DS825 .G5 .^''"\ •A 0^ . o « o /% VV . O N o ^ *Q fv^ fie ^, ^**S-^* 99i>732 \ Miscellaneous Business, -{ Males, 2,591,585 Females, 2.749,945 L Total, 5>34i.53o It is to be much regretted there are so few authentic records of the work done by women in ancient times. The lives of a few women have been written, but they were mostly celebrated for their skill in playing on different instruments, or in composing poetry; very few names are mentioned of women who were engaged in productive employments, and these few are inaccurate; still it is an undisputed fact that women have done a great part of the work of rearing silk worms, weaving and other important industries for more than 2,000 years. As we shall write something of agriculture, forestry, marine productions, different industries and commerce in regular order, we shall describe work done by women. We shall also give historical data, as well as the present condition of various productive occupations in the different provinces of the empire. Agriculture. FORESTRY. Agriculture is the source of the wealth of our country. Rice and grain are used for our daily food, so the work of the farmer has always been regarded as very important, and every means has been taken to encourage it. Although the surface of the country is generally mountainous, its mountain sides, as well as its valleys and plains, are ploughed and cultivated. The land owned amounts to 13,794,361 tan, about 2,751,526 tan and 7 ho being in rice fields and 2,291,127 tan and 8 ho being in small farms, (i tan=^io,d,oo sq. ft. i ho^-^6 sq. ft.) The chief products for food are rice, barley, wheat, buck- wheat, millet, beans, small red beans, Indian corn, sweet potatoes, greens, fruits, etc. The materials manufactured are cotton, flax, sugar cane, tobacco, indigo, rape-seed, oil, wax, 94 Isicquev, gam/>i (a kind of thin paper Wickstroemia canescens), edgeworthia papyrifera, /eozo, etc. The chief articles of export are tea, silk and lacquer. Rearing silk worms is the occupation of the peasants in Shinano, Kotsuke, Iwashiro, Musashi and other districts. The yearly production of cocoons is 1,115,000 /v/v/ (i kokii = bushels, 5,555); that of tanegaftii from 230,000 to 240,000 sheets; raw silk from 800,000 to 1,000,000 kwa/i (i kwan = lbs., 8,282); floss silk and waste silk, each 40,000 to 50,000 kwan. Tea is grown in every district except in Hokkaido. The amount of tea exported in the twenty-third year of Meiji (1890) was 37,250,720 kin (i kin==Li}i lb.), and its value about 6,326,881 yen. More than half of the women of the country are employed in agriculture. In the spring, when the snow still lies deep on the ground, they clean the rice from the hulls facing the cold north wind, or they manure the mulberry trees, tea and the kozo plants. From the i8th of March they are busy sowing the seeds of different kinds of beans and other vegetables, grafting trees, etc. When it is, warmer and the shoots of rice begin to grow, it is time to plough, cultivate the fields and plant other seeds and trees. On the 2d of May the silk worms grow to their full size and eat great quantities of mulberry leaves, then is the time when those who are engaged in rearing silk worms find it hard to rest, either by day or night. In June the shoots of rice are separated, the winter wheat is reaped, seeds are sown, and this is the busiest sea- son for the farmer. When summer comes the rice fields must be irrigated and weeded. This is also the season in which to cut and dry tobacco and indigo leaves. In September, when the soft autumn coolness begins to be felt and everything is ripe, the rice harvest begins; plough- ing also is done, and wheat is sown and transplanted. In November, all the farm work is finished, but coverings for trees must be prepared to protect them from the frost and wood must be cut for fuel. 95 Large numbers of women are engaged in these labors during the entire year. HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF AGRICULTURE. As our country is fertile and well adapted for the growth of five cereals (wheat, rice, millet, beans and sorghum), the art of cultivation was known from the earliest ages. Formerly linen was largely used for clothing, and the art of rearing silk worms was practiced by women from early times, indeed the Empresses themselves were often known to rear worms and engage in weaving. The Emperor Sujin (B. C. 97-30) made new tax laws. The tax paid by a man was called Uhazu-no-mitsiigi, and that of a woman was called Tana-siie- no-mitsiigi. Uhazii-no-miisi/gi means " an offering of deer horns, skins of bears and other animals killed by himself. " Tana-sue-no-initsugi means "an offering of silk or cloth woven by the woman." Thus it appears that women had an equal share in the daily industry at a very remote period. At the time of the Emperor Ojin (A. D. 283), Uzuki, Prince of Kudara (a province of Corea), came to Japan with emigrants from 127 other provinces. These people were skill- ful in rearing silk worms and in weaving. The Emperor Yuriaku (457-479) encouraged this industry and ordered Sugaru, an official, to collect the eggs of silk worms for his Empress " Ki^saka-no Hata-hime, " and for her to feed the worms and attend to all the work herself. From this time this be.came a most important occupation for women. During the reign of the Emperor Kotoku (A. D. 645) a cen- sus was taken so that the accurate number of the population was known; the land was surveyed and a register made of all cultivated lands, also new rules regarding the taxes were pro- claimed. This was called Handen, that is, two tan of land was given to a man, and two-thirds of two tan given to a woman, and both were to pay their taxes to the government in work. Ukazu-no-viitsugi and Tana-sue-no-niitsugi were now abolished, but the women had to cultivate a certain amount of land which was assigned to them and also weave silk or linen as before. From the time of the Emperor Saga to the Emperors Junwa, Ninmei, Buntoku, Seiwa and Koko (ninth century) 96 the}^ all made great efforts to improve agriculture; ordering the governor of each province to go himself and encourage the farmers to improve ponds and watercourses, and thus increase irrigation, and to also do all possible to aid in the fertilizing of the land. They often lessened the taxes, fed the people and helped their wants in many ways. When the Fujiwara family grasped the power dissipation, luxury and idleness were the order of the day, and the disciphne of the government was lessened. The result was, discontented men rose in mobs, collecting others in different parts of the country, and defied the officials, robbed the help- less people and prevented the farmer from working peacefully in his fields. Thus many of the farmers lost the seasons for rearing silk-worms or cultivating the soil. So the rice fields and the farms lay waste. This frequently happened, especially in the time of Hogen and ^(?z)V (i 156-1 159). The war between the two houses, Genji and Heike, gave no peace to the farm- ers, and they were obliged to take their families and property and fly to the mountains. Their rice fields and farms were trampled over by war horses, or, if they fortunately escaped that calamity, they could not evade the heavy taxes which they were obliged to pay to the governor of the province for the expenses of the war. The sufferings of the farmers were extremely great. When Yo7'itomo, the great general, established a tempo- rary government and a member of the Hojo house became the Prime Minister (1220) but little peace was obtained. Yasutoki and Tokiyoti of the Hojo house frequently relieved the people when suffering from want, and reprimanded the lords of the provinces for their tyrannical conduct. For a while the farmers felt as if they might recover from their losses but this hope did not last long. The latter part of the Kamakura government (1331) was filled with the horrors of civil war between the houses of the North and the South, both having a rightful claim to the thfone of Japan. Then the power of the temporary government passed to the Ashikaga family and afterwards to the Toyotonii family. During an interval of 300 years the country was constantly in a state of confusion and disturbance and the people could not engage in peaceful occupations. The women were in a very 97 miserable condition during this war-like period. The power of the whole empire lay in the force of arms, and for anyone without a name, without an education, but skillful in the art of war there was an opportunity to rise at once to a great military career. Naturally all persons regarded military serv- ice with great respect. Men could do as they liked but women were kept in a state of submission, and while some took charge of the most difficult household labors during the absence of their husbands many others entered into the service of houses of higher rank. Each military man, or samut'ai (knight), served his feudal lord generation after generation. As the heir of the house was limited to the male sex, should the heir die the allowance from the lord was cut off; thus a greater respect was felt for men than for women and this had the effect of making the latter weak-minded and without courage. This war-like con- dition of the country thus made a remarkable change in the state and occupations of women. The seeds of the tea plant came to Japan in the time of the Fujiwai-a family, but for many years tea was not much used. At the beginning of the Kamakura government (iigo) Eisei, the founder of the Zenshu (one of the religious sects), brought the tea again from So (China), and it gradually came into general use. When the Ashikaga Shogun, Higashiyatna favored the ''Cha-no-yu " it became very fashionable and it now seems that tea is an indispensable beverage. The cotton seed was known in the time of the Fujiwara family, but afterwards it went entirely out of cultivation. In the year 1592 it was planted for the second time and soon a great amount of cotton cloth was woven, and took the place of silk and linen for wearing apparel. Spinning and weaving cotton and picking tea leaves became suitable occupations for women and they were constantly employed in these labors. When the government of the country fell into the hands of the Tokugatua family in 1603, the great Shogun lyeyasu, practiced the greatest economy; he forbade all luxury and en- couraged farming. When out hunting he would go about among the people to study their condition. Accordingly the lords and governors of different provinces became more merciful to the farmers and encouraged agriculture; thus with peace the state of both men and women became more flourishing. Proclamations were issued from the temporary govern- ment of the Bakiifu, in which there were many laws respecting the occupations of women. A few examples will suffice. The following is an extract from a proclamation issued by the temporary government of the Bakufu in the second year of Heia7i, 1649: (The first part is omitted.) " The husband and wife must work together for their mutual benefit, the man in farming and the woman in spinning and weaving till late in the evening. If a wife neglects her husband, drinks too much tea, or spends her time in pleasure, or sight seeing, then, although she may be handsome, her husband may divorce her; but in case they have many children, or if she has done some meritorious service for him in time past it will make a difference. On the other hand if she tries to work for the good of her husband's house she must be treated with much kindness, etc." Here is another example. This is from the manuscript of an announcement issued by the governor of Tosa Province, named Nonaka Deneiiion: (The first part is omitted.) "Daughters of peasants from 10 to 16 years of age must have some work assigned them according to their age and ability." Again it says: "The children of peasants from the age of 8 or 9 must learn some kind of occupation." (Here an omission.) "In the fishing districts boys and girls must be taught various methods in regard to fishing. When a boy reaches 8 or g years he must learn to handle the oars, make nets or other fishing tackle. These may differ somewhat according to the different districts. Girls must learn to spin flax and do other kinds of women's work. When they are 15 or 16 years old they must decide how much work they can do during the month and make it known to the owners of houses or to the elders of the place, and then they must go together to the temple of the family gods, and register a report of their work in the proper book, etc." These public notices show how much work was done by women in those da3's, and even now much the same rules are observed. Since the country has been opened to foreign commerce some alterations have taken place, but in regard to agriculture or forestry we see no remarkable change except that business has greatly increased. Idle girls have been encouraged to work and earn money hy rearing silk worms, 99 and picking tea leaves. Indeed, since these two products have made so great an item in the exports to foreign countries women have had more chance to earn their living than ever before. Present Condition of the Provinces. The largest plain in Japan is found by the shore of the Ishi- kari River in Hokkaido; next is the plain of Kwanto; then that between Mino and Owari, and one in the neighborhood of Chi- kugo River; and all the land excepting the bare, rugged moun- tains and sandy regions, is thoroughly cultivated and the larger part of it is taken up in rice fields. The provinces of Musashi, Ise, Hitachi, Iwashiro, Rikuzen, Ugo, Echigo, Owari, Mino, Omi, Hoki, Idzu, Chikuzen, Chikugo, Higo and Hizen are the richest in producing rice. The amount of rice produced annually in these provinces reaches a total of 30,000,000 to 40,000,000 Koku. (i Koku = 5, 13 bu.) Women are engaged in the cultivation of the rice fields and it is the most important work in which they can be em- ployed. They sow the seeds early in the spring and wait until the warm rains have caused them to sprout, then with much singing and merry laughter they are transplanted into regular rows. When the shoots are a little grown, the fields are carefully weeded. In the hot summer days when there are no ponds or rivers near the fields, water must be carried from morning until night to irrigate the growing plants. When the harvest time comes women cut the rice, dry, thresh and whiten it. Then it is ready for market. During these busy days the women have also to cultivate other grains and vegetables, rear silk worms, dry tea leaves. In the evening they grind meal and spin thread, etc. The provinces of Shinano, Kotsuke, Iwashiro and Musa- shi are noted for silk; and Uji of Yamashiro, Shigara of Omi, Sayama of Musashi, and the provinces of Ise and Mino are the districts best suited for the growth of the tea plant. Dur- ing the silk and tea seasons not only are the women of the place engaged, but many from different districts come to be hired. Thus the locality becomes very lively for a certain time. Singing, talking and laughing are heard in every house. The wages are from 15-25 sen a day during the season. During the tea season in the districts of Shidzuoka women come in parties of 200 or 300 to be hired. They come from Idzu, Sagami and other provinces. When their work is done they return to their homes in better condition than when they left. They travel home in new suits of sum- mer clothes, and carry new parasols, and seem to be very gay and happy. In Yamato, Kii, Suruga, Towtowmi, Idzu, Shin- ano and other provinces where the forest trees propagate rapidly, women plant the young shoots and take charge of them. The Fishing Industry. Our most important products are obtained from the sea, so the net and line are essential implements for increasing the wealth of the country. Although many countries are sur- rounded by water, are rich in rivers and lakes, no other coun- try has the same advantages that we have. The east, south and west coasts, facing the seas, are indented with bays and capes. As the climate is temper- ate, fish, shellfish and seaweeds of various kinds grow abundantly. The northern shore is washed by the waters of the Arctic Ocean which is filled with fish, and abounds in different kinds of sea animals. In the interior of the country rivers run in various directions; lakes and marshes are scattered here and there, so the products of fresh matter are also abundant. Where so many varieties of fish and other sea products abound, it is no wonder that with a few vegetables fish has been the almost invariable food of the people, and even the manure for rice (our "staff of life") is prepared from dried fish. The principal sea products at present are sardines, her- ring, katsiio, cuttlefish, codfish, salmon, beche-de-mer, sea- weeds, etc. There are sixty varieties of sea products of which the value is estimated at over 10,000 yen a year. The total value of the sea products of the twenty-first year of Meiji (1888) is as follows: Herring, 4,323,176 yen; sardines, 2,325,- 840 yen; katsuo, 1,617,515 yen. The sum total of these with other fish were 19,369,480 yen. The principal exports now are cuttlefish, seaweeds, beche-de-mer, dried sea ear, crabs, etc. These are sent chiefly to China. HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF THE FISHING INDUSTRY. From the earliest ages the people of Japan have used fish for food, although sometimes the flesh of venison and of birds has been eaten. In later years, however, flesh was not much used, and fish only was used at each meal, and even those who lived in inland towns would send to purchase fish from places near the seacoast. In '^Yefigishiki" (books of ceremonies written in the 3^ear of Yengi A. D. 927) we find the names of fish and other sea products which were brought from different provinces to the Imperial Culinary Department as tribute. These were for the daily use of the Imperial household, or for offerings to the gods on holidays. The following is a list of the various articles brought and the places from whence they came: Katsuo, from Shima, Suruga, Sagami, Awa, Kii, Idzu, Tosa, Bungo and Awa. Cuttlefish, from Wakasa, Tango, Aki, Idzumo, Chikuzen and Buzen. Large sardines, from Bitchiu, Bingo, Kii and Sanuki. Hishoko sardines, from Bitchiu, Aki and Suwo. Dried beche-de-mer, from Oki, Higo, Wakasa, Chikuzen, Shima, Hizen and Noto. Oshiayu, from Kii, Bizen, Bitchiu, Bingo, Buzen, Hizen, Higo, Tosa, etc. Tai (serranus Marginalis), from Idzumi, Shima, Ise, Sanuki, Wakasa, etc. Salmon, from Echigo, Echizen, Tamba, etc. Sea ear, from Shima, Awa, Hizen, Higo, Chikuzen, etc. Hiuwo, from Yamashiro and Omi. Suzuki, from Yamashiro. Aji, from Idzumi. Carp, from Mino. Trout, ameno uwo and funa, from Omi. Hara-aka (red breast), from Higo and Chikugo. Mackerel, from lyo, Tosa, Suwa and Noto. Oysters, from Ise and Higo. Dried cuttlefish, from Higo and Sanuki. Dried turtle (terrapin), from Yamato. Crabs, from Owari. Different kinds of dried fish, from Owari, Mikawa, Kaga and other provinces. And many kinds of seaweeds. We thus see that many sea products were then used for lood and were obtained from man}^ provinces. From the last part of the reign of the Fujiwara family to the time of the Kamakiira government the dishes used at court or at the tables of the Ministers of State consisted of carp, tai, sea ear, cuttlefish, crabs, trout, beche-de-mer, lobster, oyster, different kinds of shellfish and seaweeds. In 1080 Shirakawa Tenno forbade anyone to take the life of any living creature, he ordered more than 8,800 fishing nets to be burned, put a stop to the tribute of fish, and he himself abstained entirely from eating either fish or meat. This he did because he was an ardent believer in Buddhism. This state of feeling did not last long. Passing from the Ashigaga reign to the peaceful days of the Tokiigawa, the amount of sea products increased rapidly, especially from the year '■'■And'" to "Bt/nsei,'" as the learned men talked so much of the importance of protecting and en- couraging the fisheries that the governors of different districts understood the need of better protective laws, and great im- provements were made. In the early part of "Meiji" old customs and laws were abandoned, every variety of fish was caught without limit and the sea products were almost exterminated. Fortunately this danger was soon realized and protective laws were again reinstated. Fishing with line and hook and by casting nets is done mostly by men, but cutting seaweeds, carrying salt water to manufacture salt, diving into the sea for sea ears and salting and drying fish is done mostly by women. THE PRESENT CONDITION OF FISHERIES IN DIFFERENT PROVINCES. Among the sea products, sardines, herring and katsiio are the principal varieties of fish and are the most abundant. Sardines are caught everywhere on the eastern coast, but the best place is Kiijukiiri. Kujukuri (or ninety-nine ri) has a coast line of twenty-five ri, extending from Nagasagori in Kaziisa province to the promontory of Jnuboe, Shinioisitke prov- ince. The whole length of the coast the water is very shoal, and when the sea is calm it is a most convenient place for casting nets. There are 40,000 inhabitants and more than 3,000 owners of nets in this fishing village. Men and women make their living by this occupation. In May and June, when it IS the fishing season, the net profit of every village is over 1,000 yen. 103 During the summer months the seashore presents an animated view. Men running hither and thither, casting and drawing nets, and women carrying fish home to dry. In Hok- kaido or on the Oshiu coast the same scene occurs at the herring season. Men, as well as women, go there from Iwate Fukushima, Aomori and other districts to earn money. On the coast of Tosa, Satsuma, Kii, Ise, Shima, Sagami, Awa, Chikuzen and other provinces are found great quanti- ties of Katsiio. The men catch the fish and the women stay at home and are busily engaged in making katsuo-bitshi. One of the most remarkable occupations of the women of certain districts is that of diving into the sea for "sea ear" and various kinds of seaweeds. Women employed in this occupation are called "■Ania.''' On the coast of Ise, Shima, Noto, Wakasa and. Oshiu there are many '^Ama.'' They dive into the sea to the depth of about forty fathoms, search under the water, holding their breath for four or five minutes. They take with them a kind of chisel, with which they cut off the membrane holding the "sea ear" to the rock. As to the seaweeds they are cut off from the rocks, and floating to the surface are easily collected. The most dangerous work is that of collecting '■Hokoroten''' (a seaweed) in April, May, August and September, when the weeds are torn from the rocks by the force of the waves. "Ama," without the least fear of the storm, go out in parties to pick up these weeds. Each '■'■Aina''' covering her head with a white cloth and tying a tub about her waist, throws herself into the angry waves and collects the weeds with a net called ''totta." This is in- deed a most exciting scene; it is like a battle, each one trying to get ahead of her neighbor in the quantity of weeds collected; it is likewise a very dangerous occupation and often some of the women are thrown against the rocks and are badly bruised. So a doctor from each village is always present and cares for those who are injured by any accident. Of these " Ama " each one earns as much as five or six yen on a stormy day. When their work is done the women of the whole vil- lage assemble and make a great feast to which all are invited. In places where the women do the most active work the rights of the household belong to them. They" have all the 104 finances in their hands and make all the bargains relating to their work. When the women go out to their special labors their husbands or any other man at home does the cooking, washing, and even cares for the children. As for the men, they are generall}^ inactive, lazy, and willingly enough perform their unusual services. When they have leisure they amuse themselves with singing or playing checks, etc. In these districts women are more respected than men, and when a girl is born she is welcomed joyfully by the whole family. She is brought up with the greatest care, but if the child is a boy he is sent away from home to be brought up by strangers. His birth is considered a disappointment for his parents. Other kinds of Industries. The industry of our country is the result of constant practice for 2,000 years. Both delicate taste and skilled handiwork are very remarkable. Silk spinning and weaving, embroidery, raised work, paper work, bamboo work, and many other things are largely done by women. Among the various articles exported to foreign countries the most important are the result of women's work. These are silk, the yearly production of which amounts to over a million kwan; silk goods of over forty million tan, silk handerchiefs, embroidered goods and many other orna- mental things. HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF THESE INDUSTRIES. The arts of spinning and weaving were carried on ex- tensively from the earliest ages. The oldest fabrics remain- ing are some woven at the time of the Emperor Siiigo, A. D, 600. Only a few pieces have escaped the ravages of time. Those woven at the time of the Nara court in the eighth cen- tury are still well preserved. Brocade, silk damask and other fabrics were so exquisitely woven, the figures were so artistic and the coloring so beautiful, that silks woven in later years cannot enter into comparison. A few specimens of these beautiful brocades are carefully preserved in the storehouse of Shozoin (a storehouse in which precious antiques are kept), at 105 JSlanto, and there are some others in the Hoi'htji temple. Besides weaving, women excelled in the art of dyeing silk. " Rokitsu " means the printing of flowers on silk and other fabrics with wax. " Rokitsu " is done in the following man- ner: A wooden board is carved with different designs of flowers, birds, etc., and the designs are then covered with wax. The silk web is then laid between two boards, the second one being smooth, and dipped into a dye. The parts left undyed, between the boards, are afterwards tastefully painted with different colors, such as light purple, dark green, scarlet, light yellow, etc. Although the origin of weaving and dyeing in these methods is not known the term " Shibori " or " Ufuhata " seems to have been known as far back as the reign of the Empress Jingo (200 A. D.). At the time of the Nara court these materials were largely used for wearing apparel, also for small carpets or rugs. Specimens of these are still seen in the storehouse of Shozoin and at other places. Embroidery was done most skillfully by the women of those times, and specimens are still preserved in a convent attached to the Hormji temple at Yaniato. An embroidered "Ma/idara of Tenji/koku" finished in the year A. D. 623 was the work of a maid of Tachibana no Tai- fujin. She di(i this by the order of her mistress. "Mandara'" is a picture representing -men and women worshiping Buddha in Paradise. Another '.^ mandai'a" embroidered b}^ Chujohime, finished in the year 676, is kept in the Taema-dera temple in Yamoto. Chujohime was a daughter of Udaijin (minister) Toyonari. She became a nun in Taema-dera convent during the year of Tem- pei-hojo. She devoted her time to embroidering a "mandara," more than fifteen feet long, with the delicate fibers of lotus stalks. Paradise was most delicately and wonderfully rep- resented; unfortunately only a small piece of it is still preserved. The Empress Danrin made a good many banners and embroidered vestments, and sent a priest named Egaku to China to present them to the high priests in different temples in that country. As these were not embroidered by profes- io5 sional artists it proves that amateurs had great skill in such work. At the time of the Fiijiwara government, from the ninth to the eleventh century, the people of high rank were given up to idleness and luxury, and spent their time mostly in composing poetry, playing on musical instruments and in dancing. , They competed with each other in obtaining magnif- icent clothing and in securing the finest 'furniture, orna- ments and norimonos (Sedan chairs). These latter were pro- fusely ornamented with brocade and silk damask, and also inlaid with gold and silver and sometimes precious stones. While the nobility were thus indulging themselves in indolence and merriment, the common people worked hard to supply the demand of the upper classes for these elegancies. During the period of Ge/igi and Heike (the twelfth cen- tury) luxury reached its highest point, and the ladies of the court amused their weary hours with painting and making hana-musubi (making different kinds of knots of silk cords for ornaments). A prayer roll copied by the Heike family is pre- served to this day in the storehouse of the Itsiiku-shima. This was beautifully done and was offered to the god of the temple. It is illuminated so exquisitely that nothing can compare with it in the country. The illustrations are said to have been the work of Kiyotnori's daughters A. D. 1160. From the time of the Kamakura court to the time of the Ashikaga family the country was in a state of great disturbance, and all kinds of industries were neglected. Among others the art of weaving fell into a state of great desuetude, compared with its condition under Imperial reigns. There is a roll of painting called "71 Shokiiiiin Zukiishi- rita awase" (seventy-one workmen with poems), done by a noted artist named Tosa Mitsunobii, at the time of Higashi- yama Shogun. It represents different kinds of industries and the various conditions of the workmen. The women are rep- resented as weaving, making sak6, twisting silk cords, sewing on kimonos (dresses), stamping figures on cloth or paper, dye- ing, etc. From the time of the Tokiigawa Shoguns the country was in a peaceful state and the population increased year by year; 107 the demand for various articles increased in proportion and the laboring classes became more prosperous. Cotton goods, which were in general use by the common people, silk damask, satin, brocade and other materials were woven at Kiriit, Hino and other places about the year 1730. Before that time all silk fabrics were woven exclusively at Nishijin in Kioto. Now "Uktori^^ comes from Akita and Siikiaya from Echigo. The skilled weavers of Hakata of Chikuzen were removed to Kiriu and Hachioji, and silk crape is now woven at Gifu, Mino, Nagahama of Omi, Muneyama of Tanabe and Ashikaga of Shimotsuke. Women of different provinces have also been famous for their skill in making pottery and in gold work. A few examples may be of interest: Kane, a daugher of Yokota Somin, and Tsune, a daughter of Inagawa Riokoku, were noted for their skill in gold work; and Haniejo of Nagasaki acquired a great name for her skill in casting. Yokoya Sowmin was a famous carver who lived in Yedo (Tokio) during the period of Genroku, A. D. 1700. He ob- tained the first sketches of his work from the noted artists, Kano Tanyu and Hanabusa Itcho, and made the first carvings in groups. He also invented "Keboyi'' (carving as fine and delicate as a hair). Inagawa Riokoku, a pupil of Yanagawa Naomasa, imitated the style of Sowmin. He was especially skilled in sketching designs to be dyed on Nanako (a soft silk). His daughter Tetsu learned the art from her father and was equally cele- brated for her skill. Dyeing figures upon "Nanako" is deli- cately done by the slender fingers of women, though men often get the credit of it. Hamejo was a native of Nagasaki. Her father was en- gaged in the business of casting. Having no son he taught the secret of smelting metals to his daughter. Hamejo was very clever and prolific in ideas. In making delicate figures in colored copper her work was not equaled by anyone, and her name was known far and wide. During the year of Eisei (the first part of the sixteenth century) a Chinese named Ameya became a citizen of Japan and lived in Keishi (Kioto). He changed his name to Sokei and made a peculiar kind of earthenware, which was the 108 origin of Rakuyaki. After his death his widow became a nun {ama), and having learned the art from her husband, began making pottery, and the ware she made was called Amayaki. In Kioto and other places there are many women who employ themselves in making both Rakuyaki and Amayaki, producing beautiful tea sets and many ornamental articles. PRESENT CONDITION OF INDUSTRIES IN DIFFERENT PROVINCES. Various articles belonging to the "fine arts" are made in all of the principal cities of Japan. Kioto is celebrated for the manufacture of silk brocade, silk damask and velvet, also " Shuchin" (silk specially designed for i^/;/j-), different kinds of gold brocade Yuzenzome (goods dyed in various colors), embroidery, raised work, artificial flowers, pottery, lacquer work, copper work, fans, etc. Tokyo is noted for colored printing, round fans, small books, lacquer work, earthenware, mosaic work, gold and tortoise shell work, etc. Nagoya is famous for mosaic work and earthenware, and Kanazawa for earthenware, copper work and inlaid work of gold and silver. Women are constantly employed in all these productions belonging to the fine arts. The women of Kyoto are famous for the skill of their handiwork and great varieties of ornamental things are made by ladies of nobility; these have a peculiar delicacy and beauty, as the art of mak- ing them has been handed down from ancient work done for pleasure by the ladies of the palace or in the houses of the nobility. The embroidered handkerchiefs which are exported by the thousands are largely done by women. In the cities are large rooms where they work together, and often thousands are engaged in the work. A large house in Sendai, Miyagi-Ken, others at Fukui, Fukui-Ken, Uji and Yamada of Miye-Ken, are in the most flourishing condition. Besides these workrooms women do much of this work at their own homes. In Arita of Hizen many women are engaged in painting on earthenware. Some artists employ several women to assist them and those who are clever can make a good living. log The most important employments of women are silk spinning and weaving. Gumma, Tochigi, Fukushina, Saita- ma, Kanagawa, Nagano, Miyagi, Iwate, Yamagata, Yamana- shi, Shiga, Gifu and other Ken are the silk districts. The women of these districts work at their own homes or in the silk factories. In the little town of Suwa in Shinshiu there are more than forty silk factories and several hundred women are em- ployed in them. Girls earn more in the factories than they can earn when hired as servants, so in the vicinity of the factories it is frequently difficult to get domestics for house- hold labors. Sometimes men are hired in the place of women or families send to other provinces for servants. Kofu of Yamanashi, Uyeda and Suwa of Shinano have theaters and other places of amusement. These are almost empty on working days, but on holidays they are filled with thousands of women whose presence more than repay the loss felt during the working days; this one fact shows the flourish- ing condition of the industry of women. Some kinds of cloth have been famous from the most ancient times as: Nishijin ori (cloth) of Kioto; bleached cotton of Yamato, of Nagahama; crapes and mosquito netting of Omi; Uyeaa ori of Shinshiu; Matsiizaka cotton of Ise; Kai-silk of Kai, Choshi-cliijima (a kind of corrugated cloth); and Yuki tsuWiugi (pongee), of Shimosa; Chichibu silk of Musashi Sendahira of Rikuzen; Nmnbu ori of Rikuchiu; silk goods of Kotsuke; Ashikaga silk of Shimotsuke; Yonezawa ori oi Ugo; A kit a ori of Uzen, Echigo Chijimi of Echigo; Hosho tsumugi of Etchiu; Kaga silk of Kaga; Unsai ori of Mimasaka; hemp canvas of Harima; Hakata ori oi Chikuzen; Kokura ori of Buzen; Kasuri of Satsuma; Riu-kiu tsumugi, and cloth woven of the plaintain fibers of the Loochu islands; Hachijo tsumugi of Hachijo island; and cotton from every part of the country. In later years futako cotton, Ichiraku, Hattan, Gasuori and other goods have been woven in the vicinity of Yokohama (Hachioji is the principal place). Various kinds of cotton flannel are also woven at Kishiu and Osaka. The amount of silk goods from the northeastern provinces and the different provinces of the Nakasendo has greatly increased, and new materials of various kinds are made every year. The methods of weaving, the rate of women's wages, customs, habits, etc., differ somewhat in dif- ferent provinces. In Kodzuke and Shimotsuke all the inhabitants are en- gaged in weaving. In every house is a loom; there are also places called " Oriya " (factories) where many women are hired to weave together. In these districts girls 6 or 7 years of age are sent to the " Oriya" as apprentices. Their term is for five years. Ten yen is given to their fathers or brothers at the time the contract is made. During these five years the apprentices are fed and clothed by their masters. When the term of contract is over they will receive wages of about 25 sen each day, if their skill is worth that amount. Among these girls are two good habits: one is they give the wages they receive to their parents, brothers or husbands, not wast- ing their money as freely as is done in some other districts. .Girls here do not need to make provision for their wedding portions as do the girls of other places, so they do not hoard up their money. They apply themselves diligently to their work and try to become skilled because skill in weaving is a good marriage portion, and those who possess it are sought for by wealthy families. These customs contribute greatly to the flourishing state of these provinces. The women weavers are generally very industrious. They rise with the sun and begin their work, never leaving the looms during the day, and the evenings they usually spend in spinning. When a girl reaches the age of 7 or 8 years she is made to take care of the younger children, and at the same time she helps in weaving and other things. Weaving mats, making paper toys and all articles used for the toilet is the work of women. Mats are manufactured in Bungo, Riukiu, Buzen, Chikuzen, Satsuma, Higo and other provinces of Kiushiu; also are brought from Bingo, Aki, Suwo, Omi, Mino, Shinano, etc. The floors of our houses are covered with mats that are woven from the stalks of rushes called ji, and the demand for them is very great. The mats are sewed to frames made of straw; the frames are about 2}^ inches thick, 3 feet wide and 6 feet long. Preparing the rushes for the mats, making flaxen thread with which to weave them, and much of the weaving itself is all done by women. PAPER MANUFACTURES. The amount of paper manufactured in different parts of the country is enormous. Chiugoku, Shikoku and Kiushiu have each a large paper factory. There are some differences in the details of the manu- facture of paper, varying with the locality and the nature of the plant, but the general method employed is as follows: The Kozo plants (Broussonetia papyrifera) are cut into lengths of about three feet and are then steamed in a large boiler; the bark is peeled off and boiled in lye, and after keeping it in water for some time is well pounded; then this pulp is mixed with a certain amount of diluted mucilage made from the root of the " tororo " (Hibiscus) and is steeped in a wooden tank. When it has remained long enough it is spread out into sheets by means of a sieve. As soon as the water has drained offj each sheet, with the aid of a straw brush, is transferred to boards to dry. This kind of work is done both by men and women, but the latter are by far the best workers. More recently hundreds of women and girls are employed in the Oji and Yokkaichi paper mills, where machinery is used for making paper from straw and wood pulp. Toys for children, flower hairpins, ornamental combs, hair ornaments, scent-bags, and much other fine work are made by the women of Tokio, Kioto and Nagoya. The most lucrative employments for women are dressmaking (kimonos), washing and starching; and many women make good livings in these ways. In cities some childless women or widows work in dry goods shops. In the country, women generally dress their own hair, but in the cities there are professional women hairdressers who go around to different houses to dress the hair artistically, and even servants employ hairdressers. MINING. In the mining districts much of the work is done by the women, especially in separating the minerals from the ores. This needs a delicacy of touch which women possess in a high degree. In the copper mines of Ashio in Shimotsuke, Kusa- kura and Omoya of Echigo, Ani of Ugo, Osaruzawa of Riku- chiu, etc., and in the silver mines of Aikawa of Sado, Handa of Iwashiro, Innai of Ugo, Osaka and Kami of Riku- chiu, etc., women are largely engaged in such work. Girls from seven to eight years old are sent early to the working places to see the elder girls at work so that when twelve years are reached they also can earn six sen each da3^ The wages received varies according to the age and skill of each worker. At the Sado gold mines a good workwoman can earn more than twent3^-five sen a day. It is wonderful to see how rapidly they distinguish one mineral from another, the sense of touch in the tips of the fingers being their only guide. Once an experiment was made to see if there would be more profit if a machine was used for this work, so one was purchased from some foreigners and a trial was made. The machine was expected to do the work of several hundred women's days work in less than four hours; but, strange to say, it was found that the delicacy and skill of the women's fingers far surpassed the work of the machine, and the sum of the women's wages was no greater than the amount paid when the work was done by the machine. This incredible result caused them to throw aside the machine and again employ women. This proves the dexterity of women's fingers. TRADE. Women have never taken a very active part in trade. Firms who have several stores or wealthy merchants, do not permit women to serve in the shops, but in the smaller retail shops men go out to do the buying and let their wives and daughters do the selling; as they are more amiable and more liable to attract customers. Although women do not engage much in active business, the name of ''HisagP' (the saleswoman) has been known from the most ancient times. In the year of Taiho, A. D. 702, a public notice was given in regard to trade. It said, "Men and women must have seats apart from each other in those shops that sell anything on the 113 street." This notice shows that women had taken some trade into their hands. We often read in tales and other writings about women selling things in the street during the year of Engi. In Ut- subo-Monogatari (one of the most ancient tales), it says, ''The women who keep shops on the street, buy from ihe carts fish and salt, and arrange them for sale." Again, from the time of the Fujiwara family to the latter part of the Kamakiu-a Sho- guns, women must have been engaged in buying and selling. In the roll of painting called "Nenjiigiogi Emaki" (which shows all the occurrences of the period), painted by Mitsu- naga, Gas hi Zasshi of Nobuzane Kasiiya Goiigen Kenki and Ishiyama Engi, and others; we can see in many of the sketches women engaged in trade, selling dry goods and various things; also some carrying eatables on their heads and selling them. From the last part of the power of the Kamakura Sho- guns to the reign of the Ashikaga family the whole country was like a great battlefield, and all communication between the cities and provinces was entirely cut off. The consequence was trade suffered exceedingly. During this warlike period every class, the samurai (mili- tary class), the farmers, and even the lower classes, were ob- liged to fight or do some kind of warlike service away from home. • The women, while they cared for their homes during the absence of their husbands, must necessarily have cultivated the fields, spun and wove, and traded in order to make a liv- ing. This must have induced women to engage in trade, and they have continued it until this day. In the "roll of 71 workmen" (mentioned before), many trades are represented by women, such as sellers of rice, peas, linen, cotton, lacquer, fans, obi (sashes), powder, rouge, etc. Also fish women, basket carriers, and many other small trades are represented in these pictures. When the Tokugawa Shogun built a castle at Yedo (Tokyo), in the period of Genlva, the whole country was in a state of quietness and peace. Population increased year by year, and agriculture and commerce became prosperous; but along with this came idleness and luxury for the higher classes. 114 The women of the capital spent their time in amusing them selves in music and dancing. They neglected their duties and did not exert themselves as they did in the time of war. After the Revolution of Meiji, 1868, many Samurai families went into trade, and the women were often much occupied in helping their husbands. Now, we see shops of toilet articles, earthenwares, dried fish, vegetables, clothes, clogs, umbrellas, tobacco, cakes and different kinds of sweets, thread, toys, etc., kept by women, who are very energetic and clever at the business. In some country places tea houses and other little shops are kept entirely by women, who at the same time spin and care for the house during the absence of their husbands, who are busy in cultivating the land and other work. In the bazaars of the different cities women wait upon the customers, and generally the hotels, restaurants, boat houses and tea houses have female servants, and the owner of many of the above is often a woman. Besides these there are traveling saleswomen in different districts. In Osaka are kombu (seaweed) sellers. This seaweed is brought from Hokkaido and prepared for sale in Osaka. Women in parties of five to ten travel around the country selling this seaweed and share the losses or gains. Some- times one woman hires several others and goes round with them superintending the selling. Another kind of seaweed called " Nori" is sold in the same manner. If we were to speak more in detail of the productive occupations of women our readers would become weary; enough has been said to fully show that more than one-half of the labor in our "country" is done by the women. 115 ~--.^«J '/ M' CHAPTER VII. ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF JAPANESE WOHEN. These may be classified under the general heads of Poetry, Painting, Tea Ceremonies, Incense Burning, Floral Arrangements and Music. In the old methods of education these six accomplishments were taught to all girls more or less as a means of improving their morals and manners. It is thought that the mind is enlarged by the study of poetry and painting, as "Learning the new by searching the old " is a well known proverb. In the practice of the tea ceremony good manners and politeness are supposed to be inculcated. In floral arrange- ments and incense burning girls are taught to understand the value of tranquility and calmness. In this manner the ideas of women are brought to a higher condition and they become more anxious to improve. As music is the most refined of all accomplishments it will be described in detail, together with the various instru- ments in use, both in the past and present periods of time. Music. There are four kinds of music in use at present in Japan, viz.: Classical, European, Chinese and popular music. I. CLASSICAL MUSIC. By clasical music we mean the original Japanese music and the Chinese and Corean which were introduced about one thousand years ago. Not much later a school of music was established at the Court and all Court musicians were obliged to learn both the original and the imported 117 music. The different styles have been handed down to the present generation of Court musicians. Although, these pe- culiar styles of imported music have entirely passed away in their native countries they are still in use in Japan. In the original Japanese music great use was made of metrical verses or words, while in the Chinese and Corean music dancing took the principal place rather than words. The instruments are of great variety. Classical music is con- sidered very elegant but is rarely learned by women. II. EUROPEAN MUSIC. European music was brought into this country in 1879 or '80. The instruments now in use are the organ, piano, violin, cornet and violoncello. Some music is sung with Jap- anese words united to the foreign notes, and some musical pieces are composed according to the European scale and played upon the koto, samisen and other Japanese instru- ments. The latter method is now taught in different schools. In this connection we must mention the name of an ex- perienced American music teacher, Mr. L. W. Mason, who was employed by the Department of Education to teach music in the new academy of music established in 1880. He adapted old Japanese airs to the foreign scale and accom- plished a great deal for the development of school music. The methods of teaching are similar to those of the West, so a description of that detail is quite unnecessary. III. CHINESE MUSIC. This music has lately been introduced into this country and is sung in the Chinese language, accompanied by Gekkin, Kokiu, Teikin (all stringed instruments), and is very popular among ladies. The Chinese scale with the different pronunciations is appended: Jan, cha, kon, han, rin, sin, i, jan. tee ha do re mi fa sol la si do. There are two styles of Chinese music. Nagasaki and Keian styles. Although they differ in regard to time and movement they are one in origin. 118 IV. POPULAR MUSIC. Popular music is in contrast to classical music, and is very generally understood. This includes many different styles, but those that are mostly studied by girls are Koto music, Nagauta (long verse); Koitt-a (short verse or folk song) dind Jorurt (a kind of operatic music). As to the subjects of the composition, they differ very much. Some are interesting old narratives set to music, while others are descriptions of the four seasons. Some are congratulations on the long continued reign of the sovereign or on the prosperity of relatives and friends. Others are ad- dressed to a hero protecting the orphan of his Lord against an enemy and thereby risking his own 'life; or to a delicate woman, who, although pursued by poverty and suffering ever preserves her virtue; or to some intrepid hero (chevalier), who, while protecting the weak, or chastening the strong, at last sacrifices his own life. Such tales as these are sung accompanied by various in- struments and make a deep impression upon the minds of the listeners. Again, some are love stories which show the fulfillment of virtue when prompted by affection; there are often short verses composed impromptu about ordinary things seen or heard, and which deeply affect the mind. As a matter of course, when the meaning differs, the music must necessarily change. Again, when the styles differ, the same music is played somewhat differently. A short account of the different instruments used in play- ing popular music, the use of the scales, harmony, and the different methods of teaching may not be uninteresting. DIFFERENT MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. The instruments used in popular music are of three kinds: Stringed instruments, such as the koh^, saniisen and kokiii; reed instruments, such as the fl/tte dixxdshaki/ Jiachi; and leather instruments, as the drum, tsuzumi, both large and small. The koto is made of the wood of the paullownia-imperi- ahs; it is hollow inside and has thirteen strings spread over its whole length of about six feet four inches, the breadth at the head is about nine inches, narrowing a little towards the 119 foot. Each string is supported by a movable bridge, by which the instrument is turned and it is played with the fingers shielded by ivory half-thimbles on the thumb, first and second fingers of the right hand. If the koto is accompanied by the sainisen and kokiu it is often called "the musical trio," and if the shakuhachi is added it produces very good harmony, and is very enjoyable in the open air, under the trees, amid blossoms, or in the beautiful moonlight. The koto first came from China and was called So, and was generally learned by ladies of high rank. There are several varieties of the "Koto'' as ^'ichigenkin'" (one stringed 'koX.o),^" Ntgenkin'" and "Yakmnogoto'' (both two stringed kotos). The first two are sometimes accompanied by the samisen. As the latter is our original instrument, and is played only to glorify the gods, so the words or verses are very much like a hymn and are considered a sacred music. There- fore it is incumbent upon performers to cleanse their mouths and wash their hands before beginning to play. The "Sa?nise?i" consists of three parts, the head, the neck and the body. The length is about three feet and it is made of a hard wood called kwarin (quince) or shitan. The body has a prepared cat's skin stretched over it on both sides. The three strings are attached to the instrument from the bottom of the body to the head by means of pegs. The form of the samisen and the manner of playing it is somewhat like the guitar; the differences are that the shape of the saviiseii is nearly square, while that of the guitar is nearly round, and while the latter is played with the fingers the former is played upon with a ''bachi'" (a peculiar kind of broad stick). The strings of the samisen are made of silk, decreasing in size from the ist to the 3d. The samisen is the instrument most generally in use. "Nagauta,'' ''Koutd" and "'J^oruri'''' (three different styles of singing) are always accompanied by it. When played with the koto it is the auxiliary instru- ment; the kokiu and the shakahachi are also auxiliary instru- ments to either the koto or the samisen; and also the flute, drums and the large and small tsuziimi. For singing joniri no other instrument is used except the samisen. The history of the samisen is very uncertain. Some say that it came originally from the Loo-choo islands in the period of Enroku, and was then call£d jabisen (covered with a snakeskin called ja). A blind musician named Nakanokoji used it at first. It had then but two strings, he added another string, and in- stead of the cover of snakeskin he used a prepared cat's skin, consequently the wdLVH^ja-bi-soi was changed to samisen. This account is, however, denied by some writers, as in old books written before that period the word samisen is mentioned. There is reason to believe that the samisen did not come from either Korea or the Loo-choo Islands. The probability is that it was brought here by the Portuguese from some more southern country. Such musical instruments are now seen in India and in the neighboring countries. The Kokiu is also said to have come from the Loo-choo Islands, as well as the samisen. It was originally called ^^ Rabeca,'''' which is a Portuguese word, and is the same as "Rebec" in English. This was no doubt a Moorish musical instrument, and made its way into Spain and Portugal and thence into the different countries of Europe, and thus through the Portu- guese found its way into Japan, about three hundred years ago. Originally it had but two strings, but string after string was added, until out of it was evolved the present violin; thus the kokiu and the violin may have had the same origin. The samisen and the kokiu are the same in form, only the kokiu is a little smaller. The samisen is played with a " bachi,'" while the kokiu is played with a bow, and we do not know how long since this difference existed. The kokiu and the violin are both played with bows, only the former is not held under the chin, but is held vertically upon the lap by the left hand. The shaku hachi and the flute are both made of bamboo. The former is played Hke a cornet. Both are played by men and very seldom by women. ' THE DRUM AND THE LARGE AND SMALL TSUZUML The drum is placed upon a kind of frame or stand and is beaten with two drum-sticks. The large tsuzumi is placed upon the left knee and the small tsuzumi upon the right shoulder. Both are supported by the left hand and are beaten by the right hand put closely together. If both large and small tsiizitmi are played by a single person at the same time the positions of the instruments are not changed, only the large tsiizuvn is held by the left elbow being placed upon the left knee, while the small tsuzumi is placed upon the right shoulder held by the left hand. Then both are alternately beaten by the right fingers, the hand being carried up and down very rapidly. The small tsuzimii has a silk cord attached to the instru- ment. The sound may be changed to a greater or less volume by tightening or loosening this cord with the left hand while holding the instrument upon the right shoulder. As in other countries, drums are only used as auxiliary instruments for giving tune and activity to other music. In nagauta and kouta they are used as auxiliaries, but never as chief instruments. THE SCALES OF POPULAR MUSIC. The scales of popular music follow those of classical music and are of twelve semi-tones (chromatic action-scale). But in popular music the minor scale is generally used. There are three ways of tuning the samisen in general use: They are "77"^?;/r/z^^/z/ " (standard), "A'/ai^^r/ " (2d string higher), and ^ ' Sans agar i^' (3d string lower). The following are the three ways of tuning: "honchoshl" do fa do ist string, 2d string, 3d string, "Niagm'i" (2d string higher). do sol do ist string. 2d string, 3d string, "Sajisagari" (3d string lower). do fa si 1st string, 2d string, 3d string. Alterations or variations of the melody may occur in the midst of a composition, ixora'-'-Honchoshi''^ to either '^Niagari''' or '■'■Sansa^ari''' or vice versa. When more than two sai/iise/is are played together, one or two may play different notes, putting in some additional notes now and then, thus making the music more harmoni- ous and interesting. This is called " Uwajos/ii," while the ordinary mode of playing is called "Honjamisen.'' To play "Uwajosht,'" a piece of wood, ivory or tortoise- shell about one inch long called "Kase" is tied by a string to the neck of the samisen, five or six inches below the head (somewhat like a "dumb" on a violin, but this serves to make the note higher). If '■'honjamisen'" be of "hoiic/ioshi'' the '^i/wajoshi" must be tuned ''niagari," if the former be "niagari" the latter must be "■^sansagarir the first string of the '^invajoshi'" must always be tuned to the same tone as the second of the "Iio/ijauiisen y The different ways of tuning the koto are ^'Kin?ioi,'" ^'■Hira- ;os/it" and a few others. The theory of music was formerly not studied as much as practical performance upon various instruments. (See pages 124, 125, 126.) THE METHODS OF TEACHING POPULAR MUSIC, REVIEWS AND CONCERTS. Girls usually begin to study popular music from the age of 6 and 7. Although from quite early times a certain kind of notation existed, it is not in general use. There- fore pupils have nothing to rely upon but their memories and the constant practice of the ear and the hand. An example of the methods of teaching by a "Nagaiiicf teacher will illustrate. A simple melody is selected and the beginner is made to sing with the teacher until the words are well learned. Then the teacher hands a samisen to the pupil. Now the samisen has no note board as on a guitar or on a Chinese Gekkin, so there is no indication of the manner of playing upon the in- strument; the teacher therefore holds the fingers of the pupil and carries them up and down on the neck of the sai/iise/i till the melody is well learned. Then the teacher sitting oppo- site to the pupil plays and sings the whole over and over until perfectly satisfied with the result. What an amount of patience must be possessed both by the teacher and pupil! Without great effort for several years no skill can be acquired. 123 . 1 J >' { I i " I ' ^^ ;^ .^ ^^ ^ 7 / ^ i ^ -a» ^ / -^ -/ ^ ^ ^ i r fi f /^ ^ 1 /> /-ftrjt c4,M> ^<#^-c: ^_y^ ^ ^t3--5l^ »^ 175 U^i-^ '^Cl-' m ^ 124 /Z^tr^L^^ afc ~^W^^~7^ZI7^ ^^^^ ^Iz^i^' ^ ^ ^^fP 3= ^^^^^^A^ }f\ flJi' ^-^4^44 -'4^ ^ S S^ ^ ^ -f--*-Z3 -f--^ 1 'JiV'iir,-'^^/^'!!'^ r/ 7-1 I r ,'/ ^^ * LI r Lf f i-N^^rt/ IniV^J^S ij {viijTf^r^ m. r^'^h\\,\([c\m '^,.' \ .A{n r7 : ^i^ 125 3 ^5 I ..P I?- )' 7- ij;\' ,,,v,'l'l9-v|.;^ -^ / 126 With koto music almost the same process is necessary; bdt on this instrument, as each string has a settled tone, if it be once tuned, it is not so difficult to learn as the saiitisen. The music teachers hold reviews or concerts once or twice each season. This is to give pupils an opportunity to exhibit their skill. Other teachers and pupils are invited and by hearing solos played and choruses sung much emulation is excited and all present are improved by the exercise of their talents. THE CHANGES AND PROGRESS OF MUSIC, DANCING AND THE DRAMA. This is the present condition of popular music. As for its changes and progress from early times we cannot minutely describe them in this brief account. Singing and dancing have been practiced in Japan from very early times, but after an importation from China and Corea, our original styles were forgotten. Imported music is not only preserved in its original form, but has also been changed in many ways. Some melodies have been composed according to the taste of our people, making use of foreign instruments. In the book of laws called '^Tathorei,'" finished in the eighth-century, we find the following: " Gagakurio, the 'Institute of Music,' was established at the court, and the music of China, Koma, Ku- dara, Shiragi and Kure were taught." "Our original music consisted of songs and dances. Theirefore thirty men singers, loo women singers and loo dancers were placed in the Institute." The only instrument used for Japanese music was the flute, but in Chinese music there were several instruments, as the sho (flute), kuko (kind of harp), so (koto), biwa, ' hokei, (stone gongs), drums, shaku-hachi, hichiriki (a kind of haut- boy), etc. The music taught in this Institute was mostly used on great ceremonial occasions at the Court and is generally called " Ga ga-ku " (classical music), and many of those melodies have come down to the. present day. Among the Chinese instruments in general use were the flute, sha kti-hachi, So or koto, biwa, etc. The two latter were chiefly played by the ladies. As this music came into general use new tunes with 127 verses were composed. The " Saibara'' and '^ Kagiira''' dances may be dated from the ninth century. Besides thefee dances, which belonged to classical music, there were other kinds of dances and sports, such as " Sangahi" 3ind " Den- gaku.'" Ihe former, also called "■ Sarugakii,'^ was a funny kind of play, and was the beginning of the comic drama (ninth centur)^). In the last part of the fourteenth century this was changed to a peculiar kind of song and musical per- formance of Kanze and Komparii styles (the No dance of the present time). " Dengakii,'^ originally a kind of rustic music, was mixed with comedies of Sangaku (twelfth century) and became very popular, and the professionals called " Dengaku- hoshi" began to appear. Although women did not take part in comic performances they used to dance in men's clothes and were called "Shira- bioshi''' or Otoko-7nai, which became very popular about the twelfth century. In the last part of the tenth century there were blind men who told historical narratives, accompanied by the Biwa. After the war between the Genji and the Heike families these blind musicians used to tell of the events that took place during the battles. So eagerly were these stories received that the name of "Heike''' was given to the performance. In the first part of the twelfth century new religious sects sprung up. B}»prayers, accompanied with singing and dancing, and sometimes with a certain kind of theatrical perform- ance, these sects tried to attract the attention of the pe'ople and make them interested in religion. There were also priests who preached sermons and sung narratives in songs to interest their audiences. From this a peculiar kind of sermon origi- nated. Later this was changed to the odes, lectures, war stories, witticisms, etc., of the present day. From these ser- mons and the '^ Heike'' sprung up the Joruri (sixteenth century). It is commonly believed that Ono-710 Otsii (an attendant of the famous Hideyoshi) was the originator of the story, but there is evidence that it was known before her time. ^'■Joruri'' was the name of a lady in the story, and as the incidents recited or sung were greatly appreciated by the people, her name was given to the music just as the name ''^ Heike'' was given to a somewhat similar performance. 128 Since then ^'JoriirC has been greatly improved by being sung with the samisen, and new tunes with different ideas have been composed. Great composers began to appear and many different styles were formed, such as Gidaiu, Itchiii, Kato, Shinnai, Kiyo77ioto, Tokiwazu, etc. There are many women who make their living by playing ^'Joriiriy In the last part of the sixteenth century theatrical per- formances were undertaken by women, and as a woman named Okuni ^nzs the originator it was called "Okimi llieatre.''' A change was made here from the dancing prayers and other musical plays. {No-kiogen.') The women's theatre, however, was prohibited in the seventeenth century and young men took their place, and this custom continues to the present day. The story of "Joruri " was at first represented by using dolls (as marionettes), but from the year 1700 the actors performed themselves. Although the prohibition was taken off from actresses they were not allowed to play on the same stage as the men, so young actors have to take the parts of women, and do so with great skill. Although women do not perform on the public stage, yet there are many lady dancing teachers and dancing girls who entertain people at parties and dance and sing before large numbers. THE PRESENT CONDITION OF DANCING. As dancing accompanied by koto music represents the meaning of the songs, so some dances are of elegant char- acter, and are called "Mai ;'" while others are of a lower order and are called "Odori," of which there are two kinds; one consists of movements of the hands and feet, somewhat like European pantomime. In the other kind words are spoken, accompanied by movements. Each movement repre- sents the meaning of the words, and the spectators are moved by feelings of sadness, anger and mirth. If well danced, hand-clapping or other signs of applause indicate the pleasure of the audience. Girls learn the "odori^^ dances from six to about nineteen, and no girl over that age dances unless she is a teacher. Until about twenty years ago physical training was much neglected, gymnastic exercises for girls were un- known, and ladies were mostly engaged in sedentary occu- pations. Now many parents have their daughters taught 129 ^'odori'^ to develop their physical strength, besides it is thought that girls who have practiced dancing acquire more grace in their movements. These are some of the reasons why so many girls are now learning "odori.'''' When girls dance the "odoj'i^^ on ordinary occasions they do so in their usual dresses, but when they have a dancing per- formance it is upon a stage with a curtain and other theatri- cal accessories, such as artificial hair and costumes to repre- sent certain characters. Recently European dancing has be- come quite fashionable among the higher classes. In some parts of the country there are women who dance sacred dances in the temples. There is still another kind of dancing very popular in country places, somewhat like that of Dengaku. This is danced from the 13th to the i6th of July. Young men and women go out to the fields in the evening. Here they foim a large circle, a leader who is a good singer is selected among them, who sings the first verse, all the others joining in the chorus, clapping their hands or moving them to the right or left, or marching up and down following the singer, thus reminding one a little of a quadrille or a country dance. The Tea Ceremony. The tea ceremony, usually called Cha-no-yu is the art of making tea an(f serving it to invited guests. Sometimes din- ner and sake are also served. The ceremony of offering these viands is attended with great solemnity, as there are certain rules for every movement of the hands and feet which must be strictly observed. But even this solemnity indicates great respect, and host, as well as guests, must pay strict attention to every little point of etiquette. The principal virtue to be observed is kindness, as anyone who is carefully taught in the tea ceremony is trained to gentleness and will naturally learn to be cautious. This is one of the reasons why women were required to learn this accomplishment. Cha-no-yu had its origin at the time of the Ashikaga government and it has flourished ever since the time of the Shogiin Yoshimasa. The special rules or ceremonies were not settled until the time of Toyotomi Hideyoshi (^"Taiko''^). An attendant of the '■^Taiko " named Sen-no-Rikiu, who was also 130 a professor of the tea ceremony, compiled many rules and they have been handed down to the present day. The tea ceremony has passed through some changes, so that many styles have been fashionable from time to time. The style which originated with Rikiii was called Senke style, from this came both Omote Senke and Ura Senke. Oribe, Yabu-uchi, Enshiu and Sekishu styles are the subdivisions of these with more or less changes in each, but in all are the same principles. Usu-cha (weak tea) and Koi-cha (^strong tea). Koi-cha is obtained from the buds of the tea plant picked at the time of the first crop; the Usu-cha is the buds of the second crop. Both have to go through a certain process to be made fit to drink, and must also be reduced to a powder in tea grinders or tea mills. The best tea is obtained from the village of Uji in Yamashiro. The ceremony for both Koi-cha and Usu-cha differs in some points. The marked difference is that it is more com- plicated in Koi-cha than in the Usu-cha. In Koi-cha only one cup of tea is served by the host to a number of guests and each one after sipping a few mouthfuls passes the cup to his neighbor and so on; in Usit-ciia the host serves to each guest a cup in turn. THE CHA-NOYU OR TEA ROOM. The tea room is built very small (generally of four and a half mats), the ceiling is low, the entrance narrow and low and all the finish must be simple, although elegant in style. The ornaments consist of a hanging picture {kakemono'), an incense burner, flower vase, and there may be one or two small bronzes. A fire place called a ro is cut in the floor about fourteen inches square, it is made of stone, and a fire-dog called gotoku is placed in the ashes, upon which a kettle is put. In building a tea room great care is taken in regard to the choice of timber for the pillars or supporters of the iokononia (recess). For these the wood is sometimes left with the bark on and sometimes highly polished after the bark has been removed. Neither paint nor other ornamentation is used. If possible, timber of some rare wood is used and a large sum of 131 money is frequently paid for only a single pillar. The garden attached to the tea room must be arranged by the hands of a skillful gardener who makes a specialty of this kind of garden. THE ARTICLES USED. The tea utensils are of many kinds. By a very slight difference of shape different names are given to the same things. This is owing to the desire for old-fashioned things. For example, calling a certain kind of tea ladle " Sojiin's tea ladle," or a spoon ^^Rikiu's spoon," etc. But it must be understood that competition in luxury was not the true object of the tea ceremony. The following are the necessary articles used in or for '■'■Cha-no-yii:''' 1. A portable furnace made of pottery, brass or of iron, is used from the ist of May to the end of October. At other times the ro is opened. 2. Kettles or pots for boiling water, are of many vari- eties, but all are of iron, often highly ornamented. 3. Charcoal holder or scuttle, made of bamboo, or a box made of wisteria vine, or any kind of wood that one prefers. 4. Gotokii, a three-legged iron stand to support the kettle over the fire. The one used in the portable furnace differs from that used in ro. 5. Kettle mats; paper is properly used, but sometimes mats made of split rattan or interlaced wood are used. 6. Feather brush. 7. Water jar, either of porcelain or of copper. 8. Incense burner, of porcelain, wood without paint, lacquer or of copper. 9. Cup, of many varieties. 10. Napkin or tea towel, of silk, usually of purple, red or of tea color. 11. Teaspoon, of bamboo, ivory or of lacquer work. 12. Koboshi, a vessel to pour the hot water into, made of porcelain, copper or of wood. 13. Flower vase; the vase to be set on the floor and the one to be hung up on a nail are of porcelain or of copper; the vase when hung by a string from the ceiling is of copper. 14. Tea jar, of lacquer or of earthenware of either Jap- anese or of Chinese workmanship. These jars have different 132 names according to the shape and material. For instance, "■ natsiime " is of lacquer, the shape resembling natsiime (dates). There are others called kawataro, goke fubuki, nakatsugi, etc. 15. Coverings or bags for the tea sets of silk brocade, satin and other old fabrics. 16. Cover supporter, of a bamboo ring or earthenware, also of copper made in shapes of dolls or crabs, etc. 17. A tea stirrer made of bamboo, split at one end and made to stir the powdered tea in the hot water. 1 8. Daisu, cabinet, generally of fine old lacquer or shelves for packing away the tea sets. THE RULES OF CHA-NO-YU. The rules of Cha-no-yu are not alike in different styles. When the portable furnace is used the ceremony differs from that when ro is used, also that of koi-cha is different from usti-cha. The whole ceremony is too complicated to attempt describing it in full, but the koi-cha-kwai at which sake and dinner are served may be briefly sketched. KOI-CHA PARTY. When one is to give a koi-cha-kwai or party, the host sends out the invitations with the names of all the invited guests, the name of the principal guest being written at the head of the list. This is sent out by a messenger who goes from house to house. The invited guests then meet at the house of the principal guest (in all about five) and talk about the dresses they ought to wear at the party, or consult about the place to wait. Then each guest goes to the host and expresses thanks for the kind invitation. This is called "the previous call for thanks." On the appointed day all the guests go promptly to the house and wait, sitting on benches at the waiting place. When all have arrived they give a signal to the host. He hearing it, after having swept the tea house, comes out and greets the guests, the latter saluting him and each other wash their hands and clean their mouths, then slip into the tea room through the narrow entrance, look at the hanging picture and the kettle on the ro, or on the portable furnace with critical admiration, and then arrange them- selves on the mats. 133 The host, waiting till all the guests are seated, enters, makes another salutation, looks at the charcoal to see if it is all right, again makes a bow, and telling them that the dinner will soon be served retires, closing the entrance door to the kitchen. After a few mmutes the host brings in the " dai'' or small low tables for each guest, with several dishes upon them, and asking them to begin to eat, again goes out. The guests, bowing to each other, begin to eat. The host makes his appearance again, and requesting them to eat and drink freely, again disappears. Leaving them alone for some time he returns and drinks sake with each guest. It is the rule that everything that is offered should be eaten, but in case one cannot possibly eat all the remnants must be taken home in a bag brought for the purpose. The host on his part takes care to provide such dishes and in such portions that the guests may eat all that is placed before them. The manner of taking the food from the host, or placing it on the floor, etc., must be according to the established rules of etiquette. When the dinner is over the host brings on some sweets for each person to take home, and telling them to take a short recess again disappears. As for the guests they put the sweets in their pockets and retire to the waiting place. The host, finding the room vacated, sweeps it, changes the ornaments, and invites the guests once more to the same room by striking upon a musical gong. After they are all seated the host again opens the kitchen entrance and making a bow brings in fire-sticks, feather brush, etc., feeds the char- coal and prepares for making tea. Meanwhile the guests praise the beauty of the fireplace, ashes and the manner of putting on the charcoal. The host then places all the necessary tea sets in front of him, folds up the bags, creases the napkin through his hand in a peculiar manner and wipes the cups, puts a few spoon- fuls of powdered tea in it, pours on a dipper half full of hot water, twice stirs it with a bamboo stirrer, which is then laid on the mats; the host then places him.self opposite the prin- cipal guest. The latter then moves forward one step on his knee to receive the cup from the host, returns to his seat, and 134 bowing to his neighbors drinks one sip and praises the excel- lent taste of the tea. At this moment the host returns to his former seat. Each guest drinks three sips and passes the cup to the next person and so on. The last one finishing the tea brings the cup back to the principal guest, who returns it to the host with low bows. After a few moments the guests all bow together. The host promises the guests to make usu-cha for them a little later. The guests acknowledge their pleasure by bows. The host then begins to put away the tea utensils. This is the time for the guests to express a desire to examine the teaspoon, the tea jar and bags. The host first takes the " natsume''' (tea-jar) in his right hand, puts it on the left palm with the right hand, creases the napkin and wipes it and places them all in a row before the guests. Then the guests take them up, one by one, and make in- quiries as to the age and the places from whence they came, and admire and praise them. Besides these they have many other things to see and admire, but this must all be done ac- cording to established rules. Great care is taken in handling these things on both sides. This is to show respect to each other and to endeavor not to make any mistakes in etiquette. The Cha-no-yu ceremony is short, symbolizes tran- quility, politeness and conscientiousness. When koi-cha is over, the host serves usu-cha for each guest. Both parties now lay aside all ceremonies and rules and are allowed to speak familiarly with each other. In koi- cho-kwai the host has to do everything without the help of servants or waiters, although he may be a very rich and noble person. The guests therefore know that the host may be very tired, and as soon as the ceremony is over it is well for them to leave. On the day following the guests have to call upon the host and express their thanks for the kind treatment of the previous day. We have thus gone through the whole ceremony of the koi-cha kwai. GAMES. There are several games that go with the tea ceremon}'-, such as several persons arranging some iiowers in a vase in 135 turn according to their own taste, they then compare, criticise or praise. This is called ^'^ Mawaribana.'''' Chakabuki is another game. The host makes several cups of different kinds of tea, and the guests have to guess the names. This is somewhat similar to that of incense guessing. These and many other game are played by ladies at the tea parties. Burning Incense. The object of burning incense is to criticise the odor of different incenses, and to guess their names by inhaling their odors. So it partakes more of the nature of a game than a pure accomplishment, but as it was practiced anciently in our country, it must be included as one of the accomplish- ments of ladies. THE CHANGES AND PROGRESS OF INCENSE. The perfume of good incense gives pleasure to the sense of smell, just as beautiful colors please the eye and pleasant sounds the ear. It is therefore quite natural that we should love pleasant odors, as from the beginning of man's existence fragrant flowers or anything that has a sweet smell, has been found agreeable. The use of perfumes as a means of pleasing the sense of smQll probablj^ begun later than the arts of music or painting. Incense burning was first practiced when Buddhism was brought into our country. Incense is always burned When Buddha is worshiped, and at the same time different kinds of music also came from India and China. As the people of Japan liked this incense they began to burn it to scent the dress or hair, or to fill the room with a pleasant odor. Per- fumes that come from Europe or America are generally in liquid form, but ours are solid and must be burned in order to emit any odor. Incense is not made of one simple material, but has many ingredients, so the quality of the incense depends upon the manner of mixing these ingredients, and it is difficult to always attain success. It is mostly made by ladies and may very properly be classed among the fine arts and compared to the harmony produced by musical sounds and by the blending of colors. 136 Games have been invented in which different incenses are burned so they may be compared and criticised. For instance, several persons take the same ingredients and mix them in different proportions, as they think best, thus making great varieties of incense. These are burned, one by one, by a competent judge and carefully criticised. In very ancient times this game was much enjoyed, but at present, game of smelling and thus guessing the names of the incense is the only one played. The most common of these games are Jusshuko, Genji-ko, Ogitsa-ko, Kodori-ko, etc. AN INCENSE PARTY. This is a most refined entertainment, and suitable for ladies with which to occupy their leisure hours; there are many among the higher classes who are well acquainted with this game. It is a very expensive entertainment, and the difficulties in learning it have greatly retarded the develop- ment of the art. When a lady is invited to an incense party she must stop smoking, drinking tea or eating sweets for at least twenty- four hours in advance of accepting the invitation. She must also be careful not to use pomatum, perfume or oil. Any- thing that has an odor must be avoided lest it should prevent the incense from giving out a pure scent. When a guest enters the room where the burning is going on, great care must be taken to open and shut the door quietly, and every movement must be very gentle. In case one is obliged to stand or leave the room, care must be taken not to disturb the air for fear of banishing the fragrance. The host now burns the different kinds of incense in a burner, and places it before the guests. The latter in turn smell it, and whichever name they think is right put the name cards into a box arranged for the purpose. When all have finished the box is opened and the cards are counted The one who has the greatest number of names right wins the game, of course the others all lose. At the time of putting the cards into the box all speaking is forbidden. It is also the rule that no one must smell more than three to five times of an}^ one kind of incense. 137 The most common game is Jusshu-ko (ten different incenses), of which we will give a short account. Jusshu-ko consists of four different incenses made into ten little parcels. Three parcels of No. i; three parcels of No. 2; three parcels of No. 3; one parcel of the incense named " guest," in all making ten parcels. An extra parcel of No. i, No. 2 and No. 3 is burned first, and the guests smell them as samples of the others. This is called the "Trial Incense. '' The parcel named " guest " is not tried. Then the host puts all the parcels together and takes one of them and burns it. The guests in turn take up the incense-burner and smell it, and comparing the odor with those smelt as trial, put in the box the name card of any number they may decide upon. But if one thinks it is not the smell of any incense smelt for the trial, then the card of the " guest " may be put into the box. When all the incense has been burned, the box is opened and the following record may be found: In the record — "Young pine," "Red plum," etc., are the cards the players have received to represent their names. The record oi Jttsshu-ko. THE NAMES OF INCENSE. No. I. Tamatsinni. No. 2. Shibafune. No. 3. Mumei. U. Nobort uma (U is the "guest.") INCENSE BURNED. III. I. u. II. I. III. II. I. III. II. Young Pine, - I. III. I. II. u. I. II. II. III. III. 3 guessed. Red Plum, - III. I. II. II. I. u. III. II. I. III. 4 guessed. Chrysanthemum, - u. I. II. II. III. I. III. II. III. I. 3 guessed. Narcissus, - I. III. I. III. II. II. I. III. u. II. i guessed. Bamboo, - III. I. u. III. I. II. II. I. III. II. 8 guessed. Name of place, Date. By this record we can see that the first incense burned was Mumei No. 3, and "Young Pine," "Chrysanthemum" and " Narcissus " got it wrong, while two others guessed it correctly. The second incense was Tamatsumi^o. i, "Red 138 Plum," '^ Chrysanthemum" and "Bamboo" guessed it cor- rectly. The third incense was the guest "U, " and " Bamboo " only guessed it right. The result was that " Bamboo " was found to be the most skilled, and out of ten only two were wrong. On the other hand, "Narcissus," out of ten, guessed only one right. The underlined numbers show the kind of incense guessed. ARTICLES NEEDED FOR BURNING INCENSE. A great variety of articles are needed for burning incense, such as an incense-burner, incense-box, silver-leaf fire-sticks, incense-sticks, incense-spoon, card box, etc. An incense-burner is made either of porcelain, or copper, or iron. An incense-box is generally of lacquer and of various shapes. One style is a trebled or three-storied box. The upper box is for holding the incense, the middle one is to hold aloes wood or agallochum, and the lower one is to put the cinders or ashes into. The silver leaf is a small piece of mica upon which the incense is placed, and put over the fire in a burner. The card box is to put the name or number cards in, when the game is played. The cards are little lacquered wooden blocks with pictures of plum, bamboo, pine, chrysanthemum, etc., on one side, and a number on the other. In each set are ten cards: three of No. I, three of No. 2, and three of No. 3, and one of " II " or the "guest." In playing jussu-ko each person takes one set or ten cards of the same picture. The picture repre- sents the name of the owner, and the number on the other side represents the number the player notes in the game. THE METHODS OF MANUFACTURING INCENSE. Incense is made of different ingredients mixed together in various proportions, thus a variety of perfumes can be made out of the same ingredients. For example Yamaji-no- isuyu (the dew on the mountain path) is composed of aloes wood four parts, clover four parts, musk o. i, koko four parts. Kokon (evening twilight) is composed of aloes wood 1.6 parts, sandal wood one part, kakko one part and koko two parts. 139 In making these incenses the ingredients must be pow- dered, mixed together, then pounded, and kneaded with white honey. Floral Arrangement. Among the many beautiful things of this world, nothing is so enjoyable and prett)'^ as flowers, and whoever has a heart must find pleasure in them. In decorating or ornament- ing a room nothing can be more appropriate. The chief purpose in arranging flowers is to use them for ornaments, for this reason the accomplishment is naturally learned by women whose duty it is to decorate the house and make it attractive. , DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF FLORAL ARRANGEMENT. As this accomplishment became more and more fashion- able, many different systems sprang up among which were those of '■'■ Ensiii'''' and '■' Sekishiii.'''' These systems consist of much twisting and bending to give more grace to the leaves and branches. On the other hand "AVr///" only consists in cutting away superabundant branches or leaves. Each has a beauty peculiar to itself, and although there are many styles only differing slightly from each other, all are equally beauti- ful and all have the same end in view, namely, " That the arrangement of the flowers should represent the mind of the arranger." • The idea is, that if the mind is influenced by anger, hatred or any other violent passion, flowers can never be suc- cessfully or gracefully arranged, but if the mind be tranquil, or only filled with kindness and love, then will the flowers be satisfactorily arranged. Another essential principle is to improve upon nature and this can only be accomplished by a careful study of the beauties of nature. In all the systems pupils are taught to always keep their minds tranquil and happy in order to produce correct designs. ARTICLES NEEDED IN FLORAL ARRANGEMENTS. Although the articles needed for arranging flowers are not the same in different styles, yet they all consist of a little saw, a knife, a pair of scissors and different kinds of vases or flower pots. For a vase, porcelain is considered the best; next copper, then iron. The latter is seldom used as it is liable to rust. Some few vases are made of bamboo or wood. Names are given to them according to their shape and position, such as the "hooked vase," the suspended vase, the single-branched vase, etc. Sometimes vases are in pairs or in double pairs. In the latter case one pair is called the "principal pair," while the other is called the "secondary pair." It is the rule to arrange tree branches in blossom in the principal pairs and flowers in the secondary pairs. METHODS OF ARRANGING FLOWERS. Two blossoming tree branches are taken; the one called ''S/im" (center or principal) is made to stand in a vertical line: the other, called "Tome" (support or tertiary), is made to lie almost in a horizontal line with the water. Between these two another branch is added and is called "N a gas hi" (streamer or secondary). These three branches complete one decoration. Two more branches may, however, be added, making five branches; the one added between the center and the streamer is called the "shoulder;" the other between the support and streamer is called the "body." The seven-branch design is made by adding two branches to the above mentioned ones, to assist the center and the streamer. This design is used for very ceremonial occasions. The nine-branch design is made by adding two more branches to the last; one is auxiliary to the " body " and the other to the "support" and are generally placed behind them. The peculiarity of this art is the changes and variations that can be made in this nine-branch design as a foundation by adding as many as fifteen or more branches, or by lessen- ing them. By this arrangement the different aspects of the four seasons, the wonders of natural phenomena, the appearance of youth, age, prosperity or adversity are represented. Indeed there is no limit to the alterations and interest it affords. The appear- ance of flowers differ according to the seasons. Spring flowers represent new life and development, therefore they should be arranged when in full bloom. Summer flowers represent a more flourishing condition and should be arranged in great 141 abundance. The flowers of autumn indicate a less vigorous growth and should be arranged with less profusion. Winter flowers indicate a period of rest, or the death of the year, and should be arranged with very few blossoms. The size and the number of flowers to be arranged depend upon the shape and size of the vase. If the opening of the vase be one foot square the height of the flowers, as a rule, should be one foot and a half high, that is, one whole length and a half of the vase. Some variations, however, may be allowed. Trying to make flowers look more beautiful by putting too many branches into a little vase reminds one of a peacock spreading his tail feathers in pride, and is a vain and ludicrous attempt. The following faults are to be avoided: a branch pro- jecting from out or under an auxiliary branch; branches crossing each other; branches in parallel lines, or having the same height, as if they were vieing with each other; openings seen among the branches, etc. The best time to cut flowers is early in the morning, while the dew is still upon them, and half-opened ones should be chosen, if not, the color and the fragrance will the sooner fade. In a style called " JVagekomi,'" that is, putting branches in a vase in the simplest manner, it is bad taste to put in too many, especially so if the mouth of the vase be small. It appears more tasteful %o select slender branches. The vase should be filled with pure rain water, if obtainable, the next best is spring water, and after that well water. The following are the principal flowers used in floral arrangements: SPRING FLOWERS. Plum blossoms. Azaleas. Cherry blossoms. Peonies. Sumomo (a kind of plum). Forsythia suspensa. Peach branches. Fuku-iu-so. Pear blossoms. Hamanasu (a kind of rose). Almond branches. Garden marigold. Willow. Poppy. Wisteria. Calenthe discolor— Lindl. Chinese flowering apple. Orithia edulis— Mig. ■'^'^^^^- Sanzashi (a kind of hawthorn). Corchorus. 142 SUMMER Tachibana (a kind of citrus). Common Indian shot. Lotus. Iris. Pink. Shakuyaku (a kind of peony). Cape jessamine. Day lily. Summer chrysanthemum. Pomegranates. Lillies. Great flowering clematis. AUTUMN Orchis. Chrysanthemum. Hagi (a kind of bush clover). Eularia japonica, trin. Authistiria argusus. Shion (a kind of aster). Platycodon grandiflorum — D. C. (a kind of gentian.) FLOWERS. Satsuki (a kind of azalea). Shakunagi (a kind of rose bay). Kakitsubata (a kind of iris). Hydrangia. Crape-m3^rtle from India. Garden balsam from India. Morning" glory. Podocarpus Nageia-R-Br. Blackberry lily from India. Shaga (a kind of Iris). Deutzia Sieboldiana, Maxim. FLOWERS. Mokusai, oleafragrans thrmb. Fuyoo, a kind of rose-mallow. Omi-naeshi. Oshiroi (a kind of four- o'clock). Shin kaido (a kind of ele- phant's ear). Kwan on so, etc., etc. WINTER FLOWERS. Willows. Camellia. Winter chrysanthemum. Yatsude. Narcissus. Robai (Japanese Allspice). Winter peony. Sazankwa (a kind of Japanese camellia). Although thus classified, there are some plants that can be used through all the seasons, as the pine, bamboo and other kinds of evergreen shrubs and trees. Though they bear no flowers, their freshness, strength and their pecuhar beauty which surpasses even the flowers, cause them to be used all the year round. A FLORAL PARTY. A floral party is given by teachers to enable their pupils to arrange the flowers they have already studied and to per- 143 mit the teachers to criticise them. These are also exhibited to the pubhc and is a means of encouragement to greater skill. Painting. Japanese painting having been much noticed by other nations, many books have been written describing its changes progress and its different styles; therefore we will only men- tion that from ancient times painting was regarded, as one of the most suitable accomplishments for women of the higher class. Indeed it stands first among the fine arts, and its use and application are very extensive. Very few women have, however, devoted themselves to this art as a profession; most of them have only taken their leisure time to paint, and that only for amusement. Thus we seldom find any who rivaled the professional artists. There were, however, some among the gentler sex who excelled in this art. During the ninth century names of court ladies who were famous for painting were often heard. Empresses and Princesses were also known to have painted very exquisitely. The impresses Sofne dono- no-Kisaki Kwanshi-Goreizen, and Takeko, daughter of Ono-no- Miya Sanesuke-ko ; the wives of the Lords Nagaiye-kio, Iye?iaga- kio; Eshikibu, etc., were the most noted for their paintings ^ from the ninth to the eleventh century. In the " Genji-mono gatari,'' dL novel or narrative of the court, compleffed in the beginning of the eleventh century, also in other writings that describe the condition of those days, we read that this art was one of the accomplishments of the ladies. The following is a short extract from the history of the " Genji " and " Heike" families called " Genpei set suikt,^^ in which mention is made of Kiyomori^s daughters who excelled in this art. It will give a good idea of the condition of ladies and what they learned in those days: '■'■ Kiyornori had eight daughters; one was married to Kanemasa-ko, an Imperial court officer. She was not only beautiful and benevolent, but was an unrivaled artist. She was commanded to paint on the sliding paper doors of the Imperial palace an illustration of the narrative called ' Iseino- nogatarii ' (a phoenix in a bamboo forest), and it was said to have been exquisitely done. 144 "The second daughter became the Empress. The third was married to the Governor Motozane-ko. She was noted for her great skill in playing upon the Biwa, a musical instrument. "The fourth was espoused to a high lord Takefusa. She was a very sympathetic lady, and was very accomplished in playing on the koto. "The fifth became the wife of Konoe-Moto-Mitsu-Ko. Her beautiful complexion was compared to a crystal covered by a thin veil. Her father gave her the name of ' Soto-rihime ' (the Princess of Transparency). She was a celebrated poetess. "The sixth was married to Lord Nobutaka. Her glossy hair and rosy cheeks were more beautiful than the jewels she wore, and brighter than the light of the moon, and her pres- ence spread lustre all around. She was famous for her paint- ing and poetry and also excelled in the art of making poetry in company; was clever at making ornamental cards, and had a tender and generous heart. She was devoted to Buddhism and entered the temple to serve Buddha, making offerings, burning incense and reading prayers all day long. "The seventh daughter had no particular accomplish- ments, but she was a paragon of beauty. "The eighth was married to the Lord Arifusa. She painted well, tied ornamental cords cleverly, and her hand- writing was very skillful. She was a good composer of poetry as well as prose, though these latter accomplishments were rarely possessed by women. She painted illustrations of a hundred poems on the sliding paper doors. She also did the writing of the poems herself to the great admiration of the Emperor for her rare talent." It seems to us that in this record these ladies were too much praised, but by this we can see what accomplishments were learned by ladies in ancient times. During the thirteenth century Sohekimoii-in, Kiinaikio, Ukiodaiii, etc., were Coiirt ladies noted for painting. '' Niwa-no-Oshie'' (mentioned in the preface and also in the ''Women in Literature") was compiled in the last part of the thirteenth century by Abiitsiiiii, and was dedicated to her daughter to assist her in her education. In it the authoress says: "Although painting may not be an indispen- 145 sable accomplishment, still, it is well you should learn it to be able to paint beautiful portraits, or to illustrate narratives and other things in your leisure hours." Such was the general impression in regard to women studying painting. After the time of the Ashikaga govern- ment, the Imperial power was very much decreased, and the consequence was that but little was heard jof accomplished women in the Court. The Shogun Ashikaga, however, gave great encourage- ment to the fine arts, and this was the time when a great many famous artists appeared; and among them were some women who gained the highest name in this art. Chiyo-jo, the daughter of Tosa Mitsunobu, an artist of great celebrity, became the wife of Motonobu, who was the ancestor of the Kano family of artists, and she gained great fame as an artist. When the Tokugawa family came into power, literature, which had fallen into a low state, greatly improved, and literary women and female artists again made their appearance. Yukinobu, a lady relative of the famous Tannyie., was a most talented artist. Painting is in a flourishing condition at the present day. It is taught in the primary as well as in the higher schools for girls; there are also many lady students who go to private studio^to study with famous artists. A fine arts society called " Nippon Bijiitsu-kio-kwai,'" was recently organized. The members consist of noted artists. The object of this organization is to encourage the fine arts. Public exhibitions are also given of members' paintings at stated times. A chosen committee criticise their work, and medals, certificates or prizes are awarded to the most skillful artists. They sometimes borrow from different persons the choicest paintings of ancient as well as present times, and arrange loan exhibitions so the students may benefit by them. These exhibitions have been honored by frequent visits from Their Imperial Majesties, the Emperor and the Empress. When they recognize a work of true merit they often become its purchaser, and the painting is sent to the palace. Above all other favors conferred by Their Imperial Majesties upon the artists, the most gracious one is to ask one or more of them to use his or her brush while in the Imperial presence. A few years ago at one of Her Imperial Majesty's visits at the exhibition, the following ladies painted before Her Majesty the Empress: Koai Takemura, Kakei Atomi, Shohin Noguchi, Hokoku Takabayashi, Giokushi Atomi, Seisui Okuzawa, Seikoku Sakuma, Masu Tanaka. Her Majesty, our beloved Empress, is most clever and intelligent, well learned in literature and poetry. Moreover she takes great interest in painting. She is known to take her brush in hand and to paint beautifully. She gives great encouragement by her visits to the exhibitions, and also does much for the improvement of the art, and there is every pros- pect of painting being largely developed during the present reign of Their Imperial Majesties. APPLICATION OF THE ART OF PAINTING. The art of painting is applied to a variety of uses, viz., porcelain, lacquer, gold lacquer work, inlaid work, sculpture, designs for weaving, dyeing, embroidery, raised silk work and other ornamentations of various kinds. As weaving, embroidery, raised silk work, etc., are mostly done by women, they learn painting to prepare themselves for these occupations. For particulars in regard to the work or industries of women, the reader is referred to the chapters upon "Women's Industries." 147 CHAPTER VIII. PRESENT OR MEIJI PERIOD, CHARITIES AND EDUCATION. The older women were what they were in consequence of "The Three Obediences," the rule of Confucius referred to at some length in the introductory chapter. All the laws and customs that had anything to do with the relation of women to men, and to other women, were based upon this rule. No wonder, therefore, if it was considered the height of womanly virtue to be absolutely obedient. The activity of women was limited to the domestic circle. They were of no importance outside of their families. They had nothing to say or to do with the. public lives of their hus- bands. It was derogatory to their character to mingle m any public affairs, be it ever so little. But this state of indifference outside of the domestic circle is now gone, let us hope never to return. The tide of West- ern civilization has reached our shores. Philosophical edu- cators have declared the advisability of raising the social status of our women. To this idea a few of the more brave and enlightened have responded by calling upon their sisters to extend their interests beyond the home circle and make them- selves recognized as real members of society and not merely of families. The result is there are already not a few women who are earning independent livelihoods, not because they are pressed by poverty, but simply to practically prove how well their sex can do in professional life. What is of still more conse- quence, if not of more benefit to society at large, there has come out from her secluded home many a woman who is now taking an important part in educational and philanthropic affairs. 149 Women in Public Affairs in the fleiji Period. The tendency of women towards an enlargement of their sphere of action briefly alluded to above, has given rise to a number of educational and charitable institutions under their management. Some of the more important are the Fujin-Kyoiku Kwai (Women's Educational Society), the Fujin Jizen Kwai (Women's Charity Bazaar Association), the Tokvo Jikei Byoin (Tokyo Charity Hospital) and the Tokyo Ikuji- in (Tokyo Orphanage). In all these Her Imperial Majesty, our wise and most gracious Empress, takes the lead. There has not been a notable stand taken by women that has been for the public benefit but that the Empress in the kindness of her heart has not either directly or indirectly given it her patronage. When the Kagoshima war broke out in 1877, she 'sent an immense quantity of lint pledgets of her own preparation for the use of the wounded soldiers. She every year practices silk culture in her palace in order to share in the labors of her poor people. Whenever the charity bazaar is held, she visits it and makes large purchases. The cause of education is not less dear to her heart, and she often visits the schools for girls, the Peeresses School, the Girls' Normal School, the Girls' High School, and even others of less note, not to merely pre- sent herself before them, but to make a close examination which might only be expected of a school inspector. She also visits the Tokyo Charity Hospital, and speaks a kind word to the patients and presents them with gifts. Such an illus- trious example can but be followed by the ladies of the upper classes, and does much to enlarge the sphere of the usefulness and activity of women. The establishment of various educa- tional and benevolent institutions, and the publishing of var- ious magazines by women, have done not a little towards deter- mining the direction in which the women of the Meiji period are taking rapid steps in progress. Shall women interest themselves in political affairs? This is a question yet unanswered in every quarter of the globe. As for Japan, her customs and her circumstances direct us to answer it in the negative. Household cares and such public affairs as appertain to the minor charities and female educa- tion, are well suited to the feminine nature, while unbecoming 150 to the stronger sex. It is therefore our opinion, and that of most of our sisters, that pubhc affairs, except those mentioned above, should not be engaged in by women, especially in all affairs pertaining to politics. We do not hesitate to own that our women are not yet far advanced in public usefulness, but it is not a little consolatory to say that they have lately been placed in the right path of progress through the sterling efforts of some noble and learned women under the great leadership of Her Imperial Majesty, the Empress. CHARITIES. In woman's sphere of public activity, charities and the correction of such social evils as the law or religion has little or no control over seem the most womanly. Japan is to be much congratulated that her women have come to a knowledge of this duty and are taking steps to make themselves instrumental in doing good to their country. They have established in various parts of the Empire health and temperance societies, association's for the improvement of social manners and customs, and also for the abolition of licensed prostitution. They have also done much to purify the stage and street manners by inducing scholars and com- posers to make good plays and songs. They have not yet reaped much benefit from the various associations, but have very bright prospects before them. The public charity in which Japanese women have thus far shown the greatest interest is the relief of the indigent. Hospitals for needy patients have been established and asy- lums for orphans and other poor children, all of which have gained the warmest sympathy of the public. It is reasonably expected that similar institutions will be established in many of the provincial towns at no distant future. We have now many benevolent institutions founded and managed by ladies' associations and individual women. A few of them will be enumerated. I. THE TOKYO CHARITY HOSPITAL. The Tokyo Charity Hospital was established in 1887. It was and is under the direction of Her Majesty, the Em- 151 press and a ladies' association called the " Tokyo Charity Hospital Association." It is managed directly by a staff of functionaries, consisting of a president, ten directresses, four- teen consulting doctors, a chief doctor, an assistant chief doctor, and a number of ordinary doctors and secretaries and clerks. The directresses, who are all ladies of high rank, are selected from among the supporters of the institution by the Empress herself, and the other principal functionaries are nominated by the association under the direction of Her Maj- esty, the Empress. The present chief doctor, his assistant chief doctors and consulting doctors, are all celebrities of the profession. The hospital was first started by a number of ladies who formed themselves into an association called "The Benevolent Society " (Jizen Kwai), from whom the management of the hospital was soon severed, and it was then placed under the patronage of Her Majesty, the Empress. Soon after its opening the institution, too true to its nature, becoming cramped for means to carry on its work, obtained relief and encouragement from Their Imperial Majesties, the Emperor and the Empress and the Empress Dowager. The former gave a magnificent donation of 20,000 yen, and the others an annuity of 600 yen. Following these illustrious examples, the members of the association did all in their power only too gladly. They held a grand council and resolved to call for public aid to increase the permanent fund of the hospital, also to invite each member to contri- bute from one to five yen per month towards ordinary ex- penses, and to hold a charity bazaar each October, one-half of the profits secured on the occasion to be devoted to aug- ment the said fund, and the other half to be given to other charitable institutions. The fund of the hospital is now estimated at 17,000 yen. This is kept as a reserved fund. The monthly ex- penditures which vary from six to seven hundred yen, are defrayed by contributions from the members of the association. Mors than a thousand years ago the Empress Komyo founded a similar hospital on a much smaller scale. 152 II. THE BENEVOLENT DEPARTMENT OF THE FUKUDEN SOCIETY. This society was founded upon Buddhist doctrines of benevolence in 1779 by a number of devout w^omen, repre- sented by such persons as the Princess Mori, Marchioness Tokugavi^a, Viscountesses Forio and Miura, Baroness Kagi- tori and several other ladies of no less celebrity. The Fukuden (happy field) Society is still a well-known Buddhist association established for charitable purposes. The special object of the society is the support and management of its orphanage at No. 103 Azabu, Kogai-cho, Tokyo. In i8gi the ladies of this society did much for the relief of distressed children whose parents had been killed in the great Gifu- Aichi earthquake. The children in the orphanage are all taught in the elements of a common school education, and when they reach 12 years of age are taught some kind of useful industry. At 15 years they are put in some suitable position to become nurses, midwives, weavers, etc. III. CHRISTIAN BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES. There are quite a number of Christian women's societies, as scarcely a church in the whole country, but has some kind of benevolent society attached to it. Perhaps the best organ- ized and regulated among them is the Fujin Kyofu Kwai, es- tablished in 1886 by Mrs. Kaji-ko Yajima, of the Sakurai girls' school, and over thirty other ladies. The origin of this society was the visit of Mrs. Mary C. Leavitt of the Women's Temperance Society of America, to this country. She came here in June, 1882, and gave many lectures, both in Yokohama and Tokyo, upon the subject of temperance. Mrs. Yajima listened to the American lady and was greatly moved. She then directed all her energies, in conjunction with thirty-eight other ladies, towards establishing a sister association to the American society, whose messenger had so strongly influenced her. Mrs. Yajima's exertions were at last crowned with suc- cess, the formal opening of the society taking place on the 6th December, 1888. Its members are over five hundred at the present writing. Its aims are: First. To improve public morality. 153 Second. To correct or eradicate all sorts of social evils, especially drinking and smoking. Third. To relieve the distressed. Fourth. To change manners and customs for the better. Fifth. To improve sanitary conditions. Sixth. To put moral education on a better basis. Seventh. To increase the real happiness of human life. Each member of the society is pledged to live a pure life herself, and to direct her energies towards the attainment of one or more of the above mentioned objects. The annual income, consisting of fees and donations from the members, amounts to about four hundred yen. The charitable works hitherto accomplished bj^ the society are many, of which the following are the best known: First. When large portions of Wakayama, Okayama and Fukuoka prefectures suffered from inundations in i88g, the society sent a large quantity of old clothing and a sum of 250 yen to such of the sufferers as needed help. It is to be ob- served that a portion of the amount was raised by means of a concert. Second. At the time of the great earthquake of 1891, a number of nurses were sent to the shaken districts with in- structions to give their services to the injured for six weeks. They also opened their purses and wardrobes to relieve the distressed. EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 1868-70. As early as the first year of the restoration, the govern- ment saw objections in restricting the education of women to such branches of learning as were only needed in the manage- ment of domestic affairs, and in the new educational code which was soon promulgated included an educational system for girls, and sent some promising ones abroad to be edu- cated and thus secure some able leaders in the new school system when they returned. The people also of our land fully acknowledged the importance of a more expanded and enlightened education for girls than that formerly in vogue. The result of all this thought and preparation has been quite satisfactory, when we make due allowance for the shortness of time the new system has been in working order. 154 iSyo-go. The number of female teachers now employed in edu- cational institutions is about five thousand, and the girls at- tending school number nearlj' a million. The graduates of the various schools from 1881-1889, inclusive, are estimated at 354,392. This number is b}^ no means large compared with our population of over forty million, but when we consider that all these girls have been educated to appear on the social stage, each in her appropriate character, we may rest assured that they will be of great benefit to the future of Japan. Of late the study of medicine and nursing has become quite a popular profession for women and there are al- ready a number of lady doctors and nurses who are possessed of scientific knowledge. Until a few years ago nearly all the higher schools for girls were public institutions, but more re- cently there has sprung up many private ones, proving that education for women is making rapid progress. Kindergarten schools are on the increase in all parts of the empire. I. THE PEERESSES SCHOOL. This school for the daughters of noblemen was formerly a department of the Gakushiu-in, now a school for the sons of peers. In September, 1885, it was disconnected from the boys' institution and on the fifth of the following October the work of instruction was commenced in its new buildings. On the thirteenth of November next, Her Imperial Majesty, the Empress, visited and formall}^ opened it, making a long speech in regard to its usefulness and the importance of edu- cation in general. This school was established in accordance with the wishes of H. I. M. the Empress, and is under the control of the Im- perial Household Department. Its object is to educate the daughters of the nobility, physically, intellectually and morally so they ma}^ be well fitted to their high stations in life. It admits any daughter belonging to a noble family above 6 and under 18 years of age. It has four different courses of study: First. A common school course of six years. Second. A middle school course of six years. 155 Third. A post-graduate course, in which classic Jap- anese, one or more modern languages, drawing and music are made the objects of special study. Fourth. A special course in which such students as have outgrown the other courses are instructed in a few essential subjects. The number of teachers and assistants, including the president, is forty-seven, and that of the students 362. II. THE HIGHER NORMAL SCHOOL FOR GIRLS. This institution was first founded in July, 1874, under the ^name of the Tokyo Female Normal School {Tokyo /os hi Shihan Gakko') and was given its present name in March, i8go. In April, 1876, a preparatory department was attached to it, as so few girls were found having enough learning to enter upon the regular normal course. In June of the same year a kindergarten was started in this school, and two years later a common school department was added to give the students in the normal course practical training in the work of teaching. A department was also added to train students as teachers in kindergartens throughout the Empire. This department was abolished in 1880, and the study of kindergarten training was added to the curriculum of the normal students. At the same time classic Japanese, etiquette and domestic industries enlarged the sarfle curriculum. In July, 1882, the preparatory department was abolished and a higher girls' school depart- ment was added. In August, 1885, the several departments were amalgamated under the name of Tokyo Normal School {Tokyo Shihan Gakko). In March, i8go, it was again made independent under the present name, ^'Joshi Koto Shihan Gakko:' The present purpose of the institution is to give good teachers to normal and higher schools for girls, and also to kindergartens. The students are selected from among those girls who have finished a two years' course in ordinary nor- mal schools, and those who have passed an equivalent exami- nation. A number of such girls are nominated by the gov- ernor of each prefecture, and from among them the directors of the normal school select a certain number. The regular course runs four years. The number of hours devoted to 156 instruction is thirty-one per week. The teachers number forty-eight, and the students ninety-seven. The expenses of the students are defrayed by the govern- ment. The graduates are each bound to perform school work for five full years from the day of the reception of the diploma, and that teaching must be done at a certain school indicated by the Department of Education for the first three years. Up to March, 1892, the number of graduates have been 266 in the lower department, and forty-five in the higher de- partment. Most of them are already engaged in educational work. III. THE CORPORATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL FOR GIRLS. . This is a private enterprise for teaching girls in such industrial arts as are suitable for them, together with the essential elements of learning. The industries taught are sewing, knitting, embroidery, flower making and painting. Lessons are also given in prac- tical ethics, reading, writing, arithmetic, domestic industries and the elements of science. English is also taught to such girls as may desire to learn it. There are two courses of study, respectively called the "A" and the "B" course, the former of which runs four 57ears and the latter three years. The hours of instruction are seven per day. The authorities, in- cluding the director, number thirty-two, and the number of pupils 344. The present director is Mr. Tegima Sei-ichi, who is now in Chicago on official duty at the World's Columbian Ex- position. This school was established in September, 1886, and has since sent forth 372 graduates. A few noteworthy facts connected with the institution may be mentioned: First. Its authorities and students contributed both money and labor when the great Gifu-Aichi earthquake occurred, and sent 321 cotton flannel shirts to the poor sufferers. Second. Once every year many ladies and gentlemen are invited to inspect the methods of instruction and the students' manual productions Avhich are then sold at reason- able rates. Last year when the third of such occasions was celebrated the visitors numbered 10,000 and the proceeds of the sales amounted to 384 j'.?/;. • 157 Third. The institution has a money-saving system which is to deposit one-half of the profits secured by the sale of manufactured articles at the savings office of the Teishinsho (Department of Communications). Such savings have now grown to the respectable sum of 244 yen. Fourth. On the 12th of April, 1889, Her Imperial Majesty, the Empress, visited the school, made a minute in- spection of the various articles made by the students and had sent to her palace such as pleased her. The school also re- .ceived a gift of 200 yen from the Imperial hand. Fifth. On the 2gth of October, i8gi, and the 14th of Jan- uary 1892, His Majesty, the Emperor, sent a chamberlain to the school to inquire after its condition and to instruct the authorities to send some of the articles manufactured by the students to the Imperial palace to be honored by his inspec- tion. To the credit and pleasure of the girls, many of the articles sent to the palace were never returned to their hands. There are other public and private schools of much im- portance. Of these the most famous is the Atomi school for young ladies, established in 1875 by Miss Atomi Kwakei, which has already graduated 3,000 girls. Among others of note are some founded by Christians of the various denominations. As may be sfeen by glancing over these pages, education for the women of this country is now in a fair way of progress. We do not entertain a shadow of doubt as to its producing beneficial results. The educational philosophers of Japan are now studying how to unite the intellectual methods of Western systems with the teachings of Oriental morality, which has hitherto preserved the feminine virtues, from the days of old down to the present time. Whether they will succeed in basing them on the history and peculiarities of Japanese custom, has much to do with the future of the Empire. We here append a table of the present educational insti- tutions for female students, according to the latest reports (1890-92), published by the Monbusho, or the Educational Department of the Imperial Government. 158 Numbers of Schools. Female Students. Female INSTITUTIONS. Gov't. Public. Private. Teachers. 1890 1891 1890 1891 1890 1891 1890 1891 i8go 1891 Higher Female Schools Female Dep'ts of Ordinary 1 I 7 28 7 27 23 21 3. 115 885 412 5,677 2,495 36 3 2,768 838 615 5.492 1,248 153 45 31 127 121 4 166 47 36 Chinese and Japanese Schools (Public) Chinese and Japanese Schools 159 English Schools (Private) no 1 2 ID 3 23 276 40 1,285 24 4.407 308 344 97 28 29 20 Pharmaceutical Schools (Pri- 6 12 325 50 1,381 13 5.504 364 909 99 21 15 33 13 36 3 017. 270 Commercial Schools (Private). Mathematical Schools (/VzV«^?) 3 2 17 173 22 35 4 2 2 Bookkeepers' Schools (Private) 14 218 38 28 Chinese, English and Mathe- 52 Sick Nurses' Schools (Private) 4 I 2 I 2 Kindergarten System Schools 3 5 2 Technological ^c):\oo\%{Private) Shampooers' Schools (Private). 915,238 3,738 Public and Private. Infants. Instructresses. i8go 1891 1890 1891 1890 1891 Kindergartens 1^8 7.a86 8,662 271 ^17 159 H^ 346 85 < " •^ & •* -•' ^^ »>^^'B^'^'^ (^y «*^ ""ISC'-" .- ^ ""^ ^; .^^^^ r^ - .. ^ °o 1^ .c o -OV*^