from that point to the lakes. " Nowhere on this journe3%" says Marquette, ''did we see such grounds, meadows, woods, stags, buffaloes, deer, wildcats, bustards, swans, ducks, parroquets, and eten beavers, as on the Illinois River." The party, without loss or injury, reached Green Bay in September, and reported their discovery — one of the most important of the age, but of which no record was preserved save Marquette's, Joliet losing his by the upsetting of his canoe on his way to Quebec. Afterward Marquette returned to the Illinois Indians by their request, and ministered to them until 1675. On the 18th of May, in that year, as he was passing the mouth of a stream — going with his boatmen up Lake Michigan — he asked to land at its mouth and celebrate Mass. Leaving his men with the canoe, he retired a short distance and began his devotions. As much time passed and he did not return, his men went in search of him, and found him upon his knees, dead. He had peacefull}^ passed away while at prayer. He was buried at this spot. Charlevoix, who visited the place fifty years after, found the waters had retreated from the grave, leaving the beloved missionary to repose in peace. The river has since been called Marquette. While Marquette and his companions were pursuing their labors in the West, two men, differing widely from him and each other, Avere pre- paring to follow in his footsteps and perfect the discoveries so well begun by him. These Avere Robert de La Salle and Louis Hennepin. After La Salle's return from the discovery of the Ohio River (see the narrative elsewhere), he established himself again among the French trading posts in Canada. Here he mused long upon the pet project of those ages — a short way to China and the East, and was busily planning an expedition up the great lakes, and so across the continent to the Pacific, when Marquette returned from the Mississippi. At once the vigorous mind of LaSalle received from his and his companions' stories the idea that by fol- lowing the Great River northward, or by turning up some of the numerous western tributaries, the object could easily be gained. He applied to Frontenac, Governor General of Canada, and laid before him the plan, dim but gigantic. Frontenac entered warmly into his plans, and saw that LaSalle's idea to coiinect the great lakes by a chain of forts with the Gulf of Mexico would bind the country so wonderfully together, give un- measured power to France, and glory to himself, under whose adminis- tration he earnestly hoped all would be realized. LaSalle now repaired to France, laid his plans before the King, who warmly approved of them, and made him a Chevalier. He also received from all the noblemen the warmest wishes for his success. The Chev' THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. •25 alier returned to Canada, and busily entered upon his work. He at once rebuilt Fort Fronteuac aud constructed the first ship to sail on these fresh-water seas. On the 7th of August, 16T9, having been joined by Hennepin, he began his voyage in the Griffin up Lake Erie. He passed over this lake, through the straits beyond, up Lake St. Clair and into Huron. In this lake they encountered heavy storms. They were some time at Michilliraackinac, where LaSalle founded a fort, and jjassed on to Green Bay, the " Bale des Puans" of the French, where he found a large quantity of furs collected for him. He loaded the Griffin with these, and placing her under the care of a pilot and fourteen sailors, LA SALLE LANDING ON THE SHORE OF GREEN BAY. started her on her return voyage. The vessel was never afterward heard of. He remained about these parts until early in the Winter, when, hear- ing nothing from the Griffin, he collected all the men — thirty working men and three monks — and started again upon his great undertaking. By a short portage they passed to the Illinois or Kankakee, called by the Indians, "Theakeke," wolf, because of the tribes of Indians called by that name, commonly known as the Mahingans, dwelling there. The French pronounced it Kiakiki, which became corrupted to Kankakee. "Falling down the said river by easy journeys, the better to observe the country," about the last of December they reached a village of the Illi- nois Indians, containing some five hundred cabins, but at that moment 26 THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. no inhabitants. The Seur de LaSalle being in want of some breadstuffs, took advantage of the absence of the Indians to help himself to a suffi- ciency of maize, large quantities of which he found concealed in holes under the wigwams. This village was situated near the present village of Utica in LaSalle County, Illinois. The corn being securely stored, the voyagers again betook themselves to the stream, and toward evening, on the 4th day of January, 1680, they came into a lake which must have been the lake of Peoria. This was called by the Indians Pim-i-te-ivi^ that is, a place where there are many fat beasts. Here the natives were met with in large numbers, but they were gentle and kind, and having spent some time with them, LaSalle determined to erect another fort in that place, for he had heard rumors that some of the adjoining tribes were trying to disturb the good feeling which existed, and some of his men were disposed to complain, owing to the hardships and perils of the travel. He called this fort '^ Crevecceur'' (broken-heart), a name expressive of the very natural sorrow and anxiet}^ which the pretty certain loss of his ship. Griffin, and his consequent impoverishment, the danger of hostility on the part of the Indians, and of mutiny among his own men, might well cause liim. His fears were not entirely groundless. At one time poison was placed in his food, but fortunately was discovered. While building this fort, the Winter wore away, the prairies began to look green, and LaSalle, despairing of any reinforcements, concluded to return to Canada, raise new means and new men, and embark anew in the enterprise. For this purpose he made Hennepin the leader of a party to explore the head waters of the Mississippi, and he set out on his jour- ney. This journey was accomplished with the aid of a few persons, and was successfully made, though over an almost u iknown route, and in a bad season of the year. He safely reached Canaia, and set out again for the object of his search. Hennepin and his party left Fort Crevecoeur on the last of February, 1680. When LaSalle reached this place on his return expedition, he found the fort entirely deserted, and he was obliged to return again to Canada. He embarked the third time, and succeeded. Seven days after leaving the fort, Hennepin reached the Mississippi, and paddling up the icy stream as best he could, reached no higher than the Wisconsin River by the 11th of April. Here he and his followers were taken prisoners by a hand of Northern Indians, who treated them with great kindness. Hen- nepin's comrades were Anthony Auguel and Michael Ako. On this voy- age they found several beautiful lakes, and " saw some charming prairies." Their captors were the Isaute or Sauteurs, Chippewas, a tribe of the Sioux nation, who took them up the river until about the first of May, when they reached some falls, which Hennepin christened Falls of St. Anthony THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 27 in honor of his patron t>aint. Here they toolv the land, and traveling nearly two hundred miles to the northwest, brought them to their villages. Here they were kept about three months, were treated kindly by their captors, and at the end of that time, were met by a band of Frenchmen, BUFFALO HUNT. headed by one Seur de Luth, who, in pursuit of trade and game, had pene- trated thus far by the route of Lake Superior; and with these fellow- countrymen Hennepin and his companions were allowed to return to the borders of civilized life in November, 1680, just after LaSalle had returned to the wilderness on his second trip. Hennepin soon after went to France, where he published an account of his adventures. 28 THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. The Mississippi was first discovered by De Soto in April, 1541, in his vain endeavor to find gold and precioas gems. In the following Spring, De Soto, weary with hope long deferred, and worn out with his wander- ings, he fell a victim to disease, and on the 21st of May died. His followers, reduced by fatigue and disease to less than three hundred men, wandered about the country nearly a year, in the vain endeavor to rescue them- selves by land, and finally constructed seven small vessels, called brigan- tines, in which they embarked, and descending the river, supposing it would lead them to the sea, in July they came to the sea (Gulf of Mexico), and by September reached the Island of Cuba. They were the first to see the great outlet of the Mississippi ; but, being so weary and discouraged, made no attempt to claim the country, and hardly had an intelligent idea of what they had passed through. To La Salle, the intrepid explorer, belongs the honor of giving the first account of the mouths of the river. • His great desire was to possess this entire country for his king, and in January, 1682, he and his band of ■explorers left the shores of Lake Michigan on their third attempt, crossed the portage, passed down the Illinois River, and on the 6th of February, reached the banks of the Mississippi. On the 18th they commenced their downward course, which they pursued with but one interruption, until upon the 6th of March they dis- covered the three great passages by which the river discharges its waters into the gulf. La Salle thus narrates the event : " We landed on the bank of the most western channel, about three leagues (nine miles) from its mouth. On the seventh, M. de LaSalle went to recounoiter the shores of the neighboring sea, and M. de Tonti meanwhile examined the great middle channel. They found the main outlets beautiful, large and deep. On the 8th we reascended the river, a little above its confluence with the sea, to find a dry place beyond the refvcli of inundations. The elevation of the North Pole was here about twenty-seven degrees. Here we prepared a column and a cross, and to the column were affixed the arms of France with this inscription : Louis Le Grand, Roi De France et de Navarre, regne ; Le neuvieme Avril, 1682. The whole party, under arms, chanted the Te Deum, and then, after a salute and cries of " Vive le Roi,'' the column was erected by M. de La Salle, who, standing near it, proclaimed in a loud voice the authority of the King of France. LaSalle returned and laid the foundations of the Mis- sissippi settlements in Illinois, thence he proceeded to France, where another expedition was fitted out, of which he was commander, and in two succeeding voyages failed to find the outlet of the river by sailing along the shore of the gulf. On his third voyage he was killed, through the THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 29 treachery of his followers, and the object of his expeditions was not accomplished until 1699, when D'lberville, under the authority of the crown, discovered, on the second of March, by way of the, sea, the mouth of the " Hidden River. "" This majestic stream was called by the natives *'' Malbouchia,'' and by the Spaniards, ''la Palissade," from the great TRAPPING. number of trees about its mouth. After* traversing the several oudets, and satisfying himself aS to its certainty, he erected a fort near its western outlet, and returned to France. An avenue of trade Avas now opened out which was fully improved. In 1718, New Orleans was laid out and settled by some European colo- nists. In 1762, the colony was made over to Spain, to be regained by France under the consulate of Napoleon. In 1803, it was purchased by 30 THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. the United States for the sum of fifteen million dollars, and the territory of Louisiana and commerce of the Mississippi River came under the charge of the United States. Although LaSalle's labors ended in defeat and death, he had not worked and suffered iu vain. He had thrown open to France and the world an immense and most valuable country; had established several ports, and laid the foundations of more than one settlement there. " Peoria, Kaskaskia and Cahokia, are to this day monu- ments of LaSalle's labors ; for, though he had founded neither of them (unless Peoria, which was built nearly upon the site of Fort Crevecoeur,) it was by those Avhom he led into the West that these places were peopled and civilized. He was, if not the discoverer, the first settler of the Mississippi Valley, and as such deserves to be known and honored.*' The French early improved the opening made for them. Before the year 1698, the Rev. Father Gravier began a mission among the Illinois, and founded Kaskaskia. For some time this was merely a missionary station, where none but natives resided, it being one of three such vil- lages, the other two being Cahokia and Peoria. What is known of these missions is learned from a letter written by Father Gabriel Marest, dated " Aux Cascaskias, autrement dit de Tlmmaculate Conception de la Sainte Vierge, le 9 Novembre, 1712." Soon after the founding of Kaskaskia, the missionary, Pinet, gathered a flock at Cahokia, while Peoria arose near the ruins of Fort Crevecoeur. This must have been about the year 1700. The post at Vincennes on the (3ubache river» (pronounced Wa-ba, meaning summer cloud moving swiftly') was estab- lished iu 1702, according to the best authorities.* It is altogether prob- able that on LaSalle's last trip he established the stations at Kaskaskia and Cahokia. In July, 1701, the foundations of Fort Ponchartrain were laid by De la Motte Cadillac on the Detroit River. These sta- tions, with those established further north, were the earliest attempts to occupy the Northwest Territory. At the same time efforts were being made to occupy the Southwest, which finally culminated in the settle- ment and founding of the City of New Orleans by a colony from England in 1718. This was mainly accomplished through the efforts of the famous Mississippi Company, established by the notorious John Law, who so quickly arose into prominence in France, and who with his scheme so quickly and so ignominiously passed away. From the time of the founding of these stations for fifty years the French nation were engrossed with the settlement of the lower Missis- sippi, and the war with the Chicasaws, who had, in revenge for repeated • There is considerable dispute about this date, some asserting it was founded as late as 1742. When the new court house at Vincennes was erected, all authorities on the subject were carefully examined, and -702 fixed upon as the correct date. It was accordingly engraved on the corner-stone of the court house. THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 31 injuries, cut off the entire colony at Natchez. Although the company did little for Louisiana, as the entire West was then called, yet it opened the trade through the Mississippi River, and started the raising of grains indigenous to that climate. Until the year 1750, but little is known of the settlements in the Northwest, as it was not until this time that the attention of the English was called to the occupation of this portion of the New World, which they then supposed they owned. Vivier, a missionary among the Illinois, writing from " Aux Illinois," six leagues from Fort Chartres, June 8, 1750, says: "We have here whites, negroes and Indians, to say nothing of cross-breeds. There are five French villages, and three villages of the natives, within a space of twenty-one leagues situated between the Mississippi and another river called the Karkadaid (Kaskaskias). In the five French villages are, perhaps, eleven hundred whites, three hundred blacks and some sixty red slaves or savages. The three Illinois towns do not contain more than eight hundred souls all told. Most of the French till the soil; they raise wheat, cattle, pigs and horses, and live like princes. Three times as much is produced as can be consumed ; and great quantities of grain and flour are sent to New Orleans." This city was now the seaport town of the Northwest, and save in the extreme northern part, where only furs and copper ore were found, almost all the products of the country found their way to France by the mouth of the Father of Waters. In another letter, dated Novem- ber. 7, 1750, this same priest says : " For fifteen leagues above the mouth of the Mississippi one sees no dwellings, the ground being too low to be habitable. Thence to New Orleans, the lands are only partially occupied. New Orleans contains black, white and red, not more, I think, than twelve hundred persons. To this point come all lumber, bricks, salt-beef, tallow, tar, skins and bear's grease ; and above all, pork and flour from the Illinois. These things create some commerce, as forty vessels and more have come hither this yefir. Above New Orleans, plantations are again met with ; the most considerable is a colony of Germans, some ten leagues up the river. At Point Coupee, thirty -five leagues above the German settlement, is a, fort. Along here, within five or six leagues, are not less than sixty habitations. Fifty leagues farther up is the Natchez post, where we have a garrison, who are kept prisoners through fear of the Chickasaws. Here and at Point Coupee, they raise excellent tobacco. Another hundred leagues brings us to the Arkansas, where we have also a fort and a garrison for the benefit of the river traders. * * * From the Arkansas to the Illinois, nearly five hundred leagues, there is not a settlement. There should be, however, a fort at the Oubache (Ohio), the only path by which the English can reach the Mississippi. In the Illinois country are numberless mines, but no one to 32 THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. work them as they deserve." Father Marest, writmg from the i^ost at Vincennes in 181 2. makes the same observation. Vivier also says : '* Some individuals dig lead near the surface and supply the Indians and Canada. Two Spaniards now here, who claim to be adepts, say that our mines are like those of Mexico, and that if we would dig deeper, we should find silver under the lead ; and at any rate the lead is excellent. There is also in this country, beyond doubt, copper ore, as from time to time large pieces are found in the streams." HUNTING. At the close of the year 1750, the French occupied, in addition to the lower Mississippi posts and those in Illinois, one at Du Quesne, one at the Maumee in the country of the Miamis, and one at Sandusky in what may be termed the Ohio Valley. In the northern part of the Northwest they had stations at St. Joseph's on the St. Joseph's of Lake Michigan, at Fort Ponchartrain (Detroit), at Michillimackanac or Massillimacanac, Fox River of Green Bay, and at Sault Ste. Marie. The fondest dreams of LaSalle Avere now fully realized. The Frencli alone were possessors of this vast realm, basing their claim on discover}- and settlement. Another nation, however, was now turning its attention to this extensive country. THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 33- and hearing of its wealth, began to lay plans for occupying it and for securing the great profits arising therefrom. The French, however, had another claim to this country, namely, the DISCOVERY OF THE OHIO. This " Beautiful " river was discovered by Robert Cavalier de La- Salle in 1669, four years before the discovery of the Mississippi by Joliet and Marquette. While LaSalle was at his trading post on the St. Lawrence, he found leisure to study nine Indian dialects, the chief of which was the Iroquois. He not only desired to facilitate his intercourse in trade, but he longed to travel and explore the unknown regions of the West. An incident soon occurred which decided him to fit out an exploring expedition. While conversing with some Senecas, he learned of a river called the Ohio, which rose in their country and flowed to the sea, but at such a distance that it required eight months to reach its mouth. In this state- ment the Mississippi and its tributaries were considered as one stream. LaSalle believing, as most of the French at that period did, that the great rivers flowing west emptied into the Sea of California, was anxious to embark in the enterprise of discovering a route across the continent to the commerce of China and Japan. He repaired at once to Quebec to obtain the approval of the Gov- ernor. His eloquent appeal prevailed. The Governor and the Intendant, Talon, issued letters patent authorizing the enterprise, but made no pro- vision to defray the expenses. At this juncture the seminary of St. Sul- pice decided to send out missionaries in connection with the expedition, and LaSalle offering to sell his improvements at LaChine to raise money, the offer was accepted by the Superior, and two thousand. eight hundred dollars were raised, with which LaSalle purchased four canoes and the necessary supplies for the outfit. On the 6th of Jal}^ 1669, the party, numbering twenty-four persons, embarked in seven canoes on the St. Lawrence ; two additional canoes carried the Indian guides. In three days they were gliding over the bosom of Lake Ontario. Their guides conducted them directly to the Seneca village on the bank of the Genesee, in the vicinity of the present City of Rochester, New York. Here they expected to procure guides to conduct them to the Ohio, but in this they were disappointed. The Indians seemed unfriendly to the enterprise. LaSalle suspected that the Jesuits had prejudiced their minds against his plans. After waiting a month in the hope of gaining their object, they met an Indian 34 THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. from the Iroquois colony at the head of Lake Ontario, who assured them that they could there find guides, and offered to conduct them thence. , On their way they passed the mouth of the Niagara River, when they heard for the first time the distant thunder of the cataract. Arri\'ing ^Q^H.^0^ IKOyUOlS CUllit'. among the Iroquois, they met with a friendly reception, and learned from a Shawanee prisoner that they could reach the Ohio in six weeks. Delighted with the unexpected good fortune, they made ready to resume their journey ; but just as they were about to start they heard of the arrival of two Frenchmen in a neighboring village. One of them proved to be Louis Joliet, afterwards famous as an explorer in ths West. He THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 36 had been sent by the Canadian Government to explore the copper mines on Lake Superior, but had failed, and was on his way back to Quebec. He gave the missionaries a map of the country he had explored in the lake region, together with an account of the condition of the Indians in that quarter. This induced the priests to determine on leaving the expedition and going to Lake Superior. LaSalle warned them that the Jesuits were probably occupying that field, and that they would meet with a cold reception. Nevertheless they persisted in their purpose, and after worship on the lake shore, parted from LaSalle. On arriving at Lake Superior, they found, as LaSalle had predicted, the Jesuit Fathers, Marquette and Dablon, occupying the field. These zealous disciples of Loyola informed them that they wanted no assistance from St. Sulpice, nor from those who made him their patron saint ; and thus repulsed, they returned to Montreal the following June without having made a single discovery or converted a single Indian. After parting with the priests, LaSalle went to the chief Iroquois village at Onondaga, where he obtained guides, and passing thence to a tributary of the Ohio south of Lake Erie, he descended the latter as far as the falls at Louisville. Thus was the Ohio discovered by LaSalle, the persevering and successful French explorer of the "West, in 1669. The account of the latter part of his journey is found in an anony- mous paper, which purports to have been taken from the lips of LaSalle himself during a subsequent visit to Paris. In a letter written to Count Frontenac in 1667, shortly after the discovery, he himself says that he discovered the Ohio and descended it to the falls. This was regarded as an indisputable fact by the French authorities, who claimed the Ohio Valley upon another ground. When Washington was sent by the colony of Virginia in 1753, to demand of Gordeur de St. Pierre why the French had built a fort on the Monongahela, the haughty commandant at Quebec replied : " "We claim the country on the Ohio by virtue of the discoveries of LaSalle, and will not give it up to the English. Our orders are to make prisoners of every Englishman found trading in the Ohio Valley." ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. "When the new year of 1750 broke in upon the Father of Waters and the Great Northwest, all was still wild save at the French posts already described. In 1749, when the English first began to think seri- ously about sending men into the "West, the greater portion of the States of Indiana, Ohio, Illinois, Michigan, "Wisconsin, and Minnesota were yet under the dominion of the red men. The English knew, however, pretty 36 THE NOETHWEST TERRITORY. conclusively of the nature of- the wealth of these wilds. As early as 1710, Governor Spotswood, of Virginia, had commenced movements tO' secure the country west of the Alleghenies to the English crown. In Pennsylvania, Governor Keith and James Logan, secretary of the prov- ince, from 1719 to 1731, represented to the powers of England the neces- sity of securing the Western lands. Nothing was done, however, by that power save to take some diplomatic steps to secure the claims of Britain to this unexplored wilderness. Ensfland had from the outset claimed from the Atlantic to the Pacific, on the ground that the discovery of the seacoast and its possession was a discovery and possession of the country, and, as is well known, her grants- to the colonies extended " from sea to sea." This was not all her claim. She had purchased from the Indian tribes large tracts of land. This lat- ter was also a strong argument. As early as 1684, Lord H oward, Gov- ernor of Virginia, held a treaty with the six nations. These were the great Northern Confederacy, and comprised at first the Mohawks, Onei- das, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas. Afterward the Tuscaroras were taken into the confederacy, and it became known as the Six Nations. They came under the protection of the mother country, and again in 1701, they repeated the agreement, and in September, 1726, a formal deed was drawn up and signed by the chiefs. The validity of this claim has. often been disputed, but never successfully. In 1744, a purchase was made at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, of certain lands within the " Colony of Virginia," for which the Indians received £200 in gold and a like sum in goods, with a promise that, as settlements increased, more should be paid. The Commissioners from Virginia were Colonel Thomas Lee and Colonel William Beverly. As settlements extended, the promise of more pay was called to mind, and Mr. Conrad Weiser was sent across the mountains with presents to appease the savages. Col. Lee, and some Virginians accompa- nied him with the intention of sounding the Indians upon their feelings regarding the English. They were not satisfied with their treatment, and plainly told the Commissioners why. The English did not desire the cultivation of the country, but the monopoly of the Indian trade. In 1748, the Ohio Company was formed, and petitioned the king for a grant of land beyond the Alleghenies. This was granted, and the government of Virginia was ordered to grant to them a half million acres, two hun- dred thousand of which were to be located at once. Upon the 12th of June, 1749, 800,000 acres from the line of Canada north and west was made to the Loyal Company, and on the 29th of October, 1751, 100,000 acres were given to the Greenbriar Company. All this time the French were not idle. They saw that, should the British gain a foothold in the West, especially upon the Ohio, they might not only prevent the French THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY, 37 settling upon it, but in time would come to the lower posts and so gain possession of the whole country. Upon the 10th of May, 1774, Vaud- reuil. Governor of Canada and the French possessions, well knowino- the consequences that must arise from allowing the English to build trading posts in the Northwest, seized some of their frontier posts, and to further secure the claim of the French to the West, he, in 1749, sent Louis Cel- ' eron with a party of soldiers to plant along the -Ohio River, in the mounds and at the mouths of its principal tributaries, plates of lead, on which were inscribed the claims of France. These were heard of in 1752, and within the memory of residents now living along the "■ Oyo," as the beautiful river was called by the French. One of these plates was found with the inscription partly defaced. It bears date August 16, 1749, and a copy of the inscription with particular account of the discovery of the plate, was sent by DeWitt Clinton to the American Antiquarian Society, among whose journals it may now be found.* These measures did not, however, deter the English from going on with their explorations, and though neither party resorted to arms, yet the conflict was gathering, and it was only a question of time when the storm would burst upon the frontier settlements. In 1750, Christopher Gist was sent by the Ohio Company to examine its lands. He went to a village of the Twigtwees, on the Miami, about one hundred and fifty miles above its mouth. He afterward spoke of it as very populous. From there he went down the Ohio River nearly to the falls at the present City of Louisville, and in November he commenced a survey of the Company's lands. Dur- ing the Winter, General Andrew Lewis performed a similar work for the Greenbriar Company. Meanwhile the French were busy in preparing their forts for defense, and in opening roads, and also sent a small party of soldiers to keep the Ohio clear. This party, having heard of the Eng- lish post on the Miami River, early in 1652, assisted by the Ottawas and Chippewas, attacked it, and, after a severe battle, in which fourteen of the natives were killed and others wounded, captured the garrison. (They were probably garrisoned in a block house). The traders were carried away to Canada, and one account says several were burned. This fort or post was called by the English Pickawillany. A memorial of the king's ministers refers to it as " Pickawillanes, in the center of the terri- tory between the Ohio and the Wabash. The name is probably some variation of Pickaway or Picqua in 1773, written by Rev. David Jones Pickaweke." ■• The following is a translation of the inscription on the plate: "In the year 1749. reign of Louis XV., King of France, we, Celeron, commandant of a detachment by Monsieur the Marquis of Gallisoniere, com- mander-in-chief of New France, to establish tranquility in certain Indian villages of these cantons, liave buried this plate at the confluence of the Toradakoin, this twenty- ninth of July, near the river Ohio, otherwise Beautiful River, as a monument of renewal of possession which we have taken of the said river, and all its tributaries; inasmuch as the preceding Kings of France have enjoyed it, and maintained it by their arms and treaties; especially by those of Ryswick, Utrecht, and Aix La Chapelle." 88 THE NORTHWEST TERRlTOEl. This was the first bloodshed between tlie French and English, and occurred near the present City of Piqua, Ohio, or at least at a point about forty-seven miles north of Dayton. Each nation became now more inter- ested in the progress of events in the Northwest. The English deter- mined to purchase from the Indians a title to the lands they wished to occupy, and Messrs. Fry (afterward Commander-in-chief over Washing- ton at the commencement of the French War of 1775-1763), Lomax and Patton were sent in the Spring of 1752 to hold a conference with the natives at Logstown to learn what they objected to in the treaty of Lan- caster already noticed, and to settle all difQculties. On the 9th of June, these Commissioners met the red men at Logstown, a little village on the north bank of the Ohio, about seventeen miles below the site of Pitts- burgh. Here had been a trading point for many years, but it was aban- doned by the Indians in 1750. At first the Indians declined to recognize the treaty of Lancaster, but, the Commissioners taking aside Montour, the interpreter, who was a son of the famous Catharine Montour, and a chief among the six nations, induced him to use his influence in their favor. This he did, and upon the I3th of June they all united in signing a deed, confirming the Lancaster treaty in its full extent, consenting to a settlement of the southeast of the Ohio, and guaranteeing that it should not be disturbed by them. These were the means used to obtain the first treaty with the Indians in the Ohio Valley. Meanwhile the powers beyond the sea were trying to out-manoeuvre each other, and were professing to be at peace. The English generally outwitted the Indians, and failed in many instances to fulfill their con- tracts. They thereb}' gained the ill-will of the red men, and further increased the feeling by failing to provide them with arms and ammuni- tion. Said an old chief, at Easton, in 1758 : " The Indians on the Ohio left you because of your own fault. When we heard the French were coming, we asked you for help and arms, but we did not get them. The French came, they treated us kindly, and gained our affections. The Governor of Virginia settled on our lands for his own benefit, and, when we wanted help, forsook us."' At the beginning of 1653, the English thought they had secured by title the lands in the West, but the French had quietly gathered cannon and military stores to be in readiness for the expected blow. The Eng- lish made other attempts to ratify these existing treaties, but not until the Summer could the Indians be gathered together to discuss the plans of the French. They had sent messages to the French, warning them away ; but they replied that they intended to complete the chain of forts already begun, and would not abandon the field. Soon after this, no satisfaction being obtained from the Ohio regard- THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 39 ing the positions and purposes of the French, Governor Dinwiddie of Virginia determined to send to them another messenger and learn from them, if possible, their intentions. ' For this purpose he selected a young man, a surveyor, who, at the early age of nineteen, had. received the rank of major, and who was thoroughly posted regarding frontier life. This personage was no other than the illustrious George Washington, wlio then held considerable interest in Western lands. He was at this time just twenty-two years of age. Taking Gist as his guide, the two, accompanied by four servitors, set out on their perilous march. They left Will's Creek on the 10th of November, 1753, and on the 22d reached the Monon- gahela, about ten miles above the fork. From there they went to Logstown, where Washington had a long conference with the chiefs of the Six Nations. From them he learned the condition of the French, and also heard of their determination not to come down the river till the fol- lowing Spring. The Indians were non-committal, as they were afraid to turn either way, and, as far as they could, desired to remain neutral. Washington, finding nothing could be done with them, went on to Venango, an old Indian town at the mouth of French Creek. Here the French had a fort, called Fort Machault. Through the rum and flattery of the French, he nearly lost all his Indian followers. Finding nothing of importance here, he pursued his way amid great privations, and on the 11th of December reached the fort at the head of French Creek. Here he delivered Governor Dinwiddle's letter, received his answer, took his observations, and on the 16th set out upon his return journey with no one but Gist, his guide, and a few Indians who still remained true to him, notwithstanding the endeavors of the French to retain them. Their homeward journey was one of great peril and suffering from the cold, yet they reached home in safety on the 6th of January, 1754. From the letter of St. Pierre, commander of the French fort, sent by Washington to Governor Dinwiddie, it was learned that the French would not give up without a struggle. Active preparations were at once made in all the English colonies for the coming conflict, while the French finished the fort at Venango and strengthened their lines of fortifications, and gathered their forces to be in readiness. The Old Dominion was all alive. Virginia was the center of great activities ; volunteers were called for, and from all the - neighboring colonies men rallied to the conflict, and everywhere along the Potomac men were enlisting under the Governor's proclamation — which promised two hundred thousand acres on the Ohio. Along this river they were gathering as far as Will's Creek, and far beyond this point, whither Trent had come for assistance for his little band of forty-one men, Avho were 40 THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. working away in hunger and Avant, to fortify that point at the fork of the Ohio, to which both parties were looking with deep interest. " The first birds of Spring filled' the air with their song; the sWift river rolled by the Allegheny hillsides, swollen by the melting snows of Spring and the April showers. The leaves were appearing ; a few Indian scouts were seen, but no enemy seemed near at hand ; and all was so quiet, that Frazier, an old Indian scout and trader, who had been left by Trent in command, ventured to his home at the mouth of Turtle Creek, ten miles up the Monongahela. But, though all was so quiet in that wilder- ness, keen eyes had seen the low intrenchment rising at the fork, and swift feet had borne the news of it up the river ; and upon the morning of the 17th of April, Ensign Ward, who then had charge of it, saw upon the Allegheny a sight that made his heart sink — sixty batteaux and three hundred canoes filled with men, and laden deep with cannon and stores. * * * That evening he supped with his captor, Contrecoeur, and the next day he was bowed off by the Frenchman, and with his men and tools, marched up the Monongahela." The French and Indian war had begun. The treaty of Aix la Chapelle, in 1748, had left the boundaries between the French and English possessions unsettled, and the events already narrated show the French were determined to hold the country watered b}^ the Mississippi and its tributaries ; while the English laid claims to the country by virtue of the discoveries of the Cabots, and claimed all the country from New- foundland to Florida, extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The first decisive blow had now been struck, and the first attempt of the English, through the Ohio Company, to occupy these lands, had resulted disastrously to them. The French and Indians immediately completed the fortifications begun at the Fork, which they had so easily captured, and when completed gave to the fort the name of DuQuesne. Washing- ton was at Will's Creek when the news of the capture of the fort arrived. He at once departed to recapture it. On his way he entrenched him- self at a place called the " Meadows," where he erected a fort called by him Fort Necessity. From there he surprised and captured a force of French and Indians marching against him, but was soon after attacked in his fort b}^ a much superior force, and was obliged to yield on the morning of July 4th. He was allowed to return to Virginia. The English Government immediately planned four campaigns ; one against Fort DuQuesne ; one against Nova Scotia ; one against Fort Niagara, and one against Crown Point. These occurred during 1755-6, and were not successful in driving the French from their possessions. The expedition against Fort DuQuesne was led by the famous General Braddock, who, refusing to listen to the advice of Washington and those THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 41 acquainted with Indian warfare, suffered such an inglorious defeat. This occurred on the morning of July 9th, and is generally known as the battle of Monongahela, or " Braddock's Defeat." . The war continued with various vicissitudes through the years 1756-7 ; when, at the commence- ment of 1758, in accordance with the plans of William Pitt, then Secre- tary of State, afterwards Lord Chatham, active preparations were made to carry on the war. Three expeditions were planned for this year : one, under General Amherst, against Louisburg ; another, under Abercrombie, against Fort Ticonderoga ; and a third, under General Forbes, against Fort DuQuesne. On the 26th of July, Louisburg surrendered after a desperate resistance of more than forty days, and the eastern part of the Canadian possessions fell into the hands of the British. Abercrombie captured Fort Frontenac, and when the expedition against Fort DuQuesne, of which Washington had the active command, arrived there, it was found in flames and deserted. The English at once took possession, rebuilt the fort, and in honor of their illustrious statesman, changed the name to Fort Pitt. The great object of the campaign of 1759, was the reduction of Canada. General Wolfe was to lay siege to Quebec ; Amherst was to reduce Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and General Prideaux was to capture Niagara. This latter place was taken in July, but the gallant Prideaux lost his life in the attempt. Amherst captured Ticonderoga and Crown Point without a blow ; and Wolfe, after making the memor- able ascent to the Plains of Abraham, on September 13th, defeated Montcalm, and on the 18th, the city capitulated. In this engagement Montcolm and Wolfe both lost their lives. De Levi, Montcalm's successor, marched to Sillery, three miles above the city, with the purpose of defeating the English, and there, on the 28th of the following April, was fought one of the bloodiest battles of the French and Indian War. It resulted in the defeat of the French, and the fall of the City of Montreal. The Governor signed a capitulation by which the whole of Canada was surrendered to the English. This practically concluded the war, but it was not until 1763 that the treaties of peace between France and England were signed. This was done on the 10th of February of that year, and under its provisions all the country east of the Mississippi and north of the Iberville River, in Louisiana, were ceded to England. At the same time Spain ceded Florida to Great Britain, On the 13th of September, 1760, Major Robert Rogers was sent from Montreal to take charge of Detroit, the only remaining French post in the territory. He arrived there on the 19th of November, and sum- moned the place to surrender. At first the commander of the post, Beletre. refused, but on the 29th, hearing of the continued defeat of the 42 THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. French arms, surrendered. Rogers remained there until December 23d under the personal protection of the celebrated chief, Pontiac, to whom, no doubt, he owed his safety. Pontiac had come here to inquire the purposes of the English in taking possession of the country. He was assured that they came simply to trade with the natives, and did not desire their country. This 'answer conciliated the savages, and did much to insure the safety of Rogers and his party during their stay, and while on their journey home. ' Rogers set out for Fort Pitt on December 23, and was just one month on the way. His route was from Detroit to Maumee, thence across the present State of Ohio directly to the fort. This was the com- mon trail of the Indians in their journeys from Sandusky to the fork of the Ohio. It went from Fort Sandusky, where Sandusky City now is, crossed the Huron river, then called Bald Eagle Creek, to " Mohickon John's Town"' on Mohickon Creek, the northern branch of White Woman's River, and thence crossed to Beaver's Town, a Delaware town on what is now Sandy Creek. At Beaver's Town were probably one hundred and fifty warriors, and not less than three thousand acres of cleared land. From there the track went up Sandy Creek to and across Big Beaver, and up the Ohio to Logstown, thence on to the fork. The Northwest Territory was now entirely under the English rule. New settlements began to be rapidly made, and the promise of a large trade was speedily manifested. Had the British carried out their promises with the natives none of those savage butcheries would have been perpe- trated, and the country would have been spared their recital. The renowned chief, Pontiac, was one of the leading spirits in these atrocities. We will now pause in our narrative, and notice the leading events in his life. The earliest authentic information regarding this noted Indian chief is learned from an account of an Indian trader named Alexander Henry, who, in the Spring of 1761, penetrated his domains as far as Missillimacnac. Pontiac was then a great friend of the French, but a bitter foe of the English, whom he considered as encroaching on his hunting grounds. Henry was obliged to disguise himself as a Canadian to insure safety, but was discovered by Pontiac, who bitterly reproached him and the English for their attempted subjugation of the West. He declared that no treaty had been made with them ; no presents sent them, and that he would resent any possession of the West by that nation. He was at the time about fifty years of age, tall and dignified, and was civil and militai'y ruler of the Ottawas, Ojibwas and Pottawatamies. The Indians, from Lake Michigan to the borders of North Carolina, were united in this feeling, and at the time of the treaty of Paris, ratified February 10, 1763, a general conspiracy was formed to fall suddenly THE NORTHWEST TERRITOKY. 4:3 PONTIAC, THE OTTAWA CHIEFTAIN. 44 THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. upon the frontier British posts, and with one blow strike every man dead. Pontiac was the marked leader in all this, and was the commander of the Chippewas, Ottawas, Wyandots, Miamis, Shawanese, Delawares and Mingoes, who had, for the time, laid aside their local quarrels to unite in this enterprise. The blow came, as near as can now be ascertained, on May 7, 1768. Nine British posts fell, and the Indians drank, " scooped up in the hollow of joined hands," the blood of many a Briton. Pontiac's immediate field of action was the garrison at Detroit. Here, however, the plans were frustrated by an Indian woman disclosing the plot the evening previous to his arrival. Everything was carried out, however, according to Pontiac's plans until the moment of action, when Major Gladwyn, the commander of the post, stepping to one of the Indian chiefs, suddenly drew aside^his blanket and disclosed the concealed musket. Pontiac, though a brave man, turned pale and trembled. He saw his plan was known, knd that the garrison were prepared. He endeavored to exculpate himself from any such intentions ; but the guilt was evident, and he and his followers were dismissed with a sever© reprimand, and warned never to again enter the walls of the post. Pontiac at once laid siege to the fort, and until the treaty of peace between the British and the Western Indians, concluded in August, 1764, continued to harass and besiege the fortress. He organized a regular commissariat department, issued bills of credit written out on bark, which, to his credit, it may be stated, were punctually redeemed. At the conclusion of the treaty, in which it seems he took no part, he went further south, living many years among the Illinois. He had given up all hope of saving his country and race. After a time he endeavored to unite the Illinois tribe and those about St. Louis in a war with the whites. His efforts were fruitless, and only ended in a quarrel between himself and some Kaskaskia Indians, one of whom soon afterwards killed him. His death was, however, avenged by the northern Indians, who nearly exterminated the Illinois in the wars which followed. Had it not been for the treachery of a few of his followers, his plan for the extermination of the whites, a masterly one, would undoubtedly have been carried out. It was in the Spring of the year following Rogers' visit that Alex- ander Henry went to Missillimacnac, and everywhere found the strongest feelings against the English, who had not carried out their promises, and were doing nothing to conciliate the natives. Here he met the chief, Pontiac, who, after conveying to him in a speech the idea that their French father would awake soon and utterly destroy his enemies, said : *' Englishman, although you have conquered the French, you have not THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 45 yet conquered us ! We are not your slaves ! These lakes, these woods, these mountains, were left us by our ancestors. They are our inheritance, and we will part with them to none. Your nation supposes that we, like the white people, can not live without bread and pork and beef. But you ought to know that He, the Great Spirit and Master of Life, has provided food for ns upon these broad lakes and in these mountains." He then spoke of the fact that no treaty had been made with them, 110 presents sent them, and that he and his people were yet for war. Such were the feelings of the Northwestern Indians immediately after the English took possession of their country. These feelings were no doubt encouraged by the Canadians and French, who hoped that yet the French arms might prevail. The treaty of Paris, however, gave to the English the right to this vast domain, and active preparations were going on to occupy it and enjoy its trade and emoluments. In 1762, France, by a secret treaty, ceded Louisiana to Spain, to pre- vent it falling into the hands of the English, who were becoming masters of the entire West. The next year the treaty of Paris, signed at Fon- tainbleau, gave to the English the domain of the country in question. Twenty years after, by the treaty of peace between the United States and England, that part of Canada lying south and west of the Great Lakes, comprehending a large territory which is the subject of these sketches, was acknowledged to be a portion of the United States ; and twenty j^ears still later, in 1803, Louisiana was ceded by Spain back to France, and by France sold to the United States. In the half century, from the building of the Fort of Crevecceur by LaSalle, in 1680, up to the erection of Fort Chartres, many French set- tlements had been made in that quarter. These have already been noticed, being those at St. Vincent (Vincennes), Kohokia or Cahokia, Kaskaskia and Prairie du Rocher, on the American Bottom, a large tract of rich alluvial soil in Illinois, on the Mississippi, opposite the site of St. Louis. By the treaty of Paris, the regions east of the Mississippi, including all these and other towns of the Northwest, were given over to England; but they do hot appear to have been taken possession of until 1765, when Captain Stirling, in the name of the Majesty of England, established him- self at Fort Chartres bearing with him the proclamation of General Gage, dated December 30, 1764, which promised religious freedom to all Cath- olics who worshiped here, and a right to leave the country with their effects if they wished, or to remain with the privileges of Englishmen. It was shortly after the occupancy of the West by the British that the war with Pontiac opened. It is already noticed in the sketch of that chieftain. By it many a Briton lost his life, and many a frontier settle- 46 THE NOETHAVEST TERRITORY. ment in its infancy ceased to exist. This was not ended until the year 1764, when, failing to capture Detroit, Niagara and Fort Pitt, his confed- eracy became disheartened, and, receiving ho aid from the French, Pon- tiac abandoned the enterprise and departed to the Illinois, among whom he afterward lost his life. As soon as these difficulties were definitely settled, settlers began rapidly to survey the country and prepare for occupation. During the year 1770, a number of persons from Virginia and other British provinces explored and marked out nearly all the valuable lands on the Mononga- hela and along the banks of the Ohio as far as the Little Kanawha. This was followed by another exploring expedition, in which George Washing- ton was a party. The latter, accompanied by Dr. Craik, Capt. Crawford and others, on the 20th of October, 1770, descended the Ohio from Pitts- burgh to the mouth of the Kanawha ; ascended that stream about fourteen miles, marked out several large tracts of land, shot several buffalo, which were then abundant in the Ohio Valley, and returned to the fort. Pittsburgh was at this time a trading post, about which was clus- tered a village of some twenty houses, inhabited by Indian traders. This same year, Capt. Pittman visited Kaskaskia and its neighboring villages. He found there about sixty-five resident families, and at Cahokia only forty-five dwellings. At Fort Chartres was another small settlement, and at Detroit the garrison were quite prosperous and strong. For a year or two settlers continued to locate near some of these posts, generally Fort Pitt or Detroit, owing to the fears of the Indians, who still main- tained some feelings of hatred to the English. The trade from the posts was quite good, and from those in Illinois large quantities of pork and flour found their way to the New Orleans market. At this time the policy of the British Government was strongly opposed to the extension of the colonies west. In 1763, the King of England forbade, by royal proclamation, his colonial subjects from making a settlement beyond the sources of the rivers which fall into the Atlantic Ocean. At the instance of the Board of Trade, measures were taken to prevent the settlement without the limits prescribed, and to retain the commerce within easy reach of Great Britain. The commander-in-chief of the king's forces wrote in 1769 : " In the course of a few years necessity will compel the colonists, should they extend their settlements west, to provide manufactures of some kind for themselves, and when all connection upheld by commerce with the mother country ceases, an independency in their government will soon follow." In accordance with this policy. Gov. Gage issued a proclamation in 1772, commanding the inhabitants of Vincennes to abandon their set- tlements and join some of the Eastern English colonies. To this they THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 47 strenuously objected, giving good reasons therefor, and were allowed to remain. The strong opposition to this policy of Great Britain led to its change, and to such a course as to gain the attachment of the French population. In December, 1773, influential citizens of Quebec petitioned the king for an extension of the boundary lines of that province, which was granted, and Parliament passed an act on June 2, 177-4, extend- ing the boundary so as to include the territory lying within the present States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and Michigan. In consequence of the liberal policy pursued by the British Govern- ment toward the French settlers in the West, they were disposed to favor that nation in the war which soon followed with the colonies ; but the early alliance between France and America soon brought them to the side of the war for independence. In 1774, Gov. Dunmore, of Virginia, began to encourage emigration to the Western lands. He appointed magistrates ,at Fort Pitt under the pretense that the fort was under the government of that commonwealth. One of these justices, John Connelly, who possessed a tract of land in the Ohio Valley, gathered a force of men and garrisoned the fort, calling it Fort Dunmore. This and other parties were formed to select sites for settlements, and often came in conflict with the Indians, who yet claimed portions of the valley, and several battles followed. These ended in the famous battle of Kanawha in July, where the Indians were defeated and driven across the Ohio. During the years 1775 and 1776, by the operations of land companies and the perseverance of individuals, several settlements were firmly estab- lished between the Alleghanies and the Ohio River, and western land speculators were busy in Illinois and on the Wabash. At a council held in Kaskaskia on July 5, 1773, an association of English traders, calling themselves the " Illinois Land Company," obtained from ten chiefs of the Kaskaskia, Cahokia and Peoria tribes two large tracts of land lying on the east side of the Mississippi River south of the Illinois. In 1775, a mer- chant from the Illinois Country, named Viviat, came to Post Vincennes as the agent of the association called the " Wabash Land Company." On the 8th of October he obtained from eleven Piankeshaw chiefs, a deed for 37,497,600 acres of land. This deed was signed by the grantors, attested by a number of the inhabitants of Vincennes, and afterward recorded in the office of a notary public at Kaskaskia. This and other land com- panies had extensive schemes for the colonization of the West ; but all were frustrated by the breaking out of the Revolution. On the 20th of April, 1780, the two companies named consolidated under the name of the "United Illinois and Wabash Land Company." They afterward made 48 THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. strenuous efforts to have these grants sanctioned by Congress, but all signally failed. When the War of the Revolution commenced, Kentucky was an unor- ganized country, though there were several settlements within her borders. In Hutchins' Topography of Virginia, it is stated that at that time " Kaskaskia contained 80 houses, and nearly 1,000 white and black in- habitants — the whites being a little the more numerous. Cahokia con- tains 50 houses and 300 white inhabitants, and 80 negroes. There M^ere east of the Mississippi River, about the year 1771 " — when these observa- tions were made — " 300 white men capable of bearing arms, and 230 negroes." From 1775 until the expedition of Clark, nothing is recorded and nothing known of these settlements, save what is contained in a report- made by a committee to Congress in June, 1778. From it the following extract is made : " Near the mouth of the River Kaskaskia, there is a village which appears to have contained nearly eighty families from the beginning of the late revolution. There are twelve families in a small village at la Prairie du Rochers, and near fifty families at the Kahokia Village. There are also four or five families at Fort Chartres and St. Philips, which is five miles further up the river." St. Louis had been settled in February, 1764, and at this time con- tained, including its neighboring towns, over six hundred whites and one hundred and fifty negroes. It must be remembered that all the country west of the Mississippi Avas now under French rule, and remained so until ceded again to Spain, its original owner, who afterwards sold it and the country including New Orleans to the United States. At Detroit there were, according to Capt. Carver, who was in the Northwest from 1766 to 1768, more than one hundred houses, and the river was settled for more than twenty miles, although poorly cultivated — the people being ^engaged in the Indian trade. This old town has a history, which we will here relate. It is the oldest town in the Northwest, having been founded by Antoine de Lamotte Cadillac, in 1701. It was laid out in the form of an oblong square, of two acres in length, and an acre and a half in width. As described by A. D. Frazer, who first visited it and became a permanent resident of the place, in 1778, it comprised within its limits that space between Mr. Palmer's store (Conant Block) and Capt. Perkins' house (near the Arsenal building), and extended back as far as the public barn, and was bordered in front by the Detroit River. It was surrounded by oak and cedar pickets, about fifteen feet long, set in the ground, and had four gates — east, west, north and south. Over the first three of these THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 49 gates were block houses provided with four guns apiece, each a six- pounder. Two six-gun batteries were planted fronting the river and in a parallel direction with the block houses. There were four streets running'- east and west, the main street being twenty feet wide and the rest fifteen feet, while the four streets crossing these at right angles were from ten to fifteen feet in width. At the date spoken of by Mr. Frazer, there was no fort within the enclosure, but a citadel on the ground corresponding to the present northwest corner of Jefferson Avenue and Wayne Street. The citadel was inclosed by pickets, and within it were erected barracks of wood, two stories high, suflBcient to contain ten oflBcers, and also barracks sufficient to contain four hundred men, and a provision store built of brick. The citadel also contained a hospital and guard-house. The old town of Detroit, in 1778, contained about sixty houses, most of them one story, with a few a story and a half in height. They were all of logs, some hewn and some round. There was one building of splendid appearance, called the " King's Palace," two stories high, which stood near the east gate. It was built for Governor Hamilton, the fi^-st governor commissioned by the British. There were two guard-houses, one near the west gate and the other near the Government House. Each of the guards consisted of twenty -four men and a subaltern, who mounted regularly every morning between nine and ten o'clock. Each furnished four sentinels, who were relieved every two hours. There was also an officer of the day, who per- formed strict duty. Each of the gates was shut regularly at sunset ; even wicket gates were shut at nine o'clock, and all the keys were delivered into the hands of the commanding officer. They were opened in the morning at sunrise. No Indian or squaw was permitted to enter town with any weapon, such as a tomahawk or a knife. It was a stand- ing order that the Indians should deliver their arms and instruments of every kind before they were permitted to pass the sentinel, and they were restored to them on their return. No more than twenty-five Indians were allowed to enter the town at any one time, and they were admitted only at the east and west gates. At sundown the drums beat, and all the Indians were required to leave town instantly. There was a council house near the water side for the purpose of holding council with the Indians. The population of the town was about sixty families, in all about two hundred males and one hundred females. This town was destroyed by fire, all except one dwelling, in 1805. After which the present " new " town was laid out. On the breaking out of the Revolution, the British held every post of importance in the West. Kentucky was formed as a component part of Virginia, and the sturdy pioneers of the West, alive to their interests. 60 THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. and recognizing the great benefits of obtaining the control of the trade in this part of the New Woiid, held steadily to their purposes, and those within the commonwealth of Kentucky proceeded to exercise their civil privileges, by electing John Todd and Richard Gallaway^ burgesses to represent them in the Assembly of the parent state. Early in September of that year (1777) the first court was held in Harrodsburg, and Col. Bowman, afterwards major, who had arrived in August, was made the commander of a militia organization which had been commenced the March previous. Thus the tree of loyalty was growing. The chief spirit in this far-out colony, who had represented her the year previous east of the mountains, was now meditating a move unequaled in its boldness. He had been watching the movements of the British throughout the Northwest, and understood their whole plan. Ht. saw it was through their possession of the posts at Detroit, Vincennes, Kaskaskia, and other places, which would give them constant and easy access to the various Indian tribes in the Northwest, that the British intended to penetrate the country from the north and south, and annihi- late the frontier fortresses. This moving, energetic man was Colonel, afterwards General, George Rogers Clark. He knew the Indians were not unanimously in accord with the English, and he was convinced that, could the British be defeated and expelled from the Northwest, the natives might be easily awed into neutrality ; and by spies sent for the purpose, he satisfied himself that the enterprise against the Illinois settlements might easily succeed. Having convinced himself of the certainty of the project, he repaired to the Capital of Virginia, which place he reached on November 5th. While he was on his way, fortunately, on October 17th, Burgoyne had been defeated, and the spirits of the colonists greatly encouraged thereby. Patrick Henry was Governor of Virginia, and at once entered heartily into Clark's plans. The same plan had before been agitated in the Colonial Assemblies, but there was no one until Clark came who was sufficiently acquainted with the condition of affairs at the scene of action to be able to guide them. Clark, having satisfied the Virginia leaders of the feasibility of his plan, received, on the 2d of January, two sets of instructions — one secret, the other open — the latter authorized him to proceed to enlist seven companies to go to Kentucky, subject to his orders, and to serve three months from their arrival in the West. The secret order authorized him to arm these troops, to procure his powder and lead of General Hand at Pittsburgh, and to proceed at once to subjugate the country. With these instructions Clark repaired to Pittsburgh, choosing rather to raise his men west of the mountains, as he well knew all were needed in the colonies in the conflict there. He sent Col. W, B. Smith to Hoi- THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 51 ston for the same purpose, but neither succeeded in raising the required number of men. Tlie settlers in these parts were afraid to leave their own firesides exposed to a vigilant foe, and but few could be induced to join the proposed expedition. With three companies and several private volunteers, Clark at length commenced his descent of the Ohio, which he navigated a^far as the Falls, where he took possession of and fortified Corn Island, a small island between the present Cities of Louisville, Kentucky, and New Albany, Indiana. Remains of this fortification may yet be found. At this place he appointed Col. Bowman to meet him with such recruits as had reached Kentucky by the southern route, and as many as could be spared from the station. Here he announced to the men their real destination. Having completed his arrangements, and chosen his party, he left a small garrison upon the island, and on the 24th of June, during a total eclipse of the sun, which to them augured no good, and which fixes beyond dispute the date of starting, he with his chosen band, fell down the river. His plan was to go by water as far as Fort Massac or Massacre, and thence march direct to Kaskaskia. Here he intended to surprise the garrison, and after its capture go to Cahokia, then to Vincennes, and lastly to Detroit. Should he fail, he intended to march directly to the Mississippi River and cross it into the Spanish country. Before his start he received two good items of infor- mation : one that the alliance had been formed between France and the United States ; and the other that the Indians throughout the Illinois country and the inhabitants, at the various frontier posts, had been led to believe by the British that the " Long Knives " or Virginians, were the most fierce, bloodthirsty and cruel savages that ever scalped a foe. With this impression on their minds, Clark saw that proper management would cause them to submit at once from fear, if surprised, and then from grati- tude would become friendly if treated with unexpected leniency. The march to Kaskaskia was accomplished through a hot July sun, and the town reached on the evening of July 4. He captured the fort near the village, and soon after the village itself by surprise, and without the loss of a single man or by killing any of the enemy. After sufiiciently working upon the fears of the natives, Clark told them they were at per- fect liberty to worship as they pleased, and to take whichever side of the great conflict they would, also he would protect them from any barbarity from British or Indian foe. This had the desired effect, and the inhab- itants, so unexpectedly and so gratefully surprised by the unlocked for turn of affairs, at once swore allegiance to the American arms, and - when Clark desired to go to Cahokia on the 6th of July, they accom- panied him, and through their influence the inhabitants of the place surrendered, and gladly placed themselves under his protection. Thus 02 THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. the two important posts in Illinois passed from the hands of the English into the possession of Virginia. In the person of the priest at Kaskaskia, M. Gibault, Clark found a powerful ally and generous friend. Clark saw that, to retain possession of the Northwest and treat successfully with the Indians within its boun- daries, he must establish a government for the colonies he had taken. St. Vincent, the next important post to Detroit, remained yet to be taken before the Mississippi Valley was conquered. M. Gibault told him that he would alone, by persuasion, lead Vincennes to throw off its connectioa with England. Clark gladly accepted his offer, and on the 14th of July, in company with a fellow-townsman, M. Gibault started on his mission of peace, and on the 1st of August returned with the cheerful intelligence that the post on the " Oubache " had taken the oath of allegiance to the Old Dominion. During this interval, Clark established his courts^ placed garrisons at Kaskaskia and Cahokia, successfully re-enlisted his men, sent word to have a fort, which proved the germ of Louisville^ erected at the Falls of the Ohio, and dispatched Mr. Rocheblave, who had been commander at Kaskaskia, as a prisoner of war to Richmond. In October the County of Illinois was established by the Legislature of Virginia, John Todd appointed Lieutenant Colonel and Civil Governor, and in November General Clark and his men received the thanks of the Old Dominion through their Legislature. In a speech a few days afterward, Clark made known fully to the natives his plans, and at its close all came forward and swore alle- giance to the Long Knives. While he was doing this Governor Hamilton, having made his various arrangements, had left Detroit and moved down the Wabash to Vincennes intending to operate from that point in reducing the Illinois posts, and then proceed on down to Kentucky and drive the rebels from the West. Gen. Clark had, on the return of M. Gibault, dispatched Captain Helm, of Fauquier County, Virginia, with an attend- ant named Henry, across the Illinois prairies to command the fort. Hamilton knew nothing of the capitulation of the post, and was greatly surprised on his arrival to be confronted by Capt. Helm, who, standing at the entrance of the fort by a loaded cannon ready to fire upon his assail- ants, demanded upon what terms Hamilton demanded possession of the fort. Being granted the rights of a prisoner of war, he surrendered to the British General, who could scarcely believe his eyes when he saw the force in the garrison. Hamilton, not realizing the character of the men with whom he was contending, gave up his intended campaign for the Winter, sent his four hundred Indian warriors to prevent troops from coming down the Ohio, THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 53 and to annoy the Americans in oil ways, and sat quietly down to pass the Winter. Information of all these proceedings having reached Clark, he saw that immediate and decisive action was necessary, and that unless he captnred Hamilton, Hamilton would capture him. Clark received the news on the 29th of January, 1779, and on February 4th, having suffi- ciently garrisoned Kaskaskia and Cahokia, he sent down the Mississippi a " battoe," as Major Bowman writes it, in order to ascend the Ohio and Wabash, and operate with the land forces gathering for the fray. On the next day, Clark, with his little force of one hundred and twenty men, set out for the post, and after incredible hard marching through much mud, the ground being thawed by the incessant spring rains, on the 22d reached the fort, and being joined by his " battoe,"' at once commenced the attack on the post. The aim of the American back- woodsman was unerring, and on the 24th the garrison surrendered to the intrepid boldness of Clark. The French were treated with great kind- ness, and gladly renewed their allegiance to Virginia. Hamilton was sent as a prisoner to Virginia, where he was kept in close confinement. During his command of the British frontier posts, he had offered prizes to the Indians for all the scalps of Americans they would bring to him, and had earned in consequence thereof the title " Hair-buyer General," by which he was ever afterward known. Detroit was now without doubt within easy reach of the enterprising Virginian, could he but raise the necessary force. Governor Henry being apprised of this, promised him the needed reinforcement, and Clark con- cluded to wait until he could capture and sufficiently garrison the posts. Had Clark failed in this bold undertaking, and Hamilton succeeded in uniting the western Indians for the next Spring's campaign, the West would indeed have been swept from the Mississippi to the Allegheny Mountains, and the great blow struck, which had been contemplated from the commencement, by the British. " But for this small army of dripping, but fearless Virginians, the union of all the tribes from Georgia to Maine against the colonies might have been effected, and the whole current of our history changed." At this time some fears were entertained by the Colonial Govern- ments that the Indians in the North and Northwest were inclining to the British, and under the instructions of Washington, now Commander-in- Chief of the Colonial army, and so bravely fighting for American inde- pendence, armed forces were sent against the Six Nations, and upon the Ohio frontier. Col. Bowman, acting under the same general's orders, marched against Indians within the present limits of that State. These expeditions were in the main successful, and the Indians were compelled to sue for peace. 54 THE NORTHWEST TEKKITORY, During this same year (1779) the famous " Land Laws" of Virginia were passed. The passage of these laws was of more consequence to the pioneers of Kentucky and the Northwest than the gaining of a few Indian, conflicts. These laws confirmed in main all grants made, and guaranteed to all actual settlers their rights and privileges. After providing for the settlers, the laws provided for selling the balance of the public lands at forty cents per acre. To carry the Land Laws into effect, the Legislature sent four Virginians westward to attend to the various claims, over many of which great confusion prevailed concerning their validity. These gentlemen opened their court on October 13, 1779, at St. Asaphs, and continued until April 26, 1780, when they adjourned, having decided three thousand claims. They were succeeded by the surveyor, who came in the person of Mr. George May, and assumed his duties on the 10th day of the month whose name he bore. With the opening of the next year (1780) the troubles concerning the navigation of the Missis- sippi commenced. The Spanish Government exacted such measures in relation to its trade as to cause the overtures made to the United States to be rejected. The American Government considered they had a right to navigate its channel. To enforce their claims, a fort was erected below the mouth of the Ohio on the Kentucky side of the river. The settle- ments in Kentucky were being rapidly filled by emigrants. It was dur- ing this year that the first seminary of learning was established in the West in this young and enterprising Commonwealth. The settlers here did not look upon the building of this fort in a friendly manner, as it aroused the hostility of the Indians. Spain had been friendly to the Colonies during their struggle for independence, and though for a while this friendship appeared in danger from the refusal of the free navigation of the river, yet it was finally settled to the satisfaction of both nations. The Winter of 1779-80 was one of the most unusually severe ones ever experienced in the West. The Indians always referred to it as the "Great Cold."' Numbers of wild animals perished, and not a few pioneers lost their lives. The following Summer a party of Canadians and Indians attacked St. Louis, and attempted to take possession of it in consequence of the friendly disposition of Spain to the revolting colonies. They met with such a determined resistance on the part of the inhabitants, even the women taking part in the battle, that they were compelled to abandon the contest. They also made an attack on the settlements in Kentucky, but, becoming alarmed in some unaccountable manner, they fied the country in great haste. About this time arose the question in the Colonial Congress con- cerning the western lands claimed by Virginia, New York, Massachusetts THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 55 and Connecticut. The agitation concerning this subject finally led New York, on the 19th of February, 1780, to pass a law giving to the dele- gates of that State in Congress the power to cede her western lands for the benefit of the United States. This law was laid before Congress during the next month, but no steps were taken concerning it until Sep- tember 6th, when a resolution passed that body calling upon the States claiming western lands to release their claims in favor of the whole body. This basis formed the union, and was the first after all of those legislative measures which resulted in the creation of the States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota. In December of the same year, the plan of conquering Detroit again arose. The conquest might have easily been effected by Clark had the necessary aid been furnished him. Nothing decisive was done, yet the heads of the Government knew that the safety of the Northwest from British invasion lay in the capture and retention of that important post, the only unconquered one in the territory. Before the close of the year, Kentucky was divided into the Coun- ties of Lincoln, Fayette and Jefferson, and the act establishing the Town of Louisville was passed. This same year is also noted in the annals of American history as the year in which occurred Arnold's treason to the United States. Virginia, in accordance with the resolution of Congress, on the 2d day of January, 1781, agreed to yield her western lands to the United States upon certain conditions, which Congress would not accede to, and the Act of Cession, on the part of the Old Dominion, failed, nor was anything farther done until 1783. During all that time the Colonies were busily engaged in the struggle with the mother country, and in consequence thereof but little heed was given to the western settlements. Upon the 16th of April, 1781, the first birth north of the Ohio River of American parentage occurred, being that of Mary Heckewelder, daughter of the widely known Moravian missionary, whose band of Christian Indians suffered in after years a horrible massacre by the hands of the frontier settlers, who had been exasperated by the murder of several of their neighbors, and in their rage committed, without regard to humanity, a deed which forever afterwards cast a shade of shame upon their lives. For this and kindred outrages on the part of the whites, the Indians committed many deeds of cruelty which darken the years of 1771 and 1772 in the history of the Northwest. During the year 1782 a number of battles among the Indians and frontiersmen occurred, and between the Moravian Indians and the Wyan- dots. In these, horrible acts of cruelty were practised on the captives, many of such dark deeds transpiring under the leadership of the notorious 56 THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. frontier outlaw, Simon Girty, whose name, as well as those of his brothers, was a terror to women and children. These occurred chiefly in the Ohio valleys. Cotemporary with them were several engagements in Kentucky, in which the famous Daniel Boone engaged, and who, often by his skill and knowledge of Indian warfare, saved the outposts from cruel destrue- 1^'DIANS ATTACKINc; FJJONTIEUSMKN. tion. By the close of the year victory had perched upon the American banner, and on the 30th of November, provisional articles of peace had been arranged between the Commissioners of England and her uncon- querable colonies. Cornwallis had been defeated on the 19th of October preceding, and the liberty of America was assured. On the 19th of April following, the anniversary of the battle of Lexington, peace was THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 57 proclaimed to the army of the United States, and on the 3d of the next September, the definite treaty which ended our revolutionary struoo-ie was concluded. By the terms of that treaty, the boundaries of the West were as follows : On the north the line was to extend along the center of the Great Lakes ; from the western point of Lake Superior to Long Lake ; thence to the Lake of the Woods ; thence to the head of the Mississippi River; down its center to the 31st parallel of latitude, then on that line east to the head of the Appalachicola River; down its center to its junc- tion with the Flint ; thence straight to the head of St. Mary's River, and thence down along its center to the Atlantic Ocean. Following the cessation of hostilities with England, several posts were still occupied by the British in the North and West. Among these was Detroit, still in the hands of the enemy. Numerous engagements with the Indians throughout Ohio and Indiana occurred, upon whose lands adventurous whites would settle ere the title had been acquired by the proper treaty. To remedy this latter evil. Congress appointed commissioners to treat with the natives and purchase their lands, and prohibited the set- tlement of the territory until this could be done. Before the close of the year another attempt was made to capture Detroit, which was, however, not pushed, and Virginia, no longer feeling the interest in the Northwest she had formerly done, withdrew her troops, having on the 20th of December preceding authorized the whole of her possessions to be deeded to the United States. This was done on the Ist of March following, and the Northwest Territory passed from the control of the Old Dominion. To Gen. Clark and his soldiers, however, she gave a tract of one hundred and fifty thousand acres of land, to be situated any where north of the Ohio wherever they chose to locate them. They selected the region opposite the falls of the Ohio, where is uow the dilapidated village of Clarksville, about midway between the Cities of New Albany and Jeffer- sonville, Indiana. While the frontier remained thus, and Gen. Haldimand at Detroit refused to evacuate alleging that he had no orders from his King to do so, settlers were rapidly gathering about the inland forts. In the Spring of 1784, Pittsburgh was regularly laid out, and from the journal of Arthur Lee, who passed through the town soon after on his way to the Indian council at Fort Mcintosh, we suppose it was not very prepossessing in appearance. He says : " Pittsburgh is inhabited almost entirely by Scots and Irish, who live in paltry log houses, and are as dirty as if in the north of Ireland or even Scotland. There is a great deal of trade carried on, the goods being bought at the vast expense of forty-five shillings per pound from Phila- 58 THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. delphia and Baltimore. They take in the shops flour, wheat, skins and money. There are in the town four attorneys, two doctors, and not a priest of any persuasion, nor church nor chapel." Kentucky at this time contained thirty thousand inhabitants, and was beginning to discuss measures for a separation from Virginia. A land office was opened at Louisville, and measures were adopted to take defensive precaution against the Indians who were yet, in some instances, incited to deeds of violence by the British. Before the close of this year, 1784, the military claimants of land began to occupy them, although na entries were recorded until 1787. The Indian title to the Northwest was not yet extinguished. They held large tracts of lands, and in order to prevent bloodshed Congress adopted means for treaties with the original owners and provided for the surveys of the lands gained thereby, as well as for those north of the Ohio, now in its possession. On January 31, 1786, a treaty was made with the Wabash Indians. The treaty of Fort Stanwix had been made in 1784. That at Fort Mcintosh in 1785, and through these much land was gained. The Wabash Indians, however, afterward refused to comply with the provisions of the treaty made with them, and in order to compel their adherence to its provisions, force was used. During the year 1786, the free navigation of the Mississippi came up in Congress, and caused various discussions, which resulted in no definite action, only serving to excite speculation in regard to the western lands. Congress had promised bounties of land to the soldiers of the Revolution, but owing to the unsettled condition of affairs along the Mississippi respecting its naviga- tion, and the trade of the Northwest, that body had, in 1783, declared its inability to fulfill these promises until a treaty could be concluded between the two Governments. Before the close of the year 1786, how- ever, it was able, through the treaties with the Indians, to allow some grants and the settlement thereon, and on the 14th of September Con- necticut ceded to the General Government the tract of land known as the " Connecticut Reserve," and before the close of the following year a large tract of land north of the Ohio was sold to a company, who at once took measures to settle it. By the provisions of this grant, the company were to pay the United States one dollar per acre, subject to a deduction of one-third for bad lands and other contingencies. They received 750,000 acres, bounded on the south by the Ohio, on the east by the seventh range of townships, on the west by the sixteenth range, and on the north by a line so drawn as to make the grant complete without the reservations. In addition to this, Congress afterward granted 100,000 acres to actual settlers, and 214,285 acres as army bounties under the resolutions of 1789 and 1790. THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 59 While Dr. Cutler, one of the agents of the company, was pressing its claims before Congress, that body was bringing into form an ordinance for the political and social organization of this Territory. When the cession was made by Virginia, in 1784, a plan was offered, but rejected. A motion had been made to strike from the proposed plan the prohibition of slavery, which prevailed. The plan was then discussed and altered, and finally passed unanimously, with the exception of South Carolina. By this proposition, the Territory was to have been divided into states A PRAIRIE STORM. by parallels and meridian lines. This, it was thought, would make ten states, which were to have been named as follows — ^ beginning at the northwest corner and going southwardly : Sylvania, Michigania, Cher- sonesus, Assenisipia, Metropotamia, Illenoia, Saratoga, Washington, Poly- potamia and Pelisipia. There was a more serious objection to this plan than its category of names, — the boundaries. The root of the difficulty was in the resolu- tion of Congress passed in October, 1780, which fixed the boundaries of the ceded lands to be from one hundred to one hundred and fifty miles 60 THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. square. These resolutions being presented to the Legislatures of Vir- ginia and Massachusetts, they desired a change, and in July, 1786, the subject was taken up in Congress, and changed to favor a division into not more than five states, and not less than three. This was approved by the State Legislature of Virginia. The subject of the Government was again taken up by Congress in 1786, and discussed throughout that year and until July, 1787, when the famous "Compact of 1787" was passed, and the foundation of tlie government of the Northwest laid. This com- pact is fully discussed and explained in the history of Illinois in this book, and to it the reader is referred. The passage of this act and the grant to the New England Company was soon followed by an application to the Government by John Cleves Symmes, of New Jersey, for a grant of the land between the Miamis. This gentleman had visited these lands soon after the treatj^of 1786, and, being greatly pleased with them, offered similar terms to those given to the New England Company. The petition was referred to the Treasurv Board with power to act, and a contract was concluded the following year. During the Autumn the directors of the New England Company were preparing to occupy their grant the following Spring, and upon the 23d of November made arrangements for a party of forty-seven men, under the superintendency of Gen. Rufus Putnam, to set forward. Six boat-builders were to leave at once, and on the first of January the sur- veyors and their assistants, twenty-six in number, were to meet at Hart- ford and proceed on their journey westward ; the remainder to follow as soon as possible. Congress, in the meantime, upon the 8d of October, had ordered seven hundred troops for defense of the western settlers, and to prevent unauthorized intrusions ; and two days later appointed Arthur St. Clair Governor of the Territory of the Northwest. AMERICAN SETTLEMENTS. The civil organization of the Northwest Territorv was now com- plete, and notwithstanding the uncertainty of Indian affairs, settlers from the East began to come into the country rapidly. The New England Company sent their men during the Winter of 1787-8 pressing on over the Alleghenies by the old Indian path which had been opened into Braddock's road, and which has since been made a national turnpike from Cumberland westward. Through the weary winter days they toiled on, and by Ayn-il were all gathered on the Yohiogany, where boats had been built, and at once started for the Muskingum. Here they arrived on the 7th of that month, and unless the Moravian missionaries be regarded as the pioneers of Ohio, this little band can justly claim that honor. THE NORTH\yEST TERRITORY. 61 Gen. St. Clair, the appointed Governor of the Northwest, not having vet arrived, a set of laws were passed, written out, and published by being nailed to a tree in the embryo town, and Jonathan Meigs appointed to administer them. Washington in writing of this, the first American settlement in the Northwest, said : " No colony in America was ever settled under such favorable auspices as that which has just commenced at Muskingum. Information, property and strength will be its characteristics. I know many of its settlers personally, and there never were men better calcu- lated to promote the welfare of such a community." 'yi<'^^>^,^^x/(SW'^'^^ ^^ A PIONKEi: DWELLING On the 2d of July a meeting of the directors and agents was held on the banks of the Muskingum, " for the purpose of naming the new- born city and its squares." As yet the settlement was known as the ''Muskingum," but that was now changed to the name Marietta, in honor of Marie Antoinette. The square upon which the block -houses stood was called '-'■ Campus Martins ;"" square number 19, '-'- Ca'pitolium f square number 61, '•'•Cecilia ^ and the great road through the covert way, " Sacra Via.'' Two days after, an oration was delivered by James M. Varnum, who with S. H. Parsons and John Armstrong had been appointed to the judicial bench of the territory on the 16th of October, 1787. On July 9, Gov. St. Clair arrived, and the colony began to assume form. The act of 1787 provided two district grades of government for the Northwest, 62 THE NORTHWEST TBRE.TTOEY. under the first of which tlie whole power was invested in the hands of a governor and three district judges. This was immediately formed upon the Governor's arrival, and the first laws of the colony passed on the 25th of July. These provided for the organization of the militia, and on the next day appeared the Governor's proclamation, erecting all that country that had been ceded by the Indians east of the Scioto River into the County of Washington. From that time forward, notwithstanding the doubts yet existing as to the Indians, all Marietta prospered, and on the 2d of September the first court of the territory was held with imposing- ceremonies. The emigration westward at this time was very great. The com- mander at Fort Harmer, at the mouth of the Muskingum, reported four thousand five hundred persons as having passed that post between Feb- ruary and June, 1788 — many of w^hom would have purchased of the "Associates," as the New England Company was called, had they l)een ready to receive them. On the 26th of November, 1787, Symmes issued a pamphlet stating the terms of his contract and the plan of sale he intended to adopt. In January, 1788, Matthias Denman, of New Jersey, took an active interest in Symmes' purchase, and located among other tracts the sections upon which Cincinnati has been built. Retaining one-third of this locality, he sold the other two-thirds to Robert Patterson and John Filson, and the three, about August, commenced to lay out a town on the spot, which was designated as being opposite Licking River, to the mouth of which they proposed to have a road cut from Lexington. The naming of the town is thus narrated in the "Western Annals " : — " Mr. Filson, who had been a schoolmaster, was appointed to name the town, and, in respect to its situation, and as if with a prophetic perception of the mixed race that were to inhabit it in after days, he named it Losantiville, which, being interpreted, means : ville, the town ; anti, against or opposite to ; os, the mouth ; L. of Licking."' Meanwhile, in July, Symmes got thirty persons and eight four-horse teams under way for the West. These reached Limestone (now Mays- ville) in September, where were several persons from Redstone. Here Mr. Symmes tried to found a settlement, but the great freshet of 1789 caused the " Point,"* as it was and is yet called, to be fifteen feet under water, and the settlement to be abandoned. The little band of settlers removed to the mouth of the Miami. Before Symmes and his colony left the " Point,"' two settlements had been made on his purchase. The first was by Mr. Stiltes, the original projector of the whole plan, who, with a colony of Redstone people, had located at the mouth of the Miami, whither Symmes went with his Maysville colony. Here a clearing had THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 63 been made by the Indians owing to the great fertility of the soil. Mr. Stiltes with his colony came to this place on the 18th of November, 1788, ■with twenty-six persons, and, building a block-house, prepared to remain through the Winter. They named the settlement Columbia. Here they were kindly treated by the Indians, but suffered greatly from the flood of 1789. On the 4th of March, 1789, the Constitution of the United States went into operation, and on April 30, George Washington was inaug- urated President of the American people, and during the next Summer, an Indian war was commenced by the tribes north of the Ohio. The President at first used pacific means ; but these failing, he sent General Harmer against the hostile tribes. He destroyed several villages, but BREAKING PBAIKIE. was defeated in two battles, near the present City of Fort Wayne, Indiana. From this time till the close of 1795, the principal events were the wars with the various Indian tribes. In 1796, General St. Clair was appointed in command, and marched against the Indians; but while he was encamped on a stream, the St. Mary, a branch of the Maumee, he was attacked and defeated with the loss of six hundred men. General Wayne was now sent against the savages. In August, 1794, he met them near the rapids of the Maumee, and gained a complete victory. This success, followed by vigorous measures, compelled the Indians to sue for peace, and on the 30th of July, the following year, the treaty of Greenville was signed by the principal chiefs, by which a large tract of country was ceded to the United States. Before proceeding in our narrative, we will pause to notice Fort Washington, erected in the early part of this war on the site of Cincinnati. Nearly all of the great cities of the Northwest, and indeed of the 64 THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. whole country, have had their nuclei in those rude pioneer structures, known as forts or stockades. Thus Forts Dearborn, Washington, Pon- chartrain, mark the original sites of the now proud Cities of Chicago, Cincinnati and Detroit. So of most of the flourishing cities east and west of the Mississippi. Fort Washington, erected by Doughty in 1790, was a rude but highly interesting structure. It was composed of a number of strongly-built hewed log cabins. Those designed for soldiers' barracks were a story and a half high, while those composing the officers quarters were more imposing and more conveniently arranged and furnished. The whole were so placed as to form a hollow square, enclosing about an acre of ground, with a block house at each of the four angles. The logs for the construction of this fort were cut from the ground upon which it was erected. It stood between Third and Fourth Streets of the present cit}^ (Cincinnati) extending east of Eastern Row, now Broadway, which was then a narrow alley, and the eastern boundary of of the town as it was originally laid out. On the bank of the river, immediately in front of the fort, was an appendage of the fort, called the Artificer's Yard. It contained about two acres of ground, enclosed by small contiguous buildings, occupied by workshops and quarters of laborers. Within this enclosure there was a large two-story frame house, familiarly called the " Yellow House," built for the accommodation of the Quartermaster General. For many years this was the best finished and most commodious edifice in the Queen City. Fort Washington was for some time the headquarters of both the'civil and military governments of the Northwestern Territory. Following the consummation of the treaty various gigantic land spec- ulations were entered into by different persons, who hoped to obtain from the Indians in Michigan and northern Indiana, large tracts of lands. These were generally discovered in time to prevent the outrageous schemes from being carried out, and from involving the settlers in war- On October 27, 1795, the treaty between the United States and Spain was signed, whereby the free navigation of the Mississippi was secured. No sooner had the treaty of 1795 been ratified than settlements began to pour rapidly into the West. The great event of the year 1796 was the occupation of that part of the Northwest including Michigan, which was this year, under the provisions of the treaty, evacuated by the British forces. The United States, owing to certain conditions, did not feel justified in addressing the authorities in Canada in relation to Detroit and other frontier posts. When at last the British authorities were called to give them up, they at once complied, and General Wayne, who had done so much to preserve the frontier settlements, and who, before the year's close, sickened and died near Erie, transferred his head- THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. QS quarters to the neighborhood of the lakes, where a county named after him was formed, which included the northwest of Ohio, all of Michigan, and the northeast of Indiana. During this same year settlements were formed at the present City of Chillicothe, along the Miami from Middle- town to Piqua, while in the more distant West, settlers and speculators began to appear in great numbers. In September, the City of Cleveland was laid out, and during the Summer and Autumn, Samuel Jackson and Jonathan Sharpless erected the first manufactory of paper — the "Red- stone Paper Mill" — in the West. St. Louis contained some seventy houses, and Detroit over three hundred, and along the river, contiguous to it, were more than three thousand inhabitants, mostly French Canadians, Indians and half-breeds, scarcely any Americans venturing yet into that part of the Northwest. The election of representatives for the territory had taken place, and on the 4th of February, 1799, they convened at Losantiville — now known as Cincinnati, having been named so by Gov. St. Clair, and considered the capital of the Territory — to nominate persons from whom the members of the Legislature were to be chosen in accordance with a previous ordinance. This nomination being made, the Assembly adjourned until the 16th of the following September. From those named the President selected as members of the council, Henry Vandenburg, of Vincennes, Robert Oliver, of Marietta, James Findlay and Jacob Burnett, of Cincinnati, and David Vance, of Vanceville. On the 16th of September the Territorial Legislature met, and on the 24th the two houses were duly organized, Henry Vandenburg being elected President of the Council. The message of Gov. St. Clair was addressed to the Legislature September 20th, and on October 13th that body elected as a delegate to Congress Gen. Wm. Henry Harrison, who received eleven of the votes cast, being a majority of one over his opponent, Arthur St. Clair, son of Gen. St. Clair. The whole number of acts passed at this session, and approved by the Governor, were thirty-seven — eleven others were passed, but received his veto. The most important of those passed related to the militia, to the administration, and to taxation. On the 19th of December this pro- tracted session of the first Legislature in the West was closed, and on the 30th of December the President nominated Charles Willing Bryd to the office of Secretary of the Territory vice Wm. Henry Harrison, elected to Congress. The Senate confirmed his nomination the next day. 6G THE NOKTHWEST TEEEITORY. DIVISION OF THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. The increased emigration to the Northwest, the extent of the domain, and the inconvenient modes of travel, made it very difficult to conduct the ordinar}^ operations of government, and rendered the efficient action of courts almost impossible. To remedy this, it was deemed advisable to divide the territory for civil purposes. Congress, in 1800, appointed a committee to examine the question and report some means for its solution. This committee, on the 3d of March, reported that : "• In the three western countries there has been but one court having cognizance of crimes, in five years, and the immunity which offenders experience attracts, as to an asylum, the most vile and abandoned crim- inals, and at the same time deters useful citizens from making settlements in such society. The extreme necessity of judiciary attention and assist- ance is experienced in civil as well as in criminal cases. * * * * Xo minister a remedy to these and other evils, it occurs to this committee that it is expedient that a division of said territory into two distinct and separate governments should be made ; and that such division be made by a line beginning at the mouth of the Great Miami River, running directly north until it intersects the boundary between the United States and Canada." The report was accepted by Congress, and, in accordance with its suggestions, that body passed an Act extinguishing the Northwest Terri- tory, which Act was approved May 7. Among its provisions were these : " That from and after July 4 next, all that part of the Territory of the United States northwest of the Ohio River, which lies to the westward of a line beginning at a point on the Ohio, opposite to the mouth of the Kentucky River, and running thence to Fort Recovery, and thence north until it shall intersect the territorial line between the United States and Canada, shall, for the purpose of temporary government, constitute a separate territory, and be called the Indiana Territory." After providing for the exercise of the civil and criminal powers of the territories, and other provisions, the Act further provides : " That until it shall otherwise be ordered by the Legislatures of the said Territories, respectively, Chillicothe on the Scioto River shall be the seat of government of tlio Territory of the United States northwest of the Ohio River; and that. St. Vincennes on the Wabash River shall be" the seat of government for the Indiana Territory." Gen. Wm. Henry Harrison was appointed Governor of the Indiana Territory, and entered upon his duties about a year later. Connecticut also aliout this time released her claims to the reserve, and in March a law THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 67 was passed accepting this cession. Settlements had been made upon thirty-five of the townships in the reserve, mills had been built, and seven hundred miles of road cut in various directions. On the 3d of November the General Assembly met at Chillicothe. Near the close of the year, tlie first missionary of the Connecticut Reserve came, who found no township containing more than eleven families. It was upon the first of October that the secret treaty had been made between Napoleon and the King of Spain, whereby the latter agreed to cede to France the province of Louisiana. In January, 1802, the Assembly of the Northwestern Territory char- tered the college at Athens. From the earliest dawn of the western- colonies, education was promptly provided for, and as early as 1787, newspapers were issued from Pittsburgh and Kentucky, and largely read throughout the frontier settlements. Before the close of this year, the Congress of the United States granted to the citizens of the Northwestern territory the formation of a State government. One of the provisions of the "compact of 1787" provided that whenever the number of inhabit- ants within prescribed limits exceeded 45,000, they should be entitled to a separate government. The prescribed limits of Ohio contained, from a census taken to ascertain the legality of the act, more than that number, and on the 30th of April, 1802, Congress passed the act defining its limits, and on the 29th of November the Constitution of the new State of Ohio, so named from the beautiful river forming its southern boundary, came into existence. The exact limits of Lake Michigan were not then known, but the territory now included within the State of Michigan was wholly within the territory of Indiana. Gen. Harrison, while residing at Vincennes, made several treaties with the Indians, thereby gaining large tracts of lands. The next year is memorable in the history of the West for the purchase of Louisiana from France by the United States for $15,000,000. Thus by a peaceful mode, the domain of the United States was extended over a large tract of country west of the Mississippi, and was for a time under the jurisdiction of the Northwest government, and, as has been mentioned in the early part of this narrative, was called the "New Northwest." The limits of this history will not allow a description of its territory. The same year large grants of land were obtained from the Indians, and the House of Representatives of the new State of Ohio signed a bill respecting the College Township in the district of Cincinnati. Before the close of the year, Gen. Harrison obtained additional grants of lands from the various Indian nations in Indiana and the present limits of Illinois, and on the 18th of August, 1804, completed a treaty at St. Louis, whereby over 51,000,000 acres of lands were obtained from the 68 THE NORTHWEST TERKITORY. aborigines. Measures were also taken to learn the condition of affairs in and about Detroit. C. Jouett, the Indian agent in Michigan, still a part of Indiana Terri- tory, reported as follows upon the condition of matters at that post : '' The Town of Detroit. — The charter, which is for fifteen miles square, was granted in the time of Louis XIV. of France, and is now, from the best information I have been able to get, at Quebec. Of those two hundred and twenty-five acres, only four are occupied by the town and Fort Lenault. The remainder is a common, except twenty-four acres, which were added twenty years ago to a farm belonging to Wm. Macomb. * * * A stockade incloses the town, fort and citadel. The pickets, as well as the public houses, are in a state of gradual decay. The streets are narrow, straight and regular, and intersect each other at right angles. The houses are, for the most part, low and inelegant." During this year, Congress granted a township of land for the sup- port of a college, and began to offer inducements for settlers in these wilds, and the country now comprising the State of Michigan began to fill rapidly with settlers along its southern borders. This same year, also, a law was passed organizing the Southwest Territory, dividing it into two portions, the Territory of New Orleans, which city was made the seat of government, and the District of Louisiana, which was annexed to the- domain of Gen. Harrison. On the lltli of January, 1805, the Territory of Michigan was formed, Wm. Hull was appointed governor, with headquarters at Detroit, the change to take effect on June 30. On the 11th of that month, a fire occurred at Detroit, which destroyed almost every building in the place. When the oflficers of the new territory reached the post, they found it in ruins, and the inhabitants scattered throughout the country. Rebuild- ing, however, soon commenced, and ere long the town contained more houses than before the fire, and many of them much better built. While this was being done, Indiana had passed to the second grade of government, and through her General Assembly had obtained large tracts of land from the Indian tribes. To all this the celebrated Indian, Tecumthe or Tecumseh, vigorously protested, and it was the main cause of his attempts to unite the various Indian tribes in a conflict with the settlers. To obtain a full account of these attempts, the workings of the British, and the signal failure, culminating in the death of Tecumseh at the battle of the Thames, and the close of the war of 1812 in the Northwest, we will step aside in our story, and relate the principal events of his life,, and his connection with this conflict. THE NOKTHWEST TERRITORY 6t. TECUMSEH, THE SHAWANOE CHIEFTAIN. 70 THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. TECUMSEH, AND THE WAR OF 1812. This famous Indian cliief was born about the year 1768, not far from the site of the present City of Piqua, Ohio. His father, Puckeshinwa, was a member of the Kisopok tribe of the Swanoese nation, and his mother. Metliontaske, was a member of the Turtle tribe of the same people. They removed from Florida about the middle of the last century to the birthplace of Tecumseh. In 1774, his father, who had risen to be chief, was slain at the battle of Point Pleasant, and not long after Tecum- seh, by his bravery, became the leader of his tril)e. In 1795 he was declared chief, and then lived at Deer Creek, near the site of the present City of Urbana. He remained here about one year, when he returned to Piqua, and in 1798, he went to White River, Indiana. In 1805, he and his brother, Laulewasikan (Open Door), who had announced himself as a prophet, went to a tract of land on the Wabash River, given them by the Pottawatomies and Kickapoos. From this date the chief comes into prominence. He was now about thirty-seven years of age, was five feet and ten inches in height, was stoutly built, and possessed of enormous powers of endurance. His countenance was naturally pleas- ing, and he was, in general, devoid of those savage attributes possessed by most Indians. It is stated he could read and write, and had a confi- dential secretary and adviser, named Billy Caldwell, a half-breed, who afterward became chief of the Pottawatomies. He occupied the first house built on the site of Chicago.- At this time, Tecumseh entered upon the great work of his life. He had long objected to the grants of land made by the Indians to the whites, and determined to unite all the Indian tribes into a league, in order that no treaties or grants of land could be made save by the consent of this confederation. He traveled constantly, going from north to south ; from the south to the north, everywhere urging the Indians to this step. He was a matchless orator, and his burning words had their effect. Gen. Harrison, then Governor of Indiana, by watching the move- ments of the Indians, became convinced that a grand conspiracy was forming, and made preparations to defend the settlements. Tecumseh's plan was similar to Pontiac's, elsewhere described, and to the cunning artifice of that chieftain was added his own sagacity. During the year 1809, Tecumseh and the prophet were actively pre- paring for the work. In that year. Gen. Harrison entered into a treaty with the Delawares, Kickapoos, Pottawatomies, Miamis, Eel River Indians and Weas, in which these tribes ceded to the whites certain lands upon the Wabash, to all of which Tecumseh entered a bitter protest, averring THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 71 as one principal reason that he did i*ot want the Indians to give up any lands north and west of the Ohio River. Tecumseh, in August, 1810, visited the General at Vincennes and held a council relating to the grievances of the Indians. Becoming unduly angry at this conference he was dismissed from the village, and soon after departed to incite the southern Indian tribes to the conflict. Gen. Harrison determined to move upon the chief's headquarters at Tippecanoe, and for this purpose went about sixty-five miles up the Wabash, where he built Fort Harrison. From this place he went to the prophet's town, where he informed the Indians he had no hostile inten- tions, provided they were true to the existing treaties. He encamped near the village early in October, and on the morning of November 7, he was attacked by a large force of the Indians, and the famous battle of Tippecanoe occurred. The Indians were routed and their town broken up. Tecumseh returning not long after, was greatly exasperated at his brother, tlie prophet, even threatening to kill him for rashly precipitating the war, and foiling his (Tecumseh's) plans. Tecumseh sent word to Gen. Harrison that he was now returned from the South, and was ready to visit the President as had at one time previously been proposed. Gen. Harrison informed him he could not go as a chief, which method Tecumseh desired, and the visit was never made. In June of the following year, he visited the Indian agent at Fort Wayne. Here he disavowed any intention to make a war against the United States, and reproached Gen. Harrison for marching against his people. The agent replied to this ; Tecumseh listened with a cold indif- ference, and after making a few general remarks, with a haughty air drew his blanket about him, left the council house, and departed for Fort Mai- den, in Upper Canada, where he joined the British standard. He remained under this Government, doing effective work for the Crown while engaged in the war of 1812 which now opened. He was, however, always humane in his treatment of the prisoners, never allow- ing his warriors to ruthlessly mutilate the bodies of those slain, or wan- tonly murder the captive. In the Summer of 1813, Perry's victory on Lake Erie occurred, and shortly after active preparations were made to capture Maiden, On the 27th of September, the American army, under Gen. Harrison, set sail for the shores of Canada, and in a few hours stood around the ruins of Mai- den, from which the British army, under Proctor, had retreated to Sand- wich, intending to make its way to the heart of Canada by the Valley of the Thames. On the 29th Gen. Harrison was at Sandwich, and Gen. Mc Arthur took possession of Detroit and the territory of Michigan. 72 THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. On the 2d of October, the Americans began their pursuit of Proctor, whom they overtook on the 5th, and the battle of tlie Thames followed. Early in the engagement, Tecumseli who was at the head of the column of Indians was slain, and they, no longer hearing the voice of their chief- tain, fled. The victory was decisive, and practically closed the war in the Northwest. INDIANS ATTACKING A STOCKADE. Just who killed the great chief has been a matter of much dispute ; l)Ut the weight of opinion awards the act to Col. Richard M. Johnson, who fired at him Avith a pistol, the shot proving fatal. In 1805 occurred Burr's Insurrection. He took possession of a beautiful island in the Ohio, after the killing of Hamilton, and is charged by many with attempting to set up an independent government. His plans were frustrated by the general government, his property confiscated and he was compelled to flee the oonntry for safety. THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 73 In Januar5% 1807, Governor Hull, of Michigan Territory, made a treaty with the Indians, whereby all that peninsula was ceded to the United States. Before the close of the year, a stockade was built about Detroit. It was also during this year that Indiana and Illinois endeavored to obtain the repeal of that section of the compact of 1787, whereby slavery was excluded from the Northwest Territory. These attempts, however, all signally failed. In 1809 it was deemed advisable to divide the Indiana Territory. This was done, and the Territory of Illinois was formed from the western part, the seat of government being fixed at Kaskaskia. The next year, the intentions of Tecumseh manifested themselves in open hostilities, and then began the events already narrated. While this war was in progress, emigration to the West went on with surprising rapidity. In 1811, under Mr. Roosevelt of New York, the first steamboat trip was made on the Ohio, much to the astonishment of the natives, many of whom fled in terror at the appearance of the " monster." It arrived at Louisville on the 10th day of October. At the close of the first week of Januar3% 1812, it arrived at Natchez, after being nearly overwhelmed in the great earthquake which occurred while on its downward trip. The battle of the Thames was fought on October 6, 1813. It effectually closed hostilities in the Northwest, although peace was not fully restored until July 22, 1814, when a treaty was formed at Green- ville, under the direction of General Harrison, between the United States and the Indian tribes, in which it was stipulated that the Indians should cease hostilities against the Americans if the war were continued. Such, happily, was not the case, and on the 24th of December the treaty of Ghent was signed by the representatives of England and the United States. This treaty was followed the next year by treaties with various Indian tribes throughout the West, and Northwest, and quiet was again restored in this part of the new world. On the 18th of March, 1816, Pittsburgh was incorporated as a city. It then had a population of 8,000 people, and was already noted for its manufacturing interests. On April 19, Indiana Territory was allowed to form a state government. At that time there were thirteen counties organized, containing about sixty-three thousand inhabitants. The first election of state officers was held in August, when Jonathan Jennings was chosen Governor. The officers were sworn in on November 7, a.nd. on December 11, the State was formally admitted into the Union. For some time the seat of government was at Corydon, but a more central location being desirable, the present capital, Indianapolis (City of Indiana), was laid out January 1, 1825. 74 THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. On the 28th of December the Bank of Illinois, at Shawneetown, was chartered, with a capital of $300,000. At this period all banks were under the control of the States, and were allowed to establish branches at different convenient points. Until this time Chillicothe and Cincinnati had in turn enjoyed the privileges of being the capital of Ohio. But the rapid settlement of the northern and eastern portions of the State demanded, as in Indiana, a more central location, and before the close of the year, the site of Col- umbus was selected and surveyed as the future capital of the State. Banking had begun in Ohio as early as 1808, when the first bank was chartered at Marietta, but here as elsewhere it did not bring to the state the hoped-for assistance. It and other banks were subsequently unable to redeem their currency, and were obliged to suspend. In 1818, Illinois was made a state, and all the territory north of her northern limits was erected into a separate territory and joined to Mich- igan for judicial purposes. By the following year, navigation of the lakes was increasing with great rapidity and affording an immense source of revenue to the dwellers in the Northwest, but it was not until 1826 that the trade was extended to Lake Michigan, or that steamships began to navigate the bosom of that inland sea. Until the year 1832, the commencement of the Black Hawk War, but few hostilities were experienced with the Indians. Roads were opened, canals were dug, cities were built, common schools were estab- lished, universities were founded, many of which, especially the Michigan University, have achieved a world wide-reputation. The people were becoming wealthy. The domains of the United States had been extended, and had the sons of the forest been treated with honesty and justice, the record of many years would have been that of peace and continuous pros- perity. BLACK HAWK AND THE BLACK HAWK WAR. This conflict, though confined to Illinois, is an important epoch in the Northwestern history, being the last war with the Indians in this part of the United States. Ma-ka-tai-rae-she-kia-kiah, or Black Hawk, was born in the principal Sac village, about three miles from the junction of Rock River with the Mississippi, in the year 1767. His father's name was Py-e-sa or Pahaes ; his grandfather's, Na-na-ma-kee, or the Thunderer. Black Hawk early distinguished himself as a warrior, and at the age of fifteen was permitted to paint and was ranked among the braves. About the year 1783, he Went on an expedition against the enemies of his nation, the Osages, one THE NORTHWEST TERKITORY. 75 BLACK HAWK, THE SAC CHIEFTAIN. 76 THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. of whom he killed and scalped, and for this deed of Indian bravery he was permitted to join in the scalp dance. Three or four years after he, at the head of two hundred braves, went on another expedition against the Osages, to avenge the murder of some women and children belonging to his own tribe. Meeting an equal number of Osage warriors, a fierce battle ensued, in which the latter tribe lost one-half their number. The Sacs lost only about nineteen warriors. He next attacked the Cherokees for a similar cause. In a severe battle with them, near the present City of St. Louis, his father was slain, and Black Hawk, taking possession of the " Medicine Bag,"' at once announced himself chief of the Sac nation. He had now conquered the Cherokees, and about the year 1800, at the head of five hundred Sacs and Foxes, and a hundred lowas, he waged war against the Osage nation and subdued it. For two years he battled successfull}^ with other Indian tribes, all of whom he conquered. Black Hawk does not at any time seem to have been friendly to the Americans. When on a visit to St. Louis to see his " Spanish Father," he declined to see any of the Americans, alleging, as a reason, he did not want tivo fathers. The treaty at St. Louis was consummated in 1804. The next year the United States Government erected a fort near the head of the Des Moines Rapids, called Fort Edwards. This seemed to enrage Black Hawk, who at once determined to captuie Fort Madison, standing on the west side of the Mississippi above the mouth of the Des Moines River. The fort was garrisoned by about fifty men. Here he was defeated. The difficulties with the British Government arose about this time, and the War of 1812 followed. That government, extending aid to the Western Indians, by giving them arms and ammunition, induced them to remain hostile to the Americans. In August, 1812, Black Hawk, at the head of about five hundred braves, started to join the British forces at Detroit, passing on his way the site of Chicago, where the famous Fort Dearborn Massacre had a few days before occurred. Of his connection with the British Government l)ut little is known. In 1813 he with his little band descended the Mississippi, and attacking some United States troops at Fort Howard was defeated. In the early part of 1815, the Indian tribes west of the Mississippi were notified that peace had been declared between the United States and England, and nearly all hostilities had ceased. Black Hawk did not sign any treaty, however, until May of the following year. He then recog- nized the validity of the treaty at St. Louis in 1804. From the time of .signing this treaty in 1816, until the breaking out of the war in 1832, he and his band passed their time in the common pursuits of Indian life. Ten years before the commencement of this war, the Sac and Fox THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 77 Indians were urged to join the lowas on the west bank of the Father of Waters. All were agreed, save the band known as the British Band, of which Black Hawk was leader. He strenuously objected to the removal, iind was induced to comply only after being threatened with the power of the Government. This and various actions on the part of the white set- tlers provoked Black Hawk and his band to attempt the capture of his native village now occupied by the whites. The war followed. He and his actions were undoubtedly misunderstood, and had his- wishes been acquiesced in at the beginning of the struggle, much bloodshed would have been prevented. Black Hawk was chief now of the Sac and Fox nations, and a noted warrior. He and his tribe inhabited a village on Rock River, nearly three miles above its confluence with the Mississippi, where the tribe had lived many generations. When that portion of Illinois was reserved to them, they remained in peaceable possession of their reservation, spending their time in the enjoyment of Indian life. The fine situation of their village and the quality of their lands incited the more lawless white settlers, who from time to time began to encroach upon the red men's domain. From one pretext to another, and from one step to another, the crafty white men gained a foothold, until through whisky and artifice they obtained deeds from many of the Indians for their possessions. The Indians were finally induced to cross over the Father of Waters and locate among the lowas. Black Hawk was strenuously opposed to all this, but as the authorities of Illinois and the United States thought this the best move, he was forced to comply. Moreover other tribes joined the whites and urged the removal. Black Hawk would not agree to the terms of the treaty made with his nation for their lands, and as soon as the military, called to enforce his removal, had retired, he returned to the Illinois side of the river. A large force was at once raised and marched against him. On the evening of May 14, 1832, the first engagement occurred between a band from this army and Black Hawk's band, in which the former were defeated. This attack and its result aroused the whites. A large force of men was raised, and Gen. Scott hastened from the seaboard, by way of the lakes, with United States troops and artillery to aid in the subjugation of the Indians. On the 24th of June, Black Hawk, with 200 warriors, was repulsed by Major Demont between Rock River and Galena. The Ameri- can army continued to move up Rock River toward the main body of the Indians, and on the 21st of July came upon Black Hawk and his band, and defeated them near the Blue Mounds. Before this action. Gen. Henry, in command, sent word to the main army by whom he was immediately rejoined, and the whole crossed the Note.— The above is the generally accepted version of the cause of the Black Hawk War, but in our History of Jo Daviess County. 111., we bad occasitn to go to the bottom of this matter, and have, we think, found the actual £anse of the war, which will be found on page 157. 78 THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. Wisconsin in pursuit of Black Hawk and his band who were fleeing to the Mississippi. They were overtaken on the 2d of August, and in the battle which followed the power of the Indian chief was completely broken. He fled, but was seized by the Winnebagoes and delivered to the whites. On the 21st of September, 1832, Gen. Scott and Gov. Reynolds con- cluded a treaty with the Winnebagoes, Sacs and Foxes by which they ceded to the United States a vast tract of country, and agreed to remain peaceable with the whites. For the faithful performance of the provi- sions of this treaty on the part of the Indians, it was stipulated that Black Hawk, his two sons, the prophet Wabokieshiek, and six other chiefs of the hostile bands should be retained as hostages during the pleasure of the President. They were confined at Fort Barracks and put in irons. The next Spring, l)y order of the Secretary of War, they were taken to Washington. From there they were removed to Fortress Monroe, "there to remain until the conduct of their nation was such as to justify their being set at liberty." They were retained here until the 4th of June, when the authorities directed them to be taken to the principal cities so that they might see the folly of contending against the white people. Everywhere they were observed 1)}^ thousands, the name of the old chief being extensively known. By the middle of August they reached Fort Armstrong on Rock Island, where Black Hawk was soon after released to go to his countrymen. As he passed the site of his birth- place, now the home of the white man, he was deeply moved. His village where he was born, where he had so liappily lived, and where he had hoped to die, was now another's dwelling place, and he was a wanderer. On the next day after his release, he went at once to his tribe and his lodge. His wife was yet living, and with her he passed the remainder of his days. To his credit it may be said that Black Hawk always re- mained true to his wife, and served her with a devotion uncommon among the Indians, living with her upward of forty years. Black Hawk now passed his time hunting and fishing. A deep mel- ancholy had settled over him from which he could not be freed. At all times when he visited the whites he was received with marked atten- tion. He was an honored guest at the old settlers' reunion in Lee County, Illinois, at some of their meetings, and received many tokens of esteem. In September, 1838, while on his way to Rock Island to receive his annuity from the Government, he contracted a severe cold which resulted in a fatal attack of bilious fever which terminated his life on October 3. His faithful wife, who was devotedly attached to him, mourned deeply during his sickness. After his death he was dressed in the uniform pre- sented to him by the President while in Washington. He was buried in a grave six feet in depth, situated upon a beautiful eminence. " The THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 79 bod}' was placed in the middle uf the grave, in a sitting posture, upon a .seat constructed for the purpose. On his left side, the cane, given him hy Henry Clay, Mas placed upright, with his right hand resting upon it. Many of the old warrior's trophies were placed in the grave, and some Indian garments, together with his favorite weapons."" No sooner was the Clack Hawk war concluded than settlers began rapidly to pour into the northern parts of Illinois, and into Wisconsin, now free from Indian depredations. Chicago, from a trading post, had grown to a commercial center, and was rapidly coming into prominence. In 1835, the formation of a State Government in Michigan was discussed, but did not take active form until two years later, when the State became a part of the Federal Union. The main attraction to that portion of the Northwest lying west of Lake Michigan, now included in the State of Wisconsin, was its alluvial wealth. Copper ore was found about Lake Superior. For some time this Tegion was attached to Michigan for judiciary purposes, but in 183r> was made a territory, then including Minnesota and Iowa. The latter State was detached two years later. In 1848, Wisconsin was admitted as a State, Madison being made the capital. We have now traced the various divisions of the Northwest Territory (save a little in Minnesota) from the time it was a unit comprising this vast territory, until circumstances compelled its present division. OTHER INDIAN TROUBLES. Before leaving this part of the narrative, we will narrate briefly the Indian troubles in Minnesota and elsewhere b}' the Sioux Indians. In August, 1862, the Sioux Indians living on the western borders of Minnesota fell upon the unsuspecting settlers, and in a few hours mas- sacred ten or twelve hundred persons. A distressful panic was the immediate result, fully thirty thousand persons fleeing from their homes to districts supposed to be better protected. The military authorities at once took active measures to punish the savages, and a large number were killed and captured. About a year after, Little Crow, the chief, was killed by a Mr. Lampson near Scattered Lake. Of those captured, thirty were hung at Mankato, and the remainder, through fears of mob violence, were removed to Camp McClellan, on the outskirts of the City of Davenport. It was here that Big Eagle came into prominence and tjeoured his release by the following order : 80 THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. BIG EAGLE. THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 81 "Special Order, No. 430. "War Department, " Adjutant General's Office, Washington, Dec. 3, 1864. "• Big Eagle, an Indian now in confinement at Davenport, Iowa, will, upon the receipt of this order, be immediately released from confine- ment and set at liberty. " By order of the President of the United States. " Official : '^ E. D. Townsend, Ass't Adft G-en. '' Capt. James Vanderventer, Com'y Sub. Vols. " Through Com'g Gen'l, Washington, D. C." Another Indian who figures more prominently than Big Eagle, and who was more cowardly in his natnre, with his band of Modoc Indians, is noted in the annals of the New Northwest: we refer to Captain Jack. This distinguished Indian, noted for his cowardly murder of Gen. Canby, was a chief of a Modoc tribe of Indians inhabiting the border lands between California and Oregon. This region of country comprises what is known as the " Lava Beds," a tract of land described as utterly impene- trable, save by those savages who had made it their home. The Modocs are known as an exceedingly fierce and treacherous race. They had, according to their own traditions, resided here for many generations, and at one time were exceedingly numerous and powerful. A famine carried off nearly half their numbers, and disease, indolence and the vices of the white man have reduced them to a poor, weak and insignificant tribe. Soon after the settlement of California and Oregon, complaints l)egan to be heard of massacres of emigrant trains passing through the Modoc country. In 1847, an emigrant train, comprising eighteen souls, was en- tirely destroyed at a place since known as " Bloody Point." These occur- rences caused the United States Government to appoint a peace commission, who, after repeated attempts, in 1864, made a treaty with the Modocs, Snakes and Klamaths, in which it was agreed on their part to remove to a reservation set apart for them in the southern part of Oregon. With the exception of Captain Jack and a band of his followers, who remained at Clear Lake, al)Out~ six miles from Klamath, all the Indians complied. The Modocs who went to the reservation were under chief Schonchin. Captain Jack remained at the lake without disturbance until 1869, when he was also induced to remove to the reservation. The Modocs and the Klamaths soon became involved in a quarrel, and Captain Jack and his band returned to the Lava Beds. Several attempts were made by the Indian Commissioners to induce them to return to the reservation, and finally becoming involved in a. S2 THK NORTHWEST TERRITORY. difl&culty witli the commissioner and his military escort, a fight ensued, in which the cliief and his hand were routed. They were greatly enraged, and on their retreat, before the day closed, killed eleven inoffensive whites. The nation was aroused and immediate action demanded. A com- mission was at once appointed by the Government to see what could be done. It comprised the following persons : Gen. E. R. S. Cauby. Rev. Dr. E. Thomas, a leading Methodist divine of California ; Mr. A. B. Meacham, Judge Rosborough, of California, and a Mr. Dyer, of Oregon. After several interviews, in whicli the savages were always aggressive, often appearing with scalps in their belts. Bogus Charley came to the commission on the evening of April 10, 1873, and informed them that Capt. Jack and his band would have a " talk '' to-morrow at a place near Clear Lake, about three miles distant. Here the Commissioners, accom- panied by Charley, Riddle, the interpreter, and Boston Charley repaired. After the usual greeting the council proceedings commenced. On behalf of the Indians there were present : Capt. Jack, Black Jim, Schnac Nasty Jim, Ellen's Man, and Hooker Jim. They had no guns, but carried pis- tols. After short speeches by Mr. Meacham, Gen. Canb}' and Dr. Thomas, Chief Schonchin arose to speak. He had scarcely proceeded when, as if by a preconcerted arrangement, Capt. Jack drew his pistol and shot Gen. Canby dead. In less than a minute a dozen shots were fired by the savages, and the massacre completed. Mr. Meacham was shot by Schon- chin, and Dr. Thomas by Boston Charley. Mr. Dyer barely escaped, being fired at twice. Riddle, the interpreter, and his squaw escaped. The troops rushed to the spot where they found Gen. Canby and Dr. Thomas dead, and Mr. Meacham badly wounded. The savages had escaped to their impenetrable fastnesses and could not be pursued. The whole country was aroused by this brutal massacre ; but it was not until the following May that the murderers were ])rought to justice. At that time Boston Charley gave himself up, and offered to guide the troops to Capt. Jack's stronghold. This led to the capture of his entire gang, a number of whom were murdered by Oregon volunteers while on their way to trial. The remaining Indians were held as prisoners until July when their trial occurred, which led to the conviction of Capt. Jack, Schonchin, Boston Charley, Hooker Jim, Broncho, alias One-Eyed Jim, and Slotuck, who were sentenced to be hanged. These sentences were approved by the President, save in the case of Slotuck and Broncho whose sentences were commuted to imprisonment for life. The others were executed at Fort Klamath, October 3, 1873. These closed the Indian troubles for a time in the Northwest, and for several years the borders of civilization remained in peace. They were again involved in a conflict with the savages about the country of the THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. S3 CAPTAIN JACK, THE MODOC CHIEFTAIN. rf4 THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. Black Hills, in which war the gallant Gen. Custer lost his life. Just now the borders of Oregon and California are again in fear of hostilities ; but as the Government has learned how to deal with the Indians, they will be of short duration. The red man is fast passing aAvay before the march of the white man, and a few more generations will read of the Indians as one of the nations of the past. The Northwest abounds in memorable places. We have generally- noticed them in the narrative, but our space forbids their description in detail, save of the most important places. Detroit, Cincinnati, Vincennes^ Kaskaskia and their kindred towns have all been described. But ere we leave the narrative we will present our readers with an account of the Kinzie house, the old landmark of Chicago, and the discovery of the source of the Mississippi River, each of which may well find a place in the annals of the Northwest. Mr. John Kinzie, of the Kinzie house, represented in the illustra- tion, established a trading house at Fort Dearborn in 1804. The stockade had been erected the year previous, and named Fort Dearborn in honor of the Secretary of War. It had a block house at each of the two angles, on the southern side a sallyport, a covered way on the north side, that led down to the river, for the double j^urpose of providing means of escape, and of procuring water in the event of a siege. Fort Dearborn stood on the south bank of the Chicago River, about lialf a mile from its mouth. When Major Whistler built it, his soldiers liauled all the timber, for he had no oxen, and so economically did he work that the fort cost the Government only fifty dollars. For a while the garrison could get no grain, and Whistler and his men subsisted on acorns. Now Chicago is the greatest grain center in the world. Mr. Kinzie bought the hut of the first settler, Jean Baptiste Point au Sable, on the site of which he erected his mansion. Within an inclosure in front he planted some Lombardy poplars, seen in the engraving, and in the rear he soon had a fine garden and growing orchard. In 1812 the Kinzie house and its surroundings became the theater of stirring events. The garrison of Fort Dearborn consisted of fifty-four men, under the charge of Capt. Nathan Heald, assisted by Lieutenant Lenai T. Helm (son-in-law to Mrs. Kinzie), and Ensign Ronan. The surgeon was Dr. Voorhees. The only residents at the post at that time were the wives of Capt. Heald and Lieutenant Helm and a few of the soldiers, Mr. Kinzie and his family, and a few Canadian voyagers with their wives and children. The soldiers and Mr. Kinzie were on the most friendly terms with the Pottawatomies and the Winnebagoes, the prin- cipal tribes around them, but they could not win them from their attach- ment to the British. THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 86 After the battle of Tippecanoe it was observed that some of the lead- ing chiefs became sullen, for some of their people liad perished in that conflict with American troops. One evening in April, 1812, Mr. Kinzie sat playing his violin and his children Avere dancing to the music, when Mrs. Kinzie came rushing into the house pale with terror, and exclaiming, " The Indians ! the Indians I "' " What? Where? " eagerly inquired Mr. Kinzie. " Up at Lee's, killing and scalping,"' answered the frightened mother, who, when the alarm was given, was attending Mrs. Burns, a newly-nuide mother, living not fnv off. KTKZIE HOTJSE. Mr. Kinzie and his family crossed the river in boats, and took refuge in the fort, to wliich place Mrs. Burns and her infant, not a day old, were conveyed in safety to the shelter of the guns of Fort Dearborn, and the rest of the white inhabitants fled. The Indians were a scalping party of Winnebagoes, who hovered around the fort some days, when they dis- appeared, and for several weeks the inhabitants were not disturbed by alarms. Chicago was then so deep in the wilderness, that the news of the declaration of war against Great Britain, made on the 19tli of June, 1812, did not reach the commander of the garrison at Fort Dearborn till the 7th of August. 'Now the fast mail train will carry a man from New York to Chicago in twenty-seven hours, and such a declaration might be sent, every word, by the telegraph in less than the same number of minutes. 86 THE irOETHWEST TEREITOKY, PRESENT CONDITION OF THE NORTHWEST. Preceding chapters have brought us to the close of the Black Hawk war, and we now turn to the contemplation of the growth and prosperity of the Northwest under the smile of peace and the blessings of our civili- zation. The pioneers of this region date events back to the deep snow !>SV^'«/ A IIEPUESKXTATIVK I'lOXKKU. -^ =-r' c«>3 of 1831, no one arriving here since that date taking first honors. The inciting cause of the immigration which overflowed the prairies early in the 'oOs Avas the reports of the marvelous beauty and fertility of the region distributed through the East by those who had participated in the Black Hawk campaign with Gen. Scott. Chicago and Milwaukee then had a few hundred inhabitants, and Gurdon S. Hubbard's trail from the former city to Kaskaskia led almost through a Avilderness. Vegetables and clothing were largely distributed through the regions adjoining the THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 87 lakes by steamers from the Ohio towns. There are men now living in Illinois who came to the state when barely an acre was in cultivation, and a man now prominent in the business circles of Chicago looked over the swampy, cheerless site of that metropolis in 1818 and went south ward into civilization. Emigrants from Pennsylvania in 1830 left behind LINCOLN MONUMENT, SPKINGFIELD, ILLINOIS. them but one small railway in the coal regions, thirty miles in length, and made their way to the Northwest mostly with ox teams, finding in Northern Illinois petty settlements scores of miles apart, although the southern portion of the state was fairly dotted with farms. The water courses of the lakes and rivers furnished transportation to the second great army of immigrants, and about 1850 railroads were pushed to that extent that the crisis of 1837 was precipitated upon us. THE NORTHWEST TERBITORY. from tlie effects of which the Western country had not fully recovered at the outbreak of the war. Hostilities found the colonists of the prairies fullv -alive to the demands of the occasion, and the honor of recruiting the vast armies of the •Union fell largely to the Governors of the Westera States. The struggle, on the whole, had a marked eifcct for the better on tlio new Northwest, giving it an impetus which twenty years of peace would not have produced. In a large degree, this prosperity was an inflated one; and, with the rest of the Union, we have since been compelled to atone therefor by four THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 89 years of depression of values, of scarcity of employment, and loss of fortune. To a less degree, however, than the manufacturing or mining regions has the West suffered during the prolonged panic now so near its end. Agriculture, still the leading feature in our industries, has been quite prosperous through all these dark years, and the farmers have cleared away many incumbrances resting over them from the period of fictitious values. The population has steadily increased, the arts and sciences are gaining a stronger foothold, the trade area of the region is becoming daily more extended, and we have been largely exempt from the financial calamities which have nearly wrecked communities on the seaboard dependent wholly on foreign commerce or domestic manufacture. At the present period there are no great schemes broached for the Northwest, no propositions for government subsidies or national works of improvement, but the capital of the world is attracted hither for the purchase of our products or the expansion of our capacity for serving the nation at large. A new era is dawning as to transportation, and we bid fair to deal almost exclusively with the increasing and expanding lines of steel rail running through every few miles of territory on the prairies. The lake marine will no doubt continue to be useful in the warmer season, and to serve as a regulator of freight rates; but experienced navigators forecast the decay of the system in moving to the seaboard the enormous crops of the West. Within the past five years it has become quite common to see direct shipments to Europe and the West Indies going through from the second-class towns along the Mississippi and Missouri. As to popular education, the standard has of late risen very greatly, and our schools would be creditable to any section of the Union. More and more as the events of the war pass into obscurity will the fate of the Northwest be linked with that of the Southwest, and the next Congressional apportionment will give the valley of the Mississippi absolute control of the legislation of the nation, and do much toward securing the removal of the Federal capitol to some more central location. Our public men continue to wield the full share of influence pertain- ing to their rank in the national autonomy, and seem not to forget that for the past sixteen years they and their constituents have dictated the principles which should govern the country. In a work like this, destined to lie on the shelves of the library for generations, and not doomed to daily destruction like a newspaper, one can not indulge in the same glowing predictions, the sanguine statements of actualities that fill the columns of ephemeral publications. Time may bring grief to the pet projects of a writer, and explode castles erected on a pedestal of facts. Yet there are unmistakable indications before us of 90 THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. the same radical chani^e in our great Northwest which characterizes its history for the j^ast thirty years. Our domain has a sort of natural geographical border, save Avhere it melts away to the southward in the cattle raising districts of the southwest. Our prime interest will for some years doubtless be tlie growth of the food of the Avorld, in Avhich branch it has already outstri2oj)ed all competitors, and our great rival in this duty will naturally l)e the fertile plains of Kansas, Nebraska and Colorado, to say nothing of the new empire so rapidly growing up in Texas. Over these regions there is a continued progress in agriculture and in railway building, and we must look to our laurels. Intelligent observers of events are fully aware of the strides made in the way of shipments of fresh meats to Europe, many of these ocean cargoes being actually slaughtered in the West and transported on ice to the wharves of the seaboard cities. That this new enterprise will continue there is no reason to doubt. There are in Chicago several factories for the canning of prepared meats for European consumption, and the orders for this class of goods are already immense. English capital is becoming daily more and more dissatisfied with railway loans and investments, and is gradually seeking mammoth outlays in lands and live stock. The stock yards in Chicago, Indianapolis and East St. Louis are yearly increasing their facilities, and their plant steadily grows more valuable. Importations of blooded animals from the pro- gressive countries of Europe are destined to greatly improve the quality of our beef and mutton. Nowhere is there to be seen a more enticing display in this line than at our state and county fairs, and the interest in the matter is on the increase. To attempt to give statistics of our grain production for 1877 would be useless, so far have we surpassed ourselves in the quantity and quality of our product. We are too liable to forget that we are giving the world its first article of necessity — its food supply. An opportunity to learn this fact so it never can be forgotten was afforded at Chicago at the outbreak of the great panic of 1873, when Canadian purchasers, fearing the prostrationof business might bring about an anarchical condition of affairs, went to that city with coin in bulk and foreign drafts to secure their supplies in their own currency at first hands. It may be justly claimed by the agricultural community that their combined efforts gave the nation its first impetus toward a restoration of its crippled industries, and their labor brought the gold premium to a lower depth than the government was able to reach by its most intense efforts of legislation and compulsion. The hundreds of millions about to be disbursed for farm products have already, by the anticipation common to all commercial THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 91 nations, set the wheels in motion, and will relieve us from the perils so long shadowing our efforts to return to a healthy tone. Manufacturing has attained in the chief cities a foothold which bids fair to render the Northwest independent of the outside world. Nearly our whole region has a distribution of coal measures which will in time support the manufactures necessary to our comfort and prosperity. As to transportation, the chief factor in the production of all articles except food, no section is so magnificently endowed, and our facilities are yearlj" increasing beyond those of any other region. 92 THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. The period from a central point of the Mar to tlie outbreak of the panic was marked by a tremendous growth in our railway lines, but the depression of the times caused almost a total suspension of operations. Now that prosperity is returning to our stricken country we witness its anticipation by the railroad interest in a series of projects, extensions, and leases which bid fair to largely increase our transportation facilities. The process of foreclosure and sale of incumbered lines is another matter to be considered. In the case of the Illinois Central road, which formerly transferred to other lines at Cairo the vast burden of freight destined for the Gulf region, we now see the incorporation of the tracks connecting through to New Orleans, every mile co-operating in turning toward the northwestern metropolis the weight of the inter-state commerce of a thousand miles or more of fertile plantations. Three competing routes to Texas have established in Chicago .their general freight and passenger agencies. Four or five lines compete for all Pacific freights to a point as as far as the interior of Nebraska. Half a dozen or more splendid bridge structures have been thrown across the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers by the railways. The Chicago and Northwestern line has become an aggre- oation of over two thousand miles of rail, and the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul is its close rival in extent and importance. The tliree lines running to Cairo via Vincennes form a through route for all traffic with the states to the southward. The chief projects now under discussion are the Chicago and Atlantic, which is to unite with lines now built to Charleston, and the Chicago and Canada Southern, which line will con- nect with all the various branches of that Canadian enterprise. Our latest new road is the Chicago and Lake Huron, formed of three lines, and entering the city from Valparaiso on the Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago track. The trunk lines being mainly in operation, the progress made in the way of shortening tracks, making air-line branches, and running extensions does not show to the advantage it deserves, as this process is constantly adding new facilities to the established order of things. The panic reduced the price of steel to a point where the railways could hardly afford to use iron rails, and all our northwestern lines report large relays of Bessemer track. The immense crops now being moved have given a great rise to the value of railway stocks, and their transportation must result in heavy pecuniary advantages. Few are aware of the importance of the wholesale and jobbing trade of Chicago. One leading firm has since the panic sold $24,000,000 of dry goods in one year, and they now expect most confidently to add seventy per cent, to the figures of their last year's business. In boots and shoes and hi clothing, twenty or more great firms from the east have placed here th^ir distributing agents or their factories ; and in groceries THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 93 "Chicago supplies 'the entire Northwest at rates presenting advantages over New York. Chicago has stepped in between New York and the rural banks as a financial center, and scarcely a banking institution in the grain or cattle regions but keeps its reserve funds in the vaults of our commercial insti- tutions. Accumulating here throughout the spring and summer months, they are summoned hoipe at pleasure to move the products of the prairies. This process greatly strengthens the northwest in its financial operations, leaving home capital to supplement local operations on behalf of home interests. It is impossible to forecast tlip destiny of this grand and growing section of the Union. Figures and predictions made at this date might seem ten years hence so ludicrously small as to excite only derision. HISTORY OF THE NORTHWEST. 95 CHICAGO. It is impossible in our brief space to give more than a meager sketch S'^. Peter s Sandstone. — This formation is remarkably uniform in thickness throughout its known geographical extent ; and it is evident it occupies a large portion of the northern half of Allamakee County, immediately beneath the drift. TRENTON GROUP. Trenton Limestone. — With the exception of this, all the limestones of both Upper and Lower Silurian age in Iowa are magnesian limestones — nearly pure dolomites. This formation occupies large portions of Winnesheik and Alla- makee Counties and a portion of Clayton. The greater part of it is useless for economic purposes, yet there are in some places compact and evenly bedded layers, which afford fine material for window caps and sills. In this formation, fossils are abundant, so much so that, in some places, the rock is made up of a mass of shells, corals and fragments of tribolites, cemented by calcareous material into a solid rock. Some of these fossils are new to science and peculiar to Iowa. The Galena Limestone. — This is the upper formation of the Trenton group. It seldom exceeds twelve miles" in width, although it is fully one hundred and fifty miles long. The outcrop traverses portions of the counties of Howard, Winnesheik, Allamakee, Fayette, Clayton, Dubuque and Jackson. It exhibits its greatest development in Dubuque County. It is nearly a pure dolomite, with a slight admixture of silicious matter. It is usually unfit for dressing. HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. 123 though sometimes near the top of the bed good blocks for dressing are found. This formation is the source of the lead ore of the Dubuque lead mines. The lead region proper is confined to an area of about fifteen miles square in the vicinity of Dubuque. The ore occurs in vertical fissures, which traverse the rock at regular intervals from east to west ; some is found in those which have a north and south direction. The ore is mostly that known as Galena, or sul- phuret of lead, very small quantities only of the carbonate being found with it. CINCINNATI GROUP. Maquoketa Shales. — The surface occupied by this formation is singularly long and narrow, seldom reaching more than a mile or two in width, but more than a hundred miles in length. Its most southerly exposure is in the bluffs of the Mississippi near Bellevue, in Jackson County, and the most northerly yet recognized is in the western part of Winnesheik County. The whole formation is largely composed of bluish and brownish shales, sometimes slightly arena- ceous, sometimes calcareous, which weather into a tenacious clay upon the sur- face, and the soil derived from it is usually stiff and clayey. Its economic value is very slight. Several species of fossils which characterize the Cincinnati group are found in the Maquoketa shales ; but they contain a larger number that have been found anywhere else than in these shales in Iowa, and their distinct faunal char- acteristics seem to warrant the separation of the Maquoketa shales as a distinct formation from any others of the group. UPPER SILURIAN SYSTEM. NIAGARA GHOUP. Niagara Limestone. — The area occupied by the Niagara limestone is nearly one hundred and sixty miles long from north to south, and forty and fifty miles wide. This formation is entirely a magnesian limestone, with in some places a con- siderable proportion of silicious matter in the form of chert or coarse flint. A large part of it is evenly bedded, and probably affords the best and greatest amount of quarry rock in the State. The quarries at Anamosa, LeClaire and Farley are all opened in this formation. DEVONIAN SYSTEM. HAMILTON GROUP. Hamilton Limestone. — The area of surface occupied by the Hamilton lime- stone and shales is fully as great as those by all the formations of both Upper and Lower Silurian age in the State. It is nearly two hundred miles long and from forty to fifty miles broad. The general trend is northwestward and south- eastwj^d. Although a large part of the material of this formation is practically quite ■worthless, yet other portions are valuable for economic purposes ; and having a 124 HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. large geographical extent in the State, is one of the most important formations, in a practical point of view. At Waverly, Bremer County, its value for the production of hydraulic lime has been practically demonstrated. The heavier and more uniform magnesian beds furnish material for bridge piers and other material requiring strength and durability. All the Devonian strata of Iowa evidently belong to a single epoch, and re- ferable to the Hamilton, as recognized by New York geologists. The most conspicuous and characteristic fossils of this formation are bra- chiopod, mollusks and corals. The coral Acervularia Davidsoni occurs near Iowa City, and is known as " Iowa City Marble," and " bird's-eye marble." CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM. Of the three groups of formations that constitute the carboniferous system, viz.. the subcarboniferoUs, coal measures and permian, only the first two are found in Iowa. SUBCARBONIFEROUS GROUP. The area of the surface occupied by this group is very large. Its eastern border passes from the northeastern part of Winnebago County, with consider- able directness in a southeasterly direction to the northern part of Washington County. Here it makes a broad and direct bend nearly eastward, striking the Mississippi River at Muscatine. The southern and western boundary is to a considerable extent the same as that which separates it from the coal field. From the southern part of Pocahontas County it passes southeast to Fort Dodge, thence to Webster City, thence to a point three or four miles northeast of El- dora, in Hardin County, thence southward to the middle of the north line of Jasper County, thence southeastward to Sigourney, in Keokuk County, thence to the northeastern corner of Jefferson County, thence sweeping a few miles eastward to the southeast corner of Van Buren County. Its area is nearly two hundred and fifty miles long, and from twenty to fifty miles wide. The Kinderhook Beds. — The most southerly exposure of these beds is near the mouth of Skunk River, in Des Moines County. The most northerly now known is in the eastern part of Pocahontas County, more than two hundred miles distant. The principal exposures of this formation are along the blufts which border the Mississippi and Skunk Rivers, where they form the eastern and northern boundary of Des Moines County, along English River, in Wash- ington County ; along the Iowa River, in Tama, Marshall, Hamlin and Frank- lin Counties ; and along the Des Moines River, in Humboldt County. The economic value of this formation is very considerable, particularly in the northern portion of the region it occupies. In Pocahontas and Humboldt Counties it is almost invaluable, as no other stone except a few boulders are found here. At Iowa Falls the lower division is very good for building pur- poses. In Marshall County all the limestone to be obtained comes from this formation, and the quarries near LeGrand are very valuable. At this point HISTORY OF THE STATE OF lOAVA. 125 some of the layers are finely veined with peroxide of iron, and are wrought into ornamental and useful objects. In Tama County, the oolitic member is well exposed, where it is manufac- tured into lime. It is not valuable for building, as upon exposure to atmosphere and frost, it crumbles to pieces. The remains of fishes are the only fossils yet discovered in this formation that can be referred to the sub-kingdom yertebrata ; and so far as yet recog- nized, they all belong to the order selachians. Of ARTICULATES, only two species have been recognized, both of which belong to the genus phiUipsia. The sub-kingdom mollusca is largely represented. The radiata are represented by a few crinoids, usually found in a very im- perfect condition. The sub-kingdom is also represented by corals. The prominent feature in the life of this epoch was molluscan ; so much so m fact as to overshadow all other branches of the animal kingdom. The pre- vailing classes are: lamelJihranchiates, in the more arenaceous portions; and brachiopods, in the more calcareous portions. No remains of vegetation have been detected in any of the strata of this formation. Tlie Burlington Limestone. — This formation consists of two distinct calca- reous divisions, which are separated by a series of silicious beds. Both divi- sions are eminently crinoidal. The southerly dip of the Iowa rocks carries the Burlington limestone down, so that it is seen for the last time in this State in the valley of Skunk River, near the southern boundary of Des Moines County. The most northerly point at which it has been recognized is in the northern part of Washington County. It probably exists as far north as Marshall County. This formation affords much valuable material for economic purposes. The upper division furnishes excellent common quarry rock. The great abundance and variety of its fossils — crinoids — now known to be more than three hundred, have justly attracted the attention of geologists in all parts of the world. The only remains of vertebrates discovered in this formation are those of fishes, and consist of teeth and spines ; bone of bony fishes, like those most common at the present day, are found in these rocks. On Buffington Creek, in Louisa County, is a stratum in an exposure so fully charged with these remains that it might with propriety be called bone breccia. Remains of articulates are rare in this formation. So far as yet discovered, they are confined to two species of tribolites of the genus phiUipsia. Fossil shells are very common. The two lowest classes of the sub-kingdom radiata are represented m the genera zaphrentis, amplexus and syringapora, while the highest class — echino- derms — are found in most extraordinary profusion. 126 HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. The Keokuk Limestone. — It is only in the four counties of Lee, Van Buren, Henry and Des Moines that this formation is to be seen. In some localities the upper silicious portion of this formation is known as the Geode bed. It is not recognizable in the northern portion of the formation, nor in connection with it where it is exposed, about eighty miles below Keokuk. The geodes of the Geode bed are more or less spherical masses of silex, usually hollow and lined with crystals of quartz. The outer crust is rough and unsightly, but the crystals which stud the interior are often very beautiful. They vary in size from the size of a walnut to a foot in diameter. The economic value of this formation is very great. Large quantities of its stone have been used in the finest structures in the State, among which are the post offices at Dubuque and Des Moines. The principal quarries are along the banks of the Mississippi, from Keokuk to Nauvoo. The only vertebrate fossils found in the formation are fislies, all belonging to the order selachians, some ef which indicate that their owners reached a length of twenty-five or thirty feet. Of the articulates, only two species of the genus phillipsia have been found in this formation. Of the mollusks, no cephalopods have yet been recognized in this formation in this State ; gasteropods are rare ; brachiopods and polyzoans are quite abundant. Of radiates, corals of genera zaphrentes, amplexus and aulopera are found, but crinoids are most abundant. Of the low forms of animal life, the protozoans, a small fossil related to the sponges, is found in this formation in small numbers. The St. Louis Limestone. — This is the uppermost of the subcarboniferous group in Iowa. The superficial area it occupies is comparatively small, because it consists of long, narrow strips, yet its exten* is very great. It is first seen resting on the geode division of the Keokuk limestone, near Keokuk. Pro- ceeding northward, it forms a narrow border along the edge of the coal fields in Lee, Des Moines, Henry, Jefferson, Washington, Keokuk and Mahaska. Counties. It is then lost sight of until it appears again in the banks of Boone River, where it again passes out of view under the coal measures until it is next seen in the banks of the Des Moines, near Fort Dodge. As it exists in loAva, it consists of three tolerably distinct subdivisions — the magnesian, arena- ceous and calcareous. The upper division furnishes excellent material for quicklime, and when (quarries are well opened, as in the northwestern part of Van Buren County, large blocks are obtained. The sandstone, or middle division, is of little economic value. The lower or magnesian division furnishes a valuable and durable stone, exposures of which are found on Lick Creek, in Van Buren County, and on Long Creek, seven miles west of Burlington. Of the fossils of this formation, the vertebrates are represented only by the remains of fish, belonging to the two orders, selachians and ganoids. The HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. 127 articulates are represented by one species of the trilobite. genus phillipsia, and two ostracoid, genera, cythre and beyricia. The mollusks distinguish this formation more than any other branch of the animal kingdom. Radiates are exceedingly rare, showing a marked contrast between this formation and the two preceding it. The rocks of the subcarboniferous period have in other countries, and in other parts of our own country, furnished valuable minerals, and even coal, but in Iowa the economic value is confined to its stone alone. The Lower Silurian, Upper Silurian and Devonian rocks of Iowa are largely composed of limestone. Magnesia also enters largely into the subcarbon- iferous group. With the completion of the St. Louis limestone, the production of the magnesian limestone seems to have ceased among the rocks of Iowa. Although the Devonian age has been called the age of fishes, yet so far as Iowa is concerned, the rocks of no period can' compare with the subcarbon- iferous in the abundance and variety of the fish remains, and, for this reason, the Burlington and Keokuk limestones will in the future become more famous among geologists, perhaps, than any other formations in North America. It will be seen that the Chester limestone is omitted from the subcarbon- iferous group, and which completes the full geological series. It is probable tlie whole surface of Iowa was above the sea during the time of the formation of the Chester limestone to the southward about one hundred miles. At the close of the epoch of the Chester limestone, the shallow seas in which the lower coal measures were formed again occupied the land, extending almost as far north as that sea had done in which the Kinderhook beds were formed, and to the northeastward its deposits extended beyond the subcarbon- iferous groups, outlines of which are found upon the next, or Devonian rock. THE COAL-MEASURE GROUP. The coal-measure group of Iowa is properly divided into three formations, viz., the lower, middle and upper coal measures, each having a vertical thick- ness of about two hundred feet. A line drawn upon the map of Iowa as follows, w^ill represent the eastern and northern boundaries of the coal fields of the State : Commencing: at the southeast corner of Van Buren County, carry the line to the northeast corner of Jefferson County by a slight easterly curve through the western portions of Lee and Henry Counties. Produce this line until it reaches a point six or eight miles northward from the one last named, and then carry it northwest- ward, keeping it at about the same distance to the northward of Skunk River and its north branch that it had at first, until it reaches the southern boundary of Marshall County, a little west of its center. Then carry it to a point 128 HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. three or four miles northeast from Eldora, in Hardin County ; thence west- ward to a point a little north of Webster City, in Hamilton County ; and thence further westward to a point a little north of Fort Dodge, in Webster County. Loiver Coal Measures. — In consequence of the recedence to the southwanl of the borders of the middle and upper coal measures, the lower coal measures alone exist to the eastward and northward of Des Moines River. They also occupy a large area westward and southward of that river, but their southerly dip passes them below the middle coal measures at no great distance from the river. No other formation in the whole State possesses the economic value of the lower coal measures. The clay that underlies almost every bed of coal furnishes a large amount of material for potters' use. The sandstone of these measures is usually soft and unfit, but in some places, as near Red Rock, in Marion County, blocks of large dimensions are obtained which make good building material, samples of which can be seen in the State Arsenal, at Des Moines. On the whole, that portion of the State occupied by the lower coal measures, is not well supplied with stone. But few fossils have been found in any of the strata of the lower coal meas- ures, but such animal remains as have been found are without exception of marine origin. Of fossil plants found in these measures, all probably belong to the class aerogens. Specimens of calamites, and several species of ferns, are found in all of the coal measures, but the genus lepidodendron seems not to have existed later than the epoch of the middle coal measures. Middle Coal Measures. — This formation within the State of Iowa occupies a narrow belt of territory in the southern central portion of the State, embrac- ing a superficial area of about fourteen hundred square miles. The counties more or less underlaid by this formation are Guthrie, Dallas, Polk, Madison. Warren, Clarke, Lucas, Monroe, Wayne and Appanoose. This formation is composed of alternating beds of clay, sandstone and lime- stone, the clays or shales constituting the bulk of the formation, the limestotn. occurring in their bands, the lithological peculiarities of which offer many con- trasts to the limestones of the upper and lower coal measures. The formation is also characterized by regular Avave-like undulations, with a parallelism whicli indicates a widespread disturbance, though no dislocation of the strata have been discovered. Generally speaking, few species of fossils occur in these beds. Some of tht shales and sandstone have afforded a few imperfectly preserved land plants — three or four species of ferns, belonging to the genera. Some of the carbonif- erous shales afford beautiful specimens of what appear to have been sea-weeds. Radiates arc represented by corals. The mollusks are most numerously repre- sented. Trilohites and ostracoids are the only remains known of articulates. HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. 129 Vertebrates are only known by the remains of salaehians, or sharks, and ganoids. Upper Coal 3Ieasures. — The area occupied by this formation in Iowa is very great, comprising thirteen whole counties, in the southwestern part of the State. It adjoins by its northern and eastern boundaries the area occupied by the middle coal measures. The prominent lithological features of this formation are its limestones, yet it contains a considerable proportion of shales and sandstones. Although it is known by the name of upper coal measures, it contains but a single bed of coal, and that only about twenty inches in maximum thickness. The limestone exposed in this formation furnishes good material for building as in Madison and Fremont Counties. The sandstones are quite worthless. No beds of clay for potter's use are found in the whole formation. The fossils in this formation are much more numerous than in either the middle or lower coal measures. The vertebrates are represented by the fishes of the orders selachians and ganoids. The articulates are represented by the trilobites and ostracoids. Mollusks are represented by the classes cephalapoda, gasteropoda^ lamelli, branchiata, hrachiapoda and polyzoa. Radiates are more numerous than in the lower and middle coal measures. Protogoans are repre- sented in the greatest abundance, some layers of limestone being almost entirely composed of their small fusiform shells. CRETACEOUS SYSTEM. There being no rocks, in Iowa, of permian, triassic or Jurassic age, the next strata in the geological series are of the cretaceous age. They are found in the western half of the State, and do not dip, as do all the other formations upon which they rest, to the southAvard and westward, but have a general dip of their own to the north of westward, which, however, is very slight. Although the actual exposures of cretaceous rocks are few in Iowa, there is reason to believe that nearly all the western half of the State was originally occupied by them ; but being very friable, they have been removed by denuda- tion, which has taken place at two separate periods. The first period was during its elevation from the cretaceous sea, and during the long tertiary age that passed between the time of that elevation and the commencement of the glacial epoch. The second period was during the glacial epoch, when the ice produced their entire removal over considerable areas. It is difficult to indicate the exact boundaries of these rocks ; the following will approximate the outlines of the area : From the northeast corner to the southwest corner of Kossuth County ; thence to the southeast corner of Guthrie County; thence to the southeast corner of Cass County; thence to the middle of the south boundary of Mont- gomery County ; thence to the middle of the north boundary of Pottawattamie County ; thence to the middle of the south boundary of Woodbury County ; 130 HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. thence to Sergeant's bluffs; up the Missouri and Big Sioux Rivers to the northwest corner of the State; eastward along the State line to the place of beginning. All -the cretaceous rocks in Iowa are a part of the same deposits farther up the Missouri River, and in reality form their eastern boundary. Nishnahotany Sandstone. — This rock has the most easterly and southerly extent of the cretaceous deposits of Iowa, reaching the southeastern part of Guthrie County and the southern part of Montgomery County, To the north- ward, it passes beneath the Woodbury sandstones and shales, the latter passing beneath the inoceramus, or chalky, beds. This sandstone is, with few excep- tions, almost valueless for economic purposes. The only fossils found in this formation are a few fragments of angiosper- mous leaves. Woodbury Sandstones and Shales. — These strata rest upon the Nishna- hotany sandstone, and have not been observed outside of Woodbury County, hence their name. Their principal exposure is at Sergeant's Bluffs, seven miles below Sioux City. This rock has no value except for purposes of common masonry. Fossil remains are rare. Detached scales of a lepidoginoid species have been detected, but no other vertebrate remains. Of remains of vegetation, leaves of salix meekii and sassafras cretaceum have been occasionally found. Inoceramus Beds. — These beds rest upon the Woodbury sandstones and shales. They have not been observed in Iowa, except in the bluffs which border the Big Sioux River in Woodbury and Plymouth Counties. They are composed almost entirely of calcareous material, the upper portion of which is extensively used for lime. No building material is to be obtained from these beds ; and tlie only value they possess, except lime, are the marls, which at some time may be useful on the soil of the adjacent region. The only vertebrate remains found in the cretaceous rocks are the fishes. Those in the inoceramus beds of Iowa are two species of squoloid selachians, or cestratront, and three genera of teliosts. Molluscan remains are rare. PEAT. Extensive beds of peat exist in Northern Middle Iowa, which, it is esti mated, contain the following areas : Counties. Acres. Cerro Gordo 1,500 Worth ♦ 2,(00 Winnebago 2,000 Hancock 1,500 Wright 500 Kossuth 700 Dickinson 80 Several other counties contain peat beds, but the character of the peat is inferior to that in the northern part of the State. The character of the peat HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. 131 named is equal to that of Ireland. The beds are of an average depth of four feet. It is estimated that each acre of these beds will furnish two hundred and fifty tons of dry fuel for each foot in depth. At present, owing to the sparse- ness of the population, this peat is not utilized ; but, owing to its great distance from the coal fields and the absence of timber, the time is coming when their value will be realized, and the fact demonstrated that Nature has abundantly compensated the deficiency of other fuel. GYPSUM. The only deposits of the sulphates of the alkaline earths of any economic value in Iowa are those of gypsum at and in the vicinity of Fort Dodge, in Webster County. All others are small and unimportant. The deposit occupies a nearly central position in Webster County, the Des Moines River running nearly centrally through it, along the valley sides of which the gypsum is seen in the form of ordinary rock cliff and ledges, and also occurring abundantly in similar positions along both sides of the valleys of the smaller streams and of the numero.us ravines coming into the river valley. The most northerly known limit of the deposit is at a point near the mouth of Lizard Creek, a tributary of the Des Moines River, and almost adjoining the town of Fort Dodge. The most southerly point at which it has been found exposed is about six miles, by way of the river, from this northerly point before mentioned. Our knowledge of the width of the area occupied by it is limited by the exposures seen in the valleys of the small streams and in the ravines which come into the valley within the distance mentioned. As one goes up these ravines and minor valleys, the gypsum becomes lost beneath the over- lying drift. There can be no doubt that the difierent parts of this deposit, now disconnected by the valleys and ravines having been cut through it, were orig- inally connected as a continuous d.eposit, and there seems to be as little reason to doubt that the gypsum still extends to considerable distance on each side of the valley of the river beneath the drift which covers the region to a depth of from twenty to sixty feet. The country round about this region has the prairie surface approximating a general level which is so characteristic of the greater part of the State, and which exists irrespective of the character or geological age of the strata beneath, mainly because the drift is so deep and uniformly distributed that it frequently almost alone gives character to the surface. The valley sides of the Des Moines River, in the vicinity of Fort Dodge, are somewhat abrupt, having a depth there from the general level of the upland of about one hundred and seventy feet, and consequently presents somewhat bold and interesting features in the land- scape. As one walks up and down the creeks and ravines which come into the valley of the Des Moines River there, he sees the gypsum exposed on either side of them, jutting out from beneath the drift in the, form of 132 HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. ledges and bold quarry fronts, having almost the exact appearance of ordinary limestone exposures, so horizontal and regular are its lines of stratification, and so similar in color is it to some varieties of that rock. The principal quarries now opened are on Two Mile Creek, a couple of miles below Fort Dodge. The reader will please bear in mind that the gypsum of this remarkable deposit does not occur in "heaps " or " nests," as it does in most deposits of gypsum in the States farther eastward, but that it exists here in the form of a regularly stratified, continuous formation, as uniform in texture, color and quality throughout the whole region, and from top to bottom of the deposit as the granite of the Quincy quarries is. Its color is a uniform gray, result- ing from alternating fine horizontal lines of nearly white, with similar lines of darker shade. The gypsum of the white lines is almost entirely pure, the darker lines containing the impurity. This is at intervals barely sufficient in amount to cause the separation of the mass upon those lines into beds or layers, thus facilitating the quarrying of it into desired shapes. These bedding sur- faces have occasionally a clayey feeling to the touch, but there is nowhere any intercalation of clay or other foreign substance in a separate form. The deposit is known to roach a thickness of thirty feet at the quarries referred to, but although it will probably be found to exceed this thickness at some other points, at the natural exposures, it is seldom seen to be more than from ten to twenty feet thick. Since the drift is usually seen to rest directly upon the gypsum, with noth- ing intervening, except at a few points where traces appear of an overlying bed of clayey material without doubt of the same age as the gypsum, the latter probably lost something of its thickness by mechanical erosion during the glacial epoch ; and it has, doubtless, also suffered some diminution of thickness since then by solution in the waters which constantly percolate through the drift from the surface. The drift of this region being somewhat clayey, partic- ulary in its lower part, it has doubtless served in some degree as a protection against the diminution of the gypsum by solution in consequence of its partial imperviousness to water. If the gypsum had been covered by a deposit of sand instead of the drift clays, it would have no doubt long since disappeared by being dissolved in the water that would have constantly reached it from the sur- face. Water merely resting upon it would not dissolve it away to any extent, but it rapidly disappears under the action of running water. Where little rills of water at the time of every rain run over the face of an unused quarry, from the surface above it, deep grooves are thereby cut into it, giving it somewhat the appearance of melting ice around a waterfall. The fact that gypsum is now suffering a constant, but, of course, very slight, diminution, is apparent in the fact the springs of the region contain more or less of it in solution in their waters. An analysis of water from one of these springs will be found in Prof. Emery's report. HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. 133 Besides the clayey beds that are sometimes seen to rest upon the gypsum, there are occasionally others seen beneath them that are also of the same age, and not of the age of the coal-measure strata upon which they rest. Age of the Gypsum Deposit. — In neither the gypsum nor the associated clays has any trace of any fossil remains been found, nor has any other indica- tion of its geological age been observed, except that which is afforded by its stratigraphical relations ; and the most that can be said with certainty is that it is newer than the coal measures, and older than the drift. The indications afforded by the stratigraphical relations of the gypsum deposit of Fort Dodge are, however, of considerable value. As already shown, it rests in that region directly and unconformably upon the lower coal measures ; but going southward from there, the whole series of coal-measure strata from the top of the subcarboniferous group to the upper coal measures, inclusive, can be traced without break or unconformability. The strata of the latter also may be traced in the same manner up into the Permian rocks of Kansas ; and through this long series, there is no place or horizon which suggests that the gypsum deposit might belong there. Again, no Tertiary deposits are known to exist within or near the borders of Iowa to suggest that the gypsum might be of that age ; nor are any of the pala30zoic strata newer than the subcarboniferous unconformable upon each other as the other gypsum is unconformable upon the strata beneath it. It therefore seems, in a measure, conclusive, that the gypsum is of Mesozoic age, perhaps older than the Cretaceous. LitJiological Origin. — As little can be said with certainty concerning the lithological origin of this deposit as can be said concerning its geological age, for it seems to present itself in this relation, as in the former one, as an isolated fact. None of the associated strata show any traces of a double decomposition of pre-existing materials, such as some have supposed all deposits of gypsum to have resulted from. No considerable quantities of oxide of iron nor any trace of native sulphur have been found in connection with it ; nor has any salt been found in the waters of the region. These substances are common in association with other gypsum deposits, and are regarded by some persons as indicative of the method of or resulting from their origin as such. Throughout the whole region, the Fort Dodge gypsum has the exact appearance of a sedimentary deposit. It is arranged in layers like the regular layers of limestone, and the whole mass, from top to bottom, is traced with fine horizontal laminre; of alter- nating white ajid gray gypsum, parallel with the bedding surfaces of the layers, but the whole so intimately blended as to form a solid mass. The darker lines contain almost all the impurity there is in the gypsum, and that impurity is evidently sedimentary in its character. From these facts, and also from the further one that no trace of fossil remains has been detected in the gypsum, it seems not unreasonable to entertain the opinion that the gypsum of Fort Dodge originated as a chemical precipitation in comparatively still waters which were 134 HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. saturated with sulphate of lime and destitute of life ; its stratification and impurities being deposited at the same time as clayey impurities which had been held suspended in the same waters. Physical Properties. — Much has already been said of the physical proper- ties or character of this gypsum, but as it is so different in some respects from that of other deposits, there are yet other matters worthy of mention in connec- tion with those. According to the results of a complete and exhaustive anal- ysis by Prof. Emery, the ordinary gray gypsum contains only about eight per cent, of impurity ; and it is possible that the average impurity for the whole deposit will not exceed that proportion, so uniform in quality is it from to top to bottom and from one end of the region to the other. When it is remembered that plaster for agricultural purposes is sometimes prepared from gypsum that contains as much as thirty per cent, of impurity, it will be seen that ours is a very superior article for such purposes. The impu- rities are also of such a character that they do not in any way interfere with its value for use in the arts. Although the gypsum rock has a gray color, it becomes quite white by grinding, and still whiter by the calcining process nec- essary in the preparation of plaster of Paris. These tests have all been practi- cally made in the rooms of the Geological Survey, and the quality of the plaster of Paris still further tested by actual use and experiment. No hesitation, therefore, is felt in stating that the Fort Dodge gypsum is of as good a quality as any in the country, even for the finest uses. In view of the bounteousness of the primitive fertility of our Iowa soils, many persons forget that a time may come when Nature will refuse to respond so generously to our demand as she does now, without an adequate return. Such are apt to say that this vast deposit of gypsum is valueless to our com- monwealth, except to the small extent that it may be used in the arts. This is undoubtedly a short-sighted view of the subject, for the time is even now rapidly passing away when a man may purchase a new farm for less money tlian he can rc-fertilize and restore the partially wasted primitive fertility of the one he now occupies. There are farms even now in a large part of the older settled portions of the State that would be greatly benefited by the proper application of plaster, and such areas will continue to increase until it will be difficult to estimate the value of the deposit of gypsum at Fort Dodge. It should be remembered, also, tliat the inhabitants of an extent of country adjoining our State more tlian throe times as great as its own area will find it more convenient to obtain their supplies from Fort Dodge than from any other source. For want of direct railroad communication between this region and other parts of the State, the only use yet made of the gypsum by the inhabitants is for the purposes of ordinary building stone. It is so compact that it is found to be conjparatively unaffected by the frost, and its ordinary situation in walls of houses is such that it is protected from the dissolving action of water, which HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. 135 can at most reach it only from occasional rains, and the effect of these is too slight to be perceived after the lapse of several years. One of the citizens of Fort Dodge, Hon. John F. Duncombe, built a large, fine residence of it, in 1861, the walls of which appear as unaffected by exposure and as beautiful as they were when first erected. It has been so long and successfully used for building stone by the inhabitants that they now prefer it to the limestone of good quality, which also exists in the immediate vicinity. This preference is due to the cheapness of the gypsum, as compared with the stone. The cheapness of the former is largely due to the facility with which it is quarried and wrought. Several other houses have been constructed of it in Fort Dodge, including the depot building of the Dubuque & Sioux City Rail- road. The company have also constructed a large culvert of the same material to span a creek near the town, limestone only being used for the lower courses, which come in contact with the water. It is a fine arch, each stone of gypsum being nicely hewn, and it will doubtless prove a very durable one. Many of the sidewalks in the town are made of the slabs or flags of gypsum which occur in some of the quarries in the form of thin layers. They are more durable than their softness would lead one to suppose. They also possess an advantage over stone in not becoming slippery when worn. The method adopted in quarrying and dressing the blocks of gypsum is peculiar, and quite unlike that adopted in similar treatment of ordinary stone. Taking a stout auger-bit of an ordinary brace, such as is used by carpenters, and filing the cutting parts of it into a peculiar form, the quarryman bores his holes into the gypsum quarry for blasting, in the same manner and with as great facility as a carpenter would bore hard wood. The pieces being loosened by blasting, they are broken up with sledges into convenient sizes, or hewn into the desired shapes by means of hatchets or ordinary chopping axes, or cut by means of ordinary wood-saws. So little grit does the gypsum contain that these tools, made for working wood, are found to be better adapted for working the former substance than those tools are which are universally used for work- ing stone. MINOR DEPOSITS OF SULPHATE OF LIME. Besides the great gypsum deposit of Fort Dodge, sulphate of lime in the various forms of fibrous gypsum, selenite, and small, amorphous masses, has also been discovered in various formations in different parts of the State, includ- ing the coal -measure shales near Fort Dodge, where it exists in small quanti- ties, quite independently of the great gypsum deposit there. The quantity of gypsum in these minor deposits is always too small to be of any practical value, and frequently minute. They usually occur in shales and shaly clays, asso- ciated with strata that contain more or less sulphuret of iron (iron pyrites). Gypsum has thus been detected in the coal measures, the St. Louis limestone, the cretaceous strata, and also in the lead caves of Dubuque. In most of these cases it is evidently the result of double decomposition of iron pyrites and car- 13(3 HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. bonate of lime, previously existing there ; in which cases the gypsum is of course not an original deposit as the great one at Fort Dodge is supjwsed to be. The existence of these comparatively minute quantities of gypsum in the shales of the coal measures and the subcarboniferous limestone which are exposed within the region of and occupy a stratigraphical position beneath the great ^^•vpsum deposits, suggests the possibility that the former may have originated as a precipitate from percolating waters, holding gypsum in solution which they had derived from that deposit in passing over or through it. Since, however, the same substance is found in similar small quantities and under similar con- ditions in regions where they could have had no possible connection with that deposit, it is believed that none of those mentioned have necessarily originated from it, not even those that are found in close proximity to it. The gypsum found in the lead caves is usually in the form of efflorescent fibers, and is always in small quantity. In the lower coal-measure shale near Fort Dodge, a small mass was found in the form of an intercalated layer, which had a distinct fibrous structure, the fibers being perpendicular to the plane of the layer. The same mass had also distinct, horizontal planes of cleavage at right angles with the perpendicular fibers. Thus, being more or less transpa- rent, the mass combined the characters of both fibrous gypsum and selenite. Ko anhydrous sulphate of lime {anhydrite) has been found in connection with the great gypsum deposit, nor elsewhere in Iowa, so far as yet known. SULPHATE OF STRONTIA. ( Celestine. ) The only locality at which this interesting mineral has yet been found in Iowa, or, so for as is known, in the great valley of the Mississippi, is at Fort Dodge. It occurs there in very small quantity in both the shales of the lower coal measures and in the clays that overlie the gypsum deposit, and which are regarded as of the same age with it. The first is just below the city, near Rees' coal bank, and occurs as a layer intercalated among the coal measure shales, amounting in quantity to only a few hundred pounds' weight. The mineral is fibrous and crystalline, the fibers being perpendicular to the plane of the layer. Breaking also with more or less distinct horizontal planes of cleavage, it resem- bles, in physical character, the layer of fibro-crystalline gypsum before men- tioned. Its color is light blue, is transparent and shows crystaline facets upon both the upper and under surfaces of the layer ; those of the upper surface being smallest and most numerous. It breaks up readily into small masses along the lines of the perpendicular fibers or columns. The layer is probably not more than a rod in extent in any direction and about three inches in maxi- mum thickness. Apparent lines of stratification occur in it, corresponding with those of the shales which imbed it. The other deposit was still smaller in amount, and occurred as a mass of crystals imbedded in the clays that overlie the gypsum at Cummins' quarry in HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. 137 the valley of Soldier Creek, upon the north side of the town. The mineral is in this case nearly colorless, and but for the form of the separate crystals would closely resemble masses of impure salt. The crystals are so closely aggregated that they enclose but little impurity in the mass, but in almost all cases their fundamental forms are obscured. This mineral has almost no real practical value, and its occurrence, as described, is interesting only as a mineralogical fact. SULPHATE OF BARYTA. [^Barytis, Heavy Spar.) This mineral has been found only in minute quantities in Iowa. It has been detected in the coal-measure shales of Decatur, Madison and Marion Counties, the Devonian limestone of Johnson and Bremer Counties and in the lead caves of Dubuque. In all these cases, it is in the form of crystals or small crystalline masses. SULPHATE OF MAGNESIA. [Epsomite.) Epsomite, or native epsom salts, having been discovered near Burlington, we have thus recognized in Iowa all the sulphates of the alkaline earths of natural origin ; all of them, except the sulphate of lime, being in very small quantity. Even if the sulphate of magnesia were produced in nature, in large quantities, it is so very soluble that it can accumulate only in such positions as afford it complete shelter from the rains or running water. The epsomite mentioned was found beneath the overhanging cliff of Burlington limestone, near Starr's mill, which are represented in the sketch upon another page, illus- trating the subcarboniferous rocks. It occurs in the form of efflorescent encrus- tations upon the surface of stones and in similar small fragile masses among the fine debris that has fallen down beneath the overhanging cliff. The projection of the cliff over the perpendicular face of the strata beneath amounts to near twenty feet at the point where epsomite was found. Consequently the rains never reach far beneath it from any quarter. The rock upon which the epsom- ite accumulates is an impure limestone, containing also some carbonate of mag- nesia, together with a small proportion of iron pyrites in a finely divided con- dition. It is doubtless by double decomposition of these that the epsomite re- sults. By experiments with this native salt in the office of the Survey, a fine article of epsom salts was produced, but the quantity that might be annually obtained there would amount to only a few pounds, and of course is of no prac- tical value whatever, on account of its cheapness in the market. CLIMATOLOGY. No extended record of the climatology of Iowa has been made, yet much of great value may be learned from observations made at a single point. Prof T. S. Parvin, of the State University, has recorded observations made from 1839 to the present time. Previous to 1860, these observations were made at Mus- 138 HISTORY OF THE STATE OF lOAVA. catine. Since that date, they were made in Iowa City. The result is that the atmospheric conditions of the climate of Iowa are in the highest degree favor- able to health. The highest temperature here occurs in August, while July is the hottest month in the year by two degrees, and January the coldest by three degrees. The mean temperature of April and October most nearly corresponds to the mean temperature of the year, as well as their seasons of Spring and Fall, while that of Summer and Winter is best represented in that of August and December. The period of greatest heat ranges from June 22d to August 31st ; the next mean time being July 27th. The lowest temperature extends from December 16th to February 15th, the average being January 20th — the range in each case being two full months. The climate of Iowa embraces the range of that of New York, Pennsyl- vania. Ohio, Indiana and Illinois. The seasons are not characterized by the frequent and sudden changes so common in the latitudes further south. The temperature of the Winters is somewhat lower than States eastward, but of other seasons it is higher. The atmosphere is dry and invigorating. The surface of the State being free at all seasons of the year from stagnant water, with good breezes at nearly all seasons, the miasmatic and pulmonary diseases are unknown. Mortuary statistics show this to be one of the most healthful States in the Union, being one death to every ninety-four persons. The Spring, Summer and Fall months are delightful ; indeed, the glory of Iowa is her Autumn, and nothing can transcend the splendor of her Indian Summer, which lasts for weeks, and finally blends, almost imperceptibly, into Winter. wft^ HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. DISCOVERY AND OCCUPATION. Iowa, in the symbolical and expressive language of the aboriginal inhab- itants, is said to signify " The Beautiful Land," and was applied to this magnificent and fruitful region by its ancient owners, to express their apprecia- tion of its superiority of climate, soil and location. Prior to 1803, the Mississippi River was the extreme western boundary of the United States. All the great empire lying west of the " Father of Waters," from the Gulf of Mexico on the south to British America on the north, and westward to the Pacific Ocean, was a Spanish province. A brief historical sketch of the discovery and occupation of this grand empire by the Spanish and French governments will be a fitting introduction to the history of the young and thriving State of Iowa, which, until the commencement of the present century, was a part of the Spanish possessions in America. Early in the Spring of 1542, fifty years after Columbus discovered the New World, and one hundred and thirty years before the French missionaries discov- ered its upper waters, Ferdinand De Soto discovered the mouth of the Mississippi River at the mouth of the Washita. After the sudden death of De Soto, in May of the same year, his followers built a small vessel, and in July, 1543, descended the great river to the Gulf of Mexico. In accordance with the usage of nations, under which title to the soil was claimed by right of discovery, Spain, having conquered Florida and discovered the Mississippi, claimed all the territory bordering on that river and the Gulf of Mexico. But it was also held by the European nations that, Avhile discovery gave title, that title must be perfected by actual possession and occupation. Although Spain claimed the territory by right of first discovery, she made no effort to occupy it; by no permanent settlement had she perfected and held her title, and therefore had forfeited it when, at a later period, the Lower Mississippi Valley was re-discovered and occupied by France. The unparalleled labors of the zealous Frc nch Jesuits of Canada in penetrating the unknown region of the West, commencing in 1611, form a history of no ordi- nary interest, but have no particular connection with the scope of the present work, until in the Fall of 1665. Pierre Claude Allouez, who had entered Lake Superior in September, and sailed along the southern coast in search of copper, had arrived at the great village of the Chippewas at Chegoincegon. Here a grand council of some ten or twelve of the principal Indian nations was held. The Pottawatomies of Lake Michigan, the Sacs and Foxes of the West, the Hurons from the North, the Illinois from the South, and the Sioux from the land of the prairie and wild rice, were all assembled there. The Illinois told 140 HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. the storv of their ancient glory and about the noble river on the banks of which they dwelt. The Sioux also 'told their white brother of the same great river, and Alloucz promised to the assembled tribes the protection of the French nation against all their enemies, native or foreign. The purpose of discovering the great river about which the Indian na- tions had given such glowing accounts appears to have originated with Mar- quette, in 1060. In the year previous, he and Claude Dablon had established the Mission of St. Mary's, the oldest white settlement within the present limits of the State of INIiehigan. Marquette was delayed in the execution of his great undertaking, and spent the interval in studying the language and habits of the Illinois Indians, among whom he expected to travel. About this time, the French Government had determined to extend the do- minion of France to the extreme western borders of Canada. Nicholas Perrot was sent as the agent of the government, to propose a grand council of the Indian nations, at St. Mary's. When Perrot reached Green Bay, he extended the invitation far and near ; and, escorted by Pottawatomies, repaired on a mission of peace and friend- ship to the Miamis, who occupied the region about the present location of Chicago. In May, 1671, a great council of Indians gathered at the Falls of St. Mary, from all parts of the Northwest, from the head waters of the St. Law- rence, from the valley of the Mississippi and from the Red River of the North. Perrot met with them, and after grave consultation, formally announced to the assembled nations that their good French Father felt an abiding interest in their welfare, and had placed them all under the powerful protection of the French Government. Marquette, during that same year, had gathered at Point St. Ignace the remn ants of one branch of the Hurons. This station, for a long series of years, was considered the key to the unknown West. The time was now auspiciaus for the consummation of Marquette's grand project. The successful termination of Perrot's mission, and the general friend- liness of the native tribes, rendered the contemplated expedition much less per- ilous. But it was not until 1673 that the intrepid and enthusiastic priest was finally ready to depart on his daring and perilous journey to lands never trod by white men. The Indians, who had gathered in large numbers to witness his departure, were astounded at the boldness of the proposed undertaking, and tried to dis- courage him, representing that the Indians of the Mississippi Valley were cruel and bloodthirsty, and would resent the intrusion of strangers upon their domain. The great river itself, they said, was the abode of terrible monsters, who could swallow both canoes and men. But Mar(|uette was not to be diverted from his purpose by these fearful re- ports. He assured his dusky friends that he was ready to make any sacrifice, even to hiy down his life f.r tiie sacred cause in which he was engaged. He prayele that a change in the government and policy of the country was deemed indispensable. Accordingly, in 1711, the province was placed in the hands of a Governor General, with headquarters at Mobile. This govern- ment was of brief duration, and in 1712 a charter was granted to Anthony Crozat, a wealthy merchant of Paris, giving him the entire control and mo- nopoly of all the trade and resources of Louisiana. But this scheme also failed. Crozat met with no success in his commercial operations ; every Spanish harbor on the Gulf was closed against his vessels; the occupation of Louisiana was deemed an encroachment on Spanish territory ; Spain was jealous of the am- bition of France. Failing in his efforts to open the ports of the district, Crozat "sought to develop tlie internal resources of Louisiana, by causing trading posts to be opened, and explorations to be made to its remotest borders. But he actually accomplished nothing for the advancement of the colony. The only prosperity which it ever possessed grew out of the enterprise of humble indi- viduals, wdio had succeeded in instituting a little barter between themselves and the natives, and a petty trade with neighboring European settlements. After a persevering effort of nearly five years, he surrendered his charter in August, 1717." Immediately following the surrender of his charter by Crozat, another and more magnificent scheme was inaugurated. The national government of France was deeply involved in debt; the colonies were nearly bankrupt, and John Law appeared on the scene with his famous Mississippi Company, as the Louisiana branch of the Bank of France. The charter granted to this company gave it a legal existence of twenty-five years, and conferred upon it more extensive powers and privileges than had been granted to Crozat. It invested the new company with the exclusive privilege of the entire commerce of Louisiana, and of New France, and with authority to enforce their rights. The Company was author- ized to monopolize all the trade in the country ; to make treaties with the Indians ; to declare and prosecute war ; to grant lands, erect forts, open mines of precious metals, levy taxes, nominate civil officers, commission those of the army, and to appoint and remove judges, to cast cannon, and build and equip ships (»f war. All this was to be done with the paper currency of John Laws Bank of France. He had succeeded in getting His Majesty the French King to adopt and sanction his scheme of financial operations both in France and in the colonies, and probably there never was such a huge financial bul)ble ever Idown by a visionary theorist. Still, such was the condition of France that it was accepted as a national deliverance, and Law became the most powerful man in France. He became a Catholic, and was appointed Comptroller General of Finance. Among the first operations of the Company Avas to send eight hundred emigrants to Louisiana, who arrived at Dauphine Island in 1718. HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. 143 In 1719, Philipe Francis Renault arrived in Illinois with two hundred miners and artisans. The war between France and Spain at this time rendered it extremely probable that the Mississippi Valley might become the theater of Spanish hostilities against the French settlements ; to prevent this, as well as to extend French claims, a chain of forts was begun, to keep open the connection between the mouth and the sources of the Mississippi. Fort Orleans, high up the Mississippi River, Avas erected as an outpost in 1720. The Mississippi scheme was at the zenith of its power and glory in January, 1720, but the gigantic bubble collapsed more suddenly than it had been inilated, and the Company was declared hopelessly bankrupt in May following. France Avas impoverished by it, both private and public credit Avere overthrown, capi- talists suddenly found themselves paupers, and labor ^as left Avithout employ- ment. The effect on the colony of Louisiana Avas disastrous. While this Avas going on in LoAver Louisiana, the region about the lakes was the theater of Indian hostilities, rendering the passage from Canada to Louisiana extremely dangerous for many years. The English had not only extended their Indian trade into the vicinity of the French settlements, but through their friends, the Iroquois, had gained a marked ascendancy over the Foxes, a fierce and powerful tribe, of Iroquois descent, Avhom they incited to hostilities against the French. The Foxes began their hostilities with the siege of Detroit in 1712, a siege which they continued for nineteen consecutive days, and although the expedition resulted in diminishing their numbers and humbling their pride, yet it Avas not until after several successive campaigns, embodying the best military resources of NeAV France, had been directed against them, that were finally defeated at the great battles of Butte des Morts, and on the Wisconsin River, and driven west in 1746. The Company, having found that the cost of defending Louisiana exceeded the returns from its commerce, solicited leave to surrender the Mississippi Avilderness to the home government. Accordingly, on the 10th of April, 1732, the jurisdiction and control over the commerce reverted to the crown of France. The Company had held possession of Louisiana fourteen years. In 1735, Bien- ville returned to assume command for the King. A glance at a few of the old French settlements will show the progress made in portions of Louisiana during the early part of the eighteenth century. As early as 1705, traders and hunters had penetrated the fertile regions of the Wabash, and from this region, at that early date, fifteen thousand hides and skins had been collected and sent to Mobile for the European market. In the year 1716, the French population on the Wabash kept up a lucrati\'e commerce with Mobile by means of traders and voyageurs. The Ohio River was comparatively unknown. In 1746, agriculture on the Wabash had attained to greater prosperity than in any of the French settlements besides, and in that year six hundred barrels of flour were manufactured and shipped to New Orleans, together Avith consider- able quantities of hides, peltry, tallow and beeswax. In the Illinois country, also, considerable settlements had been made, so that, in 1730, they embraced one hundred and forty French families, about six hundred "converted Indians," and many traders and voyageurs. In 1753, the first actual conflict arose between Louisiana and the Atlantic colonies. From the earliest advent of the Jesuit fathers, up to the period of which we speak, the great ambition of the French had been, not alone to preserve their possessions in the W^est, but by every possible means to prevent the slightest attempt of the English, east of the mountains, to extend their settle- 144 HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. raents toward the Mississippi. France was resolved on retaining possession of the great territory which her missionaries had discovered and revealed to the world. French commandants had avowed their purpose of seizing every Englishman within the Ohio Valley. The colonies of Pennsylvania, New York and Virginia were most affected by the encroachments of France in the extension of her dominion, and particularly in the great scheme of uniting Canada with Louisiana. To carry out this [•urpose, the French had taken possession of a tract of country claimed by Vir- ginia, and had commenced a line of forts extending from the lakes to the Ohio River. Virginia was not only alive to her own interests, but attentive to the vast importance of an immediate and effectual resistance on the part of all the English colonies to the actual and contemplated encroachments of the French. In 1753, Governor Dinwiddie, of Virginia, sent George Washington, then a young man just twenty-one, to demand of the French commandant " a reason for invading British dominions while a solid peace subsisted." Washington met the French commandant, Gardeur de St. Pierre, on the head w^aters of the Allecfhanv, and having communicated to him the object of his journey, received the insolent answer tliat the French would not discuss the matter of right, but would make prisoners of every Englishman found trading on the Ohio and its waters. The country, he said, belonged to the French, by virtue of the dis- coveries of La Salle, and they would not withdraw from it. In January, 1754, Washington returned to Virginia, and made his report to the Governor and Council. Forces were at once raised, and Washington, as Lieutenant Colonel, was dispatched at the head of a hundred and fifty men, to the forks of the Ohio, with orders to "finish the fort already begun there by the Ohio Company, and to make prisoners, kill or destroy all who interrupted the English settlements." On his march through the forests of Western Pennsylvania, Washington, through the aid of friendly Indians, discovered the French concealed among the rocks, and as they ran to seize their arms, ordered his men to fire upon them, at the same time, with his own musket, setting the example. An action lasting about a quarter of an hour ensued ; ten of the Frenchmen were killed, among them Jumonville, the commander of the party, and twenty-one were made pris- oners. The dead were scalped by the Indians, and the chief, bearing a toma- hawk and a scalp, visited all the tribes of the Miamis, urging them to join the Six Nations and the English against the French. The French, however, were soon re-enforced, and Col. Washington was compelled to return to Fort Necessity. Here, on the 3d day of July, De Villiers invested the fort with 000 French troops and 100 Indians. On the 4th, Washington accepted terms of capitulation, and the English garrison withdrew from the valley of the Ohio. This attack of Washington upon Jumonville aroused the indignation of France, and war was formally declared in May, 1756, and the " French and Indian War" devastated the colonics for several years. Montreal, Detroit ami all Canada were surrendered to the English, and on the 10th of February, 1 703, by the treaty of Paris — which had been signed, though not formally ratified by the respecti ve governments, on the 3d of November, 1 762— France relinquished to Great Britian all that portion of the province of Louisiana lying on the east side of the Mississippi, except the island and town of New Orleans. On the same day that the treaty of Paris was signed, France, by a secret treaty, ceded to Spain all her possessions on the west side of the Mississippi, including the HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. 145 whole country to the head waters of the Great River, and west to the Rocky Mountains, and the jurisdiction of France in America, which had lasted nearly a century, was ended. At the close of the Revolutionary war, by the treaty of peace between Great Britain and the United States, the English Government ceded to the latter all the territory on the east side of the Mississippi River and north of the thirty- first parallel of north latitude. At the same time. Great Britain ceded to Spain all the Floridas, comprising all the territory east of the Mississippi and south of the southern limits of the United States. At this time, therefore, the present State of Iowa was a part of the Spanish possessions in North America, as all the territory west of the Mississippi River was under the dominion of Spain. That government also possessed all the territory of the Floridas east of the great river and south of the thirty-first parallel of north latitude. The Mississippi, therefore, so essential to the pros- perity of the western portion of the United States, for the last three hundred miles of its course floAved wholly within the Spanish dominions, and that govern- ment claimed the exclusive right to use and control it below the southern boun- dary of the United States. The free navigation of the Mississippi was a very important question during all the time that Louisiana remained a dependency of the Spanish Crown, and as the final settlement intimately affected the status of the then future State of Iowa, it will be interesting to trace its progress. The people of the United States occupied and exercised jurisdiction over the entire eastern valley of the Mississippi, embracing all the country drained by its eastern tributaries ; they had a natural right, according to the accepted in- ternational law, to follow these rivers to the sea, and to the use of the Missis- sippi River accordingly, as the great natural channel of commerce. The river was not only necessary but absolutely indispensable to the prosperity and growth of the western settlements then rapidly rising into commercial and political importance. They were situated in the heart of the great valley, and with wonderfully expansive energies and accumulating resources, it was very evident that no power on earth could deprive them of the free use of the river below them, only while their numbers were insufiicient to enable them to maintain their right by force. Inevitably, therefore, immediately after the ratification of the treaty of 1783, the Western people began to demand the free navigation of the Mississippi — not as a favor, but as a right. In 1786, both banks of the river, below the mouth of the Ohio, w^ere occupied by Spain, and military posts on the east bank enforced her power to exact heavy duties on all im- ports by way of the river for the Ohio region. Every boat descending the river was forced to land and submit to the arbitrary revenue exactions of the Spanish authorities. Under the administration of Governor Miro, these rigor- ous exactions were someAvhat relaxed from 1787 to 1790 ; but Spain held it as her right to make them. Taking advantage of the claim of the American people, that the Mississippi should be opened to them, in 1791, the Spanish Govern- ment concocted a scheme for the dismembership of the Union. The plan was to induce the Weste-rn people to separate from the Eastern States by liberal land grants and extraordinary commercial privileges. Spanish emissaries, among the people of Ohio and Kentucky, informed them that the Spanish Government would grant them favorable commercial privileges, provided they would secede from the Federal Government east of the mountains. The Spanish Minister to the United States plainly declared to his confidential correspondent that, unless the Western people would declare their independence 146 HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. and refuse to remain in the Union, Spain was determined never to grant the free navigation of the Mississippi. By the treaty of Madrid, October 20, 1795, however, Spain formally stip- ulated that the Mississippi River, from its source to the Gulf, for its entire width, should be free to American trade and commerce, and that the people of the United States should be permitted, for three years, to use the port of New Orleans as a port of deposit for their merchandise and produce, duty free. In November, 1801, the United States Government received, through Rufus King, its Minister at the Court of St. James, a copy of the treaty between Spain and France, signed at Madrid March 21, 1801, by which the cession of Loui- siana to France, made the previous Autumn, was confirmed. The change offered a favorable opportunity to secure the just rights of the United States, in relation to the free navigation of the Mississippi, and ended the attempt to dismember the Union by an effort to secure an independent government west of the Alleghany Mountains. On the 7th of January, 1803. the American House of Representatives adopted a resolution declaring their " unalterable determination to maintain the boundaries and the rights of navi- gation and commerce through the River Mississippi, as established by existing treaties." In the same month, President Jefferson nominated and the Senate confirmed Robert ,R. Livingston and James Monroe as Envoys Plenipotentiary to the Court of France, and Charles Pinckney and James Moni-oe to the Court of Spain, with plenary powers to negotiate treaties to effect the object enunciated by the popular branch of the National Legislature. These envoys were in- structed to secure, if possible, the cession of Florida and New Orleans, but it does not appear that Mr. Jefferson and his Cabinet had any idea of purchasing that part of Louisiana lying on the west side of the Mississippi. In fact, on the 2d of March following, the instructions Avere sent to our Ministers, contain- ing a plan which expressly left to France "all her territory on the west side of the Mississippi." Had these instructions been followed, it might have been that there would not have been any State of Iowa or any other member of the glori- ous Union of States west of the " Father of Waters." In obedience to his instructions, however, Mr. Livingston broached this plan to M. Talleyrand, Napoleon's Prime Minister, when that courtly diplo- matist quietly suggested to the American Minister that France might be willing to cede the ivhole French domain in North America to the United States, and asked how much the Federal Government would be willing to give for it. Liv- ingston intimated that twenty millions of francs might be a fair price. Talley- rand thought that not enough, but asked the Americans to "think of it." A few days later, Napoleon, in an interview with Mr. Livingston, in effect informed the American Envoy that he had secured Louisiana in a contract with Spain for the purpose of turning it over to the United States for a mere nominal sum. He had been compelled to provide for the safety of that province by the treaty, and he was " anxious to give the United States a magnificent bargain for a mere trifle." The price proposed was one hundred and twenty-five million francs. This was subsequently modified to fifteen million dollars, and on this basis a treaty was negotiated, and was signed on the 30th day of April, 1803. This treaty was ratified by the Federal Government, and by act of Congress, approved October 31, 1803, the President of the United States was authorized to take possession of the territory and provide for it a temporary government. Accordingly, on the 20th day of December following, on behalf of the Presi- dent^ Gov. Clairborne and Gen. Wilkinson took possession of the Louisiana HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. 147 purchase, and raised the American flag over the newly acquired domain, at New Orleans. Spain, although it had by treaty ceded the province to France in 1801, still held quasi possession, and at first objected to the transfer, but with- drew her opposition eaidy in 1804. By this treaty, thus successfully consummated, and tlie peaceable withdrawal of Spain, the then infant nation of the New World extended its dominion west of the Mississippi to the Pacific Ocean, and north from the Gulf of Mexico to British America. If the original design of Jefferson's administration had been accomplished, the United States would have acquired only that portion of the French territory lying east of the Mississippi River, and while the American people Avould thus have acquired the free navigation of that great river, all of the vast and fertile empire on the west, so rich in its agricultural and inexhaustible mineral resources, would have remained under the dominion of a foreign power. To Napoleon's desire to sell the whole of his North American possessions, and Liv- ingston's act transcending his instructions, which was acquiesced in after it was done, does Iowa owe her position as a part of the United States by the Louisiana purchase. By authority of an act of Congress, approved March 26, 1804, the newly acquired territory was, on the 1st day of October fallowing, divided : that part lying south of the 33d parallel of north latitude was called the Territory of Orleans, and all north of that parallel the District of Louisiana, which was placed under the authority of the officers of Indiana Territory, until July 4, 1805, when it was organized, with territorial government of its own, and so remained until 1812, when the Territory of Orleans became the State of Louisiana, and the name of the Territory of Louisiana was changed to Missouri. On the 4tli of July, 1814, that part of Missouri Territory comprising the present State of Arkansas, and the country to the westward, Avas organized into the Arkansas Territory, On the 2d of March, 1821, the State of Missouri, being a part of the Terri- tory of that name, was admitted to the Union. June 28, 1834, the territory west of the Mississippi River and north of Missouri Avas made a part of the Territory of Michigan ; but two years later, on the 4th of July, 1836, Wiscon- sin Territory was erected, embracing within its limits the present States of Iowa, Wisconsin and Minnesota. By act of Congress, approved June 12, 1838, the TERRITORY OF lOAV A was erected, comprising, in addition to the present State, much the larger part of Minnesota, and extending north to the boundary of the British Possessions. THE ORIGINAL OWNERS. Having traced the early history of the great empire lying west of the Mis- sissippi, of which the State of Iowa constitutes a part, from the earliest dis- covery to the organization of the Territory of Iowa, it becomes necessary to give some history of THE INDIANS OF IOWA. According to the policy of the European nations, possession perfected title to any territory. We have seen that the country west of the Mississippi was first discovered by the Spaniards, but afterward, was visited and occupied by the French. It was ceded by France to Spain, and by Spain back to France again. 148 HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. and then was purchased and occupied by the United States. During all that time, it does not appear to have entered into the heads or hearts of the high contracting parties tliat the country they bought, sold and gave away was in the possession of a race of men who, although savage, owned the vast domain before Columbus first crossed the Atlantic. Having purchased the territory, the United States found it still in the possession of its original owners, who had never been dispossessed ; and it became necessary to purchase again what had already been bought before, or forcibly eject the occupants ; therefore, the his- tory of the Indian nations who occupied Iowa prior to and during its early set- tlement by the whites, becomes an important chapter in the history of the State^ that cannot be omitted. For more than one hundred years after Marquette and Joliet trod the virgin soil of Iowa, not a single settlement had been made or attempted ; not even a trading post had been established. The whole country remained in the undis- puted possession of the native tribes, who roamed at will over her beautiful and. fertile prairies, hunted in her Avoods, fished in her streams, and often poured out their life-blood in obstinately contested contests for supremacy. That this State so aptly styled "The Beautiful Land," had been the theater of numerous, fierce and bloody struggles between rival nations, for possession of the favored region, long before its settlement by civilized man, there is no room for doubt. In these savage wars, the weaker party, whether aggressive or defensive, was either exterminated or driven from their ancient hunting grounds. In 1G78, Avhen Manjuette discovered Iowa, the Illini were a very poAverful people, occupying a large portion of the State ; but Avhen the country was again visited by the whites, not a remnant of that once powerful tribe remained on the west side of the Mississippi, and Iowa was principally in the possession of the Sacs and Foxes, a warlike tribe which, originally two distinct nations, residing in New York and on the waters of the St. Lawrence, had gradually fought their Avay westward, and united, probably, after the Foxes had been driven out of the Fox River country, in 1846, and crossed the Mississippi. The death of Pontiac, a famous Sac chieftain, was made the pretext for war against the Illini, and a fierce and bloody struggle ensued, which continued until the Illinois were nearly destroyed and their hunting grounds possessed by their victorious foes. The lowas also occupied a portion of the State for a time, in common Avith the Sacs, but tliey, too, Avere nearly destroyed by the Sacs and Foxes, and, in "The Beautiful Land," these natives met their equally AA'arlike foes, the Northern Sioux, Avith whom they maintained a constant Avarfare for the posses- sion of the country for many years. AVhen the L^nitod States came in possession of the great valley of the Mis- sissip|)i, by the Louisiana purcliase, the Sacs and Foxes and loAvas possesse In the meantime, two other railroads had reached the east bank of the Missis- sippi — one opposite Burlington, and one opposite Dubuque — and these were being extended into the interior of the State. Indeed, four lines of railroad had been projected across the State from the Mississippi to the Missouri, hav- ing eastern connections. On the 15th of May, 1856, the Congress of the United States passed an act granting to the State, to aid in the construction of HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. 185 railroads, the public lands in alternate sections, six miles on either side of the proposed lines. An extra session of the General Assembly was called in July of this year, that disposed of the grant to the several companies that proposed to complete these enterprises. The population of our State at this time had increased to 500,000. Public attention had been called to the necessity of a railroad across the continent. The position of Iowa, in the very heart and center of the Republic, on the route of this great highway across the continent, began to attract attention Cities and towns sprang up through the State as if by magic. Capital began to pour into the State, and had it been employed in developing our vast coal measures and establishing manufactories among us, or if it had been expended in improving our lands, and building houses and barns, it would have been well. But all were in haste to get rich, and the spirit 'of speculation ruled the hour. " In the meantime, every effort was made to help the speedy completion of the railroads. Nearly every county and city on the Mississippi, and many in the interior, voted large corporate subscriptions to the stock of the railroad companies, and issued their negotiable bonds for the amount." Thus enormous county and city debts were incurred, the payment of which these municipalities, tried to avoid upon the plea that they had exceeded the constitutional limit- ation of their powers. The, Supreme Court of the United States held these bonds to be valid ; and the courts by mandamus compelled the city and county authorities to levy taxes to pay the judgments. These debts are not all paid even yet, but the Avorst is over and ultimately the burden will be entirely removed The first railroad across the State was completed to Council Bluffs in Jan- uary, 1871. The others were completed soon after. In 1854, there was not a mile of railroad in the State. In 1874, twenty years after, there were 3,765 miles in successful operation. GROWTH AND PROGRESS. When Wisconsin Territory was organized, in 1836, the entire population of that portion of the Territory now embraced in the State of Iowa was 10.531. The Territory then embraced two counties, Dubuque and Des Moines, erected by the Territory of Michigan, in 1834. From 1836 to 1838, the Territorial Legislature of Wisconsin increased the number of counties to sixteen, and the population had increased to 22,859. Since then, the counties have increased to ninety-nine, and the population, in 1875, Avas 1,366,000. The following table will show the population at different periods since the erection of Iowa Territory : Year. Population. 1852 230,713 1854 326,013 1856 519.055 1859 .... 638,775 1860 674,913 1863 701,7:^2 1865 754,699 1867 902,040 The most populous county in the State is Dubuque. Not only in popula,- tion, but in everything contributing to the growth and greatness of a State has Iowa made rapid progress. In a little more than thirty years, its wild but beautiful prairies have advanced from the home of the savage to a highly civ- ilized commonwealth, embracing all the elements of progress which characterize the older States. Year. Population. 1838 22,589 1840 43,115 1844 75,152 1846 ;i7,588 1847 116,651 1849 152,988 1850 191,982 1851 204,774 Year. Population. 1869 1,040,819 1870 1,191,727 1873 1,251,383 1875 1,366,000 1876 1877 186 HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. Thriving cities and towns dot its fiiir surface ; an iron net-work of thou- sands of miles of railroads is woven over its broad acres ; ten thousand school houses, in which more than five hundred thousand children are being taught the rudiments of education, testify to the culture and liberality of the people; high schools, colleges and universities are generously endowed by the State ; manufactories spring up on all her water courses, and in most of her cities and towns. Whether measured from the date of her first settlement, her organization as a Territory or admission as a State, Iowa has thus far shown a growth unsur- passed, in a similar period, by any commonwealth on the face of the earth ; and, with her vast extent of fertile soil, with her inexhaustible treasures of mineral wealth, with a healthful, invigorating climate ; an intelligent, liberty- loving people; with equal, just and liberal laws, and her free schools, the future of Iowa may be expected to surpass the most hopeful anticipations of her present citizens. Looking upon Iowa as she is to-day — populous, prosperous and happy — it is hard to realize the wonderful changes that have occurred since the first white settlements were made within her borders. When the number of States was only twenty-six, and their total population about twenty millions, our repub- lican form of government was hardly more than an experiment, just fairly put upon trial. The development of our agricultural resources and inexhaustible mineral wealth had liardly commenced. Westward the "Star of Empire" had scarcely started on its way. West of the great Mississippi was a mighty empire, but almost unknown, and marked on the maps of the period as " The Great American Desert." Now, thirty-eight stars glitter on our national escutcheon, and forty-five millions of people, who know their rights and dare maintain them, tread American soil, and the grand sisterhood of States extends from the Gulf of Mexico to the Canadian border, and from the rocky coast of the Atlantic to the golden shores of ihe Pacific. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND FARM. Ames, Story County. The Iowa State Agricultural College and Farm were established by an act of the General Assembly, approved March 22, 1858. A Board of Trustees was appointed, consisting of Governor R. P. Lowe, John D. Wright, William Duane Wilson, M. W. Robinson, Timothy Day, Richard Gaines, John Pattee, G. W. F. Sherwin, Suel Foster, S. W. Henderson, Clement Coffin and E. G. Day ; the Governors of the State and President of the College being ex officio mem- bers. Subsequently the number of Trustees was reduced to five. The Board met in June, 1859, and received propositions for the location of the College and Farm from Hardin, Polk, Story and Boone, Marshall, Jefterson and Tama Counties. In July, the proposition of Story County and some of its citizens and by the citizens of Boone County was accepted, and the farm and the site for the buildings were located. In 1860-61, the farm-house and barn were erected. In 1862, Congress granted to the State 240,000 acres of land for the endowment of schools of agriculture and the mechanical arts, and 195,000 acres were located by Peter Melendy, Commissioner, in 1862-3. George W. Bassett was appointed Land Agent for the institution. In 1864, the General Assem- bly appropriated $20,000 for the erection of the college building. HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. 187 In June of that year, the Building Committee, consisting of Suel Foster, Peter Melendy and A. J. Bronson, proceeded to let the contract. John Browne, of Des Moines, was employed as architect, and furnished the plans of the build- ing, but was superseded in its construction by C. A. Dunham. The $20,000 appropriated by the General Assembly were expended in putting in the foun- dations and making the brick for the structure. An additional appropriation of $91,000 was made in 1866, and the building was completed in 1868. Tuition in this college is made by law forever free to pupils from the State •over sixteen years of age, who have been resident of the State six months pre- vious to their admission. Each county in the State has a prior right of tuition for three scholars from each county ; the remainder, equal to the capacity of the college, are by the Trustees distributed among the counties in proportion to the population, and subject to the above rule. All sale of ardent spirits, wine or beer are prohibited by law within a distance of three miles from the college, except for sacramental, mechanical or medical purposes. The course of instruction in the Agricultural College embraces the following branches: Natural Philosophy. Chemistry, Botany, Horticulture, Fruit Growing, Forestry, Animal and Vegetable Anatomy, Geology, Mineralogy, Meteorology, Entomology, Zoology, the Veterinary Art, Plane Mensuration, Leveling, Sur- veying, Bookkeeping, and such Mechanical Arts as are directly connected with agriculture ; also such other studies as the Trustees may from time to time prescribe, not inconsistent with the purposes of the institution. The funds arising from the lease and sale of lands and interest on invest- ments are sufficient for the support of the institution. Several College Societies are maintained among the students, who publish a monthly paper. There is also an " out-law " called the " ATA^ Chapter Omega." The Board of Trustees in 1877 was composed of C. W. Warden, Ottumwa, Chairman ; Hon. Samuel J. Kirkwood, Iowa City ; William B. Treadway, Sioux City ; Buel Sherman, Fredericksburg, and Laurel Summers, Le Claire. E. W. Starten, Secretary ; William D. Lucas, Treasurer. Board of Instruction. — A. S. Welch, LL. D., President and Professor of Psychology and Philosophy of Science ; Gen. J. L. Geddes, Professor of Mili- tary Tactics and Engineering; W. H. Wynn, A. M., Ph. D., Professor of English Literature; C. E. Bessey, M. S., Professor of Botany, Zoology, Ento- mology ; A. Thompson, C. E., Mechanical Engineering and Superintendent of Workshops; F. E. L. Beal, B. S., Civil Engineering; T. E. Pope, A. M., Chemistry; M. Stalker, Agricultural and Veterinary Science; J. L. Budd, Horticulture ; J. K. Macomber, Physics ; E. W. Stanton, Mathematics and Political Economy ; Mrs. Margaret P. Stanton, Preceptress, Instructor in French and Mathematics. THE STATE UNIVERSITY. Iowa City, Johnson County. In the famous Ordinance of 1787, enacted by Congress before the Territory of the United States extended beyond the Mississippi Biver, it was declared that in all the territory northwest of the Ohio River, "• Schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged." By act of Congress, approved July 20, 1840, the Secretary of the Treasury was authorized " to set apart and re- serve from sale, out of any of the public lands within the Territory of Iowa, to which the Indian title has been or may be extinguished, and not otherwise ap- propriated, a quantity of land, not exceeding the entire townships, for the use 188 HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. and support of a university within said Territorry wlien it becomes a State, and for no other use or purpose whatever ; to be located in tracts of not less than an entire section, corresponding -with any of the large divisions into which the pub- lic land are authorized to be surveyed." William W. Dodge, of Scott County, was appointed by the Secretary of the Treasury to make the selections. He selected Section 5 in Township 78, north of Range 3, east of the Fifth Principal Meridian, and then removed from the Territory. No more lands Avere selected until 1846, when, at the request of the Assembly, John M. Whitaker of Van Buren County, was appointed, who selected the remainder of the grant except about 122 acres. In the first Constitution, undeif which Iowa Avas admitted to the Union, the people directed the disposition of the proceeds of this munificent grant in ac- cordance Avitli its terms, and instructed the General Assembly to provide, as soon as may be, effectual means for the improvement and permanent security of the funds of the university derived from the lands. The first General Assembly, by act approved February 25, 1847, established the " State University of Iowa " at Iowa City, then the capital of the State, "with such other branches as public convenience may hereafter require." The " public buildings at Iowa City, together with the ten acres of land in which they are situated," Avere granted for the use of said university, provided, how- ever, that the sessions of the Legislature and State offices should be lield in the capitol until otherAvise provided by laAv. The control and management of the University were committed to a board of fifteen Trustees, to be appointed by the Legislature, five of Avhom Avere to be chosen bienially. The Superintendent of Public Instruction was made President of this Board. Provisions were made for the disposal of the tAvo townships of land, and for the investment of the funds arising therefrom. The act further provides that the University shall never be under the exclusive control of any religious denomination whatever," and as soon as the revenue for the grant and donations amounts to $2,000 a year, the University should commence and continue the instruction, free of charge, of fifty students annually. The General Assembly retained full supervision over the University, its officers and the grants and donations made and to be made to it by the State. Section 5 of the act appointed James P. Carleton, H. T>. Downey, Thomas Snyder, Samuel McCrory, Curtis Bates, Silas Foster, E. C. Lyon, James H. GoAver, George G. Vincent, Wm. G. Woodward, Theolore S. Parvin, George Atchinson, S. G. Matson, H. W. Starr and Ansel Briggs, the first Board of Trustees. The organization of the University at' Iowa City was impracticable, how- ever, so long as the seat of government A\'as retained there. In January, 1849, two branches of the University and three Normal Schools Avere established. The branches were located — one at Fairfield, and the other at Dubuque, and Avere placed upon an equal footing, in respect to funds and all other matters, with the University established at Iowa City. "Tiiis act," says Col. Benton, "created three State Universities, Avith equal rights and poAvers, instead of a 'University Avith such branches as public conven- ience ma)/ hereafter demand,' as provided by the Constitution." The Board of Directors of the Fairfield Branch consisted of Barnet Ris- tine, Christian W. Slagle, Daniel Rider, Horace Gaylord, Bernhart Henn and Samuel S. Bayard. At the first meeting of the Board, Mr. Henn was elected President, Mr. Slagle Secretary, and Air. Gaylord Treasurer. Twenty acres of land Avere purchased, and a building erected thereon, costing $2,500. HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. 189' This building was nearly destroyed by a hurricane, in 1850, but was rebuilt more substantially, all by contributions of the citizens of Fairfield. This branch never received any aid from the State or from the University Fund, and by act approved January 24, 1853, at the request of the Board, the Gen- eral Assembly terminated its relation to the State. The branch at Dubuque was placed under the control of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, and John King, Caleb H. Booth, James M. Emerson, Michael J. Sullivan, Richard Benson and the Grovernor of the State as Trustees. The Trustees never organized, and its existence was only nominal. The Normal Schools were located at Andrew, Oskaloosa and Mount Pleasant, respectively. Each was to be governed by a board of seven Trustees, to be appointed by the Trustees of the University. Each was to receive ^500 annu- ally from the income of the University Fund, upon condition that they should ed- ucate eight common school teachers, free of charge for tuition, and that the citizens- should contribute an equal sum for the erection of the requisite buildings. The several Boards of Trustees were appointed. At Andrew, the school was organized Nov. 21, 1849; Samuel Ray, Principal; Miss J. S. Dorr, Assist- ant. A building was commenced and over $1,000 expended on it, but it was never completed. At Oskaloosa, the Trustees organized in April, 1852. This school was opened in the Court House, September 13, 1852, under the charge of Prof. G. M. Drake and wife. A two story brick building was completed in 1853, costing $2,473. The school at Mount Pleasant was never organized. Neither of these schools received any aid from the University Fund, but in 1857 the Legislature appropriated $1,000 each for those at Oskaloosa and Andrew, and repealed the law authorizing the payment of money to them from the University Fund. From that time they made no further effort to continue in operation. At a special meeting of the Board of Trustees, held February 21, 1850,. the " College of Physicians and Surgeons of the Upper Mississippi," established at Davenport, was recognized as the " College of Physicians and Surgeons of the State University of Iowa," expressly stipulating, however, that such recog- nition should not render the University liable for any pecuniary aid, nor was the Board to have any control over the property or management of the Medical Association. Soon after, this College was removed to Keokuk, its second ses- sion being opened there in November, 1850. In 1851, the General Assembly confirmed the action of the Board, and by act approved January 22, 1855, placed the Medical College under the supervision of the Board of Trustees of the University, and it continued in operation until this arrangement was termi- nated by the new Constitution, September 3, 1857. From 1847 to 1855, the Board of Trustees was kept full by regular elec- tions by the Legislature, and the Trustees held frequent meetings, but there was no effectual organization of the University. In March, 1855, it was partially opened for a term of sixteen weeks. July 16, 1855, Amos Dean, of Albany, N. Y., was elected President, but he never entered fully upon its duties. The- University was again opened in September, 1855, and continued in operation until June, 1856, under Professors Johnson, Welton, Van Valkenburg and Guflfin. In the Spring of 1856, the capital of the State was located at Des Moines; but there were no buildings there, and the capitol at Iowa City was not vacated by the State until December, 1857. In June, 1856, the faculty was re-organized, with some changes, and the University was again opened on the third Wednesday of September, 1856.. 190 HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. There were one hundred and twenty-four students — eighty-three males and forty-one females — in attendance during the year 1856-7, and the first regular catalogue was published. At a special meeting of the Board, September 22, 1857, the honorary de- gree of Bachelor of Arts Avas conferre i on D. Franklin Wells. This was the first degree conferred by the Board. Article IX, Section 11, of the new State Constitution, which went into force September 3, 1857, provided as follows : The State TJniversity shall be estahlished at one place, without branches at any other place ; .and the University fund shall be applied to that institution, and no other. Article XI, Section 8, provided that The seat of Government is hereby permanently established, as now fixed by law, at the city •of Des Moines, in the county of Polk ; and the State University at Iowa City, in the county of Johnson. The new Constitution created the Board of Education, consisting of the Lieutenant Governor, who was ex ofiicio President, and one member to be elected from each judicial district in the State. ' This Board was endowed with "full power and authority to legislate and make all needful rules and regula- tions in relation to common schools and other educational institutions," subject to alteration, amendment or repeal by the General Assembly, Avhich was vested with authority to abolish or re-organize the Board at any time after 1863. In December, 1857, the old capitol building, now known as Central Hall of the University, except the rooms occupied by the United States District Court, and the property, with that exception, passed under tlie control of the Trustees, and became the seat of the University. The old building had had hard usage, and its arrangement was illy adapted for University purposes. Extensive repairs and changes were necessary, but the Board was without funds for these pur- poses. The last meeting of the Board, under the old law, was held in January, 1858. At this meeting, a resolution was introduced, and seriously considered, to exclude females from the University; but it finally failed. March 12, 1858, the first Legislature under the new Constitution enacted a new law in relation to the University, but it was not materially difl'erent from the former. March 11, 1858, the Legislature appropriated $3,000 for the re- pair and modification of the old capitol building, and $10,000 for the erection of a boarding house, now known as South Hall. The Board of Trustees created by the new law met and duly organized April 27, 1858, and determined to close the University until the income from its fund should be adequate to meet the current expenses, and the buildings should be ready for occupation. Until this term, the building known as the " Mechan- ics' Academy" had been used for the school. The Faculty, except the Chan- cellor (Dean ), was dismissed, and all further instruction suspended, from the close of the term then in progress until September, 1859. At this meeting, a reso- lution was adopted excluding females from the University after the close of the existing term ; but this was aiterward, in August, modified, so as to admit them to the Normal Department. At the meeting of the Board, August 4, 1858, the degree of Bachelor of Science was conferred upon Dexter Edson Smith, being tiie first degiee con- ferred upon a student of the University. Diplomas Avere awarded to the mem- bers of the first gradiuiting class of the Normal Department as follows : Levi P. Aylworth, Cellina II. Aylworth, Elizabeth L. Humphrey, Annie A. Pinney and Sylvia M. Thompson. HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. 191 An "Act for the Government and Regulation of the State University of Iowa," approved December 25, 1858, was mainly a re-enactment of the law of March 12, 1858, except that changes were made in the Board of Trustees, and manner of their appointment. This law provided that both sexes were to be admitted on equal terms to all departments of the institution, leaving the Board no discretion in the matter. The uew Board met and organized, February 2, 1859, and decided to con- tinue the Normal Department only to the end of the current term, and that it was unwise to re-open the University at that time; but at the annual meeting of the Board, in June of the same year, it was resolved to continue the Normal Department in operation ; and at a special meeting, October 25, 1859, it was decided to re-open the University in September, 1860. Mr. Dean had resigned' as Chancellor prior to this meeting, and Silas Totten, D. D., LL. D., was elected President, at a salary of $2,000, and his term commenced June, 1860. At the annual meeting, June 28, 1860, a full Faculty Avas appointed, and the University re-opened, under this new organization, September 19, 1860 (third Wednesday) ; and at this date the actual existence of the University may- be said to commence. August X9, 1862, Dr. Totten having resigned. Prof. Oliver M. Spencer was elected President and the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws was conferred upon Judge Samuel F. Miller, of Keokuk. At the commencement, in June, 1863, was the first class of graduates in the Collegiate Department. The Board of Education was abolished March 19, 1864, and the office of" Superintendent of Public Instruction was restored ; the General Assembly resumed control of the subject of education, and on March 21, an act was ap- proved for the government of the University. It was substantially the same as the former law, but provided that the Governor should be ex officio President of the Board of Trustees. Until 1858, the Superintendent of Public Instruction had been ex officio President, During the period of the Board of Education^ the University Trustees were elected by it, and elected their own President. President Spencer was granted leave of absence from April 10, 1866, for fifteen months, to visit Europe; and Prof. Nathan R. Leonard was elected President pro tern. The North Hall was completed late in 1866. At the annual meeting in June, 1867, the resignation of President Spencer (absent in Europe) was accepted, and Prof. Leonard continued as President joro- tern., until March 4, 1868, when James Black, D. D., Vice President of Wash- ington and Jefferson College, Penn., was elected President. Dr. Black entered upon his duties in September, 1868. The Law Departmentwas established in June, 1868, and, in September fol- lowing, an arrangement was perfected with the loAva Law School, at Des Moines, which had been in successful operation for three years, under the management of Messrs. George G. Wright, Chester C. Cole and William G. Hammond, by which that institution was transferred to Iowa City and merged in the Law De- partment of the University. The Faculty of this department consisted of the President of the University, Hon. Wm. G. Hammond, Resident Professor and Principal of the Department, and Professors G. G. Wright and C. C. Cole. Nine students entered at the commencement of the first term, and during the year ending June, 1877, there were 103 students in this department. At a special meeting of the Board, on the 17th of September, 1868, a Com- mittee was appointed to consider the expediency of establishing a Medical De- 192 HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. partment. This Committee reported at once in favor of the proposition, the Faculty to consist of the President of the University and seven Professors, and recommended that, if practicable, the new department should be opened at the commencement of the University year, in 1869-70. At this meeting, Hon. Ezekiel Clark was elected Treasurer of the University. By an act of the General Assembly, approved April 11, 1870, the "Board of Regents " was instituted as the governing power of the University, and since that time it has been the fundamental law of the institution. The Board of Regents held its first meeting June 28, 1870. Wm. J. Haddock was elected Secretary, and Mr, Clark, Treasurer. Dr. Black tendered his resignation as President, at a special meeting of the Board, held AugusC 18, 1870, to take effect on the 1st of December following. His resignation was accepted. The South Hall having been fitted up for the purpose, the first term of the Medical Department Avas opened October 21, 1870, and continued until March, 1871, at which time there were three graduates and thirty-nine students. March 1, 1871, Rev. George Thacher was elected President of the Univer- sity. Mr. Thacher accepted, entered upon his duties April 1st, and was form- ally inaugurated at the annual meeting in June, 18G1. In June, 1874, the '' Chair of Military Instruction" was established, and the President of the United States was requested to detail an officer to perform its duties. In compliance with this request, Lieut. A. D. Schenck, Second Artil- lery, U. S. A., was detailed as "Professor of Military Science and Tactics," at Iowa State University, by order of the War Department, August 26, 1874, who reported for duty on the 10th of September following. Lieut. Schenck was relieved by Lieut. James Chester, Third Artillery, January 1, 1877. Treasurer Clark resigned November 3, 1870, and John N. Coldren elected in his stead. At the annual meeting, in 1876, a Department of Homoeopathy was established. In March, 1877, a resolution was adopted affiliating the High Schools of the State Avith the University. In June, 1877, Dr. Thacher's connection with the L^niversity was termi- nated, and C. W. Slagle, a member of tiie Board of Regents, was elected Pres- ident. In 1872, the ex officio membership of the Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion was abolished ; but it was restored in 1876. Following is a catalogue of the officers of this important institution, from 1847 to 1878 : TRUSTEES OR REGENTS. PRESIDENTS. FROM TO Jfirncs Ilarlrtri, Superintendent Pulilic Instrnction, ex ofTicio 1847 1848 Thomas II. Kenton, .Tr,, Superintendent Public Instruction, ex officio 1843 1854 James D. Kads, Superintendent Public Instruction, ex oflicio 1854 1857 Maturin L. Fisher, Superintendent Public Instruction, ex oflBcio 1857 1858 Amos Dean, Chancellor, ex officio 1858 1859 Thomas H. Benton, Jr 18")!» 1803 Francis Springer 18r.8 1864 William M. Stone, Governor, ex officio 18*54 18G8 Samuel Morrill, (iovernor, ex officio 18G8 1872 Cyrus C. Carpenter, (iovernor, ex officio 1872 1876 Samuel J. Kirkwood, Governor, ex oflicio I?i70 1877 Joshua G. Newbold, Governor, ex officio 1877 1878 John H. Gear 1878 HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. 193 VICE rRESIDENTS. FROM TO Silas Foster 1847 1851 Robert Lucas 1851 1853 Edward Connelly 1854 1855 Moses J. Morsman 1855 1858 SECRETARIES. Hugh D. Downey 1847 1851 Anson Hart 1851 1857 Elijah Sells 1857 1858 Anson Hart 1858 1864 William J. Haddock 1864 TREASURERS. Morgan Reno, State Treasurer, ex officio 1847 1850 Israel Kister, State Treasurer, ex officio 1850 1852 Martin L. Morris, State Treasurer, ex officio 1852 1855 Henry AV. Lathrop 1855 1862 William Crum 1862 1868 Ezekiel Clark 1868 1876 John N. Coldren 1876 rRESIDENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY. Amos Dean, LL. D 1855 1858 Silas Totten, D. D., LL. D 1860 1862 Oliver M. Spencer, D. D.* '. 1862 1867 James Black, D. D 1868 1870 George Thacher, D. D 1871 1877 C. W. Slagle 1877 The present educational corps of the University consists of the President, nine Professors in the Collegiate Department, one Professor and six Instructors in Military Science ; Chancellor, three Professors and four Lecturers in the Law Department ; eight Professor Demonstrators of Anatomy ; Prosector of Surgery and two Lecturers in the Medical Department, and two Professors in the Homoeopathic Medical Department. STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY. By act of the General Assembly, approved January 28, 1857, a State His- torical Society was provided for in connection with the University. At the commencement, an appropriation of $250 was made, to be expended in collecting, embodying, and preserving in an authentic form a library of books, pamphlets, charts, maps, manuscripts, papers, paintings, statuary, and other materials illus- trative of the history of Iowa; and with the further object to rescue from oblivion the memory of the early pioneers ; to obtain and preserve various accounts of their exploits, perils and hardy adventures ; to secure facts and statements relative to the history and genius, and progress and decay of the Indian tribes of Iowa; to exhibit faithfully the antiquities and past and present resources of the State ; to aid in the publication of such collections of the Society as shall from time to time be deemed of value and interest ; to aid in binding its books, pamphlets, manuscripts and papers, and in defraying other necessary incidental expenses of the Society. There Avas appropriated by law to this institution, till the General Assembly shall otherwise direct, the sum of $500 per annum. The Society is under the management of a Board of Curators, consisting of eighteen persons, nine of whom are appointed by the Governor, and nine elected by the mqmbers of the Society. The Curators receive no compensation for their services. The annual 194 HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. meeting is provided for by law, to be held at Iowa City on Monday preceding the last AVednesday in June of each year. The State Historical Society has published a scries of very valuable collec- tions, including history, tiograjjhy, sketches, reminiscences, etc., with quite a large number of finely engraved portraits of prominent and early settlers, under the title of " Annals of Iowa." THE PENITENTIARY. Located at Fort Madison, Lee County. The first act of the Territorial Legislature, relating to a Penitentiary in Iowa, was approved January 25, 1839, the fifth section of which authorized the Governor to draw the sum of $20,000 appropriated by an act of Congress ap- proved July 7, 1838, for public buildings in the Territory of Iowa. It provided for a Board of Directors of three persons elected by the Legislature, who should direct the building of the Penitentiary, which should be located within one mile of the public square, in the town of Fort Madison, Lee County, provided Fort Madison should deed to the directors a tract of land suitable for a site, and assign them, by contract, a spring or stream of water for the use of the Penitentiary. To the Directors was also given the power of appointing the Warden ; the latter to appoint Jiis own assistants. The first Directors appointed were John S. David and John Claypole. They made their first report to the Legislative Council November 9, 1839. The citi- zens of the town of Fort Madison had executed a deed conveying ten Jicres of land for the building site. Amos Ladd was appointed Superintendent of the building June O, 1839, The building was designed of sufficient capacity to con- tain one hundred and thirty-eight convicts, and estimated to cost $55,933.90. It was begun on the 9th of July, 1839 ; the main building and Warden's house were completed in the Fall of 1841. Other additions were made from time to time till the building and arrangements were all complete according to the plan of the Directors. It has answered the purpose of the State as a Penitentiary for more than thirty years, and during that period many items of practical ex- perience in prison management have been gained. It has long been a problem how to conduct prisons, and deal with what are called the criminal classes generally, so as to secure their best good and best subserve the interests of the State. Both objects must be taken into considera- tion in any humaritarian view of the subject. This problem is not yet solved, but Iowa has adopted the progressive and enlightened policy of humane treat- ment of prisoners and the utilization of their labor for their own support. Tiie labor of the convicts in the Iowa Penitentiary, as in most others in the United States, is let out to contractors, who pay the State a certain stipulated amount therefor, the State furnishing the shops, tools and machinery, as wtll as the supervision necessary to preserve order and discipline in the prison. While this is an improvement upon the old solitary confinement system, it still falls short of an enlightened reformatory system that in the future will treat the criminal for mental disease and endeavor to restore him to usefulness in the community. The objections urged against the contract system of dis- posing of the labor of prisoners, that it brings the labor of honest citizens into competition with convict labor at reduced prices, and is disadvantageous to the State, are not without force, and the system will have no place in the prisons of the future. HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. 195 It is right that the convict should labor. He should not be allowed to live in idleness at public expense. Honest men labor ; why should not they? Hon- est men are entitled to the fruits of their toil ; why should not the convict as well ? The convict is sent to the Penitentiary to secure public safety. The State deprives him of his liberty to accomplish this purpose and to punish him for violations of law, but, having done this, the State wrongs both itself and the criminal by confiscating his earnings ; because it deprives his family of what justly belongs to them, and an enlightened civilization will ere long demand that the prisoner in the penitentiary, after paying a fair price for his board, is as justly entitled to his net earnings as the good citizen outside its walls, and his family, if he has one, should be entitled to draw his earnings or stated portion of them at stated periods. If he has no family, then if his net earnings should be set aside to his credit and paid over to him at the expiration of his term of imprisonment, he would not be turned out upon the cold charities of a somewhat Pharisaical world, penniless, with the brand of the convict upon his brow, with no resource save to sink still deeper in crime. Let Iowa, " The Beautiful Land," be first to recognize the rights of its convicts to the fruits of their labor ; keep their children from the alms-house, and place a powerful incentive before them to become good citizens when they return to the busy world again. ADDITIONAL PENITENTIARY. Located at Anamosa, Jones County. By an act of the Fourteenth General Assembly, approved April 23, 1872, William Ure, Foster L. Downing and Martin Heisey were constituted Commis- sioners to locate and provide for the erection and control of an additional Penitentiary for the State of Iowa. These Commissioners met on the 4th of the following June, at Anamosa, Jones County, and selected a site donated by the citizens, within the limits of the city. L. W. Foster & Co., architects, of Des Moines, furnished the plan, drawings and specifications, and work was commenced on the building on the 28th day of September, 1872. May 13, 1873, twenty convicts were transferred to Anamosa from the Fort Madison Penitentiary. The entire enclosure includes fifteen acres, with a frontage of 663 feet. i IOWA HOSPITAL FOR THE INSANE. Mount Pleasant, Henry County. By an act of the General Assembly of Iowa, approved January 24, 1855, $4,425 were appropriated for the purchase of a site, and $50,000 for building an Insane Hospital, and the Governor (Grimes), Edward Johnston, of Lee County, and Charles S. Blake, of Henry County, were appointed to locate the institution and superintend the erection of the building. These Commission- ers located the institution at Mt. Pleasant, Henry County. A plan for a building designed to accommodate 300 patients, drawn by Dr. Bell, of Massa- chusetts, was accepted, and in October work was commenced under the superin- tendence of Mr. Henry Winslow. Up to February 25, 1858, and including an appropriation made on that date, the Legislature had appropriated $258,555.67 to this institution, but the building was not finished ready for occupancy by patients until March 1, 1861. The Trustees were Maturin L. Fisher, Presi- dent, Farmersburg; Samuel McFarland, Secretary, Mt. Pleasant; D. L. 19(i HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. McGugin, Keokuk; G. W, Kincaid, Muscatine; J. D. Elbert, Keosauqua; John B. Lash and Harpin Riggs, Mt. Pleasant. Richard J. Patterson, M. D., of Ohio, was elected Superintendent; Dwight C. Dewej, M. D., Assistant Physician; Henry Winslow, Steward; Mrs. Catharine Winslow, Matron. The Hospital was formally opened March 6, 18G1, and one hundred patients were admitted within three months. About 1865, Dr. Mark Ranney became Superintendent. April 18, 1876, a portion of the hospital building was destroyed by fire. From the opening of the Hospital to the close of October, 1877, 3,584 patients had been admitted. Of these, 1,141 were discharged recovered, 505 discharged improved, 589 discharged unimproved, and 1 died ; total discharged, 2,976, leaving 608 inmates. During this period, there were 1,384 females admitted, whose occupation was registered "domestic duties ;" 122, no occupation; 25, female teachers; 11, seamstresses; and 25, servants. Among the males were 916 farmers, 394 laborers, 205 without occupation, 39 cabinet makers, 23 brewers, 31 clerks, 26 merchants, 12 preachers, 18 shoe- makers, 13 students, 14 tailors, 13 teachers, 14 agents, 17 masons, 7 lawyers, 7 physicians, 4 saloon keepers, 3 salesmen, 2 artists, and 1 editor. The pro- ducts of the farm and garden, in 1876, amounted to $13,721.26. Trustees, 1877 :—'£. Whiting, President, Mt. Pleasant; Mrs. E. M. Elliott, Secretary, Mt. Pleasant; William C. Evans, West Liberty; L. E. Fellows, Lansing ; and Samuel Klein, Keokuk ; Treasurer, M. Edwards, Mt. Pleasant. Resident Officers: — Mark Ranney, M. D., Medical Superintendent; H. M. Bassett, M. D., First Assistant Physician; M. Riordan, M. D., Second Assistant Physician; Jennie McCowen, M. D., Third Assistant Physician ; J. W. Hender- son, Steward ; Mrs. Martha W^. Ranney, Matron ; Rev. Milton Sutton, Chaplain. HOSPITAL FOR THE INSANE. Independence, Buchanan Counts/. In the Winter of 1867-8, a bill providing for an additional Hospital for the Insane was passed by the Legislature, and an appropriation of $125,000 was made for that purpose. Maturin L. Fisher, of Clayton County ; E. G. Morgan, of Webster County, and Albert Clark, of Buchanan County, were appointed Commissioners to locate and supervise the erection of the Building. Mr. Clark died about a year after his appointment, and Hon. G. W. Bemis, of Indepen- dence, was appointed to fill the vacancy. The Commissioners met and commenced their labors on the 8th day of June, 1868, at Independence. The act under which they were appointed required them to select the most eligible and desirable location, of not loss than 320 acres, within two miles of the city of Independence, that might be offered by the citizens free of charge to the State, Several such tracts were offered, but the Commissioners finally selected the south half of southwest quarter of Section 5 ; the north half of northeast quarter of Section 7 ; the north half of northwest quarter of Section 8, and the north half of northeast quarter of Sec- tion 8, all in Township 88 north. Range 9 Avest of the Fifth Principal Meridian. This location is on the west side of the Wapsipinicon River, and about a mile from its banks, and about the same distance from Independence. Col. S. V. Shipman, of Madison, Wis., was employed to prepare plans, specifications and drawings of the building, which, when completed, were sub- mitted to Dr. M. Ranney, Superintendent of the Hospital at Mount Pleasant, who suggested several improvements. The contract for erecting the building HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. 197 was awarded to Mr. David Armstrong, of Dubuque, for $88,114. The con- tract was signed November 7, 18G8, and Mr. Armstrong at once commenced work. Mr. George Josselyn was appointed to superintend the work. The main buildings Avere constructed of dressed limestone, from the quarries at Anamosa and Farley. The basements are of the local granite worked from the immense boulders found in large quantities in this portion of the State. In 1872, the building was so far completed that the Commissioners called the first meeting of the Trustees, on the 10th day of July of that year. These Trustees were Maturin L. Fisher, Mrs. P. A. Applcman, T. W'. Fawcett, C. €. Parker, E. G. Morgan, George W. Bemis and John M. Boggs. This board was organized, on the day above mentioned, by the election of Hon. M, L. Fisher, President; Rev. J. G. Boggs, Secretary, and George W. Bemis, Treas- urer, and, after adopting preliminary measures for organizing the local govern- ment of the hospital, adjourned to the first Wednesday of the following Septem- ber. A few days before this meeting, Mr. Boggs died of malignant fever, and Dr. John G. House was appointed to fill the vacancy. Dr. House was elected Secretary. At this meeting, Albert Reynolds, M. D., was elected Superintendent; George Josselyn, Steward, and Mrs. Anna B. Josselyn, Matron. September 4, 1873, Dr. Willis Butterfield was elected Assistant Physician. The building was ready for occupancy April 21, 1873. In the Spring of 1876, a contract was made with Messrs. Mackay & Lundy, of Independence, for furnishing materials for building the outside walls of the two first sections of the south wing, next to the center building, for |G,250. The carpenter work on the fourth and fifth stories of the center building was completed during the same year, and the wards were furnished and occupied by patients in the Fall. In 1877, the south wing was built, but it will not be completed ready for occupancy until next Spring or Summer (1878). October 1, 1877, the Superintendent reported 322 patients in this hospital, and it is now overcrowded. The Board of Trustees at present (1878) are as follows : Maturin L. Fisher, President, Farmersburg ; John G. House, M. D., Secretary, Indepen- dence ; Wm. G. Donnan, Treasurer, Independence ; Erastus G. Morgan, Fort Dodge ; Mrs. Prudence A. Appleman, Clermont ; and Stephen E. Robinson, M. D., West Union. RESIDENT OFFICERS. Albert Reynolds, M. D., Superintendent ; G. H. Hill, M. D., Assistant Physician; Noyes Appleman, Steward; Mrs. Lucy M. Gray, Matron. IOWA COLLEGE FOR THE BLIND. Vinton, Benton County. In August, 1852, Prof. Samuel Bacon, himself blind, established an Insti- tution for the Instruction of the Blind of Iowa, at Keokuk. By act of the General Assembly, entitled " An act to establish an Asylum for the Blind," approved January 18, 1853, the institution was adopted by the State, removed to Iowa City, February 3d, and opened for the reception of pupils April 4, 1853, free to all the blind in the State. The first Board of Trustees were James D. Fads, President ; George W. McClary, Secretary ; James H. Gower, Treasurer ; Martin L. Morris, Stephen Hempstead, Morgan Reno and John McCaddon. The Board appointed Prof. 198 HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. Samuel Bacon, Principal ; T. J. McGittigen, Teacher of Music, and Mrs. Sarah K. Bacon, Matron. Twenty-three pupils were admitted during the first term. In his first report, made in 18r)4, Prof. Bacon suggested that the name should be changed from "Asylum for the Blind," to that of "Institution for the Instruction of the Blind." This was done in 1855, when the General As- sembly made an annual appropriation for the College of $55 per quarter for each pupil. This was subsequently changed to $3,000 per annum, and a charge of $25 as an admission fee for each pupil, Avhich sum, with the amounts realized from the sale of articles manufactured by the blind pupils, proved sufficient for the expenses of the institution during Mr. Bacon's administration. Although Mr. Bacon was blind, he was a fine scholar and an economical manager, and had founded the Blind Asylum at Jacksonville, Illinois. As a mathematician he had few superiors. On the 8th of May, 1858, the Trustees met at Vinton, and made arrange- ments for securing the donation of $5,000 made by the citizens of that town. In June of that year, a quarter section of land was donated for the College, by John W. 0. Webb and others, and the Trustees adopted a plan for the erection of a suitable building. In 1860, the plan was modified, and the con- tract for enclosing let to Messrs. Finkbine & Lovelace, for $10,420. In August, 1862, the building was so far completed that the goods and fur- uiture of the institution were removed from Iowa City to Vinton, and early in October, the school was opened there with twenty-four pupils. At this time. Rev. Orlando Clark was Principal. In August, 1864, a new Board of Trustees were appointed by the Legisla- ture, consisting of James McQuin,. President; Reed Wilkinson, Secretary ; Jas. Chapin, Treasurer; Robert Gilchrist, Elijah Sells and Joseph Dysart, organized and made important changes. Rev. Reed Wilkinson succeeded Mr. Clark as Principal. Mrs. L. S. B. Wilkinson and Miss Amelia Butler were appointed Assistant Teachers ; Mrs. N. A. Morton, Matron. Mr. Wilkinson resigned in June, 1867, and Gen. James L. Geddes was appointed in his place. In September, 1869, Mr. Geddes retired, and was succeeded by Prof. S. A.Knapp. Mrs. S. C. Lawton was appointed Matron, and was succeeded by Mrs. M. A. Knapp. Prof. Knapp resigned July 1, 1875, and Prof. Orlando Clark was elected Principal, who died April 2, 1876, and was succeeded by John B. Parmalee, who retired in July, 1877, when the present incumbent, Rev. Robert Carothers, was elected. Trustees, 1S77-S. — Jeremiah L. Gay, President; S. H.Watson, Treasurer; H. C. Piatt, Jacob Springer, C. L. Flint and P. F. Sturgis. Faculty. — Principal, Rev. Robert Carothers, A. M. ; Matron, Mrs. Emeline E. Carothers; Teachers, Thomas F. McCune, A. B., Miss Grace A. Hill, Mrs. C. A. Spencer, Miss Mary Baker, Miss C. R. Miller, Miss Lorana Mat- tice. Miss A. M. McCutcheon ; Musical Director, S. 0. Spencer. The Legislative Committee who visited tliis institution in 1878 expressed their astonishment at the vast expenditure of money in proportion to the needs of the State. The striutture is well built, and the money properly expended ; yet it was enormously beyond the necessities of the State, and shows an utter disregard of the fitness of things. The Committee could not understand why $282,000 should have been expended for a massive building covering about two and a half acres for the accommodation of 130 people, costing over eight thou- sand didlars a year to heat it, and costing the Staite about five hundred dollars a year for each pupil. History of the state of iowa. 199 INSTITUTION FOR THE DEAF AND DUMB. Council Bluffs, Pottaivattomie County. The Iowa Institution for the Deaf and Dumb was established at Iowa City laj an act of the General Assembly, approved January 24, 1855. The number of deaf mutes then in the State was 301 ; the number attending the Institution, 50. The first Board of Trustees were: Hon. Samuel J. Kirkwood, Hon. E. Sells, W. Penn Clarke, J. P. Wood, H. D. Downey, William Crura, W. E. Ijams, Principal. On the resignation of Mr. Ijams, in 1862, the Board appointed in his stead Mr. Benjamin Talbot, for nine years a teacher in the Ohio Institution for ttie Deaf and Dumb. Mr. Talbot was ardently devoted to the interests of the institution and a faithful worker for the unfortunate class under his charge. A strong effort was made, in 1866, to remove this important institution to Des Moines, but it was located permanently at Council Bluffs, and a building rented for its use. In 1868, Commissioners were appointed to locate a site for, and to superintend the erection of, a new building, for which the Legislature appropriated $125,000 to commence the work of construction. The Commis- sioners selected ninety acres of land about two miles south of the city of Coun- cil Bluffs. The main building and one wing were completed October 1, 1870, and immediately occupied by the Institution. February 25, 1877, the main building and east wing were destroyed by fire ; and August 6 following, the roof of the new west wing was blown off and the walls partially demolished by •a tornado. At the time of the fire, about one hundred and fifty pupils were in attendance. After the fire, half the classes were dismissed and the number of scholars reduced to about seventy, and in a week or two the school was in run- ning order. The Legislative Committee which visited this Institution in the "Winter of 1857-8 was not well pleased with the condition of affairs, and reported that the building (west wing) was a disgrace to the State and a monument of unskillful ^'orkmanship, and intimated rather strongly that some reforms in management Tvere very essential. Trustees, 7 u rH 05 rH ^ (N CO rH t~ ■»*< C£ OrH-^ -^ntoddu jfg CO CO c^ : rH rH !N •^ . CO rH rH S^ OCOrHlr^COCOrHO •^ •SdjOQ •S3H "I^A ox 3 CO _^ : rH :"' •pajn)dB3 i-H — 1 iO rt 00 rH^ CO :t-'NCO(NC5rH- CO UO CO COMCOCOCOi-ir-lC^lOl ■* rH lO CO CO •^XIMt^OCOiMv-OOSCO CO(NCOCOCO(MCO*< ■<*< -nn asnBO oi iC -- r^ rH '-^ .-^ ^ ■>* !rq CO ■* CO •jfliliq-Bsip ao^ ^ CD rH rH rH (M rH rH (N rH :(M rH j-\ a •F?ox CO 0^ CO -^ c^ I 05 •* t- •SuiuMOjp jCfj 1 •::::: ""* : : •asuasip JO (N C^ -* (N .I > C "5 > % c c t a (- 1 > T 1 > % (I > > > ti C a U "d > 1 "d d 2 > u 4) d pa ■> " > < > t-. 1 a a C 01 02 i > u a, < * > w H ^ > a < > "S 1 > 0. < > U C tr > 'c c c c, a; > c c c; aj > -a c c 1, a. -5 a. a 00 a > u c -a u Ic H c eS > "c c £^ la E- > c c ^ rt ;m (a aj > Is &H c c C > c c 4: > c I' > c 1 t a; c s > > c c c a. > c a. a. S e =£ s c E- > 1 c a EH ^ HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. 235 lO iM c-( (M rt (N rH s^q ,-H «0 (N iM O CO i-H ?q i-H iM i-i (M ,-1 (M CO 1-1 UO eo o-*i«oeococo-*iOT}-0 CO ■* Cq rH : rH :<)OqC^5i-ii-ii-irt((M(McO ,COCDuOCOCOC^-^C^iOy5-*COCOlCC^t^C oi "S a "^ 4) oj o o S5 .2 £ fe fii (i< i/2 CO ■ "■ ^ -^ «S a a 3 i>S=2t2 _ 3*^ Brats ^ 0-^^3=5 "Sac's a aScaS'tS HHHHE-iHHHHenH li 3 — '-' ^3-2:25 ^ § -S 3 3 ^ "E _^H "E t^ t- S 13 13 la S ' H HHHH >.bj^ .oj a S J^ a-2 "v^^a a:s j' 3 S 3^ ,, t^ ^ a 1: .a =g J ~ <" ^ -ti a ^ rfi t» O) a 1^ t»> p»> >^ >>> >i "S ^ "S '-C -„ .„ — -— .« t. -3-3^^.J3 O » ^ w w w.^ o o o o o , 236 HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. •IBIox •4U3UI -;uioddv A*a ■sdjoo H • AOX CO -* rt 0 ^ rf< O i-H 7^ CO CO C? 1— * ^'^ o CO iM CO CO C^ CO IM •if[^B:>U8piD0Y C0C0 31'^C0C0r-H!M{Mr-lT-li— 1 CO -^ -^ CO -^ lO ■* •notpv °I t~ Ttl -H 00 CO CO -^ •* CO ^ (N CO o: CO — > 00 o -^ r~ ■— I I— CO CN >— ' UO uO CO 5^ Otl Cp (M CO (N •IB?OX coC3 0o-:coi3iX>-^(M-^X>:0 OCDOOOiMQO-*CO<£iCOi-lS^ ■T^ i-H CO (M C^ C^ OQ03 0DOi-l00 1-aOa^COC5!N (N (NCO OlCOiOOOOCOO ^5 C^ (MI^riT^COiMI^ •UMOUJl iJjilII^STCI -"^^d 1-1 T-i (N ^ i-H CS I— 04 ■^ CO .-H (M C^l — O iC CO t— CO T-(0 O'M-HOD-^M'CO .-H r-( i-H *l ?M 'M --o o ;M -— 1 (>) CS i-l C5 "M lO t— CO -^ t— ,-H r^ C^) rl r-l r-l i-l C^ rl SaiuMOjQ jCg ■^co(MTr(MT}ii--^co •apiDing £q I^J ^ r-. .-H •asB8Si(i JO t— I— l-^Ot— Oi'M'-HC^'— iCiCOiO 00 0^ W OO 'MiOCSOSCCOIMCO l-l >-H (M r-H 1-H .-H t— t-i— ir— OiOit-O'^'i-Ct-ooTjt O>-l(N02 COCSC^ICOCOOCO rH (M ^ rt ^ I^ ,_, •spunoAV JO •lB]ox •^n-B^nappoy COCO-^-*OCOOOCO' ; CO : .-^ r-l •uoipv °I O "3 •:3 >> 2 5 t>i bl bl L" «« (S a a^ 5 £ S g_^ea I i i cS 5 ^ ^ ojr— l^^^co■^_5i t- c: > * P ^6 S > - - -"^ ^-mJ o -OO-'^^ t- t- t- t- X g,"^ b-^ ^^"^ ^ >-i >> « -S "^ .^i 0 CO (M CM CD C^t T-H i-( !M ^^ '~' r-i I— 1 1— 1 1-1 r-i : '"' : '"' ; I— ( •* M 00 C4 i:DC5>OCOr-iCCi-HCOOf^'-C>050'— lOOCOClOOTii— i-XliMt^OOC^ ^r-lr-lr-( !-lCS?q C^CO-^'»l'^TtCOa5COCOOOCO CO i-H T}< ; ^^ Jrli-lv-OCO :COCO(MCOCO-^I^CO :^-(S^^ ; c^ : :<» : M : C^ O CO O (M tN O Ol a3 TtlCD-^ 1-1 ^ 1-1 ;n (M 1-1 1-1 0^ CO C^ : -M >.0 1-1 1-1 o3 -* : o T}H rH : o 00 00 -Ht^330-H^05(^loocococooot^Tt0 r-H ->] C^] ,— 1 T-lI^C^r-l COC^tM'T^i-ir-lr-lt-lrtC^-^i-llMi-li-li-li-li-li-ltO r-li-ICO^i-lr-H o 1^ 00 05 OC-Ct^COrJiIvJCSCOCDiOCD-^OOCDrtiOOrtQOcDt-CCOOO-^t^ COCOt^O C0TJ103 i-i r-H COi— 1 1— (COi— ICOC^ t-- I^ Tti o ex -^ -^ 1-1 CO CO (M 00 05 r-iT}<(>)t^t~OO05(MC0l~3;O-HOO3-^-j3t^C;i:^;DC;cDC0J5'Mt— cocoait^is c-iraosco i^coo^nooiocoiot^O'M'^cocD^oicoi-ooao (Mt^co'MOao^i-i l-lr-li-ll-( lNrH,-l!Ml-li-(i-li-li-IO^i-li-l^i-li-(i-li-li-li-l(M i-(r-ICOi-l i-H o lO Tji CD t^ »0 t^ t^ 1-1 Tfl »-( I^ Cq 1-1 -n'ai:D05OC^)00O0DC0C3OOCDCDI-l~t^CDi— iCOC-lCOr-HCv),— ii-i-^C^-rflCi'tCD-'llt^ [-^■.^r-li— lCO'^COOO'>JO-HCOaOO'DLOt^COCOCO 1— lO>.0"*li— I'^OS 1— (1— l!M-^ CO C<10Ji-lr-li-li-li-li-(C^r^Il CO CO ■* 1-1 1-1 rH rt r-( r-l r-H lO 00 CO ri '^5 •>*i Tt< 00 (M »— I (M r-l 1— I ■"^r^t^Oi— iOt^c0cCl^0>-'*iC^Oa0^rHC0CC00C0C!'M:D'-iOC~-C3'MT*1(Mi— I'M i-i'Mi— lCOr-Hi-( CO i-i(M (M l-H 1-1 r- : rH : (N 1-1 > ■ -^ "% r^ u >> c p .fi p i -^ c: ^ ^ c a ^ Pi c =2 "^ "3 _ t— I c j3 -S 'S ^ h-H -^ KH c =*- § tii c S c <^ d ,* ti; l-H d -o d d -^ c2 J2 .=s tS 5 d ^ - - !- J3 0) .d "S 'tj ^" >> o d d n1 t> d ^ HH « -5 _, 00 '^ CO a 0) o) . >. tk >> tk >> >% d d 65 H cH IJ^ Ci< dddddddddd bo d CJ ^ O U 1> GJ 4> fe lid HHEh t.3-tidoj3^-w;25"S d a,CS<*- d-^ d ce^ST^c?* ,csj5't; d oco.cS'v^^S'*- ^!!vS^"^d"^^^ £o.S3ad^^>&Dg ldldFdldldld-d.d.d-d^ EHHenHEHHH&HEHHH CO « ?*>5 c3 c<^ >-> d h -t t." i: tS d g ii T; Cm 5j cS - 2 d «5 =*- ^ ^ d fl d c^-i'S drt'-' .CS"r3hS^5j d _!-i cd o ^" ■« aj •-< c>-i ■~ ►L'*-' * tn If * ■< X, o T, X. i^ X X, "^ 238 HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. POPULATION OF IOWA, By Counties. COUNTIES. AGGREGATE. 1875. 1870. 1860. 1830. 1840. Voters. Adair 7045 7832 19158 2370 17405 28807 22913 17251 13220 17315 3561 3982 4614 17868 16450 1212 22454 21706 14584 12528 17034 1685 984 1538 12287 11931 454 8496 8244 4232 4915 7906 67 1616 Adams 1727 Allamakee 777 8131 3653 Appanoose Audubon 627 3679 Benton 672 135 735 4778 Black Hawk 4877 Boone 3515 Bremer 2656 Buchanan 517 3890 Buena Vista 817 Buncombe* Butler 11734 3185 5760 10552 17879 6685 4249 11400 10118 3559 27184 34295 6089 14386 15757 13249 16898 35415 1748 43845 1436 20515 13100 6558 13719 7028 8134 9638 7701 1482 15029 11818 21594 7875 3455 794 17456 23061 24128 17127 24654 19168 9951 1602 2451 5464 19731 4722 1967 10180 8735 1523 27771 85857 2530 12019 15565 12018 17482 27256 1889 38969 1892 16973 10768 4738 11178 4627 6399 7061 6055 999 13684 8931 21463 6282 2596 226 16644 22619 22116 178.39 24898 19731 3724 147 281 1612 12949 940 68 4336 6427 62 20728 18988 888 5244 18764 8677 11024 19611 180 31164 105 12073 3744 1309 6074 1374 793 3058 1699 179 5440 3621 18701 8168 332 48 8029 18493 9883 15088 17573 13306 2598 Calhoun 681 Carroll 1197 2422 3941 1253 3934 Cerro Gordo 1526 Cherokee 1001 Chickasaw 2892 Clarke 79 2213 Clay 868 3873 2822 1101 821 5272 5669 Crawford 1244 Dallas 854 7264 965 1759 12988 3170 3448 2882 Delaware 168 5577 3662 Des Moines 6654 394 10841 3059 8769 Emmet t 299 Fayette 825 4637 Floyd 2884 1374 Fremont 1244 2998 1622 Grundy 1525 Guthrie 2839 Hamilton 1455 Hancock 303 Hardin 3215 2658 Henry 8707 3772 4641 1712 Humboldt 695 Ida 172 822 7210 1280 9904 4472 3007 3576 1411 4901 Jasper 5239 2778 1491 471 3721 6225 Jones 4180 * In 1862, name changed to Lyon. HISTORY OF THE STATE OF IOWA. POPULATION OF IOWA— Concluded. 239 COUNTIES. •AGGREGATE. 1875. 1870. I860. 1850. 1840. Toters. 20488 3765 33913 31815 12499 11725 1139 16030 23718 24094 19629 10555 11523 2267 12811 10389 21623 2349 1778 14274 2728 5282 2249 31558 21665 16482 7546 2873 39763 5664 3720 13111 18771 10418 8827 17980 18541 19269 23865 13978 13114 24233 2986 8568 4908 3244 19434 3351 38210 28852 12877 10388 221 13884 22508 24436 17576 8718 9582 3654 12724 5934 21688 715 13271 416 29232 18947 10370 5766 4822 4202 Kossuth. 773 Lee 18861 5444 4939 471 6093 1373 1927 6709 7274 2899 2464 Lyon* 287 7339 14816 16813 6015 4481 3409 832 8612 1256 16444 8 1179 5989 5482 338 2632 Mahaska 5287 Marion 4988 Marshall 4445 Mills 2365^ Mitchell 2338 1292 Monroe 2884 2743 Montgomery 2485 Muscatine 5731 1942 6588- 595 Osceola 498 Page 9975 1336 .2199 1446 27857 16893 15581 5691 1411 38599 2540 576 11651 16131 6989 6986 17672 22346 17980 18952 11287 10484 1562 23570 6172 2892 2392 4419 132 148 103 11625 4968 5668 2923 246 25959 818 10 4051 5285 3590 2012 17081 14518 10281 14235 6409 2504 168 13942 1119 756 653 551 3222^ Palo Alto 556 Plymouth 1136 Pocahontas 464 Polk 4513 7828 615 6842 Pottawat tomie 4392 Poweshiek 3634r Rinesold 1496 Sac 657 Scott 5986 2140 7109 Shelby 1084 Sioux 63T Story 2574: Tama 8 204 3911 Taylor 2282 Union 1924 Van Buren 12270 8471 961 4957 340 6146 3893 Wapello 3923- Warren 4168 Washington 1594 5346 Wayne 2947 Webster 3747 Winnebago 4117 Winneshiek 546 406 Woodbury 1776 Worth :... 763 Wricrht 694 Total 1353118 1191792 674913 192214| 4.'?119 9.H4^.^7. 240 THE NORTHWESTERN STATES. ILLINOIS. Length, 380 miles, mean width about 156 miles. Area, 55,410 square miles, or 35,462,400 acres. Illinois, as regards its surface, constitutes a table-land at a varying elevation ranging between 350 and 800 feet above the sea level ; composed of extensive and highly fertile prairies and plains. Much of the south division of the State, especially the river-bottoms, are thickly wooded. The prairies, too, have oasis-like clumps of trees scattered here and there at intervals. The chief rivers irrigating the State are the Mississippi — dividing it from Iowa and Missouri — the Ohio (^forming its south barrier), the Illinois, Wabash, Kaskaskia, and San- gamon, with their numerous affluents. The total extent of navigable streams is calculated at 4,000 miles. Small lakes are scattered over vari- ous parts of the State. Illinois is extremely prolific in minerals, chiefly coal, iron, copper, and zinc ores, sulphur and limestone. The coal-field alone is estimated to absorb a full third of the entire coal-deposit of North America. Climate tolerably equable and healthy ; the mean temperature standing at about 51" Fahrenheit As an agricultural region, Illinois takes a competitive rank with neighboring States, the cereals, fruits, and root- crops yielding plentiful returns ; in fact, as a grain-growing State, Illinois may be deemed, in proportion to her size, to possess a greater area of lands suitable for its production than any other State in the Union. Stock- raising is also largely carried on, while her manufacturing interests in regard of woolen fabrics, etc., are on a very extensive and yearly expand- inir scale. The lines of railroad in the State are among the most exten- fiive of the Union. Inland water-carriage is facilitated by a canal connecting the Illinois River with Lake Michigan, and thence with the ,St. Lawrence and Atlantic. Illinois is divided into 102 counties ; the chief towns being Chicago, Springfield (capital), Alton, Quincy, Peoria, ■Galena, Bloomington, Rock Island, Vandalia, etc. By the new Consti- tution, established in 1870, the State Legislature consists of 51 Senators, elected for four years, and 153 Representatives, for two years ; which numbers were to be decennially increased thereafter to the number of six per every additional half-million of inhabitants. Religious and educational institutions are largely diffused throughout, and are in a very flourishing condition. Illinois has a State Lunatic and a Deaf and Dumb Asylum at Jacksonville ; a State Penitentiary at Joliet ; and a Home for (90) THE NORTHWESTERN STATES. 241 Soldiers' Orphans at Normal. On November 30, 1870, the public debt of the State was returned at $4,870,937, with a balance of 11,808,833 unprovided for. At the same period the value of assessed and equalized property presented the following totals: assessed, $840,031,703 ; equal- ized $480,664,058. The name of Illinois, through nearly th. whole of the eighteenth century, embraced most of the known regions north and west of Ohio. French colonists established themselves in 1673, at Cahokia and Kaskaskia, and the territory of which these settlements formed the nucleus was, in 1763, ceded to Great Britain in conjunction with Canada, and ultimately resigned to the United States in 1787. Illinois entered the Union as a State, December 3, 1818; and now sends 19 Representatives to Congress. Population, 2,539,891, in 1870. 242 THE NORTHWESTERN STATES. INDIANA The profile of Indiana forms a nearly exact parallelogram, occupy- ing one of tlie most fertile portions of the great Mississippi Valley. The greater extent of the surface embraced within its limits consists of gentle undulations rising into hilly tracts toward the Ohio bottom. The chief rivers of the State are the Ohio and Wabasli, with their numerous aflluents. The soil is highly productive of the cereals and gra-sses — most particularly so in the valleys of the Ohio, Wabash, Whitewater, and White Rivers. The northeast and central portions are well timbered with virgin forests, and the west section is notably rich in coal, constitut- ing an offshoot of the great Illinois carboniferous field. Iron, copper, marble, slate, gypsum, and various clays are also abundant. From an agricultural point of view, the staple products are maize and wheat, with the other cereals in lesser yields ; and besides these, flax, hemp, sorghum, hops, etc., are extensively raised. Indiana is divided into 92 counties, and counts among her principal cities and towns, those of Indianapolis (the capital), Fort Wayne, Evansville, Terre Haute, Madison, Jefferson- ville, Columbus, Vincennes, South Bend, etc. The public institutions of the State are many and various, and on a scale of magnitude and efficiency commensurate with her important political and industrial status. Upward of two thousand miles of railroads permeate the State in all directions, and greatly conduce to the development of her expanding manufacturing interests. Statistics for the fiscal year terminating October 31, 1870, exhibited a total of receipts, $3,896,541 as against dis- bursements, 13,532,406, leaving a balance, $364,135 in favor of the State Treasury. The entire public debt, January 5, 1871, $3,971,000. This State was first settled by Canadian voyageurs in 1702, who erected a fort at Vincennes ; in 1763 it passed into the hands of the English, and was by the latter ceded to the United States in 1783. From 1788 till 1791, an Indian warefare prevailed. In 1800, all the region west and north of Ohio (then formed into a distinct territory) became merged in Indiana. In 1809, the present limits of the State were defined, Michigan and Illinois having previously been withdrawn. In 1811, Indiana was the theater of the Indian War of Tecumseh, ending with the decisive battle of Tippecanoe. In 1816 (December 11), Indiana became enrolled among the States of the American Union. In 1834, the State passed tlirough a monetary crisis owing to its having become mixed up with railroad, canal, and other speculations on a gigantic scale, which ended, for the tune being, in a general collapse of jniblic credit, and consec^uent bank- ruptcy. Since that time, however, the greater number of the public THE NORTHWESTERN STATES. 243 •works which had brought about that imbroglio — especially the great Wabash and Erie Canal — have been completed, to the great benefit of the State, whose subsequent progress has year by year been marked by rapid strides in the paths of wealth, commerce, and general social and political prosperity. The constitution now in force was adopted in 1851. Population, 1,680,637. IOWA. In shape, Iowa presents an almost perfect parallelogram ; has a length, north to south, of about 300 miles, by a pretty even width of 208 miles, and embraces an area of 55,045 square miles, or 85,228,800 acres. The surface of the State is generally undulating, rising toward the middle into an elevated plateau which forms the " divide " of the Missouri and Mississippi basins. Rolling prairies, especially in the south section, constitute a regnant feature, and the river bottoms, belted with woodlands, present a soil of the richest alluvion. Iowa is well watered ; the principal rivers being the Mississippi and Missouri, which form respectively its east and west limits, and the Cedar, Iowa, and Des Moines, affluents of the first named. Mineralogically, Iowa is important as occupying a section of the great Northwest coal field, to the extent of an area estimated at 25,000 square miles. Lead, copper, zinc, and iron, are also mined in considerable quantities. The soil is well adapted to the production of wheat, maize, and the other cereals ; fruits, vegetables, and esculent roots ; maize, wheat, and oats forming the chief staples. Wine, tobacco, hops, and wax, are other noticeable items of the agricul- tural yield. Cattle-raising, too, is a branch of rural industry largely engaged in. The climate is healthy, although liable to extremes of heat and cold. The annual gross product of the various manufactures carried on in this State approximate, in round numbers, a sum of ^20,000,000. Iowa has an immense railroad system, besides over 500 miles of water- communication by means of its navigable rivers. The State is politically divided into 99 counties, with the following centers of population : Des Moines (capital), Iowa City (former capital), Dubuque, Davenj^ort, Bur- lington, Council Bluffs, Keokuk, Muscatine, and Cedar Rapids. The State institutions of Iowa — religious, scholastic, and philanthropic — are on a par, as regards number and perfection of organization and operation, Avith those of her Northwest sister States, and education is especially well cared for, and largely diffused. Iowa formed a portion of the American territorial acquisitions from France, by the so-called Louisiana purchase in 1803, and was politically identified with Louisiana till 1812, 244 THE NORTHWESTERN STATES. when it merged into the Missouri Territory; in 1834 it came under the Michigan organization, and, in 1836, under that of Wisconsin. Finally, after being constituted an independent Territory, it became a State of the Union, December 28, 1846. Population in 1860, 674,913 ; in 1870, 1,191,792, and in 1875, 1,353,118. MICHIGAN. United area, 56,243 square miles, or 35,995,520 acres. Extent of the Upper and smaller Peninsula — length, 316 miles; breadth, fluctuating between 36 and 120 miles. The south division is 416 miles long, by from 50 to 300 miles wide. Aggregate lake-shore line, 1,400 miles. The Upper, or North, Peninsula consists chiefly of an elevated plateau, expanding into the Porcupine mountain-system, attaining a maximum height of some 2,000 feet. Its shores along Lake Superior are eminently bold and picturesque, and its area is rich in minerals, its product of copper constituting an important source of industry. Both divisions are heavily wooded, and the South one, in addition, boasts of a deep, rich» loamy soil, throwing up excellent crops of cereals and other agricultural produce. The climate is generally mild and humid, though the Winter colds are severe. The chief staples of farm husbandry include the cereals^ grasses, maple sugar, sorghum, tobacco, fruits, and dairy-stuffs. In 1870, the acres of land in farms were : improved, 5,096,939 ; unimjDroved woodland, 4,080,146 ; other unimproved land, 842,057. The cash value of land was $398,240,578 ; of farming implements and machinery, f 13,711,979. In 1869, there were shipped from the Lake Superior ports, 874,582 tons of iron ore, and 45,762 of smelted pig, along with 14,188 tons of copper (ore and ingot). Coal is another article largely mined. Inland communication is provided for by an admirably organized railroad system, and by the St. Mary's Ship Canal, connecting Lakes Huron and Superior. Michigan is politically divided into 78 counties ; its chief urban centers are Detroit, Lansing (capital), Ann Arbor, Marquette, Bay City, Niles, Ypsilanti, Grand Haven, etc. The Governor of the State is elected biennially. On November 30, 1870, the aggregate bonded debt of Michigan amounted to $2,385,028, and the assessed valuation of land to $266,929,278, representing an estimated cash value of $800,000,000. Education is largely diffused and most excellently conducted and pro- vided for. The State University at Ann Arbor, the colleges of Detroit and Kalamazoo, the Albion Female College, the State Normal School at Ypsilanti, and the State Agricultural College at Lansing, are chief among the academic institutions- Michigan (a term of Chippeway origin, and THE NORTHWESTERN STATES. 245 signifying " Great Lake), was discovered and first settled by French Canadians, who, in 1670, founded Detroit, the jjioneer of a series of trad- ing-posts on the Indian frontier. During the " Conspiracy of Pontiac," following the French loss of Canada, Michigan became the scene of a sanguinary struggle between the whites and aborigines. In 1796, it became annexed to the United States, which incorporated this region with the Northwest Territory, and then with Indiana Territory, till 1803, when it became territorially independent. Michigan was the theater oi warlike operations during the war of 1812 with Great Britain, and in 1819 was authorized to be represented by one delegate in Congress ; in 1837 she was admitted into the Union as a State, and in 1869 ratified the loth Amendment to the Federal Constitution. Population, 1,184,059. WISCONSIN. It has a mean length of 260 miles, and a maximum breadth of 215. Land area, 53,924 square miles, or 34,511,360 acres. Wisconsin lies at a considerable altitude above sea-level, and consists for the most part of an upland plateau, the surface of which is undulating and very generally diversified. Numerous local eminences called mounds are interspersed over the State, and the Lake Michigan coast-line is in many parts char- acterized by lofty escarped cliffs, even as on the Avest side the banks of the Mississippi form a series of high and picturesque bluffs. A group of islands known as The Apostles lie off .the extreme north point of the State in Lake Superior, and the great estuary of Green Bay, running far inland, gives formation to a long, narrow peninsula between its waters and those of Lake Michigan. The river-system of Wisconsin has three outlets • — those of Lake Superior, Green Bay, and the Mississippi, which latter stream forms the entire southwest frontier, widening at one point into the large watery exj^anse called Lake Pej^in. Lake Superior receives the St. Louis, Burnt Wood, and Montreal Rivers ; Green Bay, the Menomouee, Peshtigo, Oconto, and Fox ; while into the Mississippi empty the St. Croix, Chippewa, Bkick, Wisconsin, and Rock Rivers. The chief interior lakes are those of Winnebago, Horicon, and Court Oreilles, and smaller sheets of water stud a great part of the surface. The climate is healthful, with cold Winters and brief but very warm Summers. Mean annual rainfall 31 inches. The geological system represented by the State, embraces those rocks included between the primary and the Devonian series, the former containing extensive deposits of copper and iron ore. Besides these minerals, lead and zinc are found in great quantities, together with kaolin, plumbago, gypsum. 24(3 THE NORTHWESTERN STATES. and various clays. Mining, consequently, forms a prominent industry, and one of yearly increasing dimensions. The soil of Wisconsin is of varying quality, but fertile on the whole, and in the north parts of the State heavily timbered. The agricultural yield comprises the cereals, together with flax, hemp, tobacco, pulse, sorgum, and all kinds of vege- tables, and of the hardier fruits. In 1870, the State had a total number of 102,904 farms, occupying 11,715,321 acres, of which 5,899,343 con- sisted of improved land, and 3,437,442 were timbered. Cash value of farms, $300,414,064 ; of farm implements and machinery, $14,239,364. Total estimated value of all farm products, including betterments and additions to stock, $78,027,032 ; of orchard and dairy stuffs, $1,045,933 ; of lumber, $1,327,618 ; of home manufactures, $338,423 ; of all live-stock, $45,310,882. Number of manufacturing establishments, 7,136, employ- ing 39,055 hands, and turning out productions valued at $85,624,966. The political divisions of the State form 61 counties, and the chief places of wealth, trade, and population, are Madison (the capital), Milwaukee, Fond du Lac, Oshkosh, Prairie du Chien, Janesville, Portage City, Racine, Kenosha, and La Crosse. In 1870, the total assessed valuation reached $333,209,838, as against a true valuation of botli real and personal estate aggregating $602,207,329. Treasury receipts during 1870, $886,- 696 ; disbursements, $906,329. Value of church property, $4,749,983. Education is amply provided for. Independently of the State University at Madison, and those of Galesville and of Lawrence at Appleton, and the colleges of Beloit, Racine, and Milton, there are Normal Schools at Platteville and Whitewater. The State is divided into 4,802 common school districts, maintained at a cost, in 1870, of $2,094,100. The chari- table institutions of Wisconsin include a Deaf and Dumb Asylum, an Institute for the Education of the Blind, and a Soldiers' Orphans' School. In January, 1870, the railroad system ramified throughout the State totalized 2,779 miles of track, including several lines far advanced toward completion. Immigration is successfully encouraged by the State author- ities, the larger number of yearly new-comers being of Scandinavian and German origin. The territory now occupied within the limits of the State of Wisconsin was explored by French missionaries and traders in 1639, and it remained under French jurisdiction until 1703, Avhen it became annexed to the British North American possessions. In 1796, it reverted to the United States, the government of which latter admitted it Avitldn the limits of the Northwest Territory, and in 1809, attached it to that of Illinois, and to Michigan in 1818. Wisconsin became independ- ently territorially organized in 1836, and became a State of the Union, March 3, 1847. Population in 1870, 1,064,985, of which 2,113 were of the colored race, and 11,521 Indians, 1,206 of the latter being out of tribal relations. THE NORTHWESTERN STATES. 247 MINNESOTA Its length, north to south, embraces an extent of 380 miles ; its oreadth one of 250 miles at a maximum. Area, 84,000 square miles, or 54,700,000 acres. The surface of Minnesota, generally speaking, con- sists of a succession of gently undulating plains and prairies, drained by an admirable water-system, and with here and there heavily- timbered bottoms and belts of virgin forest. The soil, corresponding with such a superfices, is exceptionally rich, consisting for the most part of a dark, calcareous sandy drift intermixed with loam. A distinguishing physical feature of this State is its riverine ramifications, expanding in nearly every part of it into almost innumerable lakes — the whole presenting an aggregate of water-power having hardly a rival in the Union. Besides the Mississippi — which here has its rise, and drains a basin of 800 miles of country — the principal streams are the Minnesota (334 miles long), the Red River of the North, the St. Croix, St. Louis, and many others of lesser importance ; the chief lakes are those called Red, Cass, Leech, Mille Lacs, Vermillion, and Winibigosh. Quite a concg,tenation of sheets of water fringe the frontier line where Minnesota joins British America, culminating in the Lake of the Woods. It has been estimated, that of an area of 1,200,000 acres of surface between the St. Croix and Mis- sissipj3i Rivers, not less than 73,000 acres are of lacustrine formation. In j)oint of minerals, the resources of Minnesota have as yet been very imperfectly developed; iron, copper, coal, lead — all these are known to exist in considerable deposits ; together with salt, limestone, aiid potter's clay. The agricultural outlook of the State is in a high degree satis- factory ; wheat constitutes the leading cereal in cultivation, with Indian corn and oats in next order. Fruits and vegetables are grown in great plenty and of excellent quality. The lumber resources of Minnesota are important ; the pine forests in the north region alone occupying an area of some 21,000 square miles, which in 1870 produced a return of scaled logs amounting to 313,116,416 feet. The natural industrial advantages possessed by Minnesota are largely improved upon by a railroad system. The political divisions of this State number 78 counties; of which the chief cities and towns are : St, Paul (the capital), Stillwater, Red Wing, St. Anthony, Fort Snelling, Minneapolis, and Mankato. Minnesota has already assumed an attitude of high importance as a manufacturing State ; this is mainly due to the wonderful command of water-power she pos- sesses, as before spoken of. Besides her timber-trade, the milling of flour, the distillation of whisky, and the tanning of leather, are prominent interests, which in 1869, gave returns to the amount of $14,831,043. 248 THE NORTIIWESTERN STATES. Education is notably provided for on a broad and catholic scale, the entire amount expended scholastically during the year 1870 being $857,- 816 ; while on November 30 of the preceding year the permanent school fund stood at 82,470,222. Besides a University and Agricultural College, Normal and Reform Schools flourish, and with these may be mentioned such various philanthropic and religious institutions as befit the needs of an intelligent and prosperous community. The finances of the State for the fiscal year terminating December 1, 1870, exhibited a balance on the right side to the amount of $136,164, being a gain of $44,000 over the previous year's figures. The earliest exploration of Minnesota by the whites was made in 1680 by a French Franciscan, Father Hennepin, who gave the name of St. Antony to the Great Falls on the Upper Missisippi. In 1763, the Treaty of Versailles ceded this region to England. Twenty years later, Minnesota formed part of the Northwest Territory transferred to the United States, and became herself territorialized inde- pendently in 1849. Indian cessions in 1851 enlarged her boundaries, and. May 11, 1857, Minnesota became a unit of the great American federation of States. Population, 439,706. NEBRASKA. Maximum length, 412 miles ; extreme breadth, 208 miles. Area, 75,905 square miles, or 48,636,800 acres. The surface of this State is almost entirely undulating prairie, and forms part of the Avest slope of the great central basin of the North American Continent. In its west division, near the base of the Rock}' Mountains, is a sandy belt of country, irregularly defined. In this part, too, are the " dunes," resem- bling a wavy sea of sandy billows, as well as the Mauvaises Terres. a tract of singular formation, produced by eccentric disintegrations and denuda- tions of the land. The chief rivers are the Missouri, constituting its en- tire east line of demarcation ; the Nebraska or Platte, the Niobrara, the Republican Fork of the Kansas, the Elkhorn, and the Loup Fork of the Platte. The soil is very various, ])at consisting chiefly of ricli, bottomy loam, admirably adapted to the raising of heavy crops of cereals. All the vegetables and fruits of the temperate zone are produced in great size and plenty. For grazing purposes Nebraska is a State exceptionally well fitted, a region of not less than 23,000,000 acres being adaptable to this branch of husbandry. It is believed that the, as yet, comparatively infertile tracts of land found in various parts of the State are susceptible of productivity by means of a properly conducted system of irrigation. Few minerals of moment have so far been found within the limits of THE NORTHWESTERN STATES. 249 Nebraska, if we may except important saline deposits at the head of Salt Creeic in its southeast section. The State is divided into 67 counties, independent of the Pawnee and Winnebago Indians, and of unorganized territory in the northwest part. The principal towns are Omaha, Lincoln (State capital), Nebraska City, Columbus, Grand Island, etc. In 1870, the total assessed value of property amounted to $53,000,000, being an increase of $11,000,000 over the previous year's returns. The total amount received from the school-fund during the year 1869-70 was $77,999. Education is making great onward strides, the State University and an Agricultural College being far advanced toward completion. In the matter of railroad communication, Nebraska bids fair to soon place herself on a par with her neighbors to the east. Besides being inter- sected by the Union Pacific line, with its off-shoot, the Fremont and Blair, other tracks are in course of rapid construction. Organized by Con- gressional Act into a Territory, May 30, 1854, Nebraska entered the Union as a full State, March 1, 1867. Population, 122,993. iniXTlX(J PEAIEIE WOLVES IN AX IJAKLY DAY. 250 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND ITS AMENDMENTS. We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union^ establish jztsiice, insure domestic tranquillity, ^jroy«c?e for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. Article I. Section 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. Sec. 2. The House of Representatives shall he composed of mem- bers chosen ever}^ second year by the people of the several states, and the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, v/hen elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the sev- eral states which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subse- quent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one Representative ; and until such enumeration shall be made the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plan- tations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylva- nia eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten. North Carolina five, and Georgia three. When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, the Executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. The House of Re[)resentatives shall choose their Speaker and other officers, and shall havu ihe sole power of impeachment. Sec. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each state, chosen by the Legislature thereof for six years ; and each Senator shall have one vote. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, tliey shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expira- AND ITS AMENDMENTS. 2ol tion of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen b}'^ resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the Legislature of any state, the Executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the Legislature, which shall tlien fill such vacaxicies. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of tli Senate, but shall have no vote unless they be equally divided. The Senate shall choose their other oflicers, and also a President jwro tempore^ in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried the Chief Justice shall preside. And no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. Judgment, in cases of impeachment, shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States; but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment according to law. Sec. 4. The times, places and manner of holding elections for Sen- ators and Representatives shall be prescribed in each state by the Legis- lature thereof ; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. Sec. 5. Each house shall be the judge of the election, returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the- attendance of absent members in such manner and under such penalties as each house may provide. Each liouse may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may, in their judgment, require secrecy ; and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. Sec. 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compen- sation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States, They shall in all cases, except treason, 252 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES felony, and l)reach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either house they shall not be questioned in any other place. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time ; and no person holding an}- office under the United States, shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office. Sec. 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur Avith amendments as on ( ther bills. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to the President the United States ; if he approve he shall sign it ; but if not he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have origi- nated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objec- tions, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted), after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress, by their adjournment, prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment), shall be presented to the President of the United States, and before the same shall take effect shall be approved by him, or, being disapproved by him, shall be re-passed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and lim- itations prescribed in the case of a bill. Sec. 8. The Congress shall have power — To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts, xind provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United k^tates ; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; , To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several Str^tes, and with the Indian tribes ; To estaljlish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States ; To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures ; To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States; To establish post offices and post roads ; AND ITS AMENDMENTS. 253 To promote the progress of sciences and useful arts, by securing, for limited times, to authors and inventors, tlie exclusive right to tlieir respective writings and discoveries ; To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against tiie law of nations ; To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water ; To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; To provide and maintain a navy ; To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces ; To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions ; To provide for organizing, arming and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the disci- pline prescribed by Congress ; To exercise legislation in all cases whatsoever over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular states, and tho acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all i)laces purchased by the consent of the Legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock yards, and other needful buildings ; and To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any depart- ment or officer thereof. Sec. 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or rev enue to the ports of one state over those of another ; nor shall vessels bound to or from one state be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. No money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in consequence of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expeditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. 254 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States : and no person holding any office of profit or trust nnder them, shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. Sec. 10. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confeder- ation ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of credit ; make anything .but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws, and the net produce of all duties and imposts laid by any state on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the Treasury of the United States ; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty on tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, or engage in Avar, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will' not admit of delay. Article II. Section 1. The Executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, together with the Vice-President chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a number of Electors, equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives to which the state may be entitled in the Congress ; but no Senator or Representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector. [*The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote Ijy ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same state .with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each ; which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit, sealed, to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The Pres- ident of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Rep- resentatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed ; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose by ballot one of them for President; and if no person have a ma- jority, then from the five highest on the list the said House shall in like manner choose the President. But in choosing the President, the vote shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, • This clause between brackets lias been superseded and annulled by the Twelfth amendment AND ITS AMENDMENTS. 255 the person having the greatest number of votes of the Electors shall be the Vice-President. Bnt if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot the Vice-Presi- dent.] The Congress may determine the time of choosing the Electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day shall be the same throughout the United States. No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inabil- ity, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly, until the dis- ability be removed, or a President shall be elected. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a com- pensation which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States or any of them. Before he enters on the execution of his office, he shall take the fol- lowing oath or affirmation : " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." Sec. 2. The President shall be commander in chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several states, when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall have powe]- to grant reprieves and pardon for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators present con- cur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice of the Senate, ;;hall appoint ambassaaors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law ; but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their next session. Sec. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such mea- sures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may on extraordinary 256 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES occasions convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of disagree- ment between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn tliem to such time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. Sec. 4. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and con viction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. Article III. Section I. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. Sec. 2. Tlie judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls ; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party ; to controversies between two or more states ; between a state and citizens of another state ; between citizens of differ- ent states ; between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states, and between a state or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, and those in which a state shall be a party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury ; and such trial shall be held in the state where tlie said crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed within anj'' state, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. Sec. 3. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levy- ing war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the tes- timony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. The Congress shall liave power to declare the punishment of treason but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted. Article IV. Section 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state. A.ud AND ITS AMENDMENTS. '257 tlie Congress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. Sec. 2. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several states. A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice and be found in another state, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the state from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the state having jurisdicl'on of the crime. No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws thereof escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on the claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. Sec. 3. New states may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; but no new state shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other state ; nor any state be formed by the junction of two or more states, or parts of states, without the consent of the Legislatures of the states concerned, as well as of the Congress. The Congress shall have jjower to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the teriitor\^ or other property belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States or of any particular state. Sec. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every state in this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion, and on application of the Legislature, or of the Execu- tive (when the Legislature can not be convened), against domestic vio- lence. Aeticle V. The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the ap- plication of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several states, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes as part of this Constitution, when rati- fied by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several states, or by con- ventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratifi- cation may be proposed by the Congress. Provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article ; and that no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. Article VI. All debts contracted and engagements entered into before the adop- tion of this Constitution shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution as under the Confederation. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the Judges in every state shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any state to the contrary notwithstanding. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the mem- 258 CONSTITUTION OP THE UNITED STATES bers of the several state Legislatures, and all executive and judicial offi- cers, both of the United States and of the several states, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution ; but no religious test sliall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. Article VII. The ratification of the Conventions of nine states shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the states so ratifying the same. Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the states present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our names. GEO. WASHINGTON, President and Deputy from Virginia. New Hampshire, John Langdon, Nicholas Gilman. Massachusetts. Nathaniel Gorham, KuFus King. Connecticut. Wm. Sam'l Johnson, Roger Sherman. Nieiv York. Alexander Hamilton. New Jersey. WiL. Livingston, Wm. Paterson, Davh) Brearley, JoNA. Dayton. Pennsylvania. B. Franklin, IloBT. Morris, Thos. Fitzsimons, James Wilson, Thos. Mifflin, Geo. Clymer, Jared Ingersoll, Gouv. Morris. Delaware. Geo. Read, John Dickinson, Jaco. Broom, Gunning Bedford, Jr., Richard Bassett. Maryland. James M'Henry, Danl. Carroll, Dan. of St. Thos. Jenifer. Virginia. John Blair, James Madison, Jr. North Carolina. Wm. Blount, Hu. Williamson, Rich'd Dobbs Spaight. South Carolina. j. rutledge, Charles Pinckney, Chas. Cotesworth Pinckney, Pierce Butler. Georgia. William Few, ' Abr. Baldwin. WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary. AND ITS AMENDMENTS. £59 Articles in Addition to and Amendatory of the Constitution OF THE United States of America. Proposed by Congress and ratified hy the Legislatu7'es of the several states, pursuant to the fifth article of the original Constitution. Article I. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment cf religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. Article II. A well regnlated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. Article III. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war but in a manner to be pre- scribed by law. Article IV. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be vio- lated ; and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched and the persons or things to be seized. Article V. No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia when in actual service in time of war or public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. Article VI. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor ; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. Article VII. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, a,nd no fact 260 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States than according to the rules of the common law. Article VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. Article IX. The enumeration, in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. Article X. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people. Artic:.e XI. The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another state, or by citizens or sub- jects of any foreign state. Article XII. The Electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the person to be voted for as president, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and the}^ shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice- President, and of the number of votes for each, which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed ; and if no jjcrson have such majority, then from the persons having the highest number not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two- thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a Presi- dent whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President siiall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. Tiie person having the greatest number of votes as Vice- President, shall l)e the Vice-President, if sucli number be the majority of the whole number of electors appointed, and if no person have a major- AND ITS AMENDMENTS. 263 itj; then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. Article XIII. Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof tlie party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their juris- diction. Sec. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- priate legislation. Aeticle XIV. Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States, and of the state wherein they reside. No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Sec. 2. Representatives shall be appointed among the several states according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of per- sons in each state, excluding Indians not taxed ; but when the right to vote at any election for the choice of Electors for President and Vice- President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the execu- tive and judicial officers of a state, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such state, being twenty-one years of age and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged except for participation in rebellion or other crimes, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the num- ber of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such state. Sec. 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or Elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any state, who, having previ- ously taken an oath as a Member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any state Legislature, or as an execu- tive or judicial officer of any state to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each house, remove such disability. Sec. 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States author- ized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and boun- ties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be ques- tioned. But neither the United States nor any state shall pay any debt or obligation incurred in the aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any loss or emancipation of any slave, but such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. 264 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. Article XV. Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. VOTE FOR GOVERNOR, 1877, AND PRESIDENT, 1876. 1877. Governor. 187G. Prejidcnt. Kep. Dem. Gr. Pro. Kep. Dcm Ailiir 98-2 87(1 1547 IKJi 411 1432 178H 1612 1181 1290 747 1453 418 633 1,092 1315 90.^ 602 1279 11154 617 1873 2144 898 1541 893 1269 1226 2315 197 1587 213 19:;3 ]2:« 1311 12.50 1031 909 1160 842 .340 1492 1348 1770 551 382 321 1132 1G19 1977 1396 .MI.iiiiHkee App.inuoso Uviiton Itl.ick Hawk B-Hirie Uiuhanan Itii-iia Vista Biilk-r I'arroll.... ("ass Cellar Ct-rro Gordo Cliickasaw Clark Clay I'ltytoii l>alli»3 Davis 1) Tatur Di'i MoiDcs llillilUlllO Kiiiiiutt K.iv.tte ¥\ny,l iJutlirio Il.irdin ll.-iiry Howard HiimlHjldt Ida ; Iowa 161 397 1540 1049 352 712 1111 981 582 769 192 758 75 744 839 1093 348 74 1107 267 16 1770 2327 &51 215 1231 961 1143 1384 8 3415 28 1067 208 336 1331 215 504 496 265 9:> 661 86. 424 647 149 64 112" 19i,i 11. ^4 7.'.:t 581 4s5 69 729 26 567 95 406 196 725 161 19 171 141 116 206 72 383 37 813 20 66 286 19 1241 803 31n 32 767 406 889 162 16 334 551 3<>4 422 29 238 623 1041 201 115 lo-t 642 224 1018 ,576 449 244 10 1 223 20 95 74 II 30 416 40 86 94 19 67 167 66 111 80 12 19 525 6 12 53 21 57 2 1,54 1!) 140 519 64 228 15 26" 101 1334 137(; 170'.» 1711 427 29ul 2979 2018 17.i7 2227 770 1828 62. 799 1S76 2328 1274 861 1574 140-> 567 2662 3654 1043 2136 1586 1647 2233 3325 259 2798 246 3029 2032 1178 1658 1310 1099 1434 1187 281 21,52 15.57 2809 1194 621 212 1870 2126 3375 2166 593 626 1(146 1419 352: 135rI 1.592 1305' 757 1416 200 780 196 771 979 1445 448 175 1090 81 6 94 2621 3398 638, 752 1631 V2^-> 1460 2917 48 itn 36 17091 751 379 lOSo! 5io: 417, 629: 425 99, 9S0 I3sr,| 14S5 60ll| .57, l.'U.S 2185 1804 1449 Counties. 1S76. Preaidint. Johnson Jones [Keokuk .Kossuth JLee Linn Louisa Lucas Lyon Madison Ulahaska Marion Marshall Mills Mitchell Monona Monroe Montgomery Muscatine O'Brien Osceola Page Palo Alto Plymouth Pocahontas Polk Pottawattamie.... Poweshiek Ringgold Sac .Scott Shlby Sioux Story Tama Taylor Union Van Buren Wapello Warren Washington Wayne Webster Winnebago Winneshiek Wocirllmry Worth Wright Totals Majorities. 121.54f 4-.^19: Total vote, 1877, 245,706, 1876(including^949 Greenback), 292,943. VOTE FOR CONGRESSMEN, 1876. Dlstrct. Kep. I 17188 11 16439 Ill IV 17J23 207711 v 19274 YI 18778 Dcm.' It. Maj. Total. 14814 140«3 1610«i 9379 111.54 14719 2374 17.56 1323 11391 8120 4059 32(X)2 3 1122 33523 30149 30428 33497 Maj. '74. D. 1863' VI I.. R. 6,57, VIII U. 63 IX.... R. 3824i| K. 6213 K. 2724'! Rep. Dera. 19496 19358 19563! 11688 15236 10583 R. Maj. 7808 4122 8980 31184 34594 30146 Miij. 74. R. 2300 R. 2127 R. 5849 Total vote, 1874, 184,640 ; aggregato Republican miijority, 24,524. *lncluding 5,400 Greenback votes. Practical Rules for Every Day Use. Hoiv to find the gain or loss per ceyit. whe7i the cost and selling price are given. Rule. — Find the difference between the cost and selling price, which will be the gain or loss. 'Annex two ciphers to the gain or loss, and divide it by the cost price ; the result will be the gain or loss per cent. Hoiv to change gold into currency. Rule. — Multiply the given sum of gold by the price of gold. Hoiv to change currency into gold. Divide the amount in currency by the price of gold. How to find each partner'' s share of the gain or loss in a copartnership lusiness. Rule. — Divide the whole gain or loss by the entire stock, the quo- tient will be the gain or loss per cent. Multiply each partner's stock by this per cent., the result will be each one's share of the gain or loss. Hoiv to find gross and net weight and price of hogs. A short ayid simple method for finding the net weight., or price of hogs., when the gross iveight or price is given, and vice versa. Note.— It is generally assumed that the gross weight of Hogs diuiiuislied by 1-5 or 20 per cent. of itself gives the net weight, and the net weight increased by }i or 25 per cent, of itself equals the gross weight. To find the net weight or gross price. Multiply the given number by .8 (tenths.) To find the gross weight or net price. Divide the given number by .8 (tenths.) IIoio to find the capacity of a granary., bin, or tvagon-hed. Rule. — Multiply (by short method) the nnmber of cubic feet by 6308, and point off one decimal place — the result will be the correct nswer in bushels and tenths of a bushel. For only an approximate answer, multiply the cubic feet by 8, and point off one decimal place. How to find the contents of a corn-crib. Rule. — Multiply the number of cubic feet by 54, short method, or (265) 266 MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. by 4i ordinary method, and point off one decimal place — the result will be the answer in bushels. NOTK.— In cstlmatliif,' corn in the ear, the quality and the time it lias been cribbed must be taken into consideration, since corn will shrink considerably during the Winter and Spring. This rule generally holds good for corn measured at the time it iscribbed, provided It is sound and clean. Hoiv to find the contents of a cistern or tank. Rule. — Multiply the st^uare of the mean diameter by the depth (all m feet) and this product by 5681 (short method), and point off ONE decimal place — the result will be the contents in barrels of 31^ gallons. Hoiv to find the contents of a barrel or cask. Rule. — Under the square of the mean diameter, write the length (all in inches) in reverpjID order, so that its units will fall under the TENS ; multiply by short method, and this product again by 430 ; point off one decimal place, and the result will be the answer in wine gallons* How to measure hoards. Rule. — Multiply the length (in feet) by the width (in inches) and divide the product by 12 — the result will be the contents in square feet. Ho2V to measure scantlings, joists, planks, sills, etc. Rule. — Multiply the width, the thickness, and the length together (the width and thickness in inches, and the length in feet), and divide the product by 12 — the result will be square feet. How to find the number of acres in a body of latid. Rule. — Multiply the length by the width (in rods), and divide the product by 160 (carrying the division to 2 decimal places if there is a remainder) ; the result will be the answer in acres and hundredths. When the opposite sides of a piece of land are of unequal length, add them together and take one-half for the mean length or width. Hozv to find the number of square yards in a floor or ivall. Rule. — Multiply the length by the width or height (in feet), and divide the product by 9, the result will be square yards. How to find the number of bricks required in a building. Rule. — Multiply tlie number of cubic feet by 22^. Tiie number of cubic feet is found by multiplying the length, height nd tliickness (in feet) together. Bricks are usually made 8 inches long, 4 inches wide, and two inches thick ; hence, it requires 27 bricks to make a cubic foot without mortar, but it is generally assumed that the mortar fills 1-6 of the space. Hoiv to find the number uf shingles required in a roof. Rule. — Multiply the number of square feet in the roof by 8, if the shingles are exposed Ah inches, or l)y 7 1-5 if exposed 5 inches. To find the number of square feet, multiply the length of the roof by twice the lenutii of the rafters. MISCELLANEOUS TNFOEMATION. 267 To find the length of the rafters, at one-fourth pitch, multiply the width of the building by .56 (hundredths) ; at one-third pitch, by .6 (tenths) ; at two-fifths pitch, by .64 (hundredths) ; at one-half pitch, by .71 (hundredths). This gives the length of the rafters from the apex to the end of the wall, and whatever they are to project must be taken into consideration. Note.— By K or K pitch Is meant that the apex or comb of the roof is to be K or X the width of the building liigher than tlie walls or base of the rafters. How to reckon the cost of hay. Rule. — Multiply the number of pounds by half the price per ton, and remove the decimal point three places to the left. Hoiv to measure grain. Rule. — Level the grain ; ascertain the space it occupies in cubic feet ; multiply the number of cubic feet by 8, and point off one place to the left. Note.— Exactness requires the addition to every three hundred bushels of one extra bushel. The foregoing rule may be used for finding the number of gallons, by multiplying the number of bushels by 8. If the corn in the box is in the ear, divide the answer by 2, to find the number of bushels of shelled corn, because it requires 2 bushels of eai corn to make 1 of shelled corn. Rapid rules for measuring land without instruments. In measuring land, the first thing to ascertain is the contents of any given plot in square yards ; then, given the number of yards, find out the number of rods and acres. The most ancient and simplest measure of distance is a step. Now, an ordinary-sized man can train himself to cover one yard at a stride, on the average, with sufficient accuracy for ordinary purposes. To make use of this means of measuring distances, it is essential to walk in a straight line ; to do this, fix the eye on two objects in a line straight ahead, one comparatively near, the other remote ; and, in walk- ing, keep these objects constantly in line. Farmers and others hy adopting the folloiving simple and ingenious con- trivance^ may alivays carry with thein the scale to construct a correct yard measure. Take a foot rule, and commencing at the base of the little finger ol the left hand, mark the quarters of the foot on the outer borders of the left arm, pricking in the marks with indelible ink. To find how many rods in length loill make an acre., the width being given. Rule. — Divide 160 by the width, and the quotient will be the answer. 268 MISCELLA.NEOUS INFORMATION. IIoiv to find the number of acres in any plot of land, the number of rods being given. Rule. — Divide the number of rods by 8, multiply the quotient by 5, and remove the decimal point two places to the left. The diameter being given, to find the circumference. Rule. — Multiply the diameter by 3 1-7. How to find the diameter, when the circumference is given. Rule. — Divide the circumference by 3 1-7. To find hoiv many solid feet a round stick of timber of the same thick- ness throughout will contain when squared. Rule. — Square half the diameter in inches, multiply by 2, multiply by the length ii> feet, and divide the product by 144. General rule for measuring timber, to find the solid contents in feet. Rule. — Multiply the depth in inches by the breadth in inches, and then multiply by the length in feet, and divide by 144. To find the number of feet of timber in trees with the hark on. Rule. — Multiply the square of one-fifth of the circumference in inches, by twice the length, in feet, and divide by 144. Deduct 1-10 to 1-15 according to the thickness of the bark. Soward 8 neiv rule for computing interest. Rule. — The reciprocal of the rate is the time for which the interest on any sum of money will be shown by simply removing the decimal point two places to the left ; for ten times that time, remove the point one place to the left; for 1-10 of the same time, remove the point three places to the left. Increase or diminish the results to suit the time given. Note.— The rficlproo.-il of the rate is found Ijy inverting: the rate ; thus 3 per cent, per month, ia- verted, becomes M of a month, or 10 days. When the rate is expressed by one figure, always write it thus : 3-1, three ones. Itulefor converting English into American currency. Multiply the pounds, with the shillings and pence stated in decimals, by 400 plus the premium in fourths, and divide the product by 90. U. S. GOVERNMENT LAND MEASURE. A township — 36 sections each a mile square. A section — 640 acres. A quarter section, half a mile square — 100 acres. An eighth section, half a mile long, north and south, and a quarter of a mile wide — 80 acres. A sixteenth section, a quarter of a mile square — 40 acres. MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION, 269 The sections are all numbered 1 to 3G, commencing at the north-east corner. The sections are divided into quarters, which are named by the cardinal points. The quarters are divided in the same way. The de- scription of a forty acre lot would read : The south half of the west half of the south-west quarter of section 1 in township 24, north of range 7 west, or as the case might be ; and sometimes will fall short and sometimes overrun the number of acres it is supposed to contain. The nautical mile is 795 4-5 feet longer than the common mile. SURVEYORS' MEASURE. 7 92-100 inches make 1 link. 25 links " " 1 rod. 4rods " 1 chain. 80 chains " 1 mile. Note. — A chain is 100 links, equal to 4 rods or 66 feet. Shoemakers formerly used a subdivision of the inch called a barley- corn ; three of which made an inch. Horses are measured directly over the fore feet, and the standard of measure is four inches — called a hand. In Biblical and other old measurements, the term span is sometimes used, which is a length of nine inches. The sacred cubit of the Jews was 24.024 inches in length. The common cubit of the Jews was 21.704 inches in length. A pace is equal to a yard or 36 inches. A fathom is equal to 6 feet. A league is three miles, but its length is variable, for it is strictly speaking a nautical term, and should be three geographical miles, equal to 3.45 statute miles, but when used on land, three statute miles are said to be a league. In cloth measure an aune is equal to li yards, or 45 inches. An Amsterdam ell is equal to 26.796 inches. A Trieste ell is equal to 25.284 inches. A Brabant ell is equal to 27.116 inches. HOW TO KEEP ACCOUNTS. Every farmer and mechanic, whether he does much or little business, should keep a record of his transactions in a clear and systematic man- ner. For the benefit of those who have not had the opportunity of ac- quiring a primary knowledge of the principles of book-keeping, we here present a simple form of keeping accounts which is easily comprehended, and well adapted to record the business transactions of farmers, mechanics and laborers. •270 MISCELLAl^EOUS INFORMATION. 1875. A. H. .JACKSON. Dr. Cr. .Tun. Fob. March (( (( i( April t( May (( July lOlTo ITlBy 4 4 8 8 13 27 9 9 G 24 4 7 bushels Wheat ...at §1.25 shoeing span of Horses To 14 bushels Oats at -S .45 To 5 lbs. Butter at .25 By new Harrow By sharpening 2 Plows By new Double-Tree — To Cow and Calf To half ton of Hay By Cash By repairing Corn-Planter To one Sow with Pigs By Cash, to balance account .. .$8 G 1 48 6 17 |>88 75 30 00 50 05 $2 18 2 25 4 35 50 00 40 00 75 15 05 187o CASS A MASON. Dr. Cr. March 21 " 21 " 23 May 1 1 Rv 3 flavs' labor - at $1.25 8G 8 10 2 2 20 18 00 10 00 75 70 00 20 $3 25 12 18 9 75 To 2 Shoats To 18 bushels Corn By 1 month's Labor ... at 3.00 at .45 00 To Cash June 19 By 8 days' Mowing . .. .. . ^ _ at l>1.50 00 26 To 50 lbs. Flour July 10 " 29 Aug. 12 12 To 27 lbs. Meat By 9 days' Harvesting By G days' Labor To Cash . at $ .10 at 2.00 at 1.50 00 00 Sept. 1 To Cash to balance account ... . $67 75 $67 75 INTEREST TABLE. A SiMPLis Rule for AccunATELT Computing Interest at Anv given I'ku Cknt. j-op. Any Length of Time. Multiply Iho principal (amount of money at interest) liy the time reduced to days; then divide this product by the (juo(i<^nt obtained l)y dividing 360 (the number of days in the Interest year) Ijy the per cent, of interest, andt/ie quotient thus ohtaineil will be tlie required interest. illustkation. Solution. Require the Interest of 8462.50 for one month and eighteen days at 6 per cent. An §462.50 Interest month Is 30 days; one montli and eighteen days equal 48 days. 8463.50 multi- .48 plied by .48 glvrs S2a'2.0000; 360 divided by 6 (the per eent. of interest) gives 60, and $22-J.000017 18100 2.%5.515 148649 53180 S'Mi SI 336 102.S61 255182 57005 153674 117766 191265 246140 41179 48927 2Z'-il76 97'23« 17.')H9 3.5516 150209 47.;:u 39930 36906 171048 837451 341615 39935 50249 9194 893.-) 7 142401 71257 179752 63298 66979 98999 48793 78692 59757 318811 62649 52922 70176 122490 82779 s-icni lS-i7(W 7S-2(I6 47.5.-,2 56278 48';32 50fi72 419IH9 4S69' 17517 519/2 3-2-225 58-<29 191 2:: 43S74 893 2f 367391 47201 2.3.- 'J0222 3:1216 99.V2H 667 1671 131670 5709 4.59.-. s.'-.f.s; 6I7II ;K)f,2: 3iN 6:1191 1-2627850 8410435 97765 27013 61871 7-2287 9005 52050 110831 6514 1.58188 1 42401 19.3019 216949 1406HI l-3.-)590 149672 2><835 I33-.8O 88857 1-2706 175C; iaX)66 ,91133 1.50:'t)8 153214 99S3' 137979 917:iO 117:!l« .39t4 129699 81)1 126 26131 14651 141 1 1.51 1 19219 9(»6;9 171. '.8'* 1151H1 4 1379 16679 5(V ia.-.7i2 47230 3:151 21179 7911: Sli'.ill 45S2(i 11:! 1 1 ;<;h'.i l.5^7:i' 2:->9169 3;t(i9 3215 i5;^Hi 7n'jio 1-2121 2S9; 135173 9606 61880 6876 17947 27550 15514 99106 82505 5790 48878 89361 64-291 17481 31693 401-23 21000 4046 28199 86883 68683 40162 26756 17968 11040 5378 8211 49240 10615 60401 5701 29256 3911 62067 60779 31096 132-29 67;«4 19:591 •27489 38464 1-2016 36115 '23918 4889' 20076 15026 3108 48410 43515 45306 79926 360!Ki 16-237 33278 10798 10S51 13954 8132 52178 197641 6.5531 3i:;62 45136 24:!S5 375.-)3 11638 69S95 15:^,31 32375 1381 14904 8769 370S6 7431 83:169 57312 226S9 33628 8606 109-26 47698 266.58 2-2029 22996 1 1056 154 16 97013 10.-.H(i 71.55 10375 4217.T 11217.1 15213 2.3092 41646 30551 8939 i;i6-29 17 9354905 3690711 4'266973I 937639 89235 281376 435014 162737 1343666 429-257 779167 644795 1108024 812342 1^159 401507 676-209 824894 640544 415463 1305125 1010345 643519 340161 217090 10:t631 80993 77169 6.34135 113396 71728 25822 445848 1510 941439 863670 455909 206901 9766i)7 2,57700 393574 497-251 20902 58-2803 143701 70006 294682 1802-20 4&SI5 670247 550CO0 666779 1107170 46-2478 164904 368528 131.39 7-2624 153587 76742 656597 189939 108.3811 395532 529663 342961 6-28314 101413 11-25.38-', 183811 416471 551.539 157.5-26 74757 563.389 30774 588971 76-28-26 3.55792 442736 23-208 78a':. 762315 33089. 317944 251286 1 10094 206SI3 143780 141188 58808 76346 654679 1813465 2-.8,S75 410487 469879 39ia51 16'22«1 196166 1575.35 7 186 46 84i' 968 "'i66-25' 2 22 44 £60 84 1200 9041 113203 36 491 100 1080 7912 1-274 31 6192 148 110 154MI 31 409 66739 1363 200407 3-29 54 12 1388 160 16-267 63 'i-220 10 8-25 1-25 40 2697 221-2 543 484 5584 200 "e-ig 166 894 ■475 20-235 160 "i7G-2' 618 20 •244 "'5:5' 10928 143 61 1439 5 n 10 3068 ""'960' 121854 1-236 910 14193 '■"276 "ieisg 759277 83-244 46151 38685 28754 56592 48831 8797 9459 40582 17957 78-2-24 9512 37948 89297 168-21 16014 39066 10656 621-27 50484 67118 10-29-it 5tll50 3183 57652 2197 26162 37091 24066 73845 40175 783037 S8;K)2 41304 9998 9916 44720 '2067 20411 62672 2301 f2518 53962 771 4'2 100217 654-23 55061 75697 9781 59H63 47022 •2645 91773 49642 11'274 83775 846:?0 59543 69194 45575 67699 21577 54760 39-251 6379 2510 77497 8981 47-258 86748 71388 10097 6641 85613 59071 51273 17674 6780 8662 48-260 73251 24063 50211 656-25 80280 27185 14647 35:30 73265 28713 1374 10089 57035 2385-243 905920! 3946551 9697 1402-128 2-28231 3328921 1595752 1270878 1020041 I9395'.)0 1811-250 1801-20 315215 1901062 648658 2845921 •265443 147r263 3061338 514-279 550041 1580-260 3511-20 2115569 1763140 1702391 2307938 1690)35 44455 2484898 14273 64'2448 1296480 758983 1703985 148-2582 78:»27 1669134 1379961 297381 7912 16-20192 57899 670731 2415070 108465 2713830 1605518 31.58178 4.5-25S'-9 19095:'4 1695.-) 10 8327282 119777 2190306 190-2530 10396 34399-23 2184658 411961 8768209 8835063 1533976 2953630 1738916 2808256 8183S8 1715973 1441467 106052 17279 827-2010 229263 17500:58 a571105 2239013 17.5778 142957 11459:57 2-226346 1783477 689556 8-20,38 279716 1419<-.80 284-2859 1130930 18236'22 2405187 8561365 977316 490371 12-2*291 283-2241 917911 5'2425 281821 2143791 4700176 1362&4542 3951 4455 2791 15190 10101 13827 14-259 16804 17431 4436 3545 9079 2902 20-243 7199 20c 2 4 23704 11744 3-238 12337 2993 13643 10555 25115 9242 20577 2403 9937 1519 15461 20770 9532 5419 117 4227 4145 10982 8974 10210 3462 1:353 5108 13393 455 11756 23652 17760 15-267 18-260 14005 15582 5143 11817 12665 8177 2*2670 6792 14078 16646 10937 6528 8743 11512 i:36I 1 2304 13-287 53-22 8107 1:590 12188 2541 5278 11416 9758 4161 2979 9118 15915 11-273 2-254 4591 8035 8718 1357 4 61-27 12596 13242 8391 24:507 8072 4445 15701 7491 1327 4134 11570 387346 4428-29 33233 141-293 159739 67069 445070 4046-20 4-21719 518571 5.38196 556209 98766 11,5595 176281 99158 675837 2-28097 669895 70-2059 446300 107577 367643 73182 845707 344551 643322 287392 632113 37282 335124 3241 487729 704407 328679 179645 401948 1-20948 153505 350915 90944 340268 69140 48816 168262 858'22l 14060 319071 5-21156 52-219 53-2239 464824 4461'28 447603 27857 279069 342164 13789 585648 175755 542662 496-248 335746 232639 285103 '241081 46.5245 66475 405562 201635 53931 268-29 431841 40494 168081 85:5565 34650 1-2043' 46859 255a) 528868 343265 71676 45096 6599 269657 384469 187748 353698 367396 281510 8216.508 9164 16155 453320 207493 45109 135176 293590 2994 -29144352 .$131536747 ABSTRACT OF IO¥A STATE LAWS. BILLS OF EXCHANGE AND PROMISSORY NOTES. Upon negotiable bills, and notes payable in this State, grace shall be allowed according to the law merchant. All the above mentioned paper falling due on Sunday, New Year's Day, the Fourth of July, Christmas, or any day appointed or recommended by the President of the United States or the Governor of the State^ as a day of fast or thanksgiving, shall be deemed as due on the day pre- vious. No defense can be made against a negotiable instrument (assigned before due) in the hands of the assignee without notice, except fraud was used in obtaining the same. To hold an indorser, due diligence must be used by suit against the maker or his representative. Notes payable to person named or to order, in order to absolutely transfer title, must be indorsed by the payee. Notes payable to bearer may be transferred by delivery, and when so payable, every indorser thereon is held as a guarantor of payment, unless otherwise expressed. In computing interest or discount on negotiable instruments, a month shall be considered a calendar month or twelfth of a year, and for less than a month, a day shall be figured a thirtieth part of a month. Notes only bear interest when so expressed ; but after due, they draw the legal interest, even if not stated. INTEREST. The legal rate of interest is six per cent. Parties may agree, in Avriting, on a rate not exceeding ten per cent. If a rate of interest greater than ten per cent, is contracted for, it works a forfeiture of ten per cent, to the school fund, and only the principal sum can be recovered. DESCENT. The personal property of the deceased (except (1) that necessary for pay- ment of debts and expenses of administration ; (2) property set apart to widow, as exempt from execution ; (3) allowance by court, if necessary, of twelve- months' support to widow, and to children under fifteen years of age), including life insurance, descends as does real estate. One- third in value (absolutely) of all estates in real property, possessed by husband at any time during marriage, which have not been sold on execution or other judicial sale, and to which the wife has made no relinquishment of her - right, shall be set apart as her property, in fee simple, if she survive him. 27 G ABSTRACT OF IOWA STATE LAWS. The same share shall be set apart to the surviving husband of a deceased wiie. The widow's share cannot be aflected by any will of her husband's, unless she consents, in writing thereto, within six months after notice to her of pro- visions of the will. The i)rovisions of the statutes of descent apply alike to surviving husband or surviving wife. ,.11 j j- 1 Subject to the above, the remaining estate of which the decedent died siezed, shall in absence of other arrangements by will, descend First. To his or her children and their descendants in equal parts ; the descendants of the deceased child or grandchild taking the share of their deceased parents in equal shares among them. Second. Where there is no child, nor descendant of such child, and no widow or surviving husband, then to the parents of the deceased in equal parts ; the surviving parent, if either be dead, taking the whole ; and if there is no parent living, then to the brothers and sisters of the intestate and their descend- ants. Third. When there is a widow or surviving husband, and no child or chil- dren, or descendants of the same, then one-half of the estate shall descend to such widow or surviving husband, absolutely ; and the other half of the estate shall descend as in other cases where there is no Avidow or surviving husband, or child or children, or descendants of the same. Fourth. If there is no child, parent, brother or sister, or descendants of either of them, then to Avife of intestate, or to her heirs, if dead, according to like rules. Fifth. If any intestate leaves no child, parent, brother or sister, or de- scendants of either of them, and no widow or surviving husband, and no child, parent, brother or sister (or descendant of either of them) of such widow or surviving husband, it shall escheat to the State. WILLS AND ESTATES OF DECEASED PERSONS. No exact form of words are necessary in order to make a Avill good at law. Every male person of the age of twenty-one years, and every female of the age of eighteen years, of sound mind and memory, can make a valid will ; it must be in writing, signed by the testator, or by some one in his or her presence, and by his or her express direction, and attested by two or more competent wit- nesses. Care should be taken that the witnesses are not interested in the will. Inventory to be nuide by executor or administrator within fifteen days from date of letters testamentary or of administration. Executors' and administra- tors' compensation on amount of personal estate distributed, and for proceeds of sale of real estate, five per cent, for first one thousand dollars, two and one-half per cent, on overplus up to five thousand dollars, and one per cent, on overplus above five thousand dollars, with such additional allowance as shall be reasona- ble for extra services. Within (en daijs after the receipt of letters of administration, the executor or administrator shall give such iwtice of appointment as the court or clerk shall direct. Claims (other than preferred) must be filed within one year thereafter, are forever barred, unless the claim is pending in the District or Supreme Court, or unless peculiar circumstances entitle the claimant to equitable relief. ABSTRACT OF IOWA STATE LAWS. 277 Claims are classed and 'payable in the following order: 1. Expenses of administration. 2. Expenses of last sickness and funeral. 3. Allowance to widow and children, if made by the court. 4. Debts preferred under laws of the United States. 5. Public rates and taxes. 6. Claims filed within six months after the first jyuhlication of the notice given by the executors of their appointment. 7. All other debts. 8. Legacies. The awards or property which must be set apart to the ividotv, in her own right, by the executor, includes all personal property which, in the hands of thf> deceased, as head of a family, would have been exempt from execution. TAXES. The owners of personal property, on the first day of January of each year, and the owners of real property on the first day of November of each year, are liable for the taxes thereon. The following property is exempt from taxation, viz. : 1. The property of the United States and of this State, including univer- sity, agricultural, college and school lands and all property leased to the State ; property of a county, township, city, incorporated town or school district when devoted entirely to the public use and not held for pecuniary profit; public grounds, including all places for the burial of the dead ; fire engines and all implements for extinguishing fires, with the grounds used exclusively for their buildings and for the meetings of the fire companies ; all public libraries, grounds and buildings of literary, scientific, benevolent, agricultural and reli- gious institutions, and societies devoted solely to the appropriate objects of these institutions, not exceeding 640 acres in extent, and not leased or otherwise used wich a view of pecuniary profit ; and all property leased to agricultural, charit- able institutions and benevolent societies, and so devoted during the term of such lease ; provided, that all deeds, by which such property is held, shall be duly filed for record before the property therein described shall be omitted from the assessment. 2. The books, papers and apparatus belonging to the above institutions ; used solely for the purposes above contemplated, and the like property of stu- dents in any such institution, used for their education. 3. Money and credits belonging exclusively to such institutions and devoted solely to sustaining them, but not exceeding in amount or income the sum pre- scribed by their charter. 4. Animals not hereafter specified, the wool shorn from sheep, belonging to the person giving the list, his farm produce harvested within one year previous to the listing ; private libraries not exceeding three hundred dollars in value ; family pictures, kitchen furniture, beds and bedding requisite for each family, all wearing apparel in actual use, and all food provided for the fiimily ; but no person from whom a compensation for board or lodging is received or expected, is to be considered a member of the family Avithin the intent of this clause. 5. The polls or estates or both of persons who, by reason of age or infirm- ity, may, in the opinion of the Assessor, be unable to contribute to the public 278 ABSTRACT OF IOWA STATE LAWS. revenue; such opinion and the fact upon which it is based being in all cases reported to the Board of Equalization by the Assessor or any other person, and subject to reversal by them. G. The farming utensils of any person who makes his livelihood by farming, and the tools of any mechanic, not in either case to exceed three hundred dollars in value. 7. Government lands entered or located or lands purchased from this State, should not be taxed for the year in which the entry, location or purchase is made. There is also a suitable exemption, in amount, for planting fruit trees or forest trees or hedges. Where buildings are destroyed by fire, tornado or other unavoidable casu- alty, after being assessed for the year, the Board of Supervisors may rebate ta.xes for that year on the property destroyed, if same has not been sold for taxes, and if said taxes have not been delinquent for thirty days at the time of destruction of the property, and the rebate shall be allowed for such loss only as is not covered by insurance. All other property is subject to taxation. Every inhabitant of full age and sound mind shall assist the Assessor in listing all taxable property of which he is the owner, or which he controls or manages, either as agent, guardian, father, husband, trustee, executor, accounting officer, partner, mortgagor or lessor, mortgagee or lessee. Road beds of railway corporations shall not be assessed to owners of adja- cent property, but shall be considered the property of the companies for pur- poses of taxation ; nor shall real estate used as a public highway be assessed and taxed as part of adjacent lands whence the same was taken for such public purpose. The property of railway, telegraph and express companies shall be listed and a.ssessed for taxation as the property of an individual would be listed and assessed for taxation. Collection of taxes made as in the case of an individual. The Township Board of Equalization shall meet first Monday in April of each year. Appeal lies to the Circuit Court. The County Board of Eqalization (the Board of Supervisors) meet at their regular session in June of each year. Appeal lies to the Circuit Court. Taxes become delinquent February 1st of each year, payable, without interest or penalty, at any time before March 1st of each year. Tax sale is held on first Monday in October of each year. Redemption may be made at any time within three years after date of sale, by paying to the County Auditor the amount of sale, and twenty j^er centum of such amount immediately added as penalty, tvith ten pt?r cent, interest per annum on the whole amount thus made from the day of sale, and also all sub- sequent taxes, interest and costs paid by purchaser after March 1st of each year, and a similar penalty of twenty per centum added as before, with ten per cent, interest as before. If notice has been given, by purchaser, of the date at which the redemption is limited, the cost of same is added to the redemption money. Ninety days' notice is recjuired, by the statute, to be published by the purchaser or holder of certificate, to terminate the right of redemption. ABSTRACT OF IOWA STATE LAWS 281 JURISDICTION OF COURTS DISTRICT COURTS have jurisdiction, general and original, both civil and criminal, except in such cases where Circuit Courts have exclusive jurisdiction. District Courts have exclusive supervision over courts of Justices of the Peace and Magistrates, in criminal matters, on appeal and writs of error. CIRCUIT COURTS • have jurisdiction, general and original, with the District Courts, in all civil actions and special proceedings, and exclusive jurisdiction in all appeals and Avrits of error from inferior courts, in civil matters. And exclusive jurisdiction in matters of estates and general probate business. JUSTICES OF THE PEACE have jurisdiction in civil matters where $100 or less is involved. By consent of parties, the jurisdiction may be extended to an amount not exceeding $300. They have jurisdiction to try and determine all public offense less than felony, committed within their respective counties, in which the fine, by law, does not exceed 'flOO or the imprisonment thirty days. LIMITATION OF ACTIONS. Action for injuries to the person or reputation; for a stutute penalty; and to enforce a mechanics' lien, must be brought in two (2) years. Those against a public officer within three (3) years. Those founded on unwritten contracts; for injuries to property ; for relief on the ground of fraud ; and all other actions not otherwise provided for, within five (o) years. Those founded on written contracts; on judgments of any court (except those provided for in next section), and for the recovery of real property, within ten (10) years. Those founded on judgment of any court of record in the United States, within twenty (20) years. All above limits, except those for penalties and forfeitures, are extended in favor of minors and insane persons, until one year after the disability is removed — time during which defendant is a non-resident of the State shall not be included in computing any of the above periods. Actions for the recovery of real property, sold for non-payment of taxes, must be brought within five years after the Treasurer's Deed is executed and recorded, except where a minor or convict or insane person is the owner, and they shall be allowed five years after disability is removed, in which to bring action. JURORS. All qualified electors of the State, of good moral character, sound judgment, and in full possession of the senses of hearing and seeing, are competent jurors in their respective counties. United States officers, practicing attorneys, physicians and clergymen, acting professors or teachers in institutions of learning, and persons disabled by 282 ABSTHACT OF IOWA STATE LAWS. bodily infirmity or over sixty-five years of age, are exempt from liability to act as jurors. Any person niav be excused from serving on a jury when his own interests or the public's will "be materially injured by his attendance, or when the state of his health or the death, or sickness of his family requires his absence. CAPITAL PUNISHMENT was restored by the Seventeenth General Assembly, making it optional with the jury to inflict it or not. A MARRIED WOMAN may convey or incumber real estate, or interest therein, belonging to her ; may control the' same or contract with reference thereto, as other persons may con- vey, encumber, control or contract. She may own, acquire, hold, convey and devise property, as her husband may. '^Iler husband is not liable for civil injuries committed by her. She may convey property to her husband, and he may convey to her. She may constitute her husband her attorney in fact. EXEMPTIONS FROM EXECUTION. A resident of the State and head of a family may hold the following prop- erty exempt from execution : All wearing apparel of himself and family kept for actual use and suitable to the condition, and the trunks or other receptacles nec- essary to contain the same ; one musket or rifl* and shot-gun ; all private libraries, family Bibles, portraits, pictures, musical instruments, and paintings not kept for the purpose of sale ; a seat or pew occupied by the debtor or his family in any house of public worship ; an interest in a public or private burying ground not exceeding one acre; two cows and a calf; one horse, unless a horse is exempt as hereinafter provided ; fifty sheep and the wool therefrom, and the materials manufactured from said wool ; six stands of bees ; five hogs and all pigs under six months ; the necessary food for exempted animals for six months ; all flax raised from one acre of ground, and manufiictures therefrom ; one bed- stead and necessary bedding for every two in the family ; all cloth manufactured by the defendant not exceeding one hundred yards ; household and kitchen fur- niture not exceeding two hundred dollars in value ; all spinning wheels and looms ; one sewing machine and other instruments of domestic laber kept for actual use ; the necessary provisions and fuel for the use of the family for six months ; the proper tools, instruments, or books of the debtor, if a farmer, mechanic, surveyor, clergyman, lawyer, physician, teacher or professor; the horse or the team, consisting of not more than two horses or mules, or two yokes of cattle, and the wagon or other vehicle, with the proper harness or tackle, by the use of which the debtor, if a physician, public officer, farmer, teamster or other laborer, habitually earns his living ; and to the debtor, if a printer, there shall also be exemjjt a printing press and the types, furniture and material nec- essary for the use of such printing press, and a newspaper office to the value of twelve hundred dollars; the earnings of such debtor, or those of his family, at any time \\ithin ninety days next preceding the levy. Persons unmarried and not the head of a family, and non-residents, have exempt their own ordinary wearing apparel and trunks to contain the same. ABSTRACT OF IOWA STATE LAWS. 283 There is also exempt, to a head of a family, a homestead, not exceeding forty acres ; or, if inside city limits, one-half acre with improvements, value not limited. The homestead is liable for all debts contracted prior to its acquisition as such, and is subject to mechanics' liens for work or material furnished for the same. An article, otherwise exempt, is liable, on execution, for the purchase money thereof. Where a debtor, if a head of a family, has started to leave the State, he shall have exempt only the ordinary wearing apparel of himself and family, and otlier property in addition, as he may select, in all not exceeding seventy-five dollars in value. A policy of life insurance shall inure to the separate use of the husband or wife and children, entirely independent of his or her creditors. ESTRAYS. An unbroken animal shall not be taken up as an estray between May 1st and November 1st, of each year, unless the same be found within the lawful enclosure of a householder, who alone can take up such animal, unless some other person gives him notice of the fact of such animal coming on his place ; and if he fails, within five days thereafter, to take up such estray, any other householder of the township may take up such estray and proceed with it as if taken on his own premises, provided he shall prove to the Justice of the Peace such notice, and shall make affidavit where such estray Avas taken up. Any swine, sheep, goat, horse, neat cattle or other animal distrained (for damage done to one's enclosure), when the owner is not known, shall be treated as an estray. Within five days after taking up an estray, notice, containing a full descrip- tion thereof, shall be posted up in three of the most public places in the town- ship ; and in ten days, the person taking up such estray shall go before a Justice of the Peace in the township and make oath as to where such estray Avas taken up, and that the marks or brands have not been altered, to his knowledge. The estray shall then be appraised, by order of the Justice, and the appraisement, description of the size, age, color, sex, marks and brands of the estray shall be entered by the Justice in a book kept for that purpose, and he shall, within ten days thereafter, send a certified copy thereof to the County Auditor. When the appraised value of an estray does not exceed five dollars, the Justice need not proceed further than to enter the description of the estray on his book, and if no owner appears within six months, the property shall vest in the finder, if he has complied with the law and paid all costs. Where appraised value of estray exceeds five and is less than ten dollars, if no owner appears in nine months, the finder has the property, if he has com- plied with the law and paid costs. An estray, legally taken up, may be used or Avorked with care and moderation. If any person unlaAvfully take up an estray, or take up an estray and fail to comply with the law regarding estrays, or use or work it contrary to above, or Avork it Defore having it appraised, or keep such estray out of the county more than five days at one time, before acquiring ownership, such offender shall forfeit to the county twenty dollars, and the owner may recover double damages Avitli costs. If the owner of any estray fail to claim and prove his title for one year after the taking up, and the finder shall have complied Avith the law, a comolete title vests in the finder. 284 ABSTRACT OF IOWA STATE LAWS. But if the owner appear within eighteen months from the taking up, prove his ownership and pay all costs and expenses, the finder shall pay him the appraised value of such estray, or may, at his option, deliver up the estray. WOLF SCALPS. A bounty of one dollar is paid for wolf scalps. MARKS AND BRANDS. Any person may adopt his own mark or brand for his domestic animals, and have a description tliereof recorded by the Township Clerk. No person shall adopt the recorded mark or brand of any other person residing in his township. DAMAGES FROM TRESPASS. When any person's lands are enclosed by a lawful fence, the owner of any domestic animal injuring said lands is liable for the damages, and the damages may be recovered by suit against the owner, or may be made by distraining the animals doing the damage; and if the party injured elects to recover by action at^ainst the owner, no appraisement need be made by the Trustees, as in case of distraint. When trespassing animals are distrained within twenty-four hours, Sunday not included, the party injured shall notify the owner of said animals, if known ; and if the owner fails to satisfy the party within twenty-four hours thereafter, the party shall have the township Trustees assess the tlamage, and notice shall be posted up in three conspicuous places in the township, that the stock, or part thereof, shall, on the tenth day after j^osting the notice, between the hours of 1 and -J P. M., be sold to the highest bidder, to satisfy said damages, with costs. Appeal lies, within twenty days, from the action of the Trustees to the Cir- cuit Court. X ^V'llere stock is restrained, by police regulation or by law, from running at large, any person injured in his improved or cultivated lands by any domestic animal, may, by action against the owner of such animal, or by distraining such animal, recover his damages, whether the lands whereon the injury was done were inclosed by a lawful fence or not. FENCES. A lawful fence is fifty-four inches high, made of rails, wire or boards, with posts not more than ten feet apart where rails are used, and eight feet where boards are used, substantially built and kej)t in good repair; or any other fence which, in the opinion of the Fence A^iewers, shall be declared a lawful fence — provided the lower rail, wire or board be not more that twenty nor less than six- teen inches from the ground. The respective owners of lands enclosed with fences shall maintain partition fences between their own and next adjoining enclosure so long as they improve thera in e([ual shares, unless otherwise agreed between them. If any party neglect to maintain such partition fence as he shoukl maintain, the Fence A'iewers (the township Trustees), upon complaint of aggrieved party, may, upon due notice to both parties, examine the fence, and, if found insuf- ABSTRACT OF IOWA STATE LAWS. 285 ficient, notify the delinquent party, in writing, to repair or re-build the same Avithin sucli time as they judge reasonable. If the fence be not repaired or rebuilt accordingly, the complainant may do so, and the same being adjudged sufficient by the Fence Viewers, and the value thereof, with their fees, being ascertained and certified under their hands, the complainant may demand of the delinquent the sum so ascertained, and if the same be not paid in one month after demand, may recover it with one per cent a month interest, by action. In case of disputes, the Fence Viewers may decide as to who shall erect or maintain partition fences, and in what time the same shall be done ; and in case any party neglect to maintain or erect such part as may be assigned to him, the aggrieved party may erect and maintain the same, and recover double damages. No person, not wishing his land inclosed, and not using it otherwise than in common, shall be compelled to maintain any partition fence ; but when he uses or incloses his land otherwise than in common, he shall contribute to the parti- tion fences. Where parties have had their lands inclosed in common, and one of the owners desires to occupy his separate and apart from the other, and the other refuses to divide the line or build a sufiicient fence on the line when divided, the Fence Viewers may divide and assign, and upon neglect of the other to build as ordered by the Viewers, the one may build the other's part and recover as above. And when one incloses land which has lain uninclosed, he must pay for one-half of each partition fence between himself and his neighbors. Where one desires to lay not less than twenty feet of his lands, adjoining his neighbor, out to the public to be used in common, he must give his neighbor SIX months' notice thereof. Where a fence has been built on the land of another through mistake, the owner may enter upon such premises and remove his fence and material withn six months after the division line has been ascertained. Where the material to build such a fence has been taken from the land on which it was built, then, before it can be removed, the person claiming must first pay for such material to the owner of the land from Avhich it was taken, nor shall such a fence be removed at a time Avhen the removal will throw open or expose tlie crops of the other party ; a reasonable time must be given beyond the six months to remove crops. MECHANICS' LIENS. Every mechanic, or other person who shall do any labor upon, or furnish any materials, machinery or fixtures for any building, erection or other improve- ment upon land, including those engaged in the construction or repair of any work of internal improvement, by virtue of any contract with the owner, his agent, trustee, contractor, or sub-contractor, shall have a lien, on complying with the forms of law, upon the building or other improvement for his labor done or materials furnished. It would take too large a space to detail the manner in which a sub- contractor secures his lien. He should file, within thirty days after the last of the labor was performed, or the last of the material shall have been furnished, with the Clerk of the District Court a true account of the amount due him, after allowing all credits, setting forth the time when such material was furnished or labor performed, and when completed, and containing a correct description of 286 ABSTRACT OF IOWA STATE LAWS. tlie property souglit to be charged with the lien, and the -whole verified by affidavit. A principal contractor must file such an affidavit witliin ninety days, as above. Ordinarily, there are so many points to be examined in order to secure a mechanics' lien, that it is much better, unless one is accustomed to managing sucli liens, to consult at once with an attorney. Remember tliat the proper time to file the claim is ninety days for a princi- pal contractor, thirty days for a sub-contractor, as above; and that actions to enforce these liens must be commenced within two years, and the rest can much better be done with an attorney. ROADS AND BRIDGES. Persons meeting each other on the public highways, shall give one-half of the same by turning to the right. All persons failing to observe this rule shall be liable to pay all damages resulting therefrom, together with a fine, not exceed- ing five dollars. The prosecution must be instituted on the complaint of the person wronged. Any person guilty of racing horses, or driving upon the public highway, in a manner likely to endanger the persons or the lives of others, shall, on convic- tion, be fined not exceeding one hundred dollars or imprisoned not exceeding thirty days. It is a misdemeanor, Avithout authority from the proper Road Supervisor, to break upon, plow or dig within the boundary lines of any public highway. The money tax levied upon the ])roperty in each road district in each town- ship (except the general Township Fund, set apart for purchasing tools, machin- ery and guide boards), whether collected by the Road Supervisor or County Treasurer, shall be expended for highway purposes in that district, and no part thereof shall be paid out or expended for the benefit of another district. The Road Supervisor of each district, is bound to keep the roads and bridges therein, in as good condition as the funds at his disposal will permit; to put guide boards at cross roads and forks of highways in his district; and when noti- fied in writing that any portion of the public highway, or any bridge is unsafe, must in a reasonable time repair the same, and for this purpose may call out any or all the able bodied men in the district, but not more than two days at one time, without their consent. Also, when notified in writing, of the growtli of any Canada thistles upon vacant or non-resident lands or lots, witiiin his district, the owner, lessee or agent thereof being unknown, sliall cause the same to be destroyed. Bridges when erected or maintained by the public, are parts of the highway, and must not be less than sixteen feet wide. A penalty is imposed upon any one who rides or drives faster than a walk across any sucii bridge. The manner of establishing, vacating or altering roads, etc., is so well known to all township officers, that it is sufficient here to say that the first step is by petition, filed in the Auditor's office, addressed in substance as follows : The Board of Supervisors of County : The undersigned asks that a highway, commencing at and running thence and terminating at , be established, viicated or altered (as the case may be.) When the petition is filed, all necessary and succeeding steps will be shown and explained to the petitioners by the Auditor. ABSTRACT OF IOWA STATE LAWS. 287 ADOPTION OF CHILDREN. Any person competent to make a will can adopt as his own the minor child of another. The consent of both parents, if living and not divorced or separ- ated, and if divorced or separated, or if unmarried, the consent of the parent lawfully having the custody of the child ; or if either parent is dead, then the consent of the survivor, or if both parents be dead, or the child have been and remain abandoned by them, then the consent of the Mayor of the city where the child is living, or if not in the city, then of the Clerk of the Circuit Court of the county shall be given to such adoption by an instrument in writing, signed by party or parties consenting, and stating the names of the parties, if known, the name of the child, if known, the name of the person adopting such child, and the residence of all, if known, and declaring the name by which the child is thereafter to be called and known, and stating, also, that such child is given to the person adopting, for the purpose of adoption as his own child. The person adopting shall also sign said instrument, and all the parties shall acknoAvledge the same in the manner that deeds conveying lands shall be acknowledged. The instrument shall be recorded in the office of the County Recorder. SURVEYORS AND SURVEYS. Thei'e is in every county elected a Surveyor known as County Surveyor, who has power to appoint deputies, for whose official acts he is responsible. It is the duty of the County Surveyor, either by himself or his Duputy,' to make all surveys that he may be called upon to make within his county as soon as may be after application is made. The necessary chainmen and other assist- ance must be employed by the person requiring the same to be done, and to be by him paid, unless otherwise agreed ; but the chainmen must be disinterested persons and approved by the Surveyor and sworn by him to measure justly and impartially. Previous to any survey, he shall furnish himself with a copy of the field notes of the original survey of the same land, if there be any in the office of the County Auditor, and his survey shall be made in accordance there- with. Their fees are three dollars per day. For certified copies of field notes, twenty-five cents. SUPPORT OF POOR. The father, mother and children of any poor person who has applied for aid, and Avho is unable to maintain himself by work, shall, jointly or severally, maintain such poor person in such manner as may be approved by the Town- ship Trustees. In the absence or inability of nearer relatives, the same liability shall extend to the grandparents, if of ability without personal labor, and to the male grand- children who are of ability, by personal labor or otherwise. The Township Trustees may, upon the failure of such relatives to maintain a poor person, who has made application for relief, apply to the Circuit Court for an order to compel the same. Upon ten days' notice, in writing, to the parties sought to be charged, a hearing may be had, and an order made for entire or partial support of the poor person. 288 ABSTRACT OF IOWA STATE LAWS. Appeal may be taken from such judgment as from other judgments of the Circuit Court. When any person, having any estate, abandons either chikh-en, wife or hus- band, leaving them chargeable, or likely to become chargeable, upon the public for suj)port, up(m proof of above fact, an order may be had from the Clerk of the Circuit Court, or Judge, authorizing tlie Trustees or the Sheriff to take into possession such estate. The Court may direct such personal estate to be sold, to be applied, as well as the rents and profits of the real estate, if any, to the support of children, wife or husband. If tiie party against whom the order is issued return and support the per- son abandoned, or give security for the same, the order shall be discharged, and the property taken returned. The mode of relief for the poor, through the action of the Township Trustees, or the action of the Board of Supervisors, is so Avell known to every township officer, and the circumstances attending applications for relief are so varied, that it need now only be said that it is the duty of each county to pro- vide for its poor, no matter at what place they may be. LANDLORD AND TENANT. A tenant giving notice to quit demised premises at a time named, and after- ward holding over, and a tenant or his assignee willfully holding over the prem- ises after the term, and after notice to quit, shall pay double rent. Any person in possession of real property, with the assent of the owner, is presumed to be a tenant at will until the contrary is shown. Thirty days' notice, in writing, is necessary to be given by either party before he can terminate a tenancy at will ; but when, in any case, a rent is reserved payable at intervals of less than thirty days, the length of notice need not be greater than such interval between the days of payment. In case of tenants occupying and cultivating farms, the notice must fix the termination of tlie tenancy to take place on the 1st day of March, except in cases of field tenants or croppers, whose leases shall be held to expire when the crop is har- vested ; provided, that in case of a crop of corn, it shall not be later than the 1st day of December, unless otherwise agreed upon. But when an express agreement is made, whether the same has been reduced to writing or not, the tenancy shall cease at the time agreed upon, without notice. But where an express agreement is made, whether reduced to writing or not, the tenancy shall cease at the time agreed upon, without notice. If such tenant cannot be found in the county, the notices above required may be given to any sub-tenant or other person in possession of the premises ; or, if the premises be vacant, by affixing the notice to the principal door of the buihling or in some conspicuous position on the land, if there be no building. The landlord shall have a lien for his rent upon all the crops grown on the premises, and upon any other personal property of the tenant used on the premises tluring the term, and not exempt from execution, for the period of one year after a year's rent or the rent of a shorter period claimed falls due ; but such lien shall not continue more than six months after the expiration of the term. The lien may be effected by the commencement of an action, within the period above prescribed, for the rent alone ; and the landlord is entitled to a writ ABSTRACT OF IOWA STATE LAWS. 289 of attachment, upon filing an affidavit that the action is commenced to rcover rent accrued within one year previous thereto upon the premises described in the affidavit. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Whenever any of the following articles shall be contracted for, or sold or delivered, and no special contract or agreement shall be made to the contrary, the weight per bushel shall be as follows, to-wit: Apples, Peaches or Quinces, 48 Cherries, Grapes, Currants or Gooseberries, 40 Strawberries, Raspberries or Blackberries, 32 Osage Orange Seed 32 Millet Seed 45 Stone Coal. 80 Lime 80 Corn in the ear 70 Wheat 60 Potatoes 60 Beans 60 Clover Seed 60 Onions 57 Shelled Corn 56 Rye 56 Flax Seed 56 Sweet Potatoes 46 Sand 130 Sorghum Seed 30 Broom Corn Seed 80 Buckwheat 52 Salt 50 Barley 48 Corn Meal 48 Castor Beans 46 Timothy Seed 45 Hemp Seed 44 Dried Peaches 33 Oats 33 Dried Apples 24 Bran 20 Blue Grass Seed 14 Hungarian Grass Seed 45 Penalty for giving less than the above standard is treble damages and costs and five dollars addition thereto as a fine. DEFINITION OF COMMERCIAL TERMS. $ means dollars, being a contraction of U. S., which was formerly placed before any denomination of money, and meant, as it means now, United States Currency. <£ means jt>0Mwc?s, English money. @ stands for at ov to; K) for pounds, and bbl. for barrels ; '^ for ijer or hy the. Thus, Butter sells at 20(«]30c f ft, and Flour at |8(«i$12 ^ bbl. % for per cent., and # for number. May 1. Wheat sells at $1.20@|1.25, " seller June." Seller June means that the person who sells the wheat has the privilege of delivering it at any time during the month of June. Selling short, is contracting to deliver a certain amount of grain or stock, at a fixed price, within a certain length of time, when the seller has not the stock on hand. It is for the interest of the person selling "short" to depress the market as much as possible, in order that he may buy and fill his contract at a profit. Hence the "shorts" are termed "bears." Buying long, is to contract to purchase a certain amount of grain or shares of stock at a 'fixed price, deliverable within a stipulated time, expecting to make a profit by the rise in prices. The " longs " are termed " bulls," as it is for their interest to "operate" so as to "toss" the prices upward as much as possible. 290 ABSTRACT OF IOWA STATE LAWS. NOTES. Form of note is legal, worded in the simplest way, so that the amount and "fcme of payment are mentioned : ^100. Chicago, 111., Sept. 15, 1876. Sixty days from date I promise to pay to E. F. Brown or order, one hun- dred dollars, for value received. L- D- LoWRY. A note to be payable in anything else than money needs only the facts sub- stituted for money in the above form. ORDERS. Orders should be worded simply, thus : Mr. F. H. Coats : Chicago, Sept. 15, 1876. Please pay to H. Birdsall twenty-five dollars, and charge to F. D. SiLVA. RECEIPTS. Receipts should always state when received and what for, thus : $100. Chicago, Sept. 15, 1876. Received of J. W. Davis, one hundred dollars, for services rendered in grading his lot in Fort Madison, on account. Thomas Brady. If receipt is in full, it should be so stated. "* BILLS OF PURCHASE. W. N. Mason, Salem, Illinois, Sept. 18, 1876. Bought of A. A. Graham. 4 Bushels of Seed Wheat, at $1.50 $6 00 2 Seamless Sacks " 30 60 Received payment, $6 60 A. A. Graham. CONFESSION OF JUDGMENT. -, Iowa, , 18 — . after date — promises to pay to the order of , dollars, at , for value received, with interest at ten per cent, per annum after until paid. Interest payable , and on interest not paid when due, interest at same rate and conditions. A failure to pay saie Presents : Tliat of County, and State of in consideration of dollars, in hand paid by — ^ , of County and State of do hereby sell and convey unto the said the following described personal property, now in the possession of in the county and State of , to wit : \_IIere insert Description .'[ And do hereby warrant the title of said property, and that it is free from any incumbrance or lien. The only right or interest retained by grantor in and to said property being the right of redemption as herein provided. This convevance to be void upon condition that the said grantor shall pay to said grantee, or his assigns, the full amount of principal and interest at the time therein specified, of certain promissory notes of even date herewith, for the sum of dollars, One note for 8 shall make, on the last Saturday of every month, a return in writing to the Auditor of the county, showing the kind and quantity of the liquors purchased by him since the date of his last rep<»rt, the price paid, and the amount of freights paid on the same ; also the kind and quantity of liquors sold by him since the date of his last report; to whom sold ; for what purpose and at what price ; also the kind and quantity of liquors on hand ; which report shall be sworn to by the person having the permit, and shall be kept by the Auditor, subject at all times to the inspection of the public. No person shall sell or give away any intoxicating liquors, including wine or beer, to any minor, for any purpose whatever, except upon written order of parent, guardian or family physician ; or sell the same to an intoxicated person or a person in the habit of becoming intoxicated. 302 ABSTRACT OF IOWA STATE LAWS. Any person who shall mix any intoxicating liiiuor with any beer, wine or cider, by him sold, and shall sell or keep for sale, as a beverage, such mixture, shall be punishetl as fur sale of intoxicating litjuor. ]Jiit nt)tlung in the chapter containing the laws governing the sale or pro- hibiting the sale of intoxicating liipiors, shall be construed to forbid the sale by the importer thereof of foreign intoxicating li(pior, imported under the author- ity of the laws of the United States, regarding the importation of such li(iuors, and in accordance with such laws ; provided that such liquor, at the time of the sale by the importer, renuiins in the original casks or packages in which it was by him imported, and in quantities not less than the quantities in which the laws of the United States recjuire such liquors to be imported, and is sold by him in such original casks or packages, and in said quantities only. All payment or compensation for intoxicating licjuor sold in violation of the laws of this State, whether such payments or compensation be in money, goods, lands, labor, or anything else whatsoever, shall be held to have been received in viola- tion of law and equity and good conscience, and to have been received upon a valid promise and agreement of the receiver, in consideration of the receipt thereof, to pay on demand, to the person furnishing such consideration, the amount of the money on the just value of the goods or other things. All sales, transfers, conveyances, mortgages, liens, attachments, pledges and securities of every kind, which, either in whole or in part, shall have been made on account of intoxicating lii^uors sold contrary to law, shall be utterly null and Void. Negotiable paper in the hands of lioldcrs thereof, in good faith, for valuable considei-ation, without notice of any illegality in its inception or transfer, how- ever, shall not be affected by the above provisions. Neither shall the holder of land or other property who may have taken the same in good faith, without notice of any defect in the. title of the person from whom the same was taken, growing out of a violation of the liquor law, be affected by the above provision. Every wife, child, parent, guardian, employer, or other person, wdio shall be injured in ])erson or property or means of support, by an intoxicated person, or in consecjueuce of the intoxication, has a right of action against any person who shall, by selling intoxicating li(|Uors, cause the intoxication of such person, for all damages actually sustained as well as exemplary damages. For any damages recovered, the personal and real property (except home- stead, as now provided) of the person against whom the damages are recovered, as well as the premises or property, personal or real, occupied and used by him, with Consent and kiinwledge of owner, either for manufacturing or selling intox- icating liquors Contrary to law, shall be liable. The only (»ther exemption, besides the homestead, from this sweeping liability, is that the defendant may have enough for the support of his family for six months, to be determined by the Township Trustee. No ale, wine, beer (tr other malt or vinous li<[uors shall be sold within two miles of the corporate limits of any municipal corporation, except at wholesale, for the purpose of shipment to places outside of such corporation and such two- mile limits. The power of the corporation to prohil)it or license sale of liqu