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RAILWAY TRACK 

and TRACK WORK 



By y 

■ ' E. E. RUSSELL TRATMAN, 

A. M. Am. Soc. C. E., Associate Editor of "Engineering New; 



SECOND EDITION 
Fully revised, and with Supplementary Chapters on "Signals and In- 
terlocking" and "Street Railway Track.',' 



NEW YORK. 
THE ENGINEERING NEWS PUBLISHING CO. 



THE LIBRARY OF 
CONGRESS, 

Two Copies Received 

FEB. 27 1901 

Copyright entry 
CLASS CO XXc. No. 

29 do 

COPY B. 



i 



K 



Copyright, 1901, by 
THE ENGINEERING NEWS PUBLISHING CO. 




PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 



In view of the importance of the railway track which carries the enor- 
mous railway traffic of the United States, and in view of the amount of en- 
gineering and technical work involved in the construction and maintenance 
of the track and its appurtenances, it may appear somewhat strange that 
the technical literature, on the subject should be so limited as compared 
with that on other branches of railway engineering. This may be at- 
tributed largely to the fact that until within quite recent years, this depart- 
ment of railway service was considered to belong to the grade, of skilled 
labor rather than to men of scientific and technical training. The book 
on "Track," written by Mr. Wm. B. Parsons in 1886, was practically the 
first book dealing with the subject from the engineering point of view, 
and written for the use of the engineer rather than that of the section fore- 
man or "practical" roadmaster. For this reason, although its scope was 
somewhat limited, the book had a very extensive sale among engineers, 
but it has long been out of print. The steady and increasing demand from 
engineers for a technical book on track and maintenance of way led to the 
publication of the first edition of "Railway Track and Track Work" in 1897. 
The author had had this in preparation for some years previously, with 
the design of making a comprehensive book specially adapted for engineers, 
who are now entering more largely than ever before into the work and 
responsibilities of the maintenance of way department. It was published 
in the autumn of 1897. Within a few months the greater part of the edition 
was sold, and it was practically exhausted by the summer of 1900. 

The continued demand for this book, not only from engineers but from 
the engineering schools, many of which have, adopted it as a text book, 
has now been met by the preparation of this second edition, which has been 
entirely set up in new type and almost entirely rewritten. Since 1897, many 
changes and improvements have been made in materials and methods, while 



ii 

new standards have been adopted with the general progress made in this 
department, and these various improvements are represented in the re- 
vision. Not only has the book been thoroughly revised, but many new 
illustrations have been made, and additional chapters have been added 
dealing with signals and interlocking and street railway track. As to the 
latter, it may be noted that street and country electric railways now offer 
such a wide and new field for engineers, that it was felt the book would 
not be complete, without some mention of this branch of the subject. The 
tables of standard track construction in the appendix are also entirely new, 
having been prepared during the present year. 

A special feature of the book is that it includes not only the general prin- 
ciples underlying track work, and the systems of practice which are every- 
where applicable, but also includes numerous individual details of material, 
ways and in different sections of the country. It is believed that mere 
general statements as to methods of work and construction leave very much 
to be desired both by the beginner or student and by the engineer in charge 
of maintenance of way work. It has been the author's special aim therefore 
to present drawings and details of materials and methods, representing 
varied and actual practice, and to show their good and bad features, as well 
as the reasons for their use. This particular characteristic of the style of 
treatment adopted has met with very considerable commendation, showing 
that it meets a definite need. The scope of the book is large, as may be 
seen by a glance at the table of contents, and the various subjects included 
are treated not merely in a descriptive but also in a critical manner. 

It would be impracticable to mention each and every engineer, railway 
officer and manufacturer of railway material who has furnished informa- 
tion to be made use of in this book, but the author takes the present oppor- 
tunity to extend thanks for all information furnished, and for all the criti- 
cisms, corrections and commendations which have been sent to him. 

B. B. RUSSELL TRATMAN. 
Chicago, October, 1900. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PART I.— TRACK. 
Chapter 1 .—Introduction ...... i 

The Importance of the. Track, Relations of Track to Traffic, Statis- 
tics of Railways. 

Chapter 2.— Roadbed Construction ..... 9 

Formation on Banks and in Cuts and Tunnels, Concrete Substruc- 
ture. 

Chapter 3.— Ballast ....... 22 

Broken Stone, Slag, Burnt Clay, Gravel, Cinders, Sand, Earth, Oil- 
ing Ballast. 

Chapter 4.— Ties and Tie -Plates ..... 28 

Qualities of Wood for Ties, Tie-Renewals, Preservative Processes, 
Metal Tie-Plates, Metal Ties. 

Chapter 5.— Rails ....... 58 

Form of Section, Foreign Rails, Manufacture, Life and Wear. 

Chapter 6. — Rail Fastenings and Rail Joints ... 79 

Spikes, Screws, Bolts, Rail Braces, The Design of Rail Joints, Angle 
Bars, Suspended and Supported Joints, Track Bolts, Nutlocks, 
Quantities of Track Material. 

Chapter 7. — Switches, Frogs and Switchboards . . . 102 

Stub Switch, Split Switch, Miscellaneous Forms of Switches, Rigid 
Frogs, Spring Rail Frogs, Frog Substitutes, Crossing Frogs, Guard 
Rails, Footguards, Relation of Wheels to Frogs and Switches, 
Switch Ties and Timbers, Switchstands, Lamps. 

Chapter 8.— Fences and Cattleguards .... 135 

Board and Wire. Fences, Hedges and Walls, Station and Yard 
Fences, Snow Fences, Pit and Surface Cattleguards. 

Chapter 9.— Bridge Floors and Grade Crossings . . . 150 

Solid and Open Floors, Trestle Floors, Bridge Guard Rails, Elevated 
Railway Floors, Road ana Street Crossings, Track Crossings, Cross- 
ing Gates and Derailing Devices. 

Chapter 10.— Track Signs . . . . . . 167 

Chapter 11.— Tanks and Other Track Accessories . . 177 

Water Stations, Track Tanks, Water Columns, Coaling Stations, 
Ashpits, Turntables and Transfer Tables, Track Scales, Bridge Tell- 
Tales, Mail Cranes, Bumping Posts, Spare Rails, Section Houses and 
Other Buildings, Station Platforms, Shop Tracks. 

Chapter 1 2. — Sidings, Yards and Terminals . . - . 205 

Lap Sidings, Design and Operation of Yards and Terminals, Sand 

Tracks. 
Chapter 13. — Track Tools and Supplies . . . . 221 

Chapter 14.— Signals and Interlocking .... 243 

Chapter 15.— Street Railway Track .... 253 



IV 

PART II.— TRACK WORK. 

Chapter 16.— Organization of Hainte nance = off -Way Department 261 

Systems of Organization, Engineers as Roadmasters, Duties of 
Roadmasters, Section Foremen, Trackwalkers and Watchmen, 
Force and Labor, Work Train Conductors, Bridge and Building 
Department, Signal Department. 

Chapter 1 7.— Tracklaying and Ballasting .... 285 

Ordinary Tracklaying, Machine Tracklaying, Distribution of Bal- 
last, Ballast Cars. 

Chapter 18.— Drainage and Ditching .... 308 

Drainage of Wet Ground and Slopes, Protection of Slopes, Ditching 
and Ditching Machines, Subdrainage. 

Chapter 19.— Track Work for Maintenance . . . 3<7 

General Work on the Section, Work for Different Seasons, Lining, 
Gaging, Surfacing, Renewing Ties, Tamping, Raising Track, Mov- 
ing Track, Handling Rails, Relaying Rails, Shifting Rails on 
Curves, Bending and Cutting Rails, Spiking, Bolting, Shimming, 
Fencing, Clearing Right of Way, Cutting Weeds, Policing, Station 
Grounds and Buildings, Old Material. 

Chapter 20.— Gage, Grades and Curves . . . . 351 

Change of Gage, Compensation of Grades, Virtual Grades, Vertical 
Curves, Sharp Curves, Transition Curves, Widening Gage on Curves, 
Superelevation on Curves. 

Ghapter 21. — Track Inspection and the Premium System . 374 

Chapter 22.— Switch Work and Turnouts . . . 384 

Chapter 23. — Bridge Work and Telegraph Work . . 400 

Chapter 24.— Permanent Improvements and Work Trains . 409 

Changes in Alinement and Grade, Filling Trestles, Construction and 
Work Trains. 

Chapter 25. —Handling and Clearing S«ow . . . 419 

Chapter 26.— Wrecking Trains and Operations . . . 429 

Chapter 27.— Records, Reports and Accounts. . . . 445 

Information Charts, Blank Forms for Reports, Accounts and Sta- 
tistics. 

Appendix No 1 . . . . . . . . 468 

Table of Standard Track Construction on 50 Railways. 

Appendix No. 2. . . . . . . . 471 

Table of Train Speeds and Distances Run. 



RAILWAY TRACK AND TRACK WORK. 



PART L— TRACK. 



CHAPTER I.— INTRODUCTION. 

The railway system of the United States now aggregates about 190,000 
miles of railway, with 252,000 miles of track, the traffic over which amounts 
to about 862,000,000 train miles per year, while nearly 1% of the total popu- 
lation is directly employed in the railway service. The maintenance of 
200,000 miles of main track, to keep it in proper condition to safely and 
efficiently carry the traffic, is a stupendous and never ending work, and 
one which affords great opportunities for the exercise of skill, judgment 
and executive ability in combining efficiency and economy in the conduct 
of the work. 

The track upon which all the traffic has to be carried is one of the most 
important essentials of a railway. The importance of the track and track 
work in their relation to the operation of the railway, and the proportion 
of the total operating expenses which is represented by the expenditures on 
track maintenance, are not as generally recognized as they should be, even 
by railway officers. The idea held by many men not personally familiar 
with; the service is that the track consists merely of two lines of rails 
laid upon timber ties, while the track work consists merely in attending 
to the spiking and bolting of rails and the occasional tamping of the 
ballast under the ties. A glance at the table of contents of this book 
will give a better idea of the variety of items included in track equipment, 
and of the variety of work required to be done in keeping the track in 
proper condition for the traffic. In addition to this, however, account 
must be taken of the care and forethought involved in devising the most 
economical construction, and the best and most economical methods of 
conducting the work under the various conditions of construction and 
operation which exist on different railways. In too many cases, also, it 
is taken for granted that any common laborer can be properly employed 
on track work, although it is almost universally recognized that a con- 
siderable amount of skilled labor is required to keep the motive power 
and rolling stock equipment in condition for safe and economical service. 
The opportunity is therefore taken in this introduction to call attention 
to the importance and responsibility of the engineer, the roadmaster, the 
section foreman and the section men, and to the relation which their 
work bears to the safe, efficient and economical operation of the railway. 

There is an increasing recognition of the fact that the management of 
the track work and track forces should be in the hands of men of engi- 
neering training, and not in the hands of men who were simply somewhat 
above the grade of the ordinary section foreman. Many of the old road- 



2 TRACK. 

masters were (and are) of this latter type, and it is no discredit to them 
to say that they were rarely competent to understand the principles upon 
which track work is based or to deal with the higher problems in such 
work under modern conditions where speed of trains, a high grade of 
track construction, and a close economy in maintenance are involved. 
The Chief Engineer and his direct assistants have many other responsi- 
bilities besides those of the track, and very often these officials have no 
practical knowledge of track work, but have to rely to a large extent 
upon the roadmaster. The modern roadmaster, therefore, should combine 
engineering skill and knowledge with practical experience in the details 
of track work. This question is further discussed in the chapter on 
"Organization." There is still a strong tendency on the part of the finan- 
cial and executive officers to ignore recommendations from and to reduce 
or disallow requisitions from the track department, owing in part, no 
doubt, to the old system of organization, under which it was generally 
understood that a roadmaster was not competent to consider matters in- 
volving the general management of the road. That this is the case ap- 
pears to be proved by the fact that even on roads which are spending 
large sums for general improvements in realinement and reduction of 
curves, there is often a certain hesitation in regard to matters of track 
improvement. The engineers can show and the transportation officers can 
realize the direct economy in operation resulting from such expenditures 
for general improvement, but the questions of the relative advantages of 
heavier rails, better joints, treated ties, better ballast and improved ap- 
pliances, are less liable to be fully presented or understood. One result 
of putting the maintenance of way into the hands of engineers, even as 
subordinates, will be that greater weight will be given to the opinions and 
recommendations of these men, whose qualifications will be understood 
by their immediate superiors and the higher officers. 

One difficulty which the engineer and roadmaster and the superintendent 
and other technical officers have to meet is the very general confusion of 
the meaning of the terms "cheapness" and "economy" by non-technical 
officers. This applies more particularly in matters of detail. The officers 
may realize that large expenditures on improvements will result in econo- 
mies in operating expenses, but are possessed by the idea that in buying 
supplies at a lower price than estimated or recommended, or in cutting 
down requisitions, they are practicing a commendable economy, whereas 
it is very probable that they are wasting money on inferior articles and 
hastening the time when larger expenditures will be required. It may be 
difficult, for instance, to convince them that very cheap supplies may be 
of such inferior quality as to ultimately involve more expense than sup- 
plies of better quality and higher price; or that, if a carefully prepared 
requisition of ties is cut in half, the distribution of the number where 
renewals are necessary may leave the track in little better condition than 
before. The technical officers, however, should have the courage of their 
convictions, based upon their personal knowledge, and should be prepared 
to press their arguments home in an endeavor to have the requirements 
of the case realized. 

In regard to requisitions, the responsible officer should not let one pass 
to his superiors without being convinced that it is reasonable and fair, 



INTRODUCTION. 3 

and that he can sustain it if it is called in question.. He should at the 
same time be familiar with the financial conditions of the company, and 
regulate his requisitions accordingly, so that they may not be radically cut 
down by the executive officers, when he might have distributed the cut 
more judiciously and to better advantage. The aim of the officer in 
charge of track maintenance should be to do the best work possible with 
the amounts appropriated for his use. If the company is prosperous, he 
may turn his attention to important works or measures for the general 
improvement of the line, by which large expenditures will result in ma- 
terial economy in the future. If the company happens to be in straight- 
ened circumstances, it should be. his particular aim to get the best possible 
results with the least possible expenditure, and to keep the track in the 
best possible condition. Many railways, owing to financial conditions, have 
to get on in the track and other departments with very limited means, 
and the officers of the departments have of necessity to carry out their 
work in a "hand-to-mouth" way that is by' no means conducive to good 
or economical work. Under such conditions there is opportunity for the 
exercise of skill and judgment in distributing work and money to the 
best advantage, for such conditions are rarely an excuse for a thoroughly 
bad and neglected track. 

On the other hand, some railways in better circumstances apparently 
consider that, with the road once built, expenditures for the track should 
be permanently low. Therefore, while appropriating large sums for new 
locomotives and cars, handsome passenger trains, new stations, etc., and 
for freight and passenger competition expenses (which item might well 
be restricted), they are not willing to authorize liberal expenditures in 
track and roadway equipment. Many important roads, of course, are man- 
aged on a better system than this, but under the above conditions of service 
the officials of roads which cannot afford (or can but will not afford) 
needed improvements, have to do the best they can with such material and 
money as are available. In times of financial stringency, the above noted 
tendency to cut down expenses with a free hand is particularly evident. 
The too frequent result is a deterioration in the physical condition of the 
property, which (besides the loss of reputation to the railway) will very 
generally render extra expenses necessary to bring the road back to rea- 
sonably proper condition. It should be recognized as an established fact 
that the poorer the track the greater will be the expenses for maintenance 
and renewals, owing to the inability of the track to sustain the weights 
and shocks to which it is subjected. The importance of the maintenance 
department is perhaps most thoroughly understood by the officers of that 
department on a road where light track, fact trains, heavy traffic, rejected 
requisitions and frequent admonitions to keep the expenses down, together 
with a constant sense of responsibility in case of accident, make their po- 
sitions anything but easy. Men in such positions are often largely instru- 
mental in the successful operation of the road, but their work and re- 
sponsibility are usually but little known outside of their own offices. 

A somewhat potent aid in a movement to improve the track is the in- 
troduction of higher speeds, since such conditions of traffic cause increased 
cutting of the ties, shifting of the ballast, and general disturbance of the 
line and surface of the track. The maintenance expenses are thus in- 



4 TRACK. 

creased to a marked extent by a material increase of speed over a some- 
what light track, and the traveling public will become aware of the fact 
that such a road is not a comfortable one to travel upon. Where a sub- 
stantial track construction is introduced and maintained, the subsequent 
cost of maintenance is likely to decrease in spite of the higher speeds, the 
track being better able to resist the strains to which it is subjected. Under 
such conditions, the road would gain a reputation for comfortable service 
as well as high speed. 

From what has been said, it will be readily believed that there is still 
in very many cases a lack of proper relation of the track to the traffic 
which it carries, and a deficiency in the maintenance. Train loads, wheel 
loads, speed and number of trains have steadily increased, while the track 
has not been improved in proportion to the extra strain and wear to which 
it is subjected, and the maintenance forces remain practically unchanged. 
On the other hand, there are many main lines having an excellent and 
substantial track construction, well maintained, and second to none in this 
or any other country, but these lines represent only a part of the total 
mileage of track carrying heavy traffic. Within the past few years there 
have been marked advances in track construction, notably in the use of 
heavier rails and of metal tie-plates, and in the introduction of improve- 
ments in frogs and switches. These tend towards a smaller expense for 
maintenance work and a greater degree of safety in the movement of 
trains. With all due credit and allowance for the progress that has been 
made, particularly within the past few years, it is certain that much re- 
mains to be done to bring the track into proper relation with the traffic 
conditions. Practical experience has conclusively shown the importance 
of substantial and smooth track in securing the maximum effective work 
of the motive power equipment, while at the same time such track will 
require less labor and expense for its maintenance. In view of the present 
tendency to the introduction of heavier engines, cars and trains, it may well 
be pointed out that resultant economy in transportation expenses may be 
offset by deterioration in track, with increase in expenses for maintenance 
of way, and increased liability to accident. The conditions vary, however, 
according to the nature of the road and the traffic. Thus, a light track 
which would be safe and economical on straight and level lines where the 
trains run easily, might be dangerous and expensive on a line with steep 
grades and sharp curves, over which the engines work heavily. So, also, 
a well-laid and well maintained track of comparatively light construction 
may give better service than a relatively heavier track less perfectly main- 
tained and having low joints, worn ties and loose ballast. A low standard 
of maintenance may be expected where heavy traffic is imposed upon a 
light track with worn rails and ties, thin and inferior ballast and a general 
evidence of financial neglect. Yet such conditions are to be met with even 
on important lines. This is due largely to financial conditions (the vari- 
ous good and bad reasons for which have already been briefly considered), 
and to the fact that the other departments have in general received more 
attention than the roadway department. The attention of managers and 
higher officers should be called to the necessity for and the advantages 
of improved standards of track construction and maintenance. This sub- 
ject was discussed in a paper on "The Relation of Track to Traffic on 



INTRODUCTION. 5 

American and Foreign Railways," read by the author before the New 
York Railway Club in 1896, in which paper details were given of actual 
conditions then existing. 

An objection to American practice which has often been put forward by 
European engineers and railway men, is the comparatively light weight of 
rail used, but it must be remembered that the rail is only one part of the 
construction, and that it is not (as is often assumed) a girder resting on 
fixed supports. The whole track deflects under loads by the compression 
of the ballast and roadbed, independent of the deflection of the rails be- 
tween the ties. Consequently, a 65-lb. or 70-lb. rail supported by 16 to 18 
ties, may form a track smoother and more substantial than one with a 
75-lb. or 80-lb. rail on 12 to 15 ties in the same length. It follows, also, that 
American track with 80 to 100-lb. rails, supported by 17 or 18 ties, will be 
more smooth and substantial than English track with rails of the same 
weight supported by only 10 or 12 ties. This is a point not unfrequentiy 
overlooked, and, in fact, some engineers have reasoned that by introducing 
heavier rails the number of ties can be reduced. This is by no means a 
safe proposition. 

The proportion which the charges for maintenance of way and struc- 
tures bear to the total operating expenses of American railways is usually 
high, as shown in Table No. 1, given below, and this is largely due to 
the fact that a majority of the roads have been built in the first place 
with regard to immediate cheapness and rapidity of construction rather 
than to ultimate economy in operation. The conditions under which the 
railways have been built (often in advance of the prospective traffic) have, 
on the whole, fully warranted the carrying out of the work on this prin- 
ciple. In too many cases, however, the mistake has been made of allowing 
the original style of construction to remain unaltered and unimproved long 
after it has been outgrown by the traffic. The result of this is that such 
roads have to sustain a heavy continual charge for maintenance. These 
conditions and their relation to operating conditions are now being given 
much greater consideration, and within the past few years many roads 
have spent enormous sums of money in general improvements, such as 
reducing grades and curves, improving the location, double tracking, im- 
proving yard and terminal arrangements, and replacing trestles and light 
structures with solid embankments and more permanent and substantial 
structures. In 1896, and again in 1900, the author made an extended in- 
vestigation as to existing standards in track construction, and the results 
were published in "Engineering News," New York, June 25, 1896, and Aug. 
30, 1900. Tables of these standards are given as an appendix to this book, 
and it must be understood that they represent the standard for main track 
only, regardless of lighter and less approved details of construction still 
in use, particularly on branches or lines of secondary importance. The 
construction shown by the tables, therefore, represents but a portion of 
the main track mileage of the several railways, though this portion is 
gradually increasing as renewals are carried on to meet the requirements 
of traffic. 

As shown by the brief summary of statistics at the end of this chapter, 
the traffic on all the railways of the United States for the year ending 



6 



TRACK. 



June 30, 1899, aggregated 862,258,714 train miles, and the operating ex- 
penses amounted to 65.24% of the gross earnings from operation. The 
largest item in the expenditures for operation is that of "conducting trans- 
portation," which includes all train and station service, and this item was 
56.73% of the total, while the expenses for maintenance of way and 
structures amounted to 21.05%, and those of maintenance of equipment 
amounted to 17.62% of the total expenditures for operation. The expen- 
ditures for general improvements are not included in these figures. Ana- 
lyzing the details of these figures, it is found that repairs to roadway rep- 
resent about 10% of the entire operating expenses, while rail renewals and 
tie renewals represent 1.33% and 3%, respectively. A consideration of 
the fact that the maintenance work on track and structures absorbs over 
21% of the operating expenses, and of the further fact that half of this is 
for ordinary roadway repairs (exclusive of rail and tie renewals), will show 
the relation which the maintenance department bears to the financial 
affairs of the railway company. Bearing this in mind, it becomes evident 
that greater importance should be attached to the proper organization and 
conduct of this department. 

Tlfis general summary of the affairs of the railway system as a whole 
serves merely to indicate the average distribution of expenses, but it is 
of little use for application to individual cases. The advocates of reform 
in railway track construction, in the way of a more permanent character 
of work, have frequently called attention to the fact that, under the present 
system, the maintenance charges are extremely high. From official state- 
ments and annual reports Table No. 1 has been prepared, showing for sev- 

TABLE NO. 1.— RAILWAY MAINTENANCE OF WAY EXPENSES. 



Ratio of r-Maintenance 
operating Fer 
Railways. exp. to grs. train- 
No. earnings, Per mile, 
miles. per ct. mile. cts. 

Me. Cen 823 65 38 $696 17.6 

FitchDurg 825 69.00 1,340 11.3 

N. Y., N. H. & Hart.. 2,047 68.87 1,799 18.8 

N. Y. Cen 2,395 63.07 1,463 11.8 

Erie 2,270 74.57 976 9.4 

L. S. & Mich. So 1,413 67.11 1,103 10.0 

Mich. Cen 1,658 72.25 787 

Penn. R. R.* 2,190 68.00 

Penn. Lines 2,554 70.70 678 6.76 

L. E. & West 725 57.76 389 12.0 

Chic. & N. W 5.077 65.31 659 12.8 

C., B. & Q 7,419 64.84 591 14.7 

C, M. & St. P 6,154 62.55 582 14.5 

C, R. I. & P 3,619 66.17 642 15.9 

111. Cen 3,679 69.58 653 10.8 

Iowa Cen 513 70.53 

M., Kan. & Tex 2,200 67.00 

Int. & Gt. Nor 825 71.04 562 18-0 

A., T. & S. F 7,108 71.61 750 19.6 

Nor. Pacific 4,635 47.40 546 24.4 

Gt. Nor 4,787 48.62 

Can. Pacific 6,681 59.92 344 13.0 

English Railways. 

Gt. East 1,044 59.79 680 6.4 

Gt. West 2,599 62.21 735 8.2 

Lan. & York 558 56.73 720 4.2 

L. & N. W 1,908 58.40 695 5.4 

Midland 1,480 58.90 980 5.0 

* Pennsylvania and New Jersey Divisions only. 





Maintenance 


of way 


of way.—,. 


, and structures. — 


Per cent. 




Per 


Per ct. 


of 




train- 


of 


op. exp., 


Per 


mile, 


op. exp, 


per ct. 


mile. 


cts. 


perct. 


17.4 


$861 


21.8 


21.6 


11.5 


2,056 


17.7 


17.7 


14.4 


2,427 


25.5 


19.4 


12.0 


1,963 


15.8 


16.0 


8.8 


1,358 


13.1 


12.2 


11.2 


1,632 


18.3 


16.5 


13.0 


1,190 




19.4 




3,264 




18.0 


6.50 


1,961 


19.0 


19.0 


14.0 


475 


15.0 


17.0 


14.15 


932 


18.0 


20.0 


16.5 


852 


21.13 


23.S 


15.0 


829 


20.07 


21.3 


18.2 


898 


22.3 


25.4 


13.2 


1,164 


19.0 


23.5 




93S 


26.0 


32.0 




601 


15.6 


15.6 


16.0 


849 


28.0 


24.0 


19.3 


1,079 


28.0 


2S.0 


21.7 


765 


34.2 


2S.7 




727 


34.2 


28.6 


14.7 


490 


IS. 5 


21.0 


9.6 


965 


9.0 


13.6 


12.0 


1,355 


15.4 


22.4 


6.0 


2,350 


14.0 


18.8 


7.0 


1,510 


11.8 


15.0 


9.0 


1,660 


9.4 


15.0 



INTRODUCTION. 7 

eral railways the relation of the maintenance of way expenses to the mile- 
age, train mileage and operating expenses. In many statistics of this kind 
the figures are simply given for "maintenance of way and structures," but 
the expenditures on structures vary within very wide limits, according 
to the character and number of structures, and these combined expenses 
cannot be reduced to any common or uniform basis for comparison. 
Under such conditions, the combined expenditure gives but little idea as 
to the comparative expenses for maintenance of way on different roads. 
For this table, therefore, the author has taken the expenditures for main- 
tenance of way proper (including general work on roadway, rail and tie 
renewals, and ballasting) and shown their relation to the operating ex- 
penses and train mileage. In a few cases this cannot be done, the railways 
stating that they are unable to separate the expenditures on maintenance 
of way proper. Most of the figures are for the fiscal year ending in 1899, 
but some are for the year 1898. Most of them also include taxes in the 
operating expenses. 

From the columns showing the cost of maintenance of way it will be 
seen that the expenses range from $546 to $1,463 per mile of road; from 
6.76 to 24.4 cts. per revenue train mile, and from 6.50% to 21.7% of the 
operating expenses. The columns giving the cost of maintenance of way 
and structures show that these expenses range from $490 to $3,264 per 
mile of road, and from 15.6% to 32% of the operating expenses. 

At the end of the table are given similar figures for five leading English 
railways, and these make an interesting comparison with the figures for 
American railways. The maintenance of way expenses of the former ap- 
proximate to a low average of those of the latter when taken per mile of 
road, but are materially lower per train mile and form a considerably 
smaller percentage of the operating expenses. From this it will be seen 
that the English railways, with their almost universally substantial track 
construction, are operated more economically in regard to this branch 
of the expenditures. If, however, the varying character of track on the 
American roads could be classified, it would probably be seen that the 
maintenance of way expenses on first-class American track are about as 
low as, if not even lower than, those of the English roads. When we come 
to "maintenance of way and structures," the expenses per mile and the 
percentage of these expenses to the total operating expenses come closer 
to the results obtained on American roads, although the expenses . per 
train mile are much lower. As to the percentage of operating expenses 
to gross earnings, there is not such a marked difference as is usually sup- 
posed. In fact, English railway men would probably be somewhat sur- 
prised to find that the percentage on representative American railways 
averages but little higher than that on English railways, instead of repre- 
senting a great proportion of the earnings. 

Throughout this book there are given numerous rules and instructions 
as to methods of work, but it must be distinctly understood that rules can- 
not be made universally applicable and should not therefore be followed 
blindly. Owing to varying conditions of track, traffic, topography, labor, 
etc., a method which may* be the best practice in one case may be entirely 
unsuitable in another. Therefore every man must exercise his own judg- 
ment. He should not adopt a method simply because he finds it has been 



8 TRACK. 

used; nor should he assume that a method is wrong simply because it 
could not be applied to advantage on his own road or division. Engineers 
and roadmasters should comprehend the principles underlying their work, 
should be familiar with the general rules of practice outside their own 
particular sphere, and should take into consideration the actual conditions 
under which their work is to be done. Upon this basis they should devise 
or adopt such methods or materials as will give the best and most eco- 
nomical results under these governing conditions. It will be seen, there- 
fore, that there is ample scope for a man to exert his skill and his execu- 
tive ability in the conduct of the maintenance of way department. 

In concluding this introductory chapter, the author gives the following 
summarized statistics for the railways of the United States, compiled 
from the report of the Interstate Commerce Commission for the year end- 
ing June 30, 1899: 

AMERICAN RAILWAY STATISTICS. 1899. 
Mileage. 

Single track 189,295 miles. 

Second track 11,547 

Third track 1,047 " 

Fourth track 790 ** 

Yard tracks and sidings 49,686 " 



Total mileage operated 252,365 miles. 

Employees. 



-Number- 



Per 100 miles. Total. 

General administration 18 34.170 

Maintenance of way and structures 153 287.163 

Maintenance of equipment 96 180,749 

Conducting transportation 223 417 ,54J8 

Unclassified 5 9,334 



Total 495 928,924 

General officers, clerks, etc 21 38,497 

Station agents and men, operators and dispatchers 74 138,641 

Enginemen, firemen and trainmen .... 95 178,851 

Shopmen • 94 176,815 

Trackmen: 

Section foremen 17 31,690 

Section men 107 201,708 

Switchmen, flagmen and watchmen „ 26 48,686 

150 282,084 

Miscellaneous 61 114,036 

Total (495 men per 100 miles) 928,924 

Financial. 

Total capital (stock and bonds) $11,033,954,898 

Total capital per mile of line 60,55$ 

Traffic. 

Passengers carried 523,176,508 Passenger train mileage... 354,416,916 

Passengers carried 1 mile. . 14,591,327,613 Freight train mileage 507,841.798 

Freight carried, tons 959,763,583 Total train mileage 862,258,714- 

Freight carried 1 mile 123,667,257,153 

Earnings and Expenses. 

Per mile of line. Total. 

Gross earnings from operation $7,005 $1,313,610,118 

Operating expenses 4,570 856,968,999 

Net income 875 164,154,813 

Percentage of operating expenses to gross income... ... 05. 24% 

Rev. per pass, per mile 1.925 cts. Rev. per pass, train-mile 101.015 cts.. 

Rev. per ton per mile 0.724 " Rev per freight train-mile. . .179 035 " 

Revenue per train-mile, all trains 150.436 " 

Average cost of running a train 1 mile 98.390 " 



INTRODUCTION. 



Total Expenditures for Operation. 

, Per cent, of 

Op. exp. Total exp. 

Maintenance of way and structures 21. U5 14.07 

Maintenance of equipment 17. b2 12.27 

Conducting transportation 56.73 39.53 

General expenses 4.51 3.15 

Unclassified 0.09 0.07 

Total operating expenses 100.00 69.69 

Fixed charges 30.31 

Total expenditures ■ 100.00 

Expenditures for Maintenance of Way and Structures. 

, Per cent, of 

Total 

Op. exp. maint. exp. 

Repairs of roadway 10.720 51.35 

Rail renewals 1.322 6.32 

Tie renewals 2.901 13.88 

Repairs and renewals of: 

Bridges and culverts 2.374 11.57 

Fences, road crossings, signs & cattleguards 0.487 2.33 

Buildings and fixtures 2.181 10.44 

Docks and wharves 0.254 1.20 

Telegraph 0.142 0.66 

Stationery and printing 0.026 0.12 

Other expenses 0.446 2.13 

Total 20.853 100.00 



Total. 
$180,410,806 
15u,919,249 

486,159,007 

38,676,883 

802,454 

$850,968,999 
372,792,458 

$1,229,761,457 



Total. 
$87,307,140 
10,767,381 
23,623,325 

19,335,860 
3,968,408 

17,762,120 

2,070,098 

1,153,408 

208,775 

3,628,539 

$169,825,054 



CHAPTER 2— ROADBED CONSTRUCTION. 



The general work of railway construction does not come within the 
scope of this book. It is assumed that the cuts and embankments have 
been completed to the level of the subgrade, and also that the bridges, cul- 
verts, tunnels and other works have been built. With the construction so 
far completed, the roadbed will conform to the required grades as laid down 
on the official profiles. 

The width of roadbed (by which is meant the surface at subgrade) is 
from 26 to 32 ft. for double track and 14 to 18 ft. for single track on em- 
bankments; while in cuts it is from 28 to 33 ft. for double track and 18 to 
22 ft. for single track. The width in cuts is exclusive of the ditches. The 
minimum widths should be 18 ft. in rock cuts, 20 ft. in earth cuts and 16 ft. 
on embankments. The surface at subgrade is almost invariably crowned 
at the middle so as to drain off water to the sides, and the roadbed may 
be formed in different ways to carry off the water reaching it through the 
ballast: (1) It may have one or more planes from each side to the center; 
(2) it may have a curved surface, or (3) it may have a fiat center portion, 
with planes on each side extending to the ditch. In regions of ordinary 
rainfall the best plan is to give a slope, as it will throw off water better 
than a flat curve. The height of the crowning varies in different materials 
and districts, ranging from 3 to 8 ins. for single track, and from 4 to 10 
ins. for double track. In a few cases a ditch is cut in the center of a 
double track roadbed, and in other cases the roadbed is inclined on curves 
to give the proper superelevation to the track, but this practice is very 
rare. The more solid and compact the surface of the roadbed is made be- 
fore the ballast is applied, the better will be the drainage, and the more 
substantial will be the track itself. For this reason, the use of horse or 



10 TRACK. 

steam rollers in consolidating the roadbed would in many cases have a 
material influence in reducing maintenance expenses, especially for such 
work as surfacing and reballasting. 

The drainage of the track is effected by the ballast and the crowning of 
the subgrade, together with side ditches in cuts to carry away the water 
from the ballast, roadbed and slopes. The drainage is one of the most 
important items in maintaining a good track economically, its importance 
increasing also in relation to the extent of the rainfall. Climatic condi- 
tions are, of course, to be carefully considered in designing the form of 
cross-section of roadbed and ditch. In dry regions with light soil, a steep 
slope and heavy ditching are not required, and under such conditions the 
slope of the roadbed is sometimes continued unbroken to the toe of the 
slope in cuts. With earth or other poor ballast in country with ordinary 
rainfall, it is better to have a ditch reaching well below the subgrade, so 
as to effectually drain the roadbed. Where the rainfall is only moderate 
the ditches should, nevertheless, be of ample capacity to carry off the 
storm water in occasional heavy rains. The ditches should be parallel with 
the track, and not made to wind around obstructing stumps or boulders. 
They must be graded to pass all water freely and to thoroughly drain the 
roadbed, so as to keep both roadbed and ballast dry and firm. The width 
should increase towards the ends, and if the standard width does not give 
sufficient capacity, the ditch should be widened on the outer side. The 
distance from the rail to the ditch varies according to the nature of the 
soil and the standard cross-section of roadbed. In ordinary material this 
distance is usually about 5 ft. 6 ins. to 7 ft., and the bottom of the ditch 
is 12 to 24 ins. wide and 6 to 12 ins. below the center of the roadbed. 

In wet cuts the ditches may be lined with fine concrete, or in narrow 
wet cuts (especially where the earth slides or bulges) they may be lined 
with plank or old ties, with struts across the top. Subdrains of tile, brush, 
or wooden boxes may be laid as required, as noted in the chapter on 
"Drainage and Ditching." Where it is necessary to carry water from the 
•ditch on one side of the track to the ditch on the other side, or from a 
center ditch to the side ditches (as on double track), wooden box drains 
are laid in the ballast. These box drains are usually about 10 x 12 ins. 
or 12 x 12 ins. inside, 12 to 16 ft. long, with the ends cut to conform to 
the slope of the ballast. They are made of 2-in. plank, and have four or six 
flat strips, 2 x 6 x 16 ins., across the top. On the New York Central Ry., 
with double track in gravel ballast, these box drains are 6x6 ins., made 
of 2-in. plank, creosoted or treated with three coats of woodiline or other 
preservative. They are placed 400 to 500 ft. apart on tangents and 300 to 
400 ft. apart on curves. They must be placed deep enough to permit tamp- 
ing, and have an inclination of 1 in. per ft, or more, each way from the 
center' line of the roadbed. The ditches may be carried under road cross- 
ings by cast-iron pipe, clay pipe or wooden' box drains. The iron pipe is 
preferable. Wood soon rots and lets dirt fall in to clog the drain, and 
clay pipe is liable to be broken, as there is generally very little cover over 
it. The size of the pipe varies according to the amount of water to be 
carried, but is generally 6 to 10 ins.; while the box drains are about 8 x 10 
ins., having plank sides and bottom, and a top of cross strips nailed close 



ROADBED CONSTRUCTION. 



11 



together. Where the roadbed is wet and muddy in spots, the mud should 
he dug out and replaced with a filling of cinders or clean gravel. 

New York Central Ry. (Fig. 1).— The double track roadbed is 26 ft. 8% 
ins. wide, with a rise of 4 ins. The stone ballast consists of a 6-in. course, 
25 ft. wide, of rough quarry spawls 4 to 6 ins. in size, closely laid, like the 




^i^—5'o"--^i"^^3yi-^--- •-; 15V"-- *?3ty&Z&\ 

Grave! Ballast. 

> -lE'O'--;-^--^ ,.„ ,, '. 

U-- -150 A- ^--37l><-?4^?4k^---5'0'----^f------7li --->j 

Crushed Rock , , [ k-4'0'--^ \ 

Sod-J" Dlc 

''■Course or nougn yuarry opawis,^- too uiam. 

Stone Ballast. 

Fig. 1.— New York Central & Hudson River Ry. 




foundation of a telford road. On this is a 12-in. course of 2-in. broken 
stone, filled in to the tops of the ties. A strip of sod is laid along the edge 
of the roadbed, as shown. 

Pennsylvania Ry. (Fig. 2).— The width of roadbed is 19 ft. 2 ins. for 
single track, 31 ft. 4 ins. for double track, 43 ft. 6 ins. for three, and 55 ft. 8 
ins. for four tracks. It has a slope of 1 in 48 from the center to the edge of 
the ballast, and then a berme 3 ft. 6 ins. wide, with a slope of 1 in 6 to the 



* 3'8j" ■■»■ ~ til" 

'.DM Li^^fe^ ' — 12' 2" ■ 

5»^— I" ■ I5'8* 

brave) 'Ballast 

Fig. 2.— Pennsylvania Ry. 




edge of the ditch or bank. The ballast is 8 ins. deep under the ties and for 
single track the width is 12 ft. 2 ins. wide over the toe. Gravel ballast is 
sloped off in a curve from the inside of the rail, while stone ballast is curved 
down from the top of the end of the tie, although the more general practice 
is to shoulder stone ballast out beyond the ties. Between the tracks gravel 
ballast is sloped down, while stone ballast is carried across level with the 
ties. In soft places, cinder ballast is used until the roadbed has settled and 
become consolidated. -The standard section, shown in Fig. 2, has a well 
formed ditch, but no ditch is used on single track with light traffic. The 
quantity of ballast required per mile is as follows: 



One. Two. 

Stone, cu. yds 2,315 5,300 

Gravel, cu. yds 1,900 4,075 



-Tracks.- 



Three. 
8,500 
6,950 



Four. 
12,260 
10,185 



12 



TRACK. 



New York, New Haven & Hartford Ry. (Fig. 3). — This road has a very- 
flat roadbed, with no deep side ditches. The width is 30 ft. for double track 
and 54 ft. for four tracks, the latter being crowned only 3 ins. at the middle. 
Stone ballast is carried across level with the ties, shouldered out 12 ins. 
beyond their ends, and then finished with a slope of 1 to 1. Gravel ballast is 



>K/^'-5K-C^'->! 




Stone Ballast. 
Fig. 3. — New York, New Haven & Hartford Ry. 



level with the top of the ties for 18 ins. at the middle, and then slopes to 2 
ins. below the top of the tie at the ends, as shown. Box drains are placed 
at intervals to carry the water from the middle drain to the side ditches. 
At the middle of the four-track roadbed the ballast is 11 ins. thick, 4 ins. 
below the tops of the ties. 

Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Ry. (Fig. 4). — The width of roadbed 
is 32 ft. for double track, and in cuts the width between slopes is 47 ft. 6 ins. 
at the level of the subgrade. The gravel ballast is sloped down on each 
side, forming a drain between the tracks, while in cuts the gravel is spread 



K— -j£g— *f- 



2 (&"-->! 








Half Cut. 



70 *;26~*- 130 \% 

_ v _ tJ>- I v :*■■» 




Fig. 4.— Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Ry 



on the 18-in. berme at the edge of the ditch. The depth of ballast under the 
ties is 12 ins. in cuts and 6 ins. on banks, and the quantity of gravel required 
per mile is as follows: 

'Single track. Double track. 

In cuts, cu. yds _. . 3,749 0,917 



On banks, cu. yds. 



2.1G3 



Baltimore & Ohio Ry. (Fig. 5). — The width of roadbed for single track is 
19 ft. iy 2 ins. in cuts and 17 ft. ly 2 ins. on banks, while for double track the 
widths are 31 ft. 1% ins. and 29 ft. 1% ins., respectively. The standard sec- 
tion shows no regular ditch. Stone ballast is shouldered out 3 ins. beyond 
the ends of the ties, and sloped down between the tracks, while gravel 



ROADBED CONSTRUCTION. 



13 



ballast is rounded off from inside the rail, touching the bottom of the tie. 
Cinder ballast (for side tracks) is shaped the same as broken stone. The 
depth of ballast under the ties is 12 ins., and on curves each track is laid 





"e'o" >i/ k- e'o" m --,,-. e'c" 

> ■\-^rf ]r<: -"*' "' 

c$)Mi' : ' Gravel Ballast--' 

Curve. 



-29'lV- 



i -. ?■_._ 3//^--.- 



\ <J CVI I 

77* 



~M 






5:ds Track. 



Main 
Track. 



«/' 



Jig. 5.— Baltimore & Ohio Ry 



with its rails in a separate plane, with .12 ins. of ballast under the lower 
rail. 

Illinois Central Ry. (Fig. 6). — Where the track is ballasted with earth, 
the material is filled in to a depth of 4 ins. over the ties and then sloped 
down under the rails to the bottom of the ties, with a flatter slope ex- 



H-??--^ 




- — I0V- ->K- lOV 

Cementing Gravel Ballast. 










'Embankment'- 

->k- IOt?'-~ -- 

Stone Ballast similar, but only IS' Beyond Ties, with Berm d'd' 
Coarse Gravel Ballast. 
Fig. 6.— Illinois Central Ry. 

tending thence 6 ft. to the toe of cut or 10 ft. to edge of bank, with a 
drop of 18 and 6 ins., respectively. Ballast of cementing gravel is formed 



14 



TRACK. 



in much the same way, on a roadbed 20 ft. wide, being 13 ins. deep at the 
middle, where it extends 3 ins. above the ties. Ballast of coarse gravel is 
14 ins. deep, level with the tops of the ties and shouldered out 18 ins. 
beyond their ends. Stone ballast is similarly formed, but is shouldered out 



k— - 9'o"-— - 

\ilB-^r-2'0"--'^l'z^f-—3'2' : 




Gravel 



->^/?-^/4 IL >\z-/'7%''^ 




- — •^•/ , 7j->f</4'-H<- ?'7*— ->j 

-4- 



^V, 



Burnt Clay Ballast. 
Fig. 7.— Chicago & Eastern Illinois Ry. 




only 12 ins. It is 10 ft. wide on top, 15 ft. at the bottom and 14 ins. 
deep. A berme or bench 2 ft. 6 ins. wide, with a fall of 1 in., extends from 
the toe of the ballast to the edge of the 20-ft. roadbed. 

Chicago & Eastern Illinois Ry. (Fig. 7). — The width of roadbed for 
double track is 29 ft. 8% ins. in cuts and 31 ft. $y 2 ins. on banks. For 
single track, the width is 16 ft. 8% ins. and 18 ft. %V 2 ins., respectively, 
with a crown of 6 ins. for burnt clay ballast and 8 ins. for gravel. The 
gravel is 12 ins. deep under the tie at the middle, and sloped in a uniform 
curve from the top of the toe at the center to the bottom at the ends, and a 
width of 14 ft. 4 ins. at the toe. There are about 1,800 cu. yds. of ballast 
per mile of single track. The burnt clay is level with the top of the tie 
between the rails, and then slopes to the middle of the tie at the ends, and 
thence to a bottom width of 10 ft. 4 ins. at the toe. 



8t"for8ft:Tie.^ 




Fig. 



-Southern Pacific Ry. 



Southern Pacific Ry. (Fig. 8). — The single track roadbed is 16 ft. wide, in- 
creased to 18 ft. in cuts where rainfall is heavy, and 15 ft. is allowed for ex- 



ROADBED CONSTRUCTION. 



15 



isting high banks. Stone ballast is shouldered out 6 ins. beyond the ties; 
it is 15 ins. deep (below top of tie) at the middle and 18 ins. at the toe, 4 ft. 
2 ins. from the end of 8-ft. ties, beyond which the roadbed slopes 6 to 1 to the 
edge, of the cut. Gravel ballast is shouldered out 6 ins. level with bottom of 
tie and filled in 3 ins. deep over the center of the tie, the depth being 15 
ins. at the middle and 17 ins. at the toe. Earth is filled in 3 ins. over the 



8'0'- 







-->k- 



IJ'O" 



l£-6p°71e 

777777777^^-1 



Ear+h. 



Half Cut 




]3'0'- 1 







Half Bank Half Cut 

Stone and Gravel. Sand and Cinders. 

Fig. 9.— Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. 

ties and sloped to the bottom at the ends and thence to 16 ins. below top of 
tie at toe of cut or 14 ins. at edge of bank. In arid regions the sand is filled 
in level with tops of ties for 6 ins. beyond them and then sloped to 11 ins. 
below top at 42 ins. from end of 8 ft. tie, and 15 ins. at toe of cut or edge of 
bank. The standard cross sections call for rounding off the edges of banks 
to an even curve, 

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. (Fig. 9). — The roadbed is flat for a 
width of 8 ft. and then slopes 1 to 7.6 on banks and 1 to 9 in cuts. The 
width for single track is 26 ft. in earth cuts, 21 ft. 6 ins. in rock cuts, and 
18 ft. on banks^ or 16 ft. 10 ins. on banks of branch lines. The ballast is 
10 ins. deep under the ties. Stone and gravel are level with the tops of 
the ties between the rails, thence sloped to a few inches above the bottom 




Sand 



Gravel. 




12 




Earth 



Fig. 10.— Minneapolis, St. Paul & Sault Ste. Marie Ry. 

at the ends, and thence sloped 1% to 1 to the roadbed, the bottom width 
of ballast being 13 ft. Burnt clay, sand and cinder ballast are shouldered 
out 6 ins. and then sloped 2 to 1 to the roadbed. In filling trestles, the 



16 TRACK. ' v 

banks are made 20 ft. wide at subgrade (or 18 ft. on branch lines) to 
allow for shrinkage. 

Minneapolis, St. Paul & Sault Ste. Marie Ry. (Fig. 10).— The single track 
roadbed is 12 ft. wide, crowned 0.2 ft., and having deep ditches. Gravel 
ballast is filled in 1 in. over the ties, sloped to the middle at the ends and 
then rounded off to a width of 10 ft. at the toe. Sand ballast is 
filled in level with tops of ties, shouldered out 12 ins. and rounded to the 
edge of the ditch. This arrangement is not to be recommended, as the sand 
is likely to flow into the ditch. Earth ballast is filled in 2 ins. over the ties 
and sloped to bottom of tie at ends, and thence to the edge of the roadbed, 3 
ins. below bottom of tie. In places where it was necessary to excavate to a 
depth of 1 to 3 ft. in sandy soil, the roadbed was made 28 ft. wide at 
subgrade, with ditches 8 ft. wide and 2y 2 ft. deep. 

The standard sections adopted in 1899 by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chi- 
cago & St. Louis Ry. provide for a width of roadbed of 20 ft. for single track 
and 33 ft. for double track, with tracks 13 ft. c. to c. Stone and gravel 
ballast are 1 in. below top of tie at the ends and curved down to the road- 
bed at 6 ft. beyond and 25 ins. below base of rail. The ties are 7 
ins. thick, with 12 ins. of ballast under them at the middle. On 
double track, the stone ballast is carried across level with the tops of 
the ties, while gravel ballast is sloped down between the tracks, leaving 
about 3 ins. of ballast at the lowest part. 




S-tvviP Drain. Rrirk Drain 

Fig. 11.— Baltimore Belt Line Tunnel; Baltimore & Ohio Ry. 

The Lehigh Valley Ry., on its double track Buffalo line, has a roadbed 
28 ft. wide in cuts and on banks, with V-shaped ditches 8 ins. deep, 
making the width 32 ft. over the ditches in cuts. The ballast is of stone 
or slag, 2 ft. deep, level with the tops of the ties and rounded out from their 
ends. The appearance of the track may be much improved by trimming 
the toe of the ballast to a line, and laying cinders between the toe and a 
strip of turf on the sod line. 

Curves. — On the curves of most railways having two or more tracks, each 
track is inclined in a separate plane, all the. lower rails *being in the 
same horizontal plane. This plan is shown in the section of the Balti- 
more & Ohio Ry., Fig. 5. It is used on double and four track by the Penn- 
sylvania Ry., but where crossovers occur,' all the rails must be kept 
in the same inclined plane. This latter arrangement is also employed for 
ordinary use on curves on a few roads. 

Tunnels. — The roadbed arrangement will depend upon the style of the 
floor, the amount of water to be dealt with, and the character of the ballast. 
In rock tunnels the floor is generally flat, sometimes with a trench drain 
down the middle, covered by flat stones to keep out the ballast, or else a 



ROADBED CONSTRUCTION. 



17 



pipe drain is laid in the trench, and the ballast is filled in around it. With 
this arrangement the ballast is usually filled in level with the ties for the 
full width of the tunnel, but if there is no drain, the ballast may be sloped 
in the usual way to form side and center ditches. If the tunnel has an 
invert, there is usually an arched or box drain of brick or dry stone 
masonry, built upon the invert and covered by the ballast, although some- 
times a pipe drain is laid in the ballast. The designs for brick and stone 
drains in the Baltimore (Howard St.) tunnel of the Baltimore & Ohio 
Ry. are shown in Fig. 11, while Fig. 12 shows the arrangement of floor, 





2?ec*ion tiircuqh -5 Section behwi 

Fig. 12.— Tunnel; Everett & Monte Cristo Ry. 

ballast and ditches adopted for the tunnels of the Everett & Monte Cristo 
Ry. A French engineer has proposed the formation of benches in the 
invert or floor masonry to carry longitudinal timbers for the rails, thus 
decreasing the height and cost of the tunnel, eliminating the ballast and 
ties, and reducing the work and expense of track maintenance in tunnels. 

For rapid transit underground railways and circular iron-lined tunnels, 
special styles of construction are often used, although the Boston tunnel 
(for electric cars) has the ordinary track, with ties laid in stone ballast 
on a concrete invert with center drain. The New York underground rail- 
way will have the rails carried on a continuous bearing of wooden blocks, 
laid with the grain transverse to the rails, and fitted between channel-iron 
guard rails riveted to steel ties, these ties being embedded in concrete. The 
Central London electric underground railway has single-track circular tun- 
nels, with a floor of concrete so shaped as to form benches or supports for 
two lines of longitudinal oak timbers 5 x 11 ins., with a broad drain be- 
tween, as shown in Fig. 13. At intervals of 7 ft. 6 ins. there are oak 




Fig. 13.— Tunnel of Central London R: 



transoms, 5y 2 x 5 ins., fitted between the longitudinals. The rails are 60 
ft. long, of bridge, section, 7 ins. wide and 3y 2 ins. high, weighing 100 lbs. 
per yd. They are secured to the longitudinals by fang bolts 2 ft. 8 ins. 
apart, alternating on either side of the rail base. These bolts have square 
heads and are screwed down through heavy triangular nuts placed under 
the timbers, the nuts having points or fangs which bite into the wood, 



18 TRACK. • — - . n- - - 

and so prevent them from turning. The rails are laid with square joints, 
with a ribbed base plate, y 2 x 7 x 20 ins., under the joint, the rib fitting the 
hollow of the rail. The end of each rail is held by four fang bolts, and 
has also two %-in. holes for the rail bonds. Pig. 14 shows the unballasted 
floor construction of the St. Clair circular, iron-lined tunnel of the Grand 
Trunk Ry., in which the concrete floor is shaped to form a central drain 
with, bearings for longitudinal timbers supporting the ties. A simpler 
construction is to lay the rails directly upon the longitudinals, as is done 
in many English tunnels. Wood or fibre-felt shims or plates will aid in 
reducing the noise. This construction, without ballast, is recommended 
in order- to reduce corrosion of the fails and attachments, and to facili- 
tate the work of repairs and renewals. 

Bridges and Viaducts. — The roadway construction of steel bridges is 
discussed in the chapter on Bridge Floors. Masonry structures usually 
have the floor shaped to form drainage planes and ditches or gutters. 
The drains are either carried along the structure or lead to weeper holes 
or pipes forming outlets at the haunches of the arches, either at the 
spandrel walls or in the intrados of the arch. 

Stations. — At large stations and terminals the ordinary form of con- 
struction is usually adopted, although special designs are occasionally 
used, as noted under the heading of "Longitudinals" in the chapter on 



• .Brick ana 'Cement 

1 A;^W-f 8 ^ 



Fig. 14.— St. Clair Tunnel; Grand Trunk Ry. 

Ties and Tie Plates. At small stations, a filling of gravel or cinders is 
often used to form a level surface between the rails and tracks, coming 
up to the underside of rail head on the inside. Plank crosswalks may be 
provided to afford easy passage across the tracks. In some, cases planks 
are laid along the rails, as at road crossings, to maintain the flangeway. 
The most general practice, probably, is to simply level off the ballast 
even with the tops of the ties to the edge of the station platform. The New 
York Central Ry. places on each side of each rail a plank 3x8 ins., with 
fillers on the ties of such thickness as to bring the planks nearly flush 
with the top of the rails. The outer planks are laid against the rail head. 
The inner ones are rabbeted on' the edge with a square groove 1% ins. 
deep and 2*4 ins. wide, to form a flangeway. Between all the planks is a 
filling of cinders or coarse stone, covered with a 3-in. course of %-in. 
stone, and finished with a %-in. top course of screenings wetted and 
rolled hard. This has a gentle slope from the station to the rail, and is 
level between the tracks and ties (See Station Platforms). 

Yards. — There should be an ample depth of good ballast throughout the 
yards, with drains or water boxes leading to main drains, and these drains 
should be kept clean and open, and should be put in order just before 
winter. A wet, muddy yard is a source of inconvenience and discomfort 
to the yardmen, and is an evidence of neglect of proper maintenance. 



ROADBED CONSTRUCTION. 19 



Concrete Substructure. 



The idea is gaining foothold that eventually some more permanent 
character of track construction will have to be adopted in order to obtain 
greater durability and economy in maintenance than can be obtained with 
the present universal system of carrying the rails on wooden ties in loose 
ballast. To carry the rail and to distribute the load upon it over a large 
area of the roadbed, there are 15 to 18 separate supports in the form of 
cross ties, and a large proportion of the work of maintenance is that in- 
volved in the continual tamping of these supports in order to maintain a 
firm and uniform bearing for the rails. The ballast is at best an unstable 
foundation, and the effect of the weather and of the vibration due to 
traffic is to cause it to continually shift and settle, so that surfacing and 
raising are as continually required to keep the track in condition. Raising 
one tie disturbs its relations to those on each side, and every time a tie is 
renewed it disturbs the track for a certain distance on each side. For this 
reason better track can be obtained by renewing all the ties at once for 
a certain length of track, instead of making a few renewals in each rail 
length. This mutual disturbance of the ties and ballast is recognized as 
being one of the great and expensive difficulties in maintaining good track, 
and tie renewals alone represented 3% of the entire cost of railway opera- 
tion in 1898. This system of construction has well served its purpose, and 
is admirable in its adaptability to roads having a wide range of traffic, while 
its first cost is decidedly low. The maintenance expenses which -it in- 
volves, however, make some other system desirable to suit the present 
conditions of low interest charges and small margins of profit in railway 
affairs. An important question for consideration is whether some other 
system is available by which a sufficient saving can be made in annual 
operating expenses to pay the interest on the cost of making the change, 
with a fair profit besides. 

The conditions above noted, accentuated by the great increase in wheel 
loads and train loads, have led to designs for a more permanent and (at 
first) more expensive style of track construction for lines of heavy traffic, 
though none have yet been actually tried. Most of these designs are 
based upon the use of concrete, or a combination of steel and concrete, 
as a substitute for ballast and ties, and three of these may be briefly 
referred to here. The first of these designs (Pig. 15) provides for concrete 
longitudinals, about 10 and 26 ins. wide on top and bottom, and 15 ins. 
deep, made in 10-ft. lengths and connected by dowels. These would be 
laid on a bed of sand on a well-rolled and consolidated roadbed, or on 
beds of broken stone laid in trenches where the roadbed is soft. Earth 
would be filled between and outside of the longitudinals, and either 
sprinkled with oil or covered with an asphalt composition to prevent water 
from getting through to the roadbed in any quantity. The rails would 
be held by some form of clamp and nut on bolts embedded in the concrete, 
with extra bolts at the joints, while tie bars would provide for adjustment 
of gage. The cost is estimated at about $5,000 per mile, exclusive of rails, 
with an additional sum of $1,000 per mile for tracklaying. The second de- 
sign, Fig. 16, is for a foundation course of boulders (which are shown much 
too small in the drawing) covered with a 6-in. course of concrete made with 



20 



TRACK 




- y- u'? ■&' %&£&£& 



S 3 (U 

^ < fif 

teg 

g* « o 

9 -? M- 




fc-^-^-^-vJ/- 



M 









I 



55 






HI "I 



S__ 



ROADBED CONSTRUCTION. 



21 



broken stone. On this again is a floor of gravel concrete, forming benches 
for the rails and filled in between the rails to cover the 1-in. tie-rods which 
form the rail fastenings. This style of fastening, however, certainly seems 
to be very inefficient and expensive. The cost is estimated at $6,000 per 
mile of single track, including laying, though the bed of boulders might 
probably be as well omitted. The third system, based on German ideas 
and an extremely massive construction, provides for 180-lb. rails on chairs 
composed of steel castings or pairs of Z-bars riveted at intervals of 2 ft. 
across longitudinals composed of special angles 8x6 ins., with ribs on the 
edges. Each longitudinal is composed of two of these angles, with the 6- 
in. legs vertical and 4 ins. apart, forming a top width of 20 ins. The rails 
are secured by clamps with ordinary or tap bolts, and angle tie bars serve 
to maintain the gage. The longitudinals are bedded in stone ballast, the 
designer considering that concrete is liable to disintegrate under vibration, 
while it dees not admit of raising or surfacing the track. The cost of 
this construction, as shown in Fig. 17, including laying but exclusive of 
rails, is estimated at about $10,000 per mile. 

In this connection reference may be made to the extensive and satisfac- 
tory use of heavy steel rails laid directly upon concrete longitudinals or 
floors in street railway track construction. The unsuccessful experiments 
made in the early days of railways with rails fastened direct to the solid 
rock floor of a cut are very often put forward as an argument to show the 



Jap Bolts 




Section through Ra'\\ 

Fis. 



Section through Joint. 



-Track with Steel Longitudinals. 



necessity of providing elasticity in the track. This idea, however, has 
long ago been exploded. The more rigid the track, the better and easier 
the trains will ride, provided that it is rigid as a whole, with no indepen- 
dent movement or play between its parts. If the old rails could have been 
attached absolutely rigidly to the rock the results would have been differ- 
ent, but with light rails and primitive fastenings the rail was loose and 
was battered between the wheels and the rock foundation. It cannot safely 
be assumed that a continuous bearing will allow of lighter rails being used 
than with the cross-tie system. Unless the rail is stiff enough in itself, its 
tendency to deflect will impose severe strains upon the fastenings. The 
questions involved were discussed' at some length in Engineering News, 
Jan. 5 and March 23, 1899, and the Railroad Gazette, 1899. One important 
objection which is urged against the concrete system is that banks, wet 
cuts, etc., settle almost continuously, but without uniformity, and the cross- 
tie system enables any part of the track construction to be repaired without 
interfering with traffic. 



22 TRACK. 



CHAPTER 3.— BALLAST. ' 

Returning now to the existing system of track construction, the ballast 
is a most important item in securing a good track, with economy in main- 
tenance and operation. Its purposes are (1) to distribute the load over the 
roadbed, (2) to form a support for the ties, (3) to provide efficient drainage 
under and around the ties, and (4) to allow of surfacing and raising track 
without disturbing the roadbed. It should not be laid until the roadbed is 
finally completed to grade and should not be used for raising banks to 
grade. The quantity of ballast should be liberal, with a depth of at least 12 
ins. under the ties for track with heavy traffic, and the depth should be 
kept as uniform as possible. Where an old roadbed has been frequently 
reballasted, the ballast will be found to extend to a considerable depth, 
gradually becoming poorer from being worked into the soil, but this 
makes a good foundation for the ballast proper. The material should be 
carefully selected, as it may have a decided effect on locomotive and car 
maintenance, as well as on the traffic. A dusty ballast will cause greatly 
increased wear of the journals and motion, and on roads with extensive pas- 
senger traffic it is as important to avoid dust and dirt by the use of clean 
ballast, as it is to avoid smoke and cinders by the use of hard coal or coke 
for fuel for the locomotives. This fact is one of the principal reasons for 
the adoption within the past year or two of a system of sprinkling dusty 
ballast with oil, to prevent the clouds of dust commonly raised by the 
trains, as noted further on. 

The best ballast is that which will best form a durable support to the 
ties, retain its solidity and position under the disturbing effects of weather 
and traffc, give good drainage, be free from dust, and make an easy riding 
track. Where water is retained under and around the ties, the ballast will 
soon deteriorate and be churned up, and bad track will result. The ends 
of the ties should be left entirely free (except in easy draining ballast, such 
as slag or broken stone), in order to allow water to escape quickly from 
under them, as in soft or earthy material the ties will churn the wet ballast 
into mud unless the ends are kept free. Gravel ballast, however, and es- 
pecially where the gravel is coarse and clean, is sometimes filled a little 
above the bottom at the ends of the ties. In many cases, an expensive bal- 
last hauled from a distance will in the end be more economical than cheaper 
and inferior material nearer at hand. This applies specially to roads with 
heavy traffic. 

The materials most generally used are broken stone, furnace slag, burnt 
clay, gravel, sand, cinders and earth. Shells, chert, etc., are also used local- 
ly. Stone and slag will drain readily, but gravel, burnt clay, earth, etc., 
will retain water more or less (according to quality), and are liable to heave 
after frosty weather. The form of cross section given to the bed of ballast 
varies with the material, the climate, and the ideas of the engineers, but 
several forms have been shown in Figs. 1 to 10. The ties should not be cov- 
ered with ballast as a rule, as it prevents inspection, and leads to rotting by 
keeping the ties damp, but in hot dry regions it may be permissible in order 



BALLAST. 23 

to protect the ties from the sun. The standard depth of ballast under the 
ties rarely exceeds 12 ins., but there are many cases where it would be wise 
and economical to raise the track and give a greater depth of a better qual- 
ity of ballast. 

Brokon Stone.— This is in general the best material for ballast as it meets 
al! the requirements above noted, and can be worked in wet or dry, cold 
or hot weather alike. The best stone is hard and tough, which will not 
crush into dust, and which breaks into cube shaped pieces instead of thin 
flat pieces. Granite, trap and limestone are most used. The stone should 
be broken to a uniform size, and in general this has varied on different 
roads from 2 to 3 ins., but the present tendency is to use smaller stone. 
Stone broken to a %-in. size and screened has been used with good results; 
it is less noisy, wears the ties less, can be tamped more easily, and gives a 
better surface with less labor. Very coarse stone leaves too many voids, 
reducing the stability and increasing the difficulty of getting the track in 
good surface. In fact, it has sometimes been found desirable to apply a 
top dressing of screenings upon such ballast, making a close and dense 
mass which affords excellent support and is yet practically free from dirt. 
On the New York Central Ry., a bottom course of large rough stones is laid 
for a foundation (as in telford paving) and covered with the regular ballast 
of 2-in. stone. In general, the stone is bought from contractors, but many 
roads have their own crushing plants. The crusher should be placed above 
the track, and (if possible) below the quarry, so that the rock can be run 
direct to the hopper and the ballast delivered to the cars by chutes. Other- 
wise, elevators or conveyors will be required. For repair work, a rock 
crusher mounted on a flat car may be used, being hauled from place to place 
as required. In some cases the stone is broken by hand on the track, which 
is raised to surface by stones or blocking. 

In cross section, the ballast is usually level with the tops of the ties, and 
extended or shouldered out beyond their ends, as the material drains readily 
and will not hold water under the ties, while the shoulder helps to hold 
the track in line. In some cases the ballast is rounded off from the ends of 
the ties, as in Fig. 2. It is better, and looks neater, to shoulder it out, es- 
pecially with coarse stone, with which there is more tendency to lateral 
motion of the ties on curves. The slopes are sometimes hand faced for ap- 
pearance, and the toe is very generally lined up, using a board against 
which a row of stones is laid by hand. On double track, the ballast is gen- 
erally continued level across the whole width, with sometimes a row of 
large stones between the tracks to form a drain, these being covered with 
the regular ballast. Rarely it is sloped to form a center drain. Large 
stones may be laid between the tracks and behind the bank sills of trestles, 
etc., but must never be placed directly under the ties. Stone ballast should 
be handled with forks instead of shovels, so as to avoid putting dirt into the 
track, which will hinder drainage and afford a chance for weeds to grow. 
Old dirty stone ballast may often be made almost as good as new by digging 
it out and screening it. Near large cities this will often produce an almost 
incredible quantity of fine dirt, the accumulation of city dust and soot. 
From a maintenance point of view it may be noted that stone ballast on a 
poor road may involve greater expense for renewal (perhaps at a time when 
little money is available) than would be required for gravel. While the 



24 TRACK. 

first cost of stone ballast is considerably greater than that of sand, and the 
cost of maintenance is sometimes more, yet there is less liability of wash- 
outs, weeds do not grow, there is no dust, and the track holds its line and 
surface better. 

Slag. — Furnace slag or cinder is extensively used on roads in the vicinity 
of blast furnaces and iron works. It is of varying quality, but the best is 
about as durable as broken stone and in other ways almost as good. Ob- 
jections on the ground of causing corrosion of the rails are not sustained 
by experience. Coarse, spongy slag is apt to pulverize and deteriorate, 
both in tamping and under the effects of traffic, but the most satisfactory 
results are obtained from the finer glassy and hard slag. In fact, the Nor- 
folk & Western Ry. uses this quality of slag in preference to stone. On the 
Chesapeake & Ohio Ry. it has been found to be satisfactory and economical, 
the depth being about 12 ins. below the ties. The bulk of this ballast is as 
small as ordinary gravel, obtained by pouring the slag down an incline of 
30 to 40 ft., when it spreads out in thin layers and cools very rapidly. This 
gives it the appearance of broken china, instead of the porous sponge-like 
appearance of the large lumps of slag handled in the usual way. It is 
handled by steam shovels. Mr. Mordecai, Assistant Chief Engineer of the 
Erie Ry., states that furnace companies are generally glad to supply the 
material free on cars at the furnaces in order to get rid of it. It does not 
require much labor to break it up (from the large lumps) and the cost of 
putting it under the ties is about the same as with gravel or perhaps a little 
less. It should be handled by forks, to keep it free from dust and dirt. It 
should be at least 10 ins. deep under the ties. 'The tamping is done the 
same way as with stone, though Mr. Mordecai thinks that slag requires a 
little more tamping at the middle of the tie to keep the track in good con- 
dition for easy riding. It gives excellent results, keeps the track fn good 
line and surface, and does not heave as much as gravel. 

It was formerly broken to a 2-in. or 2%-in. size, but this has been found 
too large, and as now used it is either broken fine in a crusher, or dis- 
charged into water and so disintegrated as to be about the size of coarse 
sand. By either of these methods, however, the cost is about 30 cts. per cu. 
yd. On the Lehigh Valley Ry. the average size is from iy 2 to 2y 2 or 3 ins., 
but stone is now being used in preference. The cross-section is usually 
formed similar to that for broken stone, and one advantage is that owing to 
the sharpness of its edges it checks people from walking on the track. It 
is extensively used in England, where it is run from the furnace onto a con- 
veyor and suddenly cooled by water, which hardens it and breaks it up at 
the same time. In view of its low cost and its excellence as ballast, it 
might well be adopted by many roads now using inferior and dusty gravel 
on their main tracks. "Where the traffic is heavy, the improved condition 
of track and the reduced cost of maintenance would probably warrant the 
expense for transportation of slag ballast from the furnaces. 

Burnt Clay. — This has been used in'England and other foreign countries 
for many years, and its use is extending in this country, mainly in the 
West. The most suitable material is brick clay, but almost any clay that 
has not too much sand may be used, as well as "gumbo" or clayey earth. 
The site for burning is cleared of top soil, and a row of cordwood, old ties, 
etc., about 3 ft. high, is laid the length of the kiln, 500 to 4,000 ft. This is 



BALLAST. 25 

covered with a few inches of slack coal, or slack and lump mixed, upon 
which is thrown a layer of clay 9 to 12 ins. thick. The wood is then lighted 
at intervals, the openings being closed when the fire is started. As the 
burning proceeds, another layer of coal is placed and another layer of 6 to 
9 ins. of clay, and these layers are repeated from time to time until the 
finished heap is about 20 ft. wide and 10 ft. high. One ton of slack coal 
will burn 3 to 5 cu. yds. of clay, and the material swells in burning, so that 
a cubic yard of clay will make nearly two cubic yards of ballast. The cost 
varies from 35 to 85 cts. per cu. yd., loaded on the cars. About 1,000 cu. 
yds. per day can be burned in a kiln 4,000 ft. long, about 50 men being em- 
ployed. Unless the material is thoroughly burned it is liable to disintegrate 
and turn to dust and mud. The work is very generally done by contract, 
the company furnishing the land, sidetrack and coal. Partial estimates are 
given on kiln measurements, and the final estimate is made from car meas- 
urements when loaded out, so that worthless material is not paid for. The 
ballast is light (40 to 50 lbs. per cu. ft.) and must be used in liberal quan- 
tities to give good results and hold the track in line. The cross section is 
formed very similar to that for stone ballast, with the material well shoul- 
dered out and at least 12 ins. deep under the ties. This ballast is easily 
handled, drains well, does not heave, is free from weeds, is not dusty, and is 
in general satisfactory, requiring renewal in six to eight years. The cost on 
the Hannibal & St. Joseph Ry. is about $1.05 per cu. yd. of ballast in the 
track, distributed as follows, the price for the first item being variable: 

Contract price for burning 38 cts. 

Average cost of coal. 21 

Loading on cars 8 

Distributing y 

Putting under ties 22 

Interest and depreciation , 4 

Land 1 

Miscellaneous expenses 2 



Total cost per cu. yd $1.05 

On the Chicago & Eastern Illinois Ry., in 1899, the cost was about 60 cts. 
per cu. yd. in the track, as compared with 50 cts. for gravel. The St. Louis, 
Keokuk & Northern Ry. used a black clayey soil or gumbo, and contracted 
for it burned in the pit. The railway laid the necessary tracks, furnished 
the old ties and slack coal, and loaded and hauled the ballast. The cost on 
the cars at the pit was estimated at 65 to 70 cts. per cu. yd., which is higher 
than usually estimated, but a number of small items were included which 
are sometimes overlooked. Burnt black wax soil on the Texas Midland 
Ry. is said to cost about $1 per cu. yd. in the track, and to have the advan- 
tage of being absorbent, so that in ordinary rainfalls most of the water is 
taken up by the ballast (which does not soften) and does not go through to 
the roadbed. Further particulars relating to burnt clay ballast are given 
in the writer's paper on "Improvements in Railway Track" (Transactions, 
American Society of Civil Engineers, March, 1890) and in "Engineering 
News," New York, Nov. 16, 1893. 

Gravel. — This material is more used than any other, and is of very vary- 
ing quality. It may be coarse and clean, or sandy and dusty, or loamy and 
cementing (when weeds will grow, drainage will be affected and the track 
will heave), or it may be full of large stones, in which case it will make an 
irregular and rough riding track. Cementing gravel should be avoided as far 



26 



TRACK. 



as possible. The best gravel is clean and coarse, with stones of fairly uni- 
form size, and as little sand as possible. Only very clean gravel will 
drain as well as stone. It is good economy to use plenty of gravel, giving 
at least 8 ins. (or better 10 ins.) under the ties, as this will enable a fairly 
good track to be maintained nearly all the year through without excessive 
work. It can be tamped by picks or bars, the latter being usually preferred, 
and is easily taken care of. Sandy gravel (like sand) may cause undue 
wear of tires, journals, etc. In fact, the substitution of slag for such gravel 
ballast on the Mobile and Montgomery Division of the Louisville 
& Nashville Ry., is said to have reduced the wear of engine tires 
from 1-16-in. per 9,000 miles to 1-16-in. per 16,000 miles. Screened 
gravel is used to some extent on the Pennsylvania Lines and the 
Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Ry., owing to the fact that 
the gravel as it comes from the pit contains 50 to 70% of sand, 
so that it is difficult to maintain the track in surface, the rains causing 
continual settlement by washing out the sand. The gravel is thrown into 
a hopper whence an elevator carries it to a revolving screen. In Europe, 
gravel is sometimes thoroughly washed and screened by machinery to free 
it entirely from earth and sand. 

There are various forms of cross-section used, depending upon the quality 
of the material and the climatic conditions. With good, clean coarse 
gravel, particularly in warm dry regions, it is better to bring the ballast 
level with the top of the ties, and shoulder it out 6 to 12 ins. beyond them. 
With inferior, fine and loamy gravel, or where water and frost have to 
be considered, it is better to have the ballast level with the tops of the ties 
for only about 30 ins.; then sloping it to the middle or bottom of tie at the 
end, the latter being preferable with the poorer ballast. This will allow 
the water to drain off rapidly, the ballast being about 1 in. clear below the 
rail base. The gravel is sometimes filled in 2 or 3 ins. above the ties at the 
middle, but in wet country this keeps them damp and leads to rotting. In 
dry country, however, it may protect them from the sun, as well as from 
the engine cinders. The Houston & Texas Central Ry. fills in the gravel 
between the rails almost to the level of the underside of the rail heads, 
completely covering the ties. It is true that this causes a more rapid decay 
of the ties, but the gravel is of such quality that the track cannot be held 
without covering them either at the ends or the middle. The former prac- 
tice causes even more rapid decay, owing to the washing out of the zinc 
solution, nearly all the ties being burnetized. On double track, gravel bal- 
last is usually sloped to form a central drain, the bottom of which should 
be at least 6 ins. below the ties. Cross box drains in the ballast carry the 
water to the side ditches. 

Cinders.— Engine cinders make a cheap and serviceable ballast which will 
last for some time under light traffic. Being porous, it drains well and does 
not hold moisture, but it is apt to make a dusty track for a time, until the 
rain and traffic have thoroughly compacted it. It is sometimes applied over 
a bed of stone or slag ballast upon which the ties rest. It is easily handled 
by the shovel, does not heave much under the action of frost, and prevents 
weeds from growing. A good layer of cinders will much facilitate mainten- 
ance with a wet roadbed and earth ballast in the spring or in wet weather, 
when the earth is too soft to support the loads and cannot be tamped. In 



BALLAST. 27 

very bad cases the mud holes or wet spots may be dug out and filled with 
cinders. The cinders should not be laid on earth ballast when the frost is 
coming out of the ground, or this action will be checked, and it will be late 
in the season before it is thoroughly out. In cross section, this ballast is 
sometimes formed the same as for broken stone, the Atchison, Topeka & 
Santa Fe Ry. shouldering it out 6 ins. It is very generally used for side- 
tracks and yards. On a sidetrack it may either be sloped down to form a 
drain between that and the main track, as on the Baltimore & Ohio Ry., 
(Fig. 5), or it may be filled in level, as on the Erie Ry. 

Sand. — This makes a fairly good ballast under light traffic, but unless it is 
very coarse it requires constant attention and considerable maintenance 
work, and renewal. The sand flows from under the ties as they move up 
and down under the traffic, is gradually drifted away by the wind, and is 
washed away by the rain. It is generally shaped the same as gravel, but if 
made level with the tops of the ties, and well shouldered out beyond them 
(as in Figs. 9 and 10), it will hold the track better, and there will be less 
flowing from under the ties. Clean sand will drain well enough if shaped 
thus. Owing to its lightness and instability it does not keep track well in 
alinement. It is liable to heave, makes a very dusty track, and is thus very 
hard on journals and machinery. In France and India, sand ballast is often 
covered with a layer of broken stone or broken brick to prevent strong 
winds from blowing it away. Special grasses or bushes may be used as 
wind breaks in sandy districts, as has been done extensively on the Siberian 
Railway and to some extent on the Old Colony Division of the New York, 
New Haven & Hartford Ry. 

Earth. — Dtrt, earth and mud are terms used for ballast composed of the 
natural soil along the line, which is the cheapest material to use but often 
the most troublesome and expensive to maintain. It is of variable quality, 
from sandy to clayey. Unless very sandy it cakes, in hot weather, and if 
then disturbed by any work it becomes intolerably dusty. If well put up 
when dry, it will go through a wet season fairly well, but of course it 'can- 
not be handled when wet. It is liable to heave in the winter and to be 
washed by heavy rains. In continued wet seasons, or when the frost is 
coming out of the ground, it may become so soft as to make it impossible 
to keep the track in safe condition, the ties churning the saturated material 
into mud. In such a case, good results may be obtained by digging out the 
mud and filling in with cinders (as noted under Cinder Ballast), or some- 
times sods, brush or coarse grass are packed under the ties. To keep the 
track in anything like good condition, thorough drainage is necessary. The 
ballast is usually filled in 1 to 4 ins. over the ties at the middle, and sloped 
sharply to the bottom at the ends, passing clear under the rail, and con- 
tinuing on the same or a flatter slope to the edge of the ditch or bank. A 
flat slope will carry the water off more quickly than a curved cross section, 
and if the earth is at all above the bottom of the ties at the ends it is liable 
to form a pocket which will hold water and turn the ballast into mud. The 
roadbed should be thoroughly consolidated, so as to separate it from the 
earth ballast as far as possible, and thus assist drainage. On some lines in 
the Argentine Republic, which are ballasted with black loam, the surface is 
carefully formed and sloped in planes to drain rapidly to longitudinal and 



28 TRACK. 

transverse channels, while in some cases grass is allowed to grow upon and 
consolidate the surface. 

Miscellaneous. — Oyster shells are used on some lines along the coast, and 
make an excellent ballast for light traffic, but do not hold the track under 
heavy traffic. Chert is a fine broken stone, resembling fine gravel, which 
is used in the South, mainly for branch lines. Chatts are the quartz rock 
tailings from lead mills, and resemble very coarse sand. Disintegrated 
granite, found largely in the Rocky Mountains, resembles a clean gravel ex- 
cept that the individual stones are sharp instead of round. It tamps well 
and makes a permanent and solid ballast. 

Oiling Ballast. 
The troubles incident to dusty ballast are numerous both in regard to> 
wear of the journals and machinery, and to the discomforts of passengers. 
This is especially the case in summer, when the trains are almost enveloped 
in a cloud of dust or sand, and the passengers must either keep the windows 
closed or be half smothered. While the use of stone and other dustless bal- 
last is being extended, it will be a long while before its use is universal. 
The dust nuisance is now being dealt with, however, on many roads by 
sprinkling the ballast with oil, on the system invented by Mr. J. H. Nichols 
Assistant Engineer of the West Jersey & Seashore Ry., who first used it on 
that road in 1896. It not only provides for the comfort of passengers, but 
also reduces the chances of hot boxes, kills or tends to check the growth 
of weeds, and reduces the heaving action of frost. With very fine sand, the 
dust will still fly, but not to such an extent as before oiling. It is found, 
however, that the spikes more easily work loose in the oil-soaked ties. The 
oil used is a residuum of crude petroleum, having a high fire test, low grav- 
ity, and only a faint smell. The first application requires about 2,000 gallons 
per mile of single track, and about 500 to 600 gallons per mile per year will 
suffice to keep the ballast dustless after tie renewals, etc. It was thought 
that after a year or two no further sprinkling would be required, but this 
is fdund not to be the case. The sprinkling is done from a flat car fitted 
with a 2-in. pipe across the rails and a 2-in. swinging pipe on each side, 
these pipes having slots 1-16 x 3 ins. on the under side. With the side pipes 
swung out, a width of 14 to 20 ft. of roadbed can be sprinkled. The rails 
are protected by shields. The regulating valves and the swinging pipes are 
all controlled by levers or handles on the car. The sprinkler pipes are con- 
nected to a 4-in. main coupled up to a tank car in the rear, and this train is 
pushed by a locomotive at a speed of 3 to 4 miles an hour. 



CHAPTER 4.— TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 

The importance of the question of the source of supply for ties is shown 
by the fact that with an average of 2,500 ties per mile, the 250,000 miles of 
track in the United States represent 625,000,000 ties. The annual consump- 
tion is about 76,000,000 ties for renewals and 14,000,000 ties for new con- 
struction, or a total of nearly 100,000,000 ties, representing about 500,000,000 
cu. ft. of forest grown material. This requires the annual culling of the 
best timber from about 1,000,000 acres, and the annual product of at least 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 29 

50,000,000 acres in good condition, or about 10% of the present forest area of 
the United States, which is about 500,000,000 acres. These figures are neces- 
sarily but approximations, but they give some idea of the important rela- 
tion which the ties bear to the railway system and to the timber resources 
of the country. Only the merest beginning has been made in regard to re- 
forestation, but some advance has been made in protecting the existing re- 
sources. A few railways have done some tree planting, partly to make use 
of lands which are not wanted and are unproductive but on which taxes 
have to be paid. The Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis Ry. has 
set out several plantations of catalpa trees, which are quick growing and 
are available for ties and fence posts. 

Wooden ties will undoubtedly continue to be generally used in this coun- 
try for many years, but great economy in their use can be effected, to the 
benefit of the railways and of the country- The use of preservative pro- 
cesses to prevent decay, and of protective metal tie-plates to prevent wear 
and consequent rotting at the rail seats, results in an increased life of ties 
and reduced expense for renewals, and also makes a better track which 
requires less work for maintenance. The adoption of such preservative and 
protective methods is, therefore, strongly advocated, since ties of cheaper 
and (if untreated) inferior timbers, may thus be made even superior to 
ordinary ties of the better species of timber, and still cost about the same 
as, or even less than, the latter. The use of a rail fastening more efficient 
than the common spike would also increase the life of ties. There is no 
economy in using ties of poor quality simply because they are cheap. The 
cost of placing is the same, they give worse service and require more fre- 
quent attention, and the maintenance and renewals therefore cost more; 
while the frequent disturbance of track and ballast by renewals makes it 
almost impossible to maintain good track. Greater care in inspection for 
renewals, so as to ensure that the ties give their full effective life, will re- 
sult in better track being maintained at reduced cost. An important econ- 
omy resulting from the use of good ties and of methods for increasing their 
life, is the lessened disturbance of the track, thus permitting the ties to- 
come to a solid bearing in the ballast and to remain upon it. One of the 
reasons for the economy in maintenance expenses with metal ties, is that 
when once well bedded they may be left undisturbed for many months, with 
very little work upon the ballast. 

The principal timbers for ties are used in about the following propor- 
tions: Oak, 55% of all ties used; pine, 22%; cedar, 7%; chestnut, 5%; hem- 
lock and tamarack, 4%; cypress, 3%; redwood, 2%; various woods, 2%. The 
geographical distribution of trees used for ties' cannot be closely defined, 
but may be stated generally as follows: 

New England States.— Chestnut, cedar, white and red oak, pitch pine, hemlock, tam- 
arack, spruce. 

Middle Atlantic States. — White oak, cedar, yellow pine, chestnut, tamarack, hemlock, 
cypress, cherry, locust. 

South Atlantic States. — Pine, cypress, oak, chestnut. 

North Central States. — Oak, cedar, hemlock, tamarack, locust, heech. 

Gulf and Mississippi Valley States. — Oak, pine, cypress, walnut, locust. 

Northwestern States.— Oak, elm, pine, tamarack, spruce, cedar. 

Southwestern States. — Oak, pine, cedar, spruce, ash, cypress, catalpa. 

Pacific States.— Oak, redwood, pine, and fir. 

White oak is the best wood for ties, both for wear and durability, being 
very hard and slow to rot, and generally failing by decay rather than by 



30 TRACK. 

wear. Its average life is about 8 years under heavy traffic, though it some- 
times lasts 10 to 12 years. On the Illinois Central Ry., the average life is 4 
to 7% years on lines south of the Ohio River (depending upon the height of 
land where timber was grown, the season when cut and the kind of ballast) ; 
7 to 10 years in central and southern Illinois, and 9 to 12 years in northern 
Illinois and Iowa. Burr or rock oak and chestnut oak are next in value, 
lasting about 6 to 10 years, and are largely used for switch timbers. Pin 
oak is a medium quality. Black, red and yellow oak (which names are 
often used indiscriminately), are decidedly inferior species, lasting only 
about 4 or 5 years. Water oak lasts only about 4 years. Oak ties usually 
decay first in the part bedded in the ballast. 

Pine is very largely used in its numerous varieties, of which yellow and 
white pine are the best, as, although they (especially the latter) are soft, 
they are slow to decay, and last from 6 to 8 years under light traffic or 
10 years under heavy traffic. Southern pitch pine will last about 5 years in 
the south and 7 in the north. The checking of the pitch pine tie is one 
of its greatest defects, as the checks not only loosen the spikes, but cause 
openings for moisture to penetrate the interior of the tie. Short-leaf 
yellow pine from Georgia, Florida and South Carolina will last 4 to 5 years. 
This very much resembles the Baltic fir extensively used for ties in 
Europe, but the latter is harder, being grown in a colder country. The ob- 
jections to tapped pine (or timber from which the turpentine has been 
drawn) on the ground of impaired strength and inferior quality, have not 
been sustained by experience. Some specifications exclude long-leaf pine 
grown north of South Carolina, but with little reason. Most of such tim- 
ber having already been cut, it is doubtful if it can be obtained in quantity, 
and the chance of substitution is therefore greater, especially as in a lot 
of Southern pine few persons can distinguish one species from another. 
Yellow pine is very extensively used, but will decay in about 6 years, 
though it will resist wear for 10 or even 12 years. It is often preferred to 
oak for bridge ties, as it does not warp or twist so much. Spruce pine is 
also being used to a small extent, and is said to be more durable than Penn- 
sylvania oak, while holding spikes better than chestnut. 

Chestnut is equal to oak in point of durability, and from its resistance 
to decay is generally preferred to the latter for fence posts. White chest- 
nut may last 10 years on tangents and under light traffic, but with heavy 
traffic it cuts under the rails. The ties have a tendency to split, and they 
usually decay first in the part above the ballast. Red and white cedar are 
good and durable. They last from 9 to 12 or even 15 years, but will cut under 
the rails unless protected by tie-plates. Cedar, like chestnut, does not hold 
the spikes well on curves. It fails by wear rather than by decay. 

Hemlock is, as a rule, neither hard nor durable, and its life is very vari 
able, from 4 to 8 years. It is extensively used on account of its cheapness, 
but is not good for first-class track, as it gets soft under the rails and at the 
spike holes. Spruce is about the same, lasting from 5 to 9 years. Tama- 
rack or hackmatack (larch) is very commonly used, and will last from 5 
to 10 years. Both tamarack and hemlock are being more generally used 
since the introduction of tie-plates. Black and red cypress is much used in 
the South, where there is an abundant supply. It is soft but durable, last- 
ing 9 to 12 years if protected by metal tie-plates. Redwood is extremely 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 31 

durable, but, being soft, it cuts badly under the rails, unless protected by 
tie-plates. Its ordinary life on the Southern Pacific Ry. is from 5 years up- 
ward, depending upon the traffic, but some specimens of black redwood 
(the best quality) last over 20 years if properly protected. It is only used in 
the Pacific states. 

Black locust (which is a quick growing timber) is good, but scarce, and 
has a life of about 7 to 10 years. Honey locust is about the same. Black 
walnut and catalpa are used to a limited extent? and last about 8 years. 
The latter is another quick growing timber. All these are available only 
in small quantities. Beech is hard, but very poor unless treated, having 
a life of only 4 to 6 years. Elm and cherry are fairly hard, and will 
last 4 to 8 years, but cherry has a tendency to split in spiking. Maple, hick- 
ory, ash, birch, butternut and white beech are used to some extent, but are 
of little value, being by no means durable. They are rarely used except in 
first construction. Sassafras, mesquite and mulberry are also used to a 
small extent. 

For inferior lines and sidetracks, second-class ties are used. The Alle- 
gheny Valley Ry, ranks red and black oak, pin oak, chestnut and cherry as 
second class. The Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis Ry. provides 
that such ties must not vary from the standard specifications by more than 
2y 2 ins. in length, or 1 in. in thickness and width, and must not be so crooked 
that a line between the middle of the ends will pass outside the tie. Culls 
are inferior ties, not generally accepted under specifications. 

The life of ties varies very considerably, and the apparent variation is 
exaggerated by the lax systems of inspection for renewal and the lack of 
system in keeping records of the ties. This point is discussed further on. 
The actual life varies in different sections of the country and on different 
railways, owing to the dissimilar qualities of timber of the same species 
grown in different parts, and to the influence of the varying conditions of 
climate, roadbed, and traffic. Ties in sidetracks should not be included in 
estimating or averaging the life of ties. Where ties are continuously ob- 
tained from one section of the country it is usually observed that the life 
of the ties is gradually becoming less as the timber resources become picked 
over. Specific information as to the life of various ties on individual roads 
is given in the table of standard track .construction at the end of this book, 
and may be generally summarized as in Table No. 2, but the figures are 
necessarily approximations, for reasons already stated: 

TABLE 'NO. 2.— LIFE OF TIES. 

Years. Years. 

Oak 5 to 10; av'g. S Spruce 6 to 8 

White oak 6 to 12 Red spruce 6 " 9 

Pest oak 6 " 10 Fir (Douglas) 4 " 8 

Rock or burr oak 8 " 10 Tamarack 4 " 8 

Chestnut oak 8 Hemlock 5 " 8 

Pine 5 " 8 Cypress 5 " 9 

Yellow pine 4 " 11 Black cvpress 10 " 12 

Chestnut 5 " 10 Locust (honey) 8 " 10 

Cedar 7 to 12 and 15 Catalpa . . ." 10 " 20 

Sassafras 6 to 8 Walnut (black) 8 " 10 

Hackberry 4 Cherry 6" 8 

Ties on curves generally fail by respiking and by cutting under the rail, 
so that they have to be taken out, as the gage cannot be maintained, al- 
though on tangents the ties would last perhaps two or three years more. 



$2 TRACK. 

lies usually last longer in good well-drained ballast, depending somewhat 
cpon tne form of cross-section. In some sandy soils, however, they decay 
even quicker than in clay soil, the former supplying the warmth, air and 
moisture necessary for fermentation, while the latter excludes air and 
warmth. On the Minneapolis, St. Paul & Sault Ste. Marie Ry., ties in sand 
ballast (level with the top of tie and shouldered out 12 ins. beyond the ends) 
give fully one year less service than in gravel ballast (sloped from 1 in. 
above the tie at the middle to 3 ins. below top of tie at the ends). They last 
best on the prairie lines, with loam ballast 2 ins. above the tie at the 
middle and sloped to the bottom at the ends. The traffic is lighter on the 
prairie lines. On the Missouri, Kansas & Texas Ry., ties of white, post and 
burr oak, cherry and sassafras have an average life of 6 to 7 years in earth 
and 8 years in stone or gravel ballast, under the usual traffic conditions of 
Western roads. The Allegheny Valley Ry. finds the average life of white 
oak ties in broken stone ballast, kept well drained and cleaned, to be about 
9 years, under a traffic of 4,500,000 tons per year. The Central Ry. of New 
Jersey finds that first-class oak and yellow pine ties last about 8 years on 
main line tracks in broken stone or cinder ballast, and a little less in gravel. 
On the Union Pacific Ry. the average life of ties in different localities and 
under different conditions is as follows: 

Kansas Division: White oak, 8 years. These ties are obtained from 
Arkansas, Indian Territory, etc., and last much longer than those from 
Wisconsin, Minnesota or Michigan. 

Colorado Division: Natural soil ballast and moderate traffic; oak, 10 
years; red spruce, 8 years; pine, 6 years. 

Wyoming Division: Natural soil ballast; red or white cedar, with tie- 
plates, 15 or 16, and even 20 years; burnetized pine, 9 to 11 years; moun- 
tain pine, 7 years. The. division is being ballasted, and better results are 
therefore expected for the future. > 

The idea that ties of old coarse timber are more liable to decay than those 
of young timber is not of general application. Young wood is the more apt 
to decay, owing to its larger proportion of albuminates, which form the 
food of the fungi. This timber is sometimes assumed to be more tough and 
fibrous, and therefore better fitted to resist decay, but as the sapwood of 
:such ties becomes rotten in a few years, the size, is reduced so that they are 
apt to be renewed without regard to the soundness of the heart. Sound, 
mature and well grown trees yield more durable timber than either ven 
young or very old trees. In hard woods, trees of rapid growth (indicated 
by broad annual rings), due to favorable conditions of soil and light, yield 
the most durable timber, while second growth timber of proper age and 
quality should in general be equal to (or even preferable to) first growth. 
In coniferous woods, however, trees of slow growth (indicated by narrow 
rings) yield the better timber. The most durable timber for ties, therefore, 
is furnished by coniferous woods from comparatively poor soils, high alti- 
tudes and dense forest; and by hard woods from rich, deep, warm soils and 
open forest. In all cases within the same species, the heavier and denser 
wood is the most durable, and the heart wood is, of course, more durable 
than the sap wood. Winter is usually the best time for felling tie timber, 
especially if it is to be used without being seasoned, as it then contains less 
fermentable sap, and seasons more slowly and evenly before the tempera- 
ture is warm enough to cause rot. The timber may rot with or without 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 33 

fermentation, but usually without. Trees cut while in the leaf, as in the 
case of chestnut oak cut in May or June for tanbark, should be left for two 
or three months before being cut to size. In the South, pine is often cut 
during the summer, for which there is no apparent good reason. Timber 
cut when the sap is at rest is more durable than that cut when the sap is 
moving, mainly because fungus growth is less active in the former case. 
Full details respecting the structure and properties of tie timbers are given 
in a report on "Tie Timbers" by Mr. P. H. Dudley (Bulletin No. 1, Forestry 
Division, U. S. Department of Agriculture). 

The importance of seasoning ties before use is not as generally recognized 
or practiced as it should be, although this practice is almost universally fol- 
lowed in Europe and accounts to some extent for the greater durability of 
the ties. Ties which are properly piled and left to season for a year (or at 
least six months) are far more durable than those put at once into the 
track. The ties should be barked and piled in rows of 8 to 12, spaced 6 ins. 
apart, and the rows separated by two ties at right angles to them. The pile 
should rest upon poles or blocking, as if laid directly upon the ground the 
fungus growth will soon attack the lower rows. The ties of the top row 
should be placed close together, and inclined so as to shed water. The piles 
should contain 50 to 100 ties each, and be at least 5 ft. apart to allow an in- 
spector to examine and mark the ties. If piled near the track, they should 
be at least 7 ft. from the rail, and, if possible, on ground higher than the 
rails. Ties should not be piled in damp places in the woods where cut, but 
in dry, airy and shady places. More rapid seasoning may perhaps be ef- 
fected by sinking the ties in running water for two weeks or more. On the 
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. it has been found that pine ties cut in 
summer and put directly in the track last 3 years; if cut in the winter 
they lasted 5 years when seasoned in air, and 5y 2 years when seasoned in 
water. The difference in this case, however, was too small to warrant a 
definite conclusion or the incurring of the extra trouble. Large timbers, as 
for switch ties, headblocks, bridge stringers, etc., should be seasoned under 
cover, as otherwise the sun may cause them to season irregularly and to 
become warped. 

Hewed ties are very generally assumed to be superior to sawed ties, and 
this has led to a custom of insisting that ties must be cut from trees that 
will make but one tie each, or to insist that the cut shall make but one tie. 
Two reasons are given why sawed ties are apt to decay more rapidly: (1) 
They present increased end surfaces of the grain, as the cut cannot be kept 
parallel with the fibre (especially when the log is not quite straight); this 
exposes bastard faces on the sides, which are simply partial cross-sections; 
(2) The saw does not make a sharp smooth cut, but leaves a more or less 
woolly surface, which permits the accumulation of water and affords oppor- 
tunity for fungus growth. The second objection may be overcome by the 
use of a planer saw, which cuts and planes the surface. Sawed ties are 
being more and more used, and if treated by preservative processes the 
above objections are eliminated. Opinions and experience vary as to their 
use. The Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis Ry. specifications for- 
merly required sawed ties to be 9 ins. wide, and hewed ties 8 ins. wide, but 
the former are now accepted if 8 ins. wide and good in all respects. Mr. 
W. W. Rich, formerly Chief Engineer of the Minneapolis, St. Paul & Sault 



34 TRACK. 

Ste. Marie Ry., prefers ties made from round timber sawed on two sides, as 
experience indicates that they give longer service than hewed ties. This 
result was not expected, and is contrary to tradition. The objections to 
split ties are passing away, except as to the quick and deep season checking, 
which takes place in a split tie having the. heart on one side. In Europe, 
S-shaped pieces of hoop iron are driven into the ends of checked ties to 
prevent the checks from widening. Warped, twisted and crooked ties 
should not be used, as they are liable to rock in the ballast. The ties 
should invariably be stripped of bark, or it will hold water in the ballast and 
against the tie. When the bark eventually becomes loose it makes a very 
unsightly track and interferes with proper tamping, while it allows the- 
track to shift, the ties slipping out of the smooth bark instead of being held 
by the rough ballast. 

Ties should be made from sound, thrifty, live or green timber, free from 
loose or rotten knots, wormholes, dry rot, wind shakes, splits or other im- 
perfections which affect their strength or durability. They should have no 
sapwood on either face, and not more than 1 in. on the edges or corners. 
They should be hewed or sawed with the faces perfectly true and parallel,, 
should be of the specified thickness, the faces out of wind, smooth and free 
from any inequality of surface, deep or bad score marks, or splinters, and 
should be not more than 3 ins. out of straight in any direction. They should 
be iof uniform size, and those of the same kind should be kept together as 
far as possible, to ensure approximate uniformity in wear. The specifica- 
tions should be carefully and intelligently prepared, and their requirements 
strictly enforced, inspectors being instructed to reject all ties which are not 
of the required quality or dimensions, and being sustained in this by their 
superior officers. Accepted ties should be distinctly marked with paint by 
the inspectors. 

There are two principal elements governing the life of a tie: (1) Its re- 
sistance to decay; (2) its resistance to the wear resulting from the cutting 
and abrading action of the rail. The direct compression under the rail is 
too slight to enter into consideration. Ties are injured, destroyed or 
rendered unserviceable by three principal causes: (1) Mechanical disin- 
tegration of fiber and the abrasion of fiber under the rails caused by the 
slight motion of the rail on the tie; (2) injury by spiking and respiking; 
(3) general natural decay of the wood, induced by fungus growths. Under 
ordinary and average conditions on American railways, ties have to be re- 
newed more on account of the cutting and abrasion (and consequent local 
decay) under the rails <than on account of natural decay. Mr. Katte, for- 
merly Chief Engineer of the New York Central Ry., estimated that 20% of 
the ties taken out were removed on account of this class of injury, from 10 
to 15% being reported as "crushed or broomed," and from 4 to 10% as "cut 
out" by respiking. This cutting and abrasion may be largely reduced by 
adopting improved rail fastenings to hold the rails and ties more firmly 
together. It may be almost entirely eliminated by the use of suitable metal 
tie-plates, which thus effect a decided economy in making ties of the softer 
and cheaper woods equally as serviceable as the harder and more expensive. 
Ties will wear out more quickly on curves on account of the lateral strain 
on the rails forcing the spikes back, enlarging the spike holes and reducing 
the frictional hold of the spike in the tie. They also wear out more quickly 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 35 

on heavy grades where the engines use sand. In both these cases metal 
tie-plates will aid materially to prevent the cutting and maintain the track 
in good condition. 

The natural decay of the tie as a whole depends largely upon the wood, 
ballast, climate, etc. It usually begins at the ends and is much hastened 
by season checking, though this may be prevented by painting the ends 
with a resin or cheap paint or composition, so as to cause a slower exchange 
of moisture. The resin thrown away at the Southern turpentine distilleries 
might be made available for this purpose. Boring the holes for the spikes, 
as noted in the chapter on Rail Fastenings, would prevent much of the 
checking, and if the size of the hole is proportioned to that of the spike it 
should increase the holding power. Ties should never be moved by sticking 
picks into them, as such practice forms places where decay may start. In 
rare cases the ties have the rail seats "spotted" or leveled off by machine. 
This is very generally done in Europe, the rail seat being inclined so as to 
be parallel with the conical face of the wheel tires. The wheels, however, 
Jiave an inclination of 1 in 20, while in this country it is only 1 in 38. The 
true economical reform in railway ties, before metal track is considered, 
will provide for preservative treatment by impregnation and the use of 
metal tie-plates. 

Smaller ties usually resist decay better than large ones, and with tie- 
plates to prevent cutting, such ties may advisedly be used. A large number 
■of ties of medium width is better than a smaller number of wider ties in 
making an easy riding track. The thickness varies from 6 to 8 ins., but 
should never be less than 6 ins., or the spike may cause a crack in the bot- 
tom, besides which the deeper tie has greater stiffness to resist transverse 
bending. The width is from 6 to 10 (or even 12) ins., but 8 ins. is a very 
good width for supporting the rail and bedding in the ballast. Where there 
is much difference, the wider ones may be used for joint and shoulder ties. 
Very wide ties are awkward to handle and tamp, require too much digging 
in renewals, and are liable to rock in the ballast. The necessity of uniform 
size has already been referred to, to form an easy riding track and to re- 
duce the disturbance of the ballast bed in renewals. If the thickness and 
depth are not uniform, then in renewals the tie-beds will have to be dug out 
or filled in, thus disturbing the stability of the track. The length ranges 
from 8 to 10 ft, the latter being used (mainly in swampy districts) on some 
parts of the Southern Pacific Ry., Louisville & Nashville Ry., etc., while 
the Canadian Pacific Ry. used ties 9 ft. long on its line between Montreal 
and Smith's Falls, on account of the heavy traffic. The usual lengths are 8 
ft. and 8 ft. 6 ins., and for ordinary track it is doubtful if an increase beyond 
the latter gives much effective bearing or is of much real use. The length 
should be uniform, for it is easy to cut the ties to the right length, and this 
will be done if the inspector insists upon it. Where it is not uniform, the 
ends should be lined on one side of the track. To facilitate this, a notch 
should be cut in the handle of a spike maul at the proper distance (varying 
with the width of rail base and length of tie), and in placing the tie, the end 
of the handle is placed against the outer edge of the rail and the tie pushed 
in till its end is in line with the notch. Square sawed timbers of varying 
length are used at turnouts, and square sawed ties on bridges and trestles. 



/■ 



Railways. 


Thick- 
ness, 
ins. 


Width, 
ins. 


Length, 
ft. 


Baltimore & Ohio. . 
B., Roch. & Pitts. 
Chesapeake & Ohio 

Chic. & N. W 

C, C, C. & St. L.. 
D., Lack. & West. 


7 
7 
7 
6 

7 


8 
7 

8 
8 
9 


8% 

8% 

8 
8 
8y 2 



ins. 


ft. 


6 


8 


9 


8 


10 


8% 


9 


9 


10 


9 


8 


8 



36 TRACK. 

The standard sizes of ties on a few roads are given in Table No. 3, to show 
the variation, but a longer list will be found in the tables of standard track 
construction at the end of the book. 

TABLE NO. 3.— SIZE OF TIES. 

Thick- 
Railways, ness, Width, Length,, 
ins. 

Pitchburg 6 

N. Y. Central 6 

Pennsylvania 7 

Plant Lines ...... 7 

So. Pac. (cypress). 7 
Union Pac. (pine). 8 

The spacing of ties varies from 2,240 to 3,200 per mile, or from 14 to 18 
per 30-ft. rail, but there should be not less than 16 ties per rail on main 
track. The number of ties should not be reduced as heavier rails are in- 
troduced, for it must be remembered that the track as a whole has a certain 
deflection (in addition to the deflection of the rails), so that reducing the 
number of bearing points only serves to increase this liability to deflection. 
This point is often overlooked in European practice. The deflection for a 
given rail and load varies practically as the cube of the tie spacing. There- 
fore, if we take 1 as the deflection between ties 20 ins. c. to c, the deflection 
for ties spaced 24, 30 and 36 ins. c. to c. will be 1.73, 3.38 and 5.83, respec- 
tively. 

The Pennsylvania Ry. uses 14 to 16 ties per 30-ft. rail on maim track, and 
12 for sidings and yards; Boston & Albany Ry., 15; Southern Ry., 16; Fitch- 
burg Ry., 16 on tangents and 17 to 18 on curves; Northern Pacific Ry., 17; 
Illinois Central Ry., 18 on main track (under 85-lb. rails) and 15 on side 
track; Denver & Rio Grande Ry., 19. On the San Francisco extension of the 
Atchison, Topeka & Saute Fe Ry., there are 17 ties per rail on tangents, IS 
on curves up to' 3°, and 19 on curves over 3°. The New York Central Ry. 
uses 18 and 20 ties to rails 30 and 33 ft. long, laid with three-tie broken 
joints; the three joint ties are 14% ins. c. to c, and the others 2iy 2 ins. for 
30-ft. and 21% ins. for 33-ft. rails. The joint and shoulder ties should be 
somewhat closer together than the intermediates, so as to give increased 
bearing towards the rail ends, where the tendency to deflection is greater. 
The intermediate ties may be 16 to 24 ins. apart in the clear, and joint 
ties 8 to 16 ins. apart, though the Pennsylvania Ry. considers that a less 
spacing than 10 ins. does not allow of proper tamping. With three-tie joints, 
however, the clear spacing may be 6 to 8 ins., and on bridge floors the spac- 
ing should not exceed 4 ins. The Southern Pacific Ry. spaces the ties 14 ins. 
c. to c. at joints, and 20 to 24 ins. intermediate, according to the number per 
rail. Some roads having light rails and heavy traffic space the ties by the 
width of a shovel, without regard to any fixed number of ties per rail, it be- 
ing considered that on such tracks nearly 50% of the length of the rail 
should be supported. A few roads also specify a certain length of tie-bear- 
ing per rail, the Duluth & Iron Range Ry. specifying 130 ins., but neither of 
these two methods are good practice for main track. The number of ties 
per mile of single track for various uniform spacing is given in Table No. 4, 
but many roads lay one or more extra ties per rail on curves. 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 



TABLE NO. 4.— NUMBER OF TIES PER MILE. 

No. Spacing, No. 

per30-ft. c. toe, No. per30-ft. 

rail. ins. per mile. rail. 

10 36 1,760 15 

U* 33 1,920 16 

12 ...'. 30 2,112 17 

13* 28 2,270 18 

14 25.7 2,464 19 



Spacing, 




c. toe, 


No. 


ins. 


per mile. 


24 


2,640 


22 5 


2,816 


21.2 


2,992 


2d 


3,168 


19 


3,344 



♦Approximate. 

Longitudinals. — Longitudinal timbers instead of cross-ties are used in 
general track construction in Europe to a very limited extent, but are quite 
generally used on bridges and in tunnels. They are used on the Long 
Bridge at Washington, which carries the Pennsylvania Ry. over the Poto- 
mac River, and they were used in the old tubular Victoria Bridge of the 
Grand Trunk Ry. over the St. Lawrence River at Montreal. This latter 
bridge has now been rebuilt, with truss spans and the ordinary style of 
floor. Longitudinals are also used to some extent in large stations. In 
the Louisville & Nashville Ry. station at Louisville the 80-lb. rails are laid 
upon continuous iron plates on longitudinals 12 x 12 ins., supported by cross- 
ties. The spikes pass through the plates. In the Broad St. station of the 
Pennsylvania Ry., at Philadelphia, the rails rest upon wooden blocks 2 ins. 
thick (19 blocks to a rail length) placed on longitudinal timbers, there being 
no blocks under the joints. The timbers rest upon 11 ties to each rail 
length, there being a tie under each joint, and the stone ballast is level with 
the tops of these ties. 

Tie Renewals. 

The tie renewals are too frequently considered by executive officers as a 
comparatively unimportant item in the expense account of maintenance of 
way, owing to their failure to appreciate the expenses involved in the re- 
newals, which, of course, should include the cost of all labor for removing 
the old and putting in the new ties. As a consequence of this, tie expenses 
are continually increasing, while much of the general maintenance expense 
for labor can be charged to the deterioration of track due to the softening 
of ties from incipient decay, and to the mere frequent renewals of ties. 
The cost of putting a tie in the track is estimated at 20 to 507c cf its first 
cost, while on the Erie Ry. the cost of labor has been estimated at 9 to liy 2 
cts. per tie. The renewals average about 250 to 350 ties per mile, per year for 
main tracks, and 200 to 250 for side tracks, but these figures may be consid- 
erably reduced by the use of preservative processes and metal tie-plates. The 
average number of tie renewals per year per mile of main track during 15 
years on some leading railways has been as follows: Chicago, Milwaukee 
& St. Paul Ry., 243; Pennsylvania Lines, 245; Chicago & Northwestern Ry., 
280; Illinois Central Ry., 300; Louisville & Nashville Ry., 360. It will read- 
ily be seen that a road which has to renew its ties in 6 years is at a disad- 
vantage when compared with one whose ties last 12 years. The former 
must not only figure into its expense account almost double the cost for 
material and track labor, but during the interval it cannot have as good a 
track, owing to the additional amount of disturbance for renewals. 

The average cost of tie renewals is now considerably in excess of that of 
rail renewals, and shows a tendency to increase, for the following reasons: 
(1) Increase in price of ties, owing to the increased value of timber as the 



38 ' TRACK. 

supply is diminished, and to the increased haul as the sources of supply be- 
come more distant; (2) the use of the best timber for other purposes, so that 
the poorer qualities must be cut for ties, giving consequently inferior ser- 
vice; (3) less rigid inspection and the acceptance of inferior ties; (4) in- 
creased tendency to cutting and decay under the rails, due to increased 
wheel loads and traffic; (5) spike killing, caused by regaging, redriving 
loosened spikes, etc., which also is due to increased wheel loads and traffic. 

Ties have a most irregular life, even when cut at the same time from the 
same locality, and as the annual renewals average 250 to 350 per mile, there 
is probably hardly a rail length of main track which has not at least one 
tie renewed each year. The cost involved includes the first cost of the new 
tie, the labor cost of renewal, and probably the cost of some new spikes. 
The old ties are usually absolutely valueless, so that there is no credit for 
"value of old material," and if any of the old spikes are bent or broken in 
pulling, they are as likely to be thrown away as to be sent to the scrap pile, 
thus involving another incidental expense. It is practically impossible to 
get the new tie at once as well and firmly bedded as the old one, which has 
probably been cut into by the rail so as to reduce its thickness. When the 
new tie is in place, therefore, it may be either tight (raising the rail slightly 
above its normal surface) or loose '(allowing the rail to deflect before the 
tie gives it proper support). If we consider such conditions as occurring 
once in each rail length of track, it will be seen that a certain increase in 
wear of rails and wheels, and in the motion of cars, must result. These 
effects will continue until the traffic (pounding from above) and the section 
men (tamping from below) have restored the normal surface of the track, 
as far as may be in view of the increased wear which has been sustained. 
By the use of metal tie-plates, and treated ties of longer and more uniform 
life, all this expense and work may be required only at long intervals, and 
individual renewals will be much* less frequent. Under such conditions 
this would be a saving in operating expenses, distributed partly in the road- 
way department and partly in the transportation department. 

Close attention should be paid to requisitions for ties. If they are 
granted too liberally and without question, there will be a tendency among 
the foremen to take out ties before they have given their proper service. 
If they are habitually cut down, there will be many ties left too long in the 
track. A marked saving in renewals may be effected by systematized checks 
and the preparation of careful estimates of each season's requirements. In 
this respect practice varies very widely, some roads being very careful and 
others very careless. The section foreman should determine by actual 
count, and not by a guess estimate, the number of ties on each mile of his 
section, which he considers will need to be renewed. This will be reported 
to the roadmaster, who should personally verify the estimate, in company 
.with the foreman, so as to educate him, for while ties are often left in too 
long, yet many foremen condemn ties which are still good. On the Chicago 
& Northwestern Ry., each foreman marks with an axe. the ties which he 
thinks should be removed, after which the roadmasters go over their divi- 
sions to check the foreman's judgment, and they generally cut down the 
estimates very considerably. Ties should never be renewed without per- 
mission, and those taken out should be piled up and not burned or removed 
until inspected by some officer thoroughly and practically familiar with the 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 39 

use of ties and the amount of work that can safely be got out of them. On 
some roads the foremen are forbidden to remove ties having more than 4 
ins. of good timber left under the rail. 

The practice on the Illinois Central Ry. and some other large roads is 
practically as follows: The supervisors (who have charge of about 100 
miles) personally walk the track with their section foreman and make a 
memorandum of the number of ties in each mile that in their judgment 
needs renewal. The reports (showing the number for each mile) then go to 
the roadmasters (who have charge of about 300 to 500 miles of track), the 
division superintendents, the assistant general superintendent, and the 
chief engineer. The roadmasters and division superintendents take the re- 
ports and personally walk over individual miles to check the judgment of 
the officers below them. The chief engineer, with the assistant general 
superintendent and the division superintendents, also pick out certain miles, 
walking the track and counting the ties, in order to check the judgment of 
the division officers and roadmasters. In preparing the final requisition, 
these reports are considered, together with the normal renewals for a period 
of ten years, the number of ties removed, and the officer's general judgment 
as to the necessity for these renewals. This system has an important 
influence in educating all the officers who work under it, and in effecting 
an economy in tie renewals. After the old ties have been taken out, in the 
spring, they are piled up and inspected by the officers .concerned before they 
are destroyed or used for other purposes. 

On the Louisville & Nashville Ry. an estimate of the number of ties re- 
quired on each division is prepared prior to July, the estimate being made 
from actual count of ties that should properly be renewed during the next 
twelve months. The count is made by the section foremen, checked and 
certified to by the respective supervisors and roadmasters, approved by the 
superintendents after investigation, and forwarded by them to the chief 
engineer, who is supposed to have a general knowledge of the condition of 
ties on the entire line. If the requisitions differ widely from what he ex- 
pected, they are returned for further investigation, and revised if neces- 
sary. Finally, the requisitions are forwarded to the general manager with 
a request for authority to contract for the ties needed. With them is sent a 
statement showing the average number of ties used per mile on each divi- 
sion during the ten years previous, and where the number called for appears 
excessive as compared with the average, an explanation is given. On the 
New York Central Ry., the supervisors personally examine the ties before 
July, and prepare a statement of the number required for renewal. 

Records and Marking. — One great defect in the management of the track 
department is the neglect to keep reliable records from which the average 
life and cost of ties of different kinds can be computed. Without such 
records, the calculations and estimates of comparative durability 
and economy of different ties (treated and untreated) are little 
more than guess work. The keeping of these records upon some 
uniform and carefully formulated system is a duty that might 
properly be imposed upon the division roadmasters or officers of 
similar position. The record should include the cause of tie re- 
newals (decay or rail cutting), and should keep ties in side tracks sep- 
arate from those in main track. As a rule, the only statistics kept show 



40 TRACK. 

the number of ties removed on a certain length of line, without regard to 
the wood, the ballast, or other influential conditions. And even such sta- 
tistics are not kept in a uniform manner. From systems of records pro- 
posed by the writer (Transactions, American Society of Civil Engineers, 
April, 1889), and by the Tie Committee of the American Railway Engineer- 
ing & Maintenance of Way Association, the following list of headings for a 
tie record on each division has been prepared. It will, of course, be difficult 
to secure the adoption of such a system, but a beginning should at least be 
made, and the matter left to develop: 

Information for Tie Records. 

!. Length of first main track, miles. 18. Weight of rail. 

2, Length, of all main tracBP, miles. 19. Preservative treatment employed. 

.3. Average number of ties per mile. 20. Average cost of treated ties at dis- 

4. Average number of ties renewed per tributing point. 

mile. 21. Average cost of untreated ties at dis- 

5. Percentage of renewals to number in tributing point. 

track. ■ 22. Total cost of tie-renewals per mile of 

■6. Total number of ties renewed. first main track. 

7. Kinds of ties. 23. Total cost of tie-renewals per mile of 

8. Number of each kind renewed. all main track. 

9. Cost of new ties. 24. Gross tonnage of trains passing over 

10. Place where new ties were obtained. each main track. 

11. Date when the old ties were laid. 25. Gross tonnage of trains per tie re- 

12. Percentage of main line tracks newed. 

curved. 26. Maximum weight of locomotive ana 

13. Percentage of main line tracks tie- tender, tons. 

plated. 27. Number of ties renewed in side 

14. Percentage of main line tracks bal- tracks. 

lasted. 28. Percentage of ties renewed in side 

15. Percentage of main line tracks laid tracks. 

with treated tie. 29. Number of old main line ties put in 

16. Number of tie-plates per rail. side tracks. 

17. Kinds of ballast used. 

It is desirable to mark the ties in some way so that their length of service, 
can be ascertained and recorded. As a general thing, this is entirely over- 
looked, and except for the more or less reliable memory of some foreman or 
roadmaster, there is no means of ascertaining the life or history of ties in 
the track. This is particularly troublesome in the case of treated ties hav- 
ing a long life. The renewals would be made irrespective of the marks, 
because the great difference in the enduring qualities of ties apparently 
from the same place and lot make it possible that some ties may last S years 
w r hile others will last only 4 or 5 years. On the Allegheny Valley Ry. each 
tie is marked at the time of putting it in the track by cutting a small V- 
shaped notch in the edge with an adze or axe, the position of the notch in- 
dicating the year. The ties are hauled in from the woods in the winter 
months, and are usually placed in the track early in the year, so that a 
glance at the marking while passing along the track will show the observer 
"both the age of the tie (from the tree) and its length of service. The section 
foremen make simple reports of the ties taken out, and their life as indi- 
cated by the marks, which reports are tabulated and filed, forming a record 
of the average life of the ties. 

On the Cleveland Division of the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. 
Louis Ry., a method was adopted in 1892 or 1893 for marking the ties when 
put in the track, in order to secure definite information as to the length of 
service and life in the different kinds of ballast. For this purpose a 3%-lb. 
stamp hammer was used, with two figures about 1% ins. long, %-in. in re- 
lief, indicating the year. The stamp was used like a sledge, stamping the 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 41 

number on the top and on the south end of the tie. After about three years 
service, however, this was discontinued, a large proportion of the marks 
having disappeared by that time. The Lake Shore & Michigan Southern 
Ry. and the Southern Pacific Ry. have used similar hammers since 1893, and 
find the marks generally still visible. The hammers have only one very 
large figure. A better method is to use marking nails, and the Chicago Tie 
Preserving Co. drives into each tie a ^i-in. galvanized nail, 2y 2 ins. long, 
with a circular head %-in. diameter having the two last figures of the date 
of the year stamped into it. In Germany it has been found that the im- 
pressions made by hammer stamps on preserved ties became effaced before 
the time for renewal, and nails or tacks with distinguishing figures ot 
marks were substituted. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. stamps its 
treated ties and requires them to be laid with the mark at one side of the 
track. The section foremen report monthly, on a special blank, the number 
of treated ties removed and the cause of removal, these reports being for 
future compilation. 

Old Ties. — Ties which are taken out and are not good even for sidetracks 
may be used for fence posts, for cribbing in wet slopes and for various inci- 
dental purposes, but are usually burned on the right of way or used for fuel. 
Old ties and bridge timbers intended for fuel may be economically cut up 
hy machinery. The Murphy machine, used on the Pittsburg, Fort Wayne 
<& Chicago Ry. and other roads, resembles a shearing machine. The upper 
(moving) blade is set about 1 in. out of line from the lower (fixed) blade, 
thus allowing old spikes or bolts to pass through without injuring "the 
knives. The machine will cut timbers 8 x 16 ins., and has an attachment 
with knives by which the wood is split lengthwise to the size desired. The 
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Ry. cuts the timbers to length by a circular 
saw, and then splits them by a 500-lb. drop hammer operated by a 6-in. 
vertical air cylinder iy 2 ft. long. The Chicago & Western Indiana Ry. uses 
a cutting and splitting machine whose knives are operated by two air cylin- 
ders. Where ties have been burned or cut the ashes or chips should be 
raked over for old iron, which has an intrinsic value in the scrap heap. 

Tie Plugs. — These are used to fill old spike holes, whether spikes are to 
be driven in the same place or not. It is usually economical to use machine- 
made plugs, and elm is the most satisfactory wood for the plugs. 

Preservative Processes. 

A few important lines have taken up the question of treated ties, and after 
investigation and experiment have introduced these ties quite extensively, 
with marked success. In general, however, the use of preservative pro- 
cesses for wooden ties as a means of securing improved track with reduced 
maintenance expenses has not been given the careful attention by railway 
officers which its importance warrants, and although the resultant practical 
economies have been amply proved in this and other countries, they have 
been accorded little recognition. This is due largely to the failure to prop- 
erly appreciate the economics of the tie supply question, or the. expenses 
involved in tie renewals, as above noted, with a consequent disinclination to 
incur an additional initial outlay to obtain permanent economy. Reports 
of foreign experience are apt to be regarded with some degree of distrust on 
account of the difference of conditions of railway construction and opera- 



42 TRACK. 

tion, but there is evidence enough in this country as to the efficiency" of the 
preservative processes and the economies resulting from their use. While 
a first-class tie would be somewhat expensive when treated, yet the use of 
preservative processes enables cheaper and (if untreated) inferior timbers 
to be used at about the same cost as (or even much less cost than) untreated 
ties of a more expensive timber. This will enable much high-class timber 
to be left for other industrial purposes. Thus, mountain pine ties that last 
only about 3% to 4 years, and sap pine ties that last only 2 to 3 years, have 
been proved to last from 9 to 12 years and from 7 to 10 years, respectively, 
when treated, being thus superior even to white oak in life and in regard tx> 
the work of tie renewals. The same applies to many other species of tim- 
ber in greater or less degree. 

Even if the first cost of thetreated ties should be equal to that of un- 
treated ties, the longer life would reduce the annual cost, and would also 
materially reduce the expenses for maintenance of way. The question of 
the relative cost and ultimate economy of treated and untreated ties cornea 
up periodically for discussion, and engineers very generally recognize the 
practical and financial advantages of the former. Managers and executive 
officers, as a rule, however, see mainly the extra first cost for ties or a treat- 
ing plant, or regard the matter as a very doubtful experiment, and are apt to 
doubt the economy of using very cheap and inferior woods. They do not 
yet sufficiently appreciate the economies due to increased life of ties and 
the savings of labor in renewals, so that a campaign of education must be 
conducted to bring about any general use of treated ties. 

The following is taken from a detailed estimate prepared by a railway 
manager in regard to the relative cost of certain treated and untreated ties. 
The specifications for untreated ties of Southern pine generally call for all- 
heart pitch pine of such dimensions that 22 to 23 ties are equivalent to about 
1,000 ft. B. M. To cut three such ties from one log requires a tree about 12 
ins. diameter at the small end and 30 ft. long. Such logs are worth 30 to 35 
cts. each as saw logs, and are becoming more expensive and farther re- 
moved from the line of railways and water courses. The logs generally 
used for ties are such as are defective for sawmill purposes, and are sold 
standing in the woods at 10 to 15 cts. each, or about 5 cts. per tie. The cut- 
ting of a tie costs from 12% to 15 cts.; the hauling from the woods to the 
railwayor landing, 3 to 5 cts; railway freight or lighterage, 5 to 15 cts.; 
making a total of 25% to 40 cts. per tie at Southern port. The freight to 
New York ranges from 18 to 21 cts. per tie, and with the inspection and the 
percentage for loss or profit, the cost of a tie delivered at New York would 
be about 55 to 70 cts. Such a tie will have a life of about 5 years in the 
South and 7 years in the North, but in the North the wear under the rail 
and the checking of the timber are quite as destructive as decay. 

Pitch pine is not suitable for creosoting, as it. would not absorb a sufficient 
quantity of the oil, and short-leaf yellow pine is more suitable, having a 
more open grain. This timber grows near the coast and watercourses of 
South Carolina, Georgia and Florida in great abundance and very rapidly. 
It is in little or no demand for sawmill timber, and is consequently much 
cheaper than heart or pitch pine. It is not so hard and durable, but it does 
not check, and can be made as. hard as, and more durable than, pitch pine 
by creosoting. The cost of the material in a tie is about 3 cts.; cutting, 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 43 

12y 2 cts.; hauling to landing, iy 2 to 3 cts.; transportation to port, 3 to 5 cts.; 
making a total of 20 to 22y 2 cts. at the port. Adding freight to New York, 
as before, and the expense of inspection, percentage of loss and profit, etc., 
would make the cost per tie 48 to 54 cts. delivered at New York. The creo- 
soting would cost about 40 cts., so that the total cost for a-creosoted tie 
would be about 85 to 94 cts. From the figures given below it will be seen 
that the actual annual cost of the two ties, taken as a minimum, will be 
about the same on a road which can borrow money at 4%. With a higher 
rate of interest or a higher price for the untreated tie, there would be a 
greater difference. 

, Ties , 

Untreated. Treated. 

Average life 6 12 

Average first cost, cts 50 90 

Annual interest' charge on first cost at 4%, cts 2.0 3.6 

Annual outlay for a sinking fund which will re- 
place tie at end of its life (4% interest), cts. 7.7 5.6 
Total cost per tie per annum 9.7 9.2 

On roads where a fairly good quality of timber is used for treating, the 
economy will be in the maintenance expenses rather than in the cost of the 
ties themselves. But on roads using good and expensive untreated ties, or 
where the ordinary ties have but a short life, or where a road is so located 
that good ties are very expensive and the available ties are very poor, there 
may also be a very material saving in the cost of the ties themselves. In 
fact, most of the progress in the way of tie preservation has been made by 
the railways of the far south and west. As an example of the results, the 
Southern Pacific Ry. has found that by the use of burneti-zed ties since 1887, 
the tie-renewals were reduced from 243 per mile of track (including sid- 
ings) in 1891, to 240 in 1892, 203 in 1893, and 145 in 1894. To arrive at any 
definite conclusion in regard to the advisability of using treated ties on any 
particular railway, it is necessary for the officers to carefully and thor- 
oughly consider for themselves the relations of expenses for ties and tie 
renewals and track work, and the cost and life of treated and untreated 
ties under the conditions of location and traffic of that particular road. 

In most of the processes, the principle of the treatment is to extract the 
sap and replace it (under pressure in closed vessel) by a material which 
will fill the cells of the wood and prevent fermentation and decay. The 
vessel is a horizontal cylinder, with a narrow gage track for steel cars 
loaded with ties. The timber should be thoroughly seasoned before treat- 
ment, and the ties should be allowed to stand for some weeks after treat- 
ment, before being put in the track, in order to allow the chemicals to be- 
come permanently settled in the wood. It is waste of time and money to 
hurriedly treat fresh timber for immediate use, though this is sometimes 
done, owing to contracts for ties not being placed in time. Each charge, 
of the treating cylinder should be composed of ties of about the same age, 
to ensure a uniform result. Each car or buggy load of ties should be 
weighed as it passes in and again as it passes out of the cylinder, and any 
load showing an insufficient amount of absorption should be treated over 
again. Whatever process is used, it is absolutely essential that it should 
be carried out carefully and thoroughly, if the best results are to be ob- 
tained. For this reason, among others, several large railway companies 
prefer to operate their own plant, which plan is likely to give satisfactory 

3 



44 TRACK. 

and economical results if the work is carried on systematically. The va- 
rious processes used, their efficiency and economy, and the results obtained 
with them, will be found very fully treated in the following publications: 
Report of a committee of the American Society of Civil Engineers, 1885; 
Bulletins No.- 1 and No. 9 of the Forestry Division, U. S. Department of 
Agriculture, by Mr. P. H. Dudley and the writer; a paper on "The Preser- 
vation of Railway Ties," by Mr. W. W. Curtis, Transactions of the Ameri- 
can Society of Civil Engineers, 1899; and papers on "The Preservation of 
Timber," by Mr. 0. Chanute, Journal of the Western Society of Engineers, 
April, 1900, and Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, 
September, 1900. 

Creosoting. — This process consists in impregnating the timber with creo- 
sote oil. It is very extensively used abroad, but its introduction in this 
country has been hindered by the higher cost of creosote oil, and the con- 
sequent expense of the treated ties. While it is undoubtedly the best pro- 
cess from a chemical point of view, yet from a commercial and economic 
point of view it cannot compare with the zinc processes, which very effec- 
tively preserve the ties at much smaller cost. The stages of the process 
are essentially as follows: (1) Placing the ties in the cylinder and exhaust- 
ing the air; (2) heating the ties by steam to soften the cell walls and dis- 
solve the contents of the cells, (3) again creating a vacuum to draw the sap 
out of the wood, and then (4) filling the cylinder with hot creosote oil and 
applying pressure to force it into the wood. The creosote is heated to make 
it sufficiently fluid to thoroughly penetrate the wood. Two kinds of oil are 
used: dead oil of coal tar and wood creosote oil. The dead oil is obtained 
by the distillation of coal tar, and its principal preservative constituent is 
naphthaline. This melts only at about 175° F., and if liquefied during the 
treatment it penetrates the wood cells and then becomes solidified and per- 
manently fixed. Acridine is an important constituent and this also remains 
permanently. The tar acids, which were formerly supposed to induce 
coagulation of the albumen in the tie, and thereby to be the principal pre- 
servative, are found to disappear in a comparatively short time. Wood 
creosote oil is obtained by the destructive distillation of pine, and contains 
paraffine oils, which have been claimed to act as preservatives. Their 
value is very much questioned and the material does not meet with much 
approval. One analysis is as follows: tar, 10%; tar acids, 36.7%; neutral 
oils (mostly paraffine oils), 53.3%. 

The ties should be well seasoned, as a wet tie will absorb but little oil, 
while a thoroughly dry tie will readily absorb a large quantity which, when 
solidified, is not affected by moisure in the air or ground. The oil should 
be thoroughly forced in, and, if possible, any cutting, framing or boring 
should be done before the tie is treated. The absorption is about 8 to 12 
lbs., or 1 to 1% gallons, of creosote per cu. ft. of timber. A common ob- 
jection is that creosoting softens the wood and renders it more easily cut 
by the rail. This effect, however, is only temporary, and if the ties are 
stacked for about six weeks after treatment, no trouble is likely to be ex- 
perienced. The weight of the oil is about 8.7 lbs. per gallon. The Southern 
Pacific Ry. specifies that it must be produced in the manufacture of bitu- 
minous coal gas, be completely liquid at 100° F, and have no deposit take 
place above 90° F. It must contain 7 to 10% of tar acids and 20 to 30% 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 45 

of naphthalene, and when distilled at 600° P must have from 20 to 35% 
of undistilled residue.. The details of operation at the works of the 
Southern Pacific Ry., near Houston, are as follows: 

A charge of ties is run in, the cylinder closed, and a vacuum of 24 to 26 
ins. is created, requiring about 10 minutes. Live steam is then turned in, 
destroying the vacuum and giving a temperature of about 250° P (15 to 20 
minutes). The vacuum pump again creates a vacuum to open the wood 
cells and to have the cylinder heated uniformly (15 to 20 minutes). Live 
steam is again turned on, and the pressure raised to 15 or 20 lbs. in about 
40 minutes. This is maintained from 6 to 8 hours, according to the size 
and kind of timber, care being taken to prevent the temperature from- ex- 
ceeding 250° F. Steam is then blown off (40 minutes), and a third vacuum 
created of 24 to 26 ins., requiring about 90 minutes. The superheating pipes 
in the cylinder maintain a temperature of 225° on the timber during these 
130 minutes and during the 4 to 6 hours for which the vacuum is main- 
tained. The cylinder is then filled with creosote oil at a temperature of 
about 170° P. (35 to 40 minutes). The pumps then raise the pressure to 80 
or 100 lbs. per sq. in., which is maintained from 1 to 2 hours, according to 
the size and kind of timber. The oil is then drawn off, the cylinder opened, 
the train pulled out, and another charge run in, (40 to 60 minutes). The 
average time of treatment is 18 to 20 hours; the average absorption, 1*4 
gallons per cu. ft.; and the average cost in 1898 was as follows: creosote oil, 
$8.26; fuel, 59 cts.; labor, $1.23; maintenance, 15 cts.; total, $10.23 per 1,000 
ft. B. M. For piles, no vacuum is created, but the timber is boiled in the 
dead oil at a pressure of 120 lbs., and a temperature of 240° F., the treat- 
ment lasting 12 to 14 hours. As the checking occurs during the treatment, 
the resulting cracks are well filled with oil. Trestle timbers are also 
treated. The Southern Pacific Ry. has a portable plant for treating timber, 
which is set up on a sidetrack in the woods where the ties are being cut. 
(Engineering News, New York, April 4, 1895). 

Burnetizing. — This process (also known as the zinc-chloride process) con- 
sists in impregnating the timber with a solution of metallic zinc in hydro- 
chloric acid, and the method of treatment is similar to that above described* 
except that the solution is not heated. The chemical has the property of 
hardening the wood, and is said to make it brittle, especially if a solution 
of over 3% in strength is used, so that the process is not considered desirable- 
for bridge timbers or piles. The Chicago' Tie Preserving Co., however, has: 
increased the strength to 5° Beaume, without making the ties brittle, and 
it is thought that under modern methods of treatment this result may be 
avoided. The ties are said to be liable to split if exposed to a hot sun. The 
chloride in the ties is somewhat soluble. At the plant of the Atchison, To- 
peka & Santa Fe Ry. the solution contained about 1 lb. of chloride to 4 gal- 
lons of water, and the amount of chloride injected varied from 0.28 to 0.47 
lbs. per cu. ft. of timber. The green ties of mountain pine cost about 12 cts. 
and would last only about 4 years. The treated ties cost 25 cts., and prom- 
ise to last from 9 to 12 years. This plant has three cylinders, 6 ft. diameter 
and 106 ft. long, and the hewed ties are sawed to length and have the rail 
seats trimmed or "spotted" by machine (Engineering News, Sept. 13, 1894). 
The Wellhouse auxiliary process is now employed at both of the plants of 
this railway. 



46 TRACK, 

The process of burnetizing at the works of the Southern Pacific Ry. is 
very similar to that of creosoting, already described. The steam is held at 
15 lbs. pressure for 3% to 6 hours only. After the third vacuum, the cylin- 
der is filled with the cold zinc solution, requiring about 25 minutes, and a 
pressure of 80 to 100 lbs. is then maintained for 1 to 1% hours (according to 
the kind and condition of the timber), when the solution is drawn off (20 
minutes). The solution contains 1.6% of the chloride of zinc, corresponding 
to 2.3° on the Beaume hydrometer. The average time of treatment is 11 to 
12 hours; average absorption, 4y 2 gallons per tie 6 x 8 ins., 8 ft. long; aver- 
age cost of treatment, 6 to 9 cts. The ties are marked with a dating stamp, 
and*are piled for 6 to 8 weeks to allow the chemical changes to become per- 
manently fixed. Sap ties of long-leaf and short-leaf yellow pine (from 
Texas and Louisiana) are used, costing about 23 cts. each at the mills, and 
having a life of only about 2% years. Of 196,365 treated ties laid in 1889, 
there were 78% in the track in July, 1899. As the ties are laid mainly in a 
very dry region (west of San Antonio), there is no trouble from the chloride 
leaching out, as it may do in damp regions, and it was therefore concluded 
that no benefit would result from any auxiliary treatment to prevent such 
leaching. For the same reason, the new plant of the Burlington & Missouri 
River Ry. is for the plain burnetizing process, as the ties are to be laid in a 
practically rainless region. On the other hand, the Houston & Texas Cen- 
tral Ry. is arranging to use cypress ties in the coast country, where the ex- 
cessive rainfall makes the life of burnetized pine uneconomically short. Of 
these latter ties, many are found to fail through the sapwood breaking off, 
leaving the heart like a pole with very little bearing area. 

Wellhouse and Other Zinc-Auxiliary Processes. — In wet or damp locations 
the zinc-chloride (being soluble) may be leached out by the dampness in the 
atmosphere and the ballast, and several auxiliary or combination processes 
have been introduced to seal the wood cells after the impregnation has been 
completed. The best known of these is the Wellhouse or zinc-tannin pro- 
cess, which has been extensively applied in this country. The operations 
at the portable plant on the Chicago & Eastern Illinois Ry. (treating water, 
;red and yellow oak) are as follows: When the cylinder is closed, the air is 
exhausted by a pump, and live steam at 20 lbs. pressure is admitted for 3 
;hours, the temperature within the cylinder not being allowed to exceed 200° 
F. A vacuum is again maintained for 1 hour, to cause the sap to flow, the 
liquid being then drawn off. The -cylinder is then filled with a zinc-chloride 
solution of 3% to 4% strength, which is retained under 100 lbs. pressure for 
2 hours or more. The cylinder is then emptied and filled with the gelatine 
solution; again emptied and filled with the tannin solution, both under 100 
lbs. pressure for 1 hour. The absorption averages 31 lbs. per tie (Engineer- 
ing News, Aug. 17, 1899). By applying the three solutions separately, a 
much greater penetration and absorption are obtained, as the zinc solution 
(which is the preservative) is very fluid, while the other solutions (which 
.are to close the cells) are thick and ropy, and penetrate but a short dis- 
tance. Under the other method glue is added to the zinc solution (2 lbs. of 
glue per gallon of solution), and the tannin solution is applied separately. 
The tannin and gelatin (or glue) combine to form a waterproof leathery 
substance which permanently closes the outer cells of the wood, excluding 
the damp and retaining the zinc. Ties treated by this process are very ex- 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 47 

tensively used by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Ry., and Atchison, To- 
peka & Santa Fe Ry. The treated hemlock ties sometimes outlast untreated 
oak ties, owing to the hardening effect of the treatment. 

In the zinc-creosote process, as employed in this country, the timber is 
first impregnated with a 2% solution of chloride of zinc (giving 12 lbs. of 
solution per cu. ft. of timber, and is then treated with creosote (about 3 lbs. 
of oil per cu. ft.) in order to seal the outer cells. As used in Germany, a 
special quality of creosote oil is added to the zinc solution in the proportion 
of 4.4 lbs. of oil per tie, or 1.25 lbs. per cu. ft. of timber. This process has 
also been used to a limited extent in this country. A zinc-gypsum process 
has also been tried on a small scale. 

Kyanizing. — This process consists in steeping the ties in open tanks in a 
solution of about 1 part of bichloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate) to 
100 parts, by weight, of water; or 1 lb. to 8 or 10 gallons. One day is al- 
lowed for each inch of thickness of the wood. Care is necessary, as the ma- 
terial is an active poison. It hardens the wood, but is generally more satis- 
factory for timber that is kept dry. The Boston & Maine Ry., however, 
used kyanized hemlock ties at one time, and found that the process paid 
when well done. 

Thilmany. — In this process the ties are first impregnated under 80 to 100 
lbs. pressure, with a solution of sulphate of zinc (or sulphate of copper, but 
this is more expensive), and then a solution of chloride of barium. These 
form a chemical combination of insoluble sulphate of baryta and chloride of 
zinc. It has only been used experimentally for ties, and unsatisfactory re- 
sults are reported, owing apparently to the combination failing to take place 
thoroughly in the small wood cells. 

Boucherie. — In this process a solution of 1 lb. of sulphate of copper to 100 
lbs. of water is applied, either in a cylinder or by a cap fitted to one end of 
a log or tie, the solution being forced through by pressure or vacuum. It 
would require about 80 to 100 hours for the solution to travel through a log 
as long as a tie. The rails and spikes decompose the solution, producing 
free sulphuric acid, which attacks the fibers of the wood. 

Vulcanizing. — This is a modern American process, and differs from those 
above described in that no impregnating solution was used. The timber 
was placed m the cylinder and subjected to an air pressure of 100 to 175 lbs. 
at a temperature of 300 to 500° F., which treatement was claimed to chemi- 
cally change the sap into a preservative composition. It is stated on good 
authority that there is no knowledge of the physiology or chemistry of wood 
to sustain this claim, and tests made by the U. S. Forestry Division showed 
no increase in strength and no chemical or physical change. Tests have 
also shown that the temperatures claimed did not reach the interior of the 
tie. It is simply a development of a seasoning process, and with resinous 
woods it may effect a more complete distribution of the resinous matter, 
which is in itself of a preservative character. Vulcanized pine has been 
used for ties, guard timbers, station platforms, etc., on the New York ele- 
vated railway, and a few experimental ties were laid in 1895 on the New 
York, New Haven & Hartford Ry. near Rowayton. In 1899 they were re- 
ported as showing no signs of decay, but it was too early for any definite 
conclusion. The vulcanizing process proper is now supplemented by a 
treatment with creosote, formaldehyde and resin, and a final treatment with 



48 ._ TRACK. 

resinate of lime. The "vulcanizing" is claimed to sterilize the timber, but 
did not prevent decay of the outside. 

Miscellaneous.— Fernoline, spirittine, pinoline and woodiline are prepara- 
tions resembling wood creosote oil, and are used either as a bath for ties, 
poles and timber, or as a paint for bridge and station timber, planking, 
piles, ferryboats and scows, etc., to prevent decay and the attacks of boring 
worms. The Pennsylvania Ry. wood preservative for such purposes is a 
distillate from Georgia pine. The specifications require 5% tarry matter 
(not over 12%), 45% tar acids (not less than 30%), 50% neutral oils; flashing 
point, 172 to 200° F.; burning point, 200 to 220° F.; running point, 15 to 20° 
F.; specific gravity, 1.03 to 1.05. The bath is usually heated to about 150° 
F., but the Pennsylvania Ry. has tried heating the ties and dipping them in 
cold woodiline. A dry oak tie will absorb about 1% gallons of this in 3 
hours, but ordinarily the immersion is only for 15 minutes, giving an ab- 
sorption of y 2 gallon. The cost is about 15 to 20 cts. per tie, including ma- 
terial and labor. Carbolineum and Finch's preservative are applied for 
similar purposes in a similar way. The former should be heated to about 
250° F. and the timber given two good coats, allowing 24 hours between the 
applications, and between the time of the second coat and the time of using 
the timber. For filling old spike holes, tar or refuse resin from the turpen- 
tine distilleries are superior to wooden plugs, but are awkward to use. When 
piles (treated or untreated) are left with the heads exposed, as in the case 
of fender piles, the heads should be well coated with tar, which is better 
than creosote oil, as it forms a mechanical cover to exclude the moisture. 
On framed work for bridges, trestles, docks, etc., the framed portions may 
be well painted with some preservative before being put together. 

Metal Tie-Plates. 

There is usually considerable trouble from the cutting of soft wood ties 
by the rails, as already noted, and this is aggravated by the resulting local 
rot under the rails and around the spike holes, and by the further wear and 
disintegration of the softened wood. The cutting also decreases the hold of 
the spikes, letting the rail drop loose below the spike head and allowing it 
to get out of gage and to tilt on curves. The direct pressure of the rail on 
the tie has little destructive effect, but it is the slight wave motion of the 
rail which causes the cutting, grinding and abrasion of the wood, and the 
wear or "necking" of the spikes. One of the most important and practical 
of modern improvements in railway track is that effected by the introduc- 
tion of metal tie-plates, which are placed between the rail and the tie. 
They involve only a small additional cost, but effect a most decided econ- 
omy in ties and in track work. In some exceptional cases, where they have 
been put on old ties, a saving of over 50% in track work (mainly for main- 
taining gage) has been effected. They act as a tie protector or preservative, 
and are in no way to be classed with the chairs and joint chairs (obsolete 
in this country, but still extensively used abroad), whose office was to sup- 
port the rails and hold them in position. 

The small and light tie-plate which embodies its own fastenings to the 
tie, and becomes an integral part of the tie, independent of spikes, bolts, 
etc., is a distinctive feature of American railway track. It is a decidedly 
modern invention, but has fully borne out the ideas of its designers, and is 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 49 

now very extensively used, while its application is spreading rapidly. The 
cheapness of tie-plates, combined with their undoubted advantages in ef- 
ficiency and economy, has led to their adoption on many hund.ed miles of 
track. It is recognized that they not only increase the life of ties of durable 
but soft timber (whether treated or untreated), but also effect a direct econ- 
omy in renewals and maintenance of way, while at the same time they add 
to the permanence and security of the track by giving a durable and uni- 
form bearing to the rails, and lessening the disturbance of track for tie re- 
newals. They are specially advantageous for soft ties under heavy traffic. 
It was at first predicted that they would make it difficult to keep the track 
in gage, but the very opposite has been the result. They prevent the widen- 
ing of the gage which occurs (particularly on curves) by the tilting of the 
rail as the lateral pressure causes the outer edge of the rail base to cut 
into the wood. They also cause the spikes on both sides of the rail to act 
equally to resist the outward lateral pressure; the plate ties the two spikes 
together and is thus equivalent to double spiking, making the two spikes as 
efficient as three. On curves they have been successfully used in place of 
rail braces, for the above reasons, as the great trouble (especially on sharp 
curves at switches and turnouts) is the tendency to tilt the rail in the man- 
ner above described. On steep grades, the plates prevent the increased cut- 
ting of the ties due to sand from the engines getting under the rail and 
helping to abrade the wood. 

Tie-plates may be used with special advantage as follows: (1) At termi- 
nal yards, where, on account of frequent switching and the use of sand, the 
rails cut into the ties very soon, while tie renewals are difficult and ex- 
pensive, and interfere with traffic; (2) on curves, to save the uneven wear 
of the rails and the loss of thickness in the ties by frequent adzing of the 
rail seats; also to save the frequent lining and respiking, and to maintain 
correct line and gage to ensure easy riding curves; (3) at switch leads on 
main track, under the rails that cut into the long ties, thus saving expensive 
renewals of ties otherwise perfectly good; (4) at rail joints on tangents 
(whether suspended, three-tie or supported joints), to hold up the rail ends 
and prevent them from deflecting by cutting into the ties; (5) on tangents 
where ties are cut out by the rails before they decay; (6) on bridges and 
trestles. The plates may be used on every tie on bridges, trestles, curves, 
etc., and on tangents where soft ties are used. With good, hard ties they 
are sometimes used only at joints and quarter ties; or 6 to 10 plates to each 
rail. 

Flat-Bottom Tie-Plates— The objection to a simple flat plate is that it is 
impossible (with spike fastenings) to keep it tight, so that there will be a 
continual movement of the rail on the plate and the plate on the tie, with a 
consequent admission of dust and moisture to cause wear and decay. At 
the same time, there will be a constant clattering under traffic. Flat plates 
that are thin and wide will bend and buckle, while if made thick enough to 
resist- bending, they will be clumsy and heavy. The New York elevated 
railways laid some flat plates 6x8 ins., %-in. thick, in 1888, but in addition 
to buckling and cracking at the ends*, they induced premature decay of the 
yellow pine ties. They rattled under the trains, and kept the moisture on 
the ties, thus hastening rot, especially in summer, when the plates were hot 
and the ties damp. In 1894, ties which had been in service less than 6 years 



50 TRACK. 

had to be removed because of the decay thus caused. In some ties the rot 
extended to the sap wood beyond the plates, while in heart wood it was con- 
fined to the part covered by the plates. As a result of this experience, 
flanged plates were adopted and are now extensively used on these lines. 
The Southern Pacific Ry. at one time used flat wrought-iron tie-plates to 
protect the soft redwood ties on the Pacific lines. The plates were 9 x 7% 
ins., % to 7-16 in. thick under the rail, and having a rib to receive the out- 
ward thrust of rail base and four 11-16-in. round holes for screw spikes. 
The weight was 6% lbs. They were not satisfactory, however, and since the 
introduction of flanged tie-plates their use has been discontinued. 

Flanged and Toothed Tie-Plates. — To effect an attachment of the plate to 
the tie, various arrangements of flanges, spurs and teeth have been devised. 
The object should be to secure a firm hold and to do as little injury as pos- 
sible to the wood. This appears to have been most efficiently attained by 
providing the plate with longitudinal flanges, which are forced into the 
wood and are tightly held by the fibres, while the size of the flanges is such 
as not to split or crush the wood. The fibres are compressed between the 
wedged-shaped flanges, and the flanges also serve to stiffen the plate, and 
enable a thin plate to be used without buckling under heavy loads. Long 
experience with plates of this type show that they become immovably fixed 
upon the tie, do not cause checking or cracking, and do not cause decay to 
set in. For plates with chisel-edged claws or spurs cutting across the grain, 
it is claimed that the grip is equal to that of four good spikes, but such plates 
must rely on their thickness for stiffness. The objection that outward 
thrust on the plate will force out the fibers cut by the spur does not seem 
probable, except in very soft and poor ties. The more serious objection is 
the direct cutting and severing of the fiber. The Churchward plate had six 
teeth, 1 in. long and of triangular section, to bite into the tie, but this plate 
is now very little used. 

Ribbed Plates. — Some plates are made with a rib on top, against which 
the outer edge of the rail base is fitted. It is claimed that one of the im- 
portant functions of the tie-plate is to relieve the spike from the outward 
thrust of the rail and the wear due to abrasion by the edge of the rail base, 
and this certainly seems reasonable when we consider the inefficiency of 
the spike as a fastening for rails under heavy traffic. On the other hand, it 
seems to be the general opinion that the flat-top plates, which have been 
used much more extensively and for a longer time than any other form, 
have been found entirely satisfactory in this respect, and that there has 
been little or no "necking" of the spikes, even on sharp curves, provided 
that the rail base is the full width between the spike holes and that old 
"necked" spikes are not redriven. In other words, there has been no trou- 
ble where full contact and an absence of play are ensured in the first place, 
as, of course, they should be in good track work. This applies even to sharp 
curves in switch leads used by heavy engines. 

Dimensions of Tie-Plates.— The plates should be large enough to give a 
good bearing on the tie, with room for the spike holes, but very wide and 
very narrow plates are equally objectionable. If too large, they are more 
liable to buckle, while a very wide plate will not allow for the wave motion 
of the rail. Experiments with plates the full width of the ties showed that 
they caused the ties to rock in the ballast. Plates 4y 8 , 5 and 6 ins. wide, and 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 51 

8 or 9 ins. long, are now most generally used. The Southern Pacific Ry. 
uses four-flanged Servis plates 5x8 ins. on intermediate ties, and three- 
flanged plates 6x9 ins. on joint ties. The New York Central Ry. 
uses the same type of plate, 6 x 9% ins., 13-16-in. deep over all, on the middle 
tie of its three-tie joints. The larger plates, with four spike holes, may also 
be used on very sharp curves. The thinner the plate, as long as it is able 
to resist buckling, the better it will hold to the tie, and the flanged plates 
are usually about 3-16-in. thick, while those having no stiffening flanges are 
from 34 to %-in. thick. Experience has shown that the wear of the plate by 
the rail is very slight, except in some exceptional cases, so that great thick- 
ness is not required to resist such wear. A thin plate, which will not buckle 
or work under the traffic, would therefore appear to be as efficient as, and 
more economical than, a thick and heavy plate. 

Application of Tie-Plates. — The plates should be properly set and bedded 
on the ties in the first place, and not left to be driven home by the weight 
of the trains. The traffic will not do this efficiently, and meanwhile there 
is a liability of gravel, etc., getting under the plates and preventing them 
from being properly bedded. Unless the plate has a full even bearing on 
the tie it is likely to fracture under loads. In laying these plates, the line 
side of the tie is marked and the plate put on at the proper distance from 
the edge. The other plate is then set in its proper position by a gage. The 
exact position depends, of course, upon the width of the rail base. The 
plates may be forced into the tie by a machine at the shops, by a portable 
hydraulic press, or by a paver's rammer (striking vertically). The most 
general method, however, is to use a maul or beetle of about 15 to 20 lbs., 
with a 36-in. handle, a wooden or metal block or follower being put on the 
plate to distribute the force of the blow. Unless this is done, a careless 
man may bring the edge of the maul upon the plate, buckling it so that the 
rail will rest only on its two edges. In applying plates to ties already in the 
track, the rail may be lifted, the plate slipped under, an iron plate placed 
upon each projecting end, and these two plates struck simultaneously with 
mauls. One end of the flanged plate may be settled into the tie, and the 
free end then driven with a sledge, causing the flanges to plow their way 
through the wood under the rail. Special tools are used for setting the 
plates in right position. (See Tools and Maintenance.). Consider- 
able economy in track work may be ensured by placing the plates on 
new ties for renewals before the ties are put in the track. When plates are 
put on old ties, a flat seat must be adzed or the ties may be turned. In the 
construction of the San Francisco & San Joaquin Valley Ry. (1898-99) the 
ties were unloaded in the material yard and put through a tie-plating ma- 
chine, which gaged the plates and drove them to place by steam power, one 
movement of the lever driving both plates home. It was found that the ties 
could then be stored, loaded on cars, shipped to the front, and put into the 
track without a loss of plates, and this method gave exceptional results as 
to cheapness and as to effective bedding of the plates. As the track was 
laid, the plates which came under joints were removed and joint tie-plates 
substituted at very small expense. 

Shimming. — The tie-plate is intended to be a permanent part of the tie, 
and no attempt should be made to remove the plate when shimming is re- 
quired. In fact, it would be very difficult to remove it. The shims should 



52 



TRACK. 



be placed between the rail and the plate, being bored to correspond with the 
spike holes in the plates. Where shims more than 1% ins. thick are re- 
quired, a piece of plank should be spiked to the tie and the shims placed 
upon it. If the. traffic is very heavy, a second tie-plate may be placed on 
the shim. 

Examples of Tie-Plates. — The Servis or Q. & C. tie-plate (Fig. 18) was the 
first to be introduced to any practical extent, and has been more exten- 
sively used than any other. It is usually 3% x 8, 5x8 or 6x9 ins., 3-16-in. 
thick, with three or four flanges about %-in. deep. The spike holes are 
punched to fit the rails to be used, and four holes are sometimes 
punched in plates for joints on sharp curves. The Wolhaupter plate had 
longitudinal flanges, but closer together and with more sloping faces to 
compress the fibres. It had also grooves on the face of the plate to receive 
any sand, etc., that might get under the rail, and lugs or shoulders to fit the 
outer edge of the rail base. The Q. & W. plate, Pig. 19, is a combination of 
the best features of the two former, both of which it has practically super- 
seded. It has longitudinal flanges and grooves, but no lug or shoulder. 
The metal is 3-16-in. thick, and plates iy 2 x 8 ins. and 5x8 ins. weigh about 



w 



•//■■Hh 



1-/4'— h 



v.^ / i«ft 




Fig. 19.— Q. & W. Tie-Plate. 




Fig. 18.— Servis Tie-Plate. 



Fig. 20.— Goldie Tie-Plate. 



2T-A and 2% lbs. to 3 lbs. The 5x8 size is most generally used, but larger 
sizes are also used for special cases, and weigh 4 to 5 lbs. The Goldie tie- 
plate (Fig. 20) is 1V 2 ins. long, 6 ins. wide and %-in. thick, weighing about 
5 lbs. It has a rib on top, and at each corner is a flat chisel edge or pointed 
lug which is driven into the tie, # cutting across the grain. There are other 
forms of tie-plates in use, but all more or less closely resembling those 
above described, which are the ones most extensively used. The Church- 
ward plate had teeth on the under side 1 in. long and %-in. high; it was 
about 6x9 ins., %-in. thick, and weighed 4 lbs. Very few of these are. now 
in use. 

Foreign Tie-Plates.— Tie-plates of various forms have been used on for- 
eign railways since 1838, but they are generally much heavier than the 
American plates, weighing 8 to 12 lbs. each. None of them are of the "self- 
fastening" type developed in this country, but require to be secured by 
spikes, bolts, or screws, the two latter fastenings overcoming to some extent 
the difficulties arising from the looseness of flat plates. Some of the plates 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 



53 



have a transverse rib fitting in a groove cut across the tie, to prevent the 
plate from slipping, but the cutting of ties in this way, or to let a thick plate 
lie flush with the top of the tie, is very bad practice. The Sandberg tie- 
plate (Fig. 21) is about 12 x 18 ins., ^-in. thick and weighs about 13 lbs. It 




Fig. 21.— Sandberg's Tie-Plates. 

is fastened by fang bolts, spikes or screw spikes, as shown, and has lugs to 
hold the rail base. The rail is secured to the bolted plate by a taper key 
driven between the rail base and one of the lugs. This plate was designed 
by Mr. C. P. Sandberg, the European rail expert, who has recognized that 
the cast-iron chair is a weak point in English railway track, and that with 
flange rails and tie-plates a track can be built more economical than, and 
equally as strong as, the track with bull-head rails in chairs. This is the 
view which the author has frequently expressed. The tie-plate designed by 
Mr. J. W. Post, of the Netherlands State Railways (inventor of the well- 
known Post steel tie), is shown in Fig. 22. As now made, however, the bot- 
tom is usually flat (except that it has the maker's mark in relief). It is* 
8.56 ins. wide, 8 ins. long, and 0.52 to 0.74-in. thick at the rail seat, which is 
4.32 ins. wide, inclined 1 in 20. The outer edge of the rail base bears against 




Fig. 22.— Post's Tie-Plate; Netherlands State Railways. 



a shoulder on the rail seat and is held by a screw spike. The inner side is 
held by a clamp with a similar spike. The plate has three round 1-in. spike 
holes in each side. The standard track of the Prussian State Railways has 
82.65-lb. T rails on flat-bottomed steel tie-plates, 7y 2 x 6% ins., y 2 to 11-16-in. 
thick under the rail, and weighing 8.82 lbs. The top surface is grooved to 
fit the rail base, and the plate is held by three screw spikes. 



54 TRACK. 

Metal Ties. 

The use of metal ties is not likely to obtain in this country for very many 
years, and not until the era of preserved wooden ties, metal tie-plates and 
improved rail fastenings has become much further advanced. Nevertheless 
it will be well for American railway managers and engineers to consider the 
extensive experience with such ties in other countries, with a view to the 
possibility of their future introduction here. The trials made here, so far, 
have been few and unimportant, and they have generally been on too lim- 
ited a scale to give any definite results. The experiments should be con- 
tinued, however, in order to determine the life of steel ties under actual con- 
ditions of service, and also to develop the special features of merit or de- 
ficiency in the various designs. It is of little use to put in a few ties, but at 
least half a mile of track should be laid with them if any definite conclu- 
sions are to be obtained. Metal ties have passed beyond the experimental 
stage, and are now largely used in other countries, for main lines with 
heavy traffic as well as for secondary lines and pioneer railways. This is 
shown in the author's reports on "The Use of Metal Ties for Railways" (is- 
sued by the Forestry Division of the United States Government in 1890 and 
1894). In 1894 there were 35,000 miles of railway laid with metal track, or 
17%% of the total mileage of the world, exclusive of the United States and 
Canada, since metal ties are used to but an infinitesimal extent in the for- 
mer and not at all in the latter. 

The advantages of metal ties are in longer life, reduced cost and labor of 
maintenance, superiority of track, permanence of roadbed due to reduction 
in renewals and maintenance work, and a decided ultimate economy. Ex- 
cellent and easy-riding track is made with good metal ties, but of the in- 
numerable forms of ties which have been tried, only a comparatively small 
number have proved successful. The fastenings should be of as few parts 
as possible, without special fittings for curves or joints, and should provide 
for an adjustment of gage at curves, switches, etc. Some of the bolted 
clamp fastenings are found to remain tight and prevent rattling. To pre- 
vent noise due to the contact between the steel rail and tie, packings of felt, 
wood, asbestos, tarred canvas, etc., have been tried, but without much suc- 
cess, and there is little need of such packing with good fastenings that do 
not work loose. The ends of the tie should be closed, to resist lateral mo- 
tion, and the friction of the core of ballast thus enclosed over the bed of bal- 
last greatly increases this resistance. Broken stone ballast about 1 in. in 
size is generally best for main tracks, although close-packing coarse gravel 
is sometimes preferred. Wooden ties are generally used at frogs and 
switches, but long steel ties can be (and are) used, affording extra security. 
Ties bent and distorted by derailment, etc., can often be made serviceable 
again by straightening in a hydraulic press, as is done where such ties are 
used extensively. 

Cast-iron and steel bowls and plates, connected in pairs by transverse tie- 
roads, are extensively and successfully used in India and South America, 
and have been tried in this country. The latest pattern used in India weighs 
230 lbs. complete, and renewals average only 0.6 to 0.8% per annum. The 
most approved, and by far the most extensively used form of tie, however, 
is a rolled or pressed steel cross-tie. of channel or trough section, with ends 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 



55 



closed, and laid inverted in the ballast. This is developed from the type of 
tie invented by Vautherin, the French engineer, in 1864. The design and 
manufacture of the tie and fastenings should be such as to ensure good 
material and accuracy of fit. Bessemer, Thomas and Siemens-Martin steel 
is used, with about 0.1 to 0.2% carbon, and having a tensile strength of 
about 50,000 to 60,000 lbs. per sq. in., with an elongation of 18 to 20% in 8 
ins., and a reduction in area of 30 to 40% at the point of fracture. The steel 
of the ties for the New York Central Ry. was made soft to stand pressing 
to shape, and had 0.1% carbon, .0.4% manganese, 0,081% phosphorus and 
0.033% sulphur. Corrosion occurs in certain saline soils, in ashes, etc., and 
the ties are usually dipped hot in a bath of tar. Cracks are less likely to 
start from drilled than from punched holes. The tie should be of simple de- 
sign, and with the smallest number of parts consistent with security and the 
necessary adjustment; the thickness should be sufficient for strength and 
wear, and the weight sufficient to hold the track down well. From 120 to 
175 lbs. is probably the best weight for a tie for first-class track carrying 
modern heavy engines and heavy rolling stock. Of the numerous designs of 
metal ties patented in this country, only an infinitesimal proportion have 
any practical value, owing mainly to the failure of the inventors to compre- 




Half Plan 

Fig. 23.— Post's Steel Tie. 



hend or provide for practical conditions of service. Lightness and cheap- 
ness are too often aimed at as of first importance, with the result of making 
the tie practically worthless and extremely uneconomical; or in other cases 
the design is so unwieldy and complicated as to be entirely impracticable 
for manufacture or use. 

The life of steel ties will vary from 20 to 40 years, and even 50 years is 
claimed. For the first 2 to 4 years the labor and cost of maintenance will 
be about the same as, or perhaps more than, with wooden ties, the expense 
being mainly on the ballast and the rail fastenings. The metal track, how- 
ever, then becomes permanently consolidated and the attention required 
steadily decreases; with the wooden ties, however, the work and expense 
continue to increase year by year, until renewals are. necessary. One of the 
great advantages of metal track is that it is not disturbed frequently for tie 
renewals, and is thus kept in good condition for running. A part of the 
Netherlands State Railways (Holland), laid with Post steel ties and carry- 
ing 25 trains daily, was carefully tamped and put in condition, and was then 



56 



TRACK. 



left for 40 months without any other work than occasional tightening of 
the nuts. 

Steel ties are extensively and successfully used in Europe, India, Africa, 
South America and Mexico. The Post tie, invented by Mr. J. W. Post, Di- 
vision Engineer of the Netherlands State Railways, is used in many coun- 
tries for lines of broad and narrow gage carrying light and heavy traffic. 
Fig. 23 shows this tie for standard gage track, its length being from 8 ft. 4 
ins. to 8 ft. 10 ins. and the weight from 120 to 163 lbs. It is of varying sec- 
tion, being thinner, narrower and deeper at the middle than at the ends, 
thus combining strength and stiffness with an economical distribution of 
metal. The thickness is from 0.48 to 0.52 ins. at the rail seats, decreasing 
to 0.24 in. at the middle, while the sides are 0.24 to 0.36 in. thick. At the 
middle the tie is 4% ins. deep and 5y 2 ins. wide over the bottom, with sides 
sloping 1 to 3. At the rail seats it is flat for 4% ins. on top, lO 1 ^ ins. wide 
over the bottom, and 2 ins. deep. The bolt holes are 1 x l^-ins., oblong, 
with rounded corners to prevent cracks. The bolts are %-in. diameter, with 
T heads passing into the tie and held between ribs under the rail seat. An 
eccentric washer on the bolt allows for an adjustment of gage, and this is 
secured by the clamp which holds the rail base. Tie-plates are sometimes 
placed under the rails. The joint or shoulder ties are 2 ft. apart, and the in- 



5'b' (jaqe 




Fig. 24.— Rendel's Steel Tie; Indian State Railways. 



termediate ties 3 ft. apart. The Post steel ties on the Gothard Ry., Switzer- 
land, are 8 ft. 10 ins. long, 15-32-in, thick (at rail seat), and weigh 163 
lbs. Allowing for the value of old material, these ties are actually cheaper 
in 'first cost than oak ties costing $1.20, and in tunnels the life is about the 
same, or 8 to 10 years. Even if they were less economical than wood, the 
steel ties would still be used on account of the greater security of the track 
on the heavy grades and sharp curves of this mountain road, with its heavy 
engines and traffic. (Engineering News, April 7 and Aug. 25, 1898). The 
Rendel steel tie, shown in Pig. 24, is extensively used in India, South Amer- 
ica and Mexico for lines of 5 ft. 6 ins., 4 ft. 8y 2 ins. 'and 3 ft. 3% ins. gage. 
For the widest gage it is 9 ft. long, 4y 2 ins. wide on top, 8% to 13 ins. wide 
on the bottom and 4% to 5 ins. deep. The thickness is 13-32-in. on top and 
i/4-in. on the, sides. Two lugs are stamped up at each rail seat, and a flat 
taper key is driven between the rail base and each of the lugs. The tie 
weighs about 135 lbs., and the keys 1 lb. each. The ties are usually laid 
about 3 ft. c. to c. 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 



57 



In this country the most extensive trials with steel ties have been made 
on the New York Central Ry. In 18S9 there were 800 of the Hartford ties 
laid in stone ballast near Garrison's. They were so successful, and the cost 
of maintenance was so low, that a few years later a number of pressed steel 
ties of modified form were made, having a bolted clamp fastening devised 
by Mr. Katte, then Chief Engineer. These ties are shown in Fig. 25. Thsy 



age 4' Si" 




Half Ran. 

Fig. 25.— Steel Tie of New York Central Ry. 



weighed, however, only 86 lbs., or 100 lbs. with fastenings, which was too 
light for such heavy traffic as they had to carry. According to reports 
made at the end of 1899, there were 721 of the original ties in 1,576 ft. of 
track, and while they were durable, they required nearly twice as much 
work to keep them in surface as was required for the adjacent track with 
wooden ties. They were also hard to line, the ballast shook away from 
them, and they made a noisy track. About 1,350 of the modified ties were 
then in use in 3,375 ft. of track, but were being replaced with oak ties. They 
were less satisfactory than the original ties, their shape preventing the eco- 
nomical lining of track, while they broke more readily in the middle and 
crushed under the rail. The quality of the steel, already referred to, was 
probably not suitable for the purpose. 

The Standard steel tie (Fig. 26) has been tried on four or five railways, 
but the last were taken out in 1898. It was of channel section, placed with 





"f 


T 








L_ 




p * 


V3f 


K 


r 




Section. 


— I'Qlonq ! 


1 i 


3 


3> ^ 


1 f 




L 


f~ Half 


=lan 





Fig. 26.— Standard Steel Tie. 



the open side up, and having wooden blocks (with grain vertical) to which 
the rails were secured by clamps held by horizontal bolts through the 
blocks. The tie was filled with ballast, and the bottom was bent up at the 
middle to offer resistance to lateral motion, the ends being open. The 
weight was about 90 lbs. The Pennsylvania Ry. has tried some English 
steel ties. The Huntington & Broad Top Mountain Ry. is now trying the 



58 TRACK. 

Chester steel tie. This has two inverted trough rail-bearers, 12 ins. long, with 
stamped lugs to hold the inside of the rail base, the troughs being set paral- 
lel with the rails. They are connected by a tie-bar of inverted T-section 
passing through the sides of the troughs and having the top of its web 
notched to hold the outer edge of the rail base. The trough is slipped in- 
ward along the bar until th.e rail can engage with the notch on the bar, and 
is then forced out until its lugs hold the rail, when the ballast is tightly 
packed around it. No other means of fastening is provided. The troughs 
weigh 25 lbs. each, and the tie-bar 20 lbs. or 70 lbs. for the tie complete. A 
concrete tie in which a transverse steel truss is embedded has been tried on 
the Pennsylvania Lines near Chicago. With the exception of the New York 
Central Ry., however, all these experiments, while well enough in them- 
selves, have beenon too limited a scale to give results of any practical value. 



CHAPTER 5.— RAILS. 



The T-rail or flange rail, which is now in common use all over the world, 
was invented in this country in 1830 by Col. Robert L. Stevens, Chief Engi- 
neer of the Camden & Amboy Ry., and the first order was placed in England 
by him for this road. He also designed the hook-headed, spike and flat 
splice bar, which have developed into the modern spike, fish plate and angle 
bar. In Europe this rail is generally called the Vignoles rail, having been 
re-invented in England in 1836 by Mr. Charles B. Vignoles. The fish-plate 
joint was also re-invented in England by Mr. W. Bridges Adams, in 1847. 

When railway development was recommenced in 1865, after the close of 
the Civil War, more attention began to be paid to the design of rails, and 
in 1865 Mr. Ashbel Welch designed a T-rail whose proportions approximated 
to those of modern sections, but whose head was rounded in accordance 
with the English practice of that day. About 1874, Mr. R. H. Sayre designed 
a rail having a head with top corners of large radius and sides sloping out- 
ward from the top, with the idea of reducing the wear caused by the wheel 
flanges. The Sayre 76-lb. rail adopted on the Lehigh Valley Ry. in 1883 had 
a flare of 10°, but in. the 80-lb. rail, adopted in 1891, the flare was reduced to 
5°, which was retained in the 90-lb. rail of 1895 (Fig. 27). Mr. J. A. Milhol- 
land, President and General Manager of the George's Valley & Cumberland 
Ry., has advocated a section carrying the Sayre design to extremes, having 
a flare of 20°. This is based on the form of wear of 72-lb. rails on the sharp 
and freqnient curves, but no such rails have been made. This is almost the 
last advocate of this form of rail head, the typical Sayre section being now 
almost entirely abandoned. It is now generally recognized that the best re- 
sults are obtained with sharp top corners and vertical sides to the heads, as 
noted further on, though some designers still adhere to a slight flare of 4° 
to '5°, with the idea of keeping the wheel flanges away from the corner of 
the rail head. The Providence & Worcester Ry. rail of 1885 had the sides 
sloped inward from the top, a design which is decidedly bad. Between 1880 
and 1888 there was a tendency to give the rail head a large top corner radius 
of % to % in., to fit the fillet of the wheel tire. This, however, caused a con- 
siderable rubbing friction of the wheel flange on the rail head (aggravated 



RAILS. 



59 



in some cases by outward flaring sides to the head), in addition to the nor- 
mal rolling contact with the wheel tread. 

In 1873 the American Society of Civil Engineers appointed a committee to 
report upon the form, size, manufacture, test, endurance and breakage of 
rails, and also upon the comparative economy of iron and steel rails. In 
1883 another committee was appointed to consider the proper relations of 



2**- 




Fig. 27.— Sayre Type; Lehigh 
Valley Ry. 




Fig. 29. 



*F 

72 lbs. 

-Sandberg Type. 




Fig. 28.— Type of American 
Society of Civil Engineers. 




Fig. 30.— Dudley Type; 
York Central Ry. 



New 



Rail Sections. 
railway wheels and rails, in view of the disputed ideas as to these relations. 
It was asserted on the one hand that the rail head should have a round top 
corner and a head flaring outward from the top, to conform to the outline of 
the wheel fillet and flange. On the other hand, it was claimed that such a 
long line of contact would be dangerous (tending to cause derailment with 
sharp flanged wheels) and would cause undue wear and friction, and that 
therefore the rail head should have a sharp top corner and vertical sides in 
order to keep the wheel flange away from the rail head as long as possible. 
This committee's investigation showed the following: (1) That the num- 
ber and disadvantages of sharp-flanged worn wheels had been greatly exag- 
gerated; (2) that sharp corners did not produce this character of t wheel 
wear to the extent claimed; (3) that round-cornered rails showed greater 
side wear due to cutting by the wheel flange, while the rail wear became 



60 TRACK. 

more rapid as soon as the side of the head began to be attacked; and (4) 
that rails often fail with little material abraded from the top by wear 
proper, being crushed after the flow of metal has reached its limit, and thus 
failing by rapid disintegration due to heavy wheel loads. The committee 
recommended a broad head relatively to depth, with a top radius of 12 ins., 
^-in. top corners, 1-16-in. bottom corners, and vertical sides starting from a 
sufficient base width to give ample bearing for the joint. 

This led to the appointment of a third committee to prepare designs for 
standard rail sections, in an endeavor to reduce the number of existing sec- 
tions (adopted at haphazard) to some standard of uniformity, so that rail 
mills would be able to roll to stock, instead of having to roll so many spe- 
cial sections. At that time there was an almost entire lack of uniformity 
in rail design, each engineer having his own ideas, and desiring to have his 
own special form of section on his own line. The rail mills therefore had 
to carry enormous stocks of rolls for all these sections, though many of the 
sections were practically identical, having minute variations as the result 
of the whim of the designer or his ignorance of the existence of a practically 
identical section. This committee made a very thorough investigation, and 
in 1893 presented its report (which was adopted), recommending standard 
sections, in which the metal was distributed as follows: Head, 42%; web, 
21%; base, 37%. This is probably the best distribution yet made, provided 
that the rails are of good material, and thoroughly rolled, the rolling being 
as s4ow and finished as cold as practicable. This type of section is shown 
in Fig. 28. The sections vary by 5 lbs. from 40 to 120 lbs. per yd., and in all 
of them the height and width of base are equal, while the following dimen- 
sions are constant: 

Radius. Radius. 

Top of head t. 12 ins. Side of web 12 ins. 

Top corners of head 5 / 16 -in. Top fillets of web ^-in. 

Bottom corners of head Vie-in. Bottom fillets of web ^-in. 

Corners of base y 16 -in. Fishing angles 18" 

Within the past few years these sections have been very extensively 
adopted, and there is at the present time a general approval of what are 
commonly termed the "Am. Soc. C. E." sections, as well as a strong ten- 
dency towards the use of uniform standard sections. The advantages are 
felt by the makers as well as the users of these rails, for not only does their 
general adoption reduce the idle capital invested in a large stock of rolls 
and enable the mills to roll rails for stock, but experience shows that rails 
of the Am. Soc. C. E. section can be rolled at a lower temperature and re- 
quire less cambering than sections having a greater proportion of the metal 
in the heads. There are also fewer "wasters" or "seconds" from rails rolled 
to these sections, and the sharp corners have no material effect upon the 
life of the rolls. It will be noticed that the third committee adopted 5-16-in. 
as the radius of the top corner, instead of Y^-in.., as recommended by the 
second committee. This was partly to effect a compromise with the advo- 
cates of a round corner, and partly to make the section more generally ap- 
plicable on curves. The section was designed particularly for the tangents 
and easy curves which compose by far the greater part of the railway sys- 
tem, so that some modifications may be made to give more satisfactory re- 
sults on lines having a large percentage of very sharp curves. Such modi- 
fications have been made in a few instances, as in the Manning rail noted 



RAILS. 61 

below, but as a matter of fact the Am. Soc. C. E. section is used with suc- 
cess on many lines of this character, and additional sections are not desira- 
ble. An investigation made by the author in 1900 showed that out of 50 
leading railways (representing 120,000 miles of road), 35 railways (with 75% 
of this mileage) had adopted this form of section as standard, and were 
using it in all renewals. The same investigation showed that no excessive 
wheel wear has been caused by the sharp cornered rails, except that on one 
road it is believed that at rail joints the corners (on new rails) act as chisels 
to cut the tires unless the rails are in perfect alinement. This effect disap- 
pears after a time. A similar effect appears when a stretch of track is laid 
with new rails or rails of a new section (especially if they have a wider 
head), to which the worn wheel tires do not conform. The relation of 
wheels to rails and frogs is discussed in Chapter 7. 

As to the form of section, then, it may be said that the concensus of ex- 
perience and investigation is that the head should be broad and relatively 
thin, with sharp top corners of *4 in. or 5-16 in., sides vertical, or nearly ver- 
tical, and having fishing angles of not less than 13°. The natter the under 
side of the head can be made, without affecting the rolling, the better, and 
the top and bottom fishing angles should be the same. In England the 
angle is usually 20 to 30°. The web is made with either vertical or curved 
sides. The latter design gives no greater strength, but is claimed to give a 
better compression of the metal in the thick parts at the union of the web 
with the head and base. Plat-topped rail heads have been advocated, but 
the metal in the head would not get so much work or compression from the 
rolls, and would thus be of less dense texture on the wearing surface than is 
desirable. This was found with rails rolled in England some 30 years ago 
for the. New Orleans & Chattanooga Ry. In addition to this, the lateral play 
of the wheels would soon wear the top to a curved outline. The usual top 
radius is 12 or 14 ins. The Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry. makes it 18 
ins. for its 75-lb. rails, but for its latest 85-lb. rails has adopted the Am. Soc. 
C. E. section, with 12 ins. radius. The Pennsylvania Ry. has adopted 10 
ins., and Mr. Sandberg has adopted 6 ins., but any radius less than 12 ins. 
is objectionable. The edges of the base should not be too thin, and should 
be vertical, with 1-16-in. top and bottom curves, the latter reducing the cut- 
ting of the ties by the sharp edges. The width of base should be equal to, 
but not greater than, the height of the rail, and if metal tie-plates are to be 
used the width of base may be slightly less. 

Increasing the width of base has little effect in reducing the cutting of 
ties, which is due to the motion more than to the direct pressure of the rail, 
while the metal in. the extra width of base between the ties is practically 
useless. Metal tie-plates will reduce the cutting much more effectually and 
will allow the metal in the rail to be distributed to the best advantage. The 
attempt to get a very wide rail base usually results in a bad section for roll- 
ing. Some of the older rails had a deep and heavy head combined with a 
wide thin base, and in order to roll the flanges while hot the rails had to be 
finished when the metal in the head was so hot that it could not be prop- 
erly compacted and hardened in rolling. Mr. Sandberg, the European rail 
expert, favors heavy rails, but in his latest sections he has increased the 
width of rail base so as to avoid the use of tie-plates, for while he advocates 
their use, he has found it difficult to get them introduced by European rail- 



62 TRACK. 

ways. The rail section has suffered in consequence, and even with oak ties 
(and almost certainly with softer ties) the rails will still cut under heavy 
traffic and wheel loads. When the traffic will justify a very heavy rail, it 
will be more economical to provide tie-plates liberally than to adopt a wide- 
based rail. The reasons for the disfavor with which tie-plates are regarded 
in Europe are probably their size and weight and cost, and the difficulty of 
securing flat plates firmly to the ties, so as to prevent rattling. The Amer- 
ican type of light self-attaching tie-plates is unknown in Europe, as already 
noted. Sandberg's rails have wide, round-cornered heads, and his 72-lb. rail 
(Fig. 29) was formerly the standard on the Canadian Pacific Ry., but has 
been abandoned for an 80-lb. rail of the Am. Soc. C. E. standard. His pres- 
ent form of 100-lb. rail is 5% ins. high, and Q 1 /^ ins. wide, with a head 3 ins. 
wide, having a top radius of 6 ins. and %-in. top corners. The proportion 
of width to height is bad, as already noted. He admits that sharp corners 
may be used with the short truck wheel base of American cars, instead of 
the long rigid truck wheel base of European cars, but it may be doubted 
whether this distinction is of much importance. It may be mentioned that 
some of the so-called Sandberg "Goliath" rails are modified from the origi- 
nal to a section for which Mr. Sandberg disclaims responsibility. 

The rapid increase in weight of locomotives, cars and train loads has led 
to the use of heavier and stiffer rails in the sense of girders to carry the 
increased loads, but in many cases without correspondingly wider heads to 
sustain the increased wheel pressure ratios per square inch of surface con- 
tact between rails and wheels. As a result, in some such cases, the metal 
of both rails and ties has been overtaxed, excessive wear and flow taking 
place, and neither wheels or rails giving as good service as had been ex- 
pected. Broad, well worked heads are required for the best efficiency of 
both rails and wheels. With this in view and as the result of the inspec- 
tion of some 25,000 miles of track with his dynagraph car, Mr. P. H. Dud- 
ley designed a set of rail sections to meet the conditions of service thus as- 
certained. This type is shown by the 100-lb. rail of the New York Central 
Ry., in Fig. 30. It will be noticed that the fillets are of large radius, and 
that the narrowest part of the web is above the center line. This gives 
extra resistance to twisting, so that the head will not bend over the web, 
nor the web over the base. The first of these was designed in 1883 for the 
New York Central Ry. The following is from a statement by Mr. Dudley: 

"The static pressures under passenger car wheels on rail heads 2*4 to 
2% ins. wide, range from 30,000 to 100,000 lbs. per sq. in,, while those of 
locomotive driving wheels range from 110,000 to 150,000 lbs. To sustain 
such wheel pressures without undue flow and wear, requires not only broad 
heads, but a high grade of metal in the rails. Comparisons of tire records 
on the New York Central Ry. before and after the use of the Dudley 80-lb. 
rail (5%-ins. high, 5 ins. width of base, 2 21-32-ins. width of head and 5-16- 
in. corners of head) show that with an increase of 40% in weight per driv- 
ing wheel the mileage per 1-16-in. of wear per tire is about the same for 
the heavier locomotives on the 80-lb. rails, as formerly for the lighter 
locomotives on the 65-lb. rails. The former carried 20,000 to 23,000 lbs. 
per wheel, and averaged 19,300 miles per 1-16-in. wear of tire. The latter 
carried 13,360 lbs. per wheel, and averaged 19,400 miles per 1-16-in. wear. 
Since the general use of this 80-lb. rail, the locomotives rarely go to the 
shop to have the driving wheel tires turned unless other repairs are needed, 
the wear of the tires no longer determining when the engines must go to 
the shop, as was the case, when running on the 65-lb. rails. The mileage 



RAILS. 63 

before returning the tires is from 150,000 to 190,000 miles. These facts show 
the value of the broad heads in increasing the life of tires as well as of 
rails." 

The relation of good heavy rails to economy in operation is shown by 
experiments in which hauling a train load of 378 tons at a speed of 55 miles 
per hour required 820 HP. on 65-lb. rails, and 720 HP. on 80-lb. rails, while 
it was estimated that only 620 HP. would have been required on 105-lb. 
rails. 

In Table No. 5 are given the dimensions of a number of modern standard 
rail sections. The first four show the comparative designs of four principal 
types of sections. The "American Society of Civil Engineers" and Dudley 
types are undoubtedly the best, the latter being somewhat the stiffer and 
being designed for use with tie-plates, hence the narrower base. *The 
Sayre, Sandberg and Pennsylvania Ry. types are defective in the roundness 
and heaviness of their heads, and in their lack of height. 

The advantages of heavy rails for tracks carrying heavy loads and heavy 
traffic, and the increased efficiency and economy due to the use of such 
rails, are now widely recognized, as shown by the very extensive adoption 
of heavier rails which has been noticeable for the past few years. The 
increase in weight, however, is still lagging behind the increase in traffic 
and wheel loads. Besides being heavy enough to properly sustain the 
traffic, the rails must be heavy enough to have a margin of safety to pro- 
vide against the exigencies of badly tamped or widely spaced ties, the heav- 
ing of the roadbed in winter, and the effects of flat or eccentric wheels. 
Stiffness is as important as weight in rails under heavy and fast trains, 
and this is one of the principal reasons for an increase in weight. It is 
also one reason why a reduction in weight of rail cannot properly be made 
for a closer spacing of ties or even with a continuous bearing for the rails. 
As the weight is increased, the fiber stresses in the rail decrease, as shown 
later on. Mere increase in weight does not necessarily insure improved ser- 
vice, but design and manufacture are both of great importance. In a rail 
having a large proportion of metal in the head, the metal will not be thor- 
oughly rolled, and this coarse-grained or soft metal is more rapidly worn. 
As only a certain depth of surface wear can be allowed before the rail be- 
comes unserviceable, the large head may really give no more wear than a 
smaller one, and such a rail may give even less wear than a lighter rail 
with a head so proportioned as to be rolled hard and dense. A good heavy 
rail, however, is a profitable investment, not only in point of service, but 
also in giving a stiffer and easier riding track. The heavier and stiffer 
rails give a better distribution of the stresses within the rail itself, and a 
better distribution of the load upon the ties and the roadbed, with consid- 
erably less dynamic effect. Having less deflection, they do not creep so 
much; they do not deflect so much at the joints, and the receiving ends do 
not cut out so much; while the rails do not "roll" so much, even without 
tie-plates, so that there is less work in maintaining the gage. Broad-top 
rails replacing narrower rails may show apparently excessive wear- at first, 
owing to the wheels having been worn to the narrower head, and this in- 
sufficient bearing may also cause the wheels to slip. The train resistance 
of freight trains of 25 to 30 cars (600 to 700 tons) on light rails at 18 miles 
per hour was 6 to 8 lbs. per ton; while with trains of 80 cars (3,428 tons) on 



64 



RAILS. 



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RAILS. 65 

Dudley SO-lb. 5%-in. rails at 20 miles per hour, it was only 3 lbs. psr ton. 
These stiff heavy rails also reduce the work of maintenance and renewals 
from 20 to 50% and are especially valuable where maintenance woik is 
heavy, as on steep grades, in tunnels, etc. 

The heaviest rail yet laid on this continent is the 110-lb. rail of the Chig- 
necto Ship Railway (Canada), 6*4 ins. high and wide, but this line has never 
been finished. Rails of 100 lbs. per yd. are in use on the busy divisions of 
several important lines, and also in such special locations as tunnels and 
terminal approaches. That of the New York Central Ry., (Fig. 30) was the 
first to be rolled in this country, and was first adopted for the four track 
line approaching the New York terminal, in order to reduce the difficulty 
and expense of maintenance and renewals on tracks so crowded with traffic 
and laid largely in tunnel and in open cut with retaining walls. The mini- 
mum weight economical in ordinary service is 65 lbs. With lighter rails 
under considerable traffic, the diminished life of rails and ties, the increased 
cost of material and labor for maintenance and renewals, and the oc- 
casional sums involved in repairs and damage suits after wrecks, more 
than balance the cost of rails of suitable weight which will make a better 
track. For ordinary freight and passenger traffic on roads with easy curves 
and grades, the weight should be 70 to 75 lbs.; while for extra heavy freight 
traffic or fast passenger traffic, or on lines with sharp curves and steep 
grades, the weight should be from 80 lbs. upwards, and rails of 80, 85, 90, 
95 and 100 lbs. are in service on various roads. It may be pointed out that 
the rail is only one part of the track, and that improvements in ballast, 
ties, fastenings, joints, etc., are of equal importance in the construction and 
maintenance of a first-class track. The laying of rails should be carefully 
done, though this is frequently neglected to some extent. New rails care- 
lessly laid on old ties, may be given a wavy surface or a permanent set due 
to careless handling or to uneven bearing surfaces. This cannot afterwards 
be remedied, and will materially reduce the benefits that should result from 
the new rails. The laying of heavier rails on ordinarily good track should 
reduce the work of maintenance and renewals. It has already been ex- 
plained that the number of ties should not be reduced when heavier rails 
ar.e introduced. 

The ordinary length of rails is 30 ft, but rails 33 ft., 45 ft. and 60 ft. long 
are used to some extent. Several railways have adopted 33 ft. as the stand- 
ard length, thus reducing the number of joints by 10%; the Lehigh Valley 
Ry. has a considerable mileage of 45-ft. rails, and 60-ft. rails are used at 
bridges, etc., as well as in ordinary track. There is sometimes difficulty in 
turning these long rails on the right of way. The Norfolk & Western Ry. 
has 85-lb., 60-ft. rails, which are not found particularly awkward to handle. 
A report on long rails was made by a committee of engineers to the General 
Managers' Association of Chicago in 1894, with the following conclusions: 
(1) There would at first be an additional cost for manufacture, and a 
greater proportion of second quality rails; (2) Renewals of single rails 
would be more troublesome and expensive; (3) Transportation would 
be more expensive; (4) Unloading from cars would require a greater 
number of men, though not a greater number per ton, and not 
more than are ordinarily available. The benefits were enumerated 
as follows: (1) Reduction in number of joints, with economy in 



66 TRACK. 

their first cost and maintenance; (2) Fewer accidents and break- 
ages at joints; (3) Smoother riding track. The report recom- 
mended miter joints, with an angle of 55°, and an expansion spacing 
of %-in. at zero. Later experience has by no means sustained the recom- 
mendation of the miter joint, and the spacing is now sometimes a maximum 
of 5-16-in. for 60-ft, 80-lb. rails. Some rail mills do not approve of the 
long rails, claiming that they are difficult to straighten, but this is largely 
a matter of mechanical skill and is by no means an insuperable objection. 
In point of fact, a considerable proportion of the ordinary 30-ft. rails re- 
quire to be straightened before being put in the track. The cost of main- 
tenance is about the same with rails of any length. 

Continuous rails, with the ends welded together in the track, are exten- 
sively used on street railways, and are being tried (but with bolted or 
riveted joints) in railway track. With this arrangement no expansion 
spacing is given. In 1893, Mr. Torrey, Chief Engineer of the Michigan 
Central Ry., laid six stretches of continuous rails, 800 ft., 500 ft., 250 ft. and 
100 ft. in length, forming 1,000 ft. of track. The rails were laid end to end, 
and the rails and splice bars were then drilled for 1-in. turned bolts, switch 
points being used to allow for expansion at the ends of the lengths. The 
800 ft. length was afterwards reduced to 500 ft., on account of excessive ex- 
pansion, but the track is said to be giving very satisfactory service. In 
June, 1889, the "self-surfacing" continuous track invented by Mr. P. Noo- 
nan (1886) was laid for 3 miles on the Durham Division of the Norfolk & 
Western Ry. The 56-lb. rails were laid on ties buried in the earth, and the 
spike heads were left %-in. clear above the rail base, so that the wave mo- 
tion of the rails could not affect the spikes or ties. The motion of trains 
was said to be as easy as on heavy rails and stone ballast. Close jpints 
were made with %-in. rivets, but at the ends of the section were switch 
points to allow for the total expansion. The track was turfed over, and 3- 
in. drain tiles were inserted to carry the water out beyond the track, but 
the ties decayed more quickly by being buried. The new track was not 
lined or surfaced for 18 months, the only maintenance expense being for a 
watchman, though 50-ton engines ran over it at high speeds. During the 
same period, the labor expense for maintenance of the adjoining three-mile 
section was $1,890. Eventually the track got out of line and surface, being 
laid in wet clay cuts and on banks which settled, and when the ties were 
renewed, in 1895 or 1896, the ordinary style of track construction was fol- 
lowed. 

Steel rails were first rolled in England about 1855, and in the United 
States experimentally in 1865, and to order in 1867, when the improvement 
of the Bessemer process of 1862 (largely due to and introduced in this coun- 
try by Mr. A. L. Holley), led to greatly increased facility of manufacture 
and a decrease in cost. This process (with Holley's improvements) and the 
consequent introduction of steel rails at moderate prices, were great factors 
in the enormous railway development of this country, and iron rails are 
now practically obsolete. As steel is homogeneous, the failure of rails in 
service is not by splitting and lamination, as in iron rails, but by (1) normal 
wear or abrasion of the head, (2) cutting out and bending at the joints, due 
to the blows of the wheels, (3) the flow of the metal of the head under 



RAILS. 67 

heavy wheel pressures, and (4) occasionally by fracture, steel rails being 
less liable to fracture in cold weather than iron rails. 

In the manufacture of Bessemer steel rails, pig irons of the desired grade 
are melted in cupolas or the metal from the blast furnaces is poured into 
mixing tanks, the molten metal in either case being charged into the con- 
verters, a certain proportion of scrap being then added. Air at about 25 
lbs. pressure is blown in from the bottom of the converter, and burns out 
the silicon and carbon. The proper degree of carbon is then added by a 
charge of spiegeleisen, and the molten steel is then poured into the casting 
ladle and thence into the ingot molds. The ingots are generally about 16 
x 18 ins., 4y 2 ft. long, weighing about 5,000 lbs. After being taken from the 
molds, they are kept upright in a furnace called a soaking pit until needed. 
The ingot is first rolled in a blooming mill, which reduces it in section, 
making a bloom or bar about 8 ins. square and 24 ft. long. The bloom is- 
then cropped at least 12 ins. at the ends, to cut off any spongy parts, and 
cut to length making from 1 to 4 rails according to weight. The bloom may 
then be. reheated, or go direct to the rail mill. Here the roughing rolls give 
it the approximate shape, while the finishing rolls give it the required sec- 
tion and form the name of maker, date, weight of rail and other marks on 
the web of the rail. The rails are then cut to length by circular saws 
(usually 30 ft. 6% ins., which will be 30 ft. when cold), then go to a camber- 
ing machine and then to the cooling beds, where the camber (6 to 12 ins. 
according to the distribution of metal in the section) is taken out in cooling. 
Prom the beds, the rails go to the straightening press, where the burr left 
by the saw is chipped off, the ends filed, and the rail hammered with a gag 
to take out horizontal kinks. The gag should not be applied to the rail 
head, and some better system of straightening is to be preferred, as the gag 
marks form places for wear to start, and the kinks sometimes reappear 
when the rails are laid. In fact, rails frequently require to be straightened 
again before being laid. The rails are then measured for length, drilled 
for the bolt holes and placed on the inspection or shipping beds. 

One of the most important chemical components of rail steel is the car- 
bon, the proportion of which ordinarily ranges about as follows, according 
to the views of individual designers or makers: 60-lb., 0.40 to 0.45%; 70-lb. r 
0.45 to 0.50%; 80-lb., 0.48 to 0.55 or even 0.60%. The maximum proportion 
is 0.65 to 0.70%, as specified for the 100-lb. rails of the New York Central Ry. 
The object of the high carbon proportion is to make the steel hard, but it is 
liable to render it brittle unless special care is taken in proportioning the 
other chemical components and in the process of manufacture. Under 
these conditions, however, a rail can be made combining hardness (to re- 
sist wear) with toughness (to resist fracture), and such rails have given 
most excellent results in service. The Boston & Albany Ry. has had the 
Dudley 95-lb. rails (with 0.6% carbon and 0.06% phosphorus) in service 
under heavy traffic since 1891, but out of 75,000 tons not one rail broke dur- 
ing the winter of 1892-3, although subjected to a minimum temperature of 
— 30° F. The general experience in the United States is that the high car- 
bon rails give a longer life and are not more liable to fracture, while they 
are much less subject to flow or deformation under heavy loads. In Eu- 
rope, however, their manufacture has been less successful, and the rails 
have a decided tendency to fracture. Foreign mills also object to them on 



68 TRACK. 

account of the greater expense of manufacture. The Mea was at one time 
advanced that soft or low-carbon steel would he best for rails, but a very- 
little experience soon exploded this fallacy. Silicon makes the steel fluid 
and dense, producing solid ingots and fine crystallization. Manganese is 
required for chemical purposes during the blow in the converter, and gives 
a certain ductility in rolling, but tends to cause coarse crystallization in the 
rail and flow of the metal under traffic. Mr. Sandberg employs over 1% of 
manganese for hardness, and claims that greater strength and clean rolling 
result, but the carbon must be correspondingly reduced to make the rails 
stand the drop test. Sulphur and phosphorus are objectionable impurities, 
the former tending to make the metal seamy, and the latter tending to 
make it brittle. The chemical proportions for rails cannot be stated arbi- 
trarily or uniformly, but the specifications must be prepared with regard to 
the quality of the ore to be used and the weight of the rail. The design 
7 and the methods of manufacture are as important as the chemical propor- 
tions. Some roads do not specify the chemical composition, but merely 
stipulate that the rails must pass certain tests. The Chicago & Northwest- 
ern Ry. and some other railways have no standard specifications for rails 
or splice bars, but the manufacture is subject to the inspection of some 
engineer or inspection bureau, guaranteeing that the material will meet the 
requirements laid down by the railway. . This puts the matter in the hands 
of men making a special study of such work. Table No. 6 gives the chemi- 
cal contents specified by some railway companies: 

TABLE 'NO. 6— CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RAILS. 

Railways. 

Boston & Albany 

Buf., Roch. & Pittsburg 
Chic, Bur. & Quincy. 
Chic, Bur. & Quincy.. 

Illinois Central 70 to 

Louisville & Nashville. 
Louisville & Nashville. 
New York Central 



Norfolk & Western 
Northern Pacific . . 
Southern Pacific. £ . , 



Wabash 



Weight 


, 


Percentage of — 




\ 


of rail, 






Sul- 


Phos- 


lbs. 


r-Carbon.— , 


r-Silicon.-^ Manganese. 


phur. 


phorus 


95 


0.60 to 0.70 0.10 to 0.15 0.80 to 1.0 


0.07* 


0.06* 


80 


0.55 " 0.60 


0.15 " 0.20 1.10 " 1.30 


0.069 


0.08 


65 


0.45 


o.iot 




0085* 


75 


0.50 


o.iot 




O.0S5* 


70 to 75 


0.45 to 0.55 


o.iot 




0.075* 


70 


0.47 " 0.57 


0.15 to 0. 20 


6!07* 


0.085* 


80 


0.55 " 0.65 


0.15 " 0.20 


0.07* 


0.085* 


65 


0.45 " 0.55 


0.15 " 0.20 1.05 to 1.25 


0.07* 


0.0S5* 


70 


0.47 " 0.57 


0.15 " 0.20 1.05 " 1.25 


0.07* 


085* 


75 


0.50 " 0.60 


0.15 " 0.20 1.10 " 1.30 


0.07* 


0.085* 


80 


0.55 " 0.65 


0.15 " 0.20 1.10 " 1.30 


0.07* 


0.085* 


100 


0.65 " 0.70 


0.15 " 0.20 1.20 *' 1.40 


0.069 


0.06 


85 


0.55 " 0.63 


0.10 " 0.14 0.9 " 1.10 


0.04* 


0.0S5* 


72 


0.50 " 0.60 


o.iot 1-0* 


0.05* 


0.0b:* 


75 E. 


0.48 " 0.58 


0.10 to 0.15 0.8 to 1.0 


0.07* 


08* 


75 W. 


0.45 " 0.55 


0.10 " 0.15 0.8 " 1.0 


0.05* 


' 0.085* 


96 E. 


0.58 " 0.68 


0.10 *' 15 8 " 1.0 


0.07* 


0.06* 


96 W. 


55 " 0.65 


0.10 " 0.15 0.8 " 1.0 


0.05* 


0.085* 


70 


0.43 " 0.51 


0.30 




085 


75 


0.45 " 53 


0.10 - 




0.085 


80 


0.48 " 0.56 


0.10 




0.085 



♦Maximum. fMinimum. IE = east and W = west of Alleghenies. 

Basic open hearth steel rails have been tried on the Northern Pacific Ry. 
in order-to get low phosphorus. These rails had 0.65 to 0.75% carbon, 0.65% 
manganese, 0.05% sulphur and 0.03% phosphorus. They showed but 50% of 
the wear sustained by rails having only 0.35% carbon, under the same traf- 
fic. Two 70-lb. Harveyized steel rails were laid on the Delaware, Lacka- 
wanna & Western Ry., and were removed after about 6 years service, as 
pieces began to break out of the head without showing any previous crack. 
The rails were 4% ins. high, with 5 ins. base, and had worn down %-in. 
when removed. By this process additional carbon is absorbed by the head 



RAILS. 69 

after the rail is made, and analysis showed 0.76% for 1-16-in. depth of head, 
0.42% at 2-16-in., and 0.3% at 3-16-in. About 50 tons of nickel steel rails 
were laid in November, 1897, in single track on the Cleveland & Pittsburg 
Ry., on a curve of 4y 2 °, and after two years service showed less wear than 
the ordinary rails. In July, 1899, the Pennsylvania Ry. laid about 220 tons 
of 100-lb. nickel steel rails (of the Am. Soc. C. E. section) on the Horseshoe 
curve. In manufacture, the nickel caused red shortness to such an extent 
that the rolling of 300 tons resulted in only 220 tons of No. 1 and 57 tons of 
No. 2 rails, while 19 tons of the latter had to be rejected on account of "pip- 
ing." The rails showed great rigidity under the straightening press, double 
the ordinary pressure being required for cold straightening, and the rails 
would often spring back, showing no effect from the blow. The steel was 
so hard that five twist drills were sometimes required in drilling one hole, 
and the best results were obtained by the use of Mushet steel drills with- 
out lubrication. The analyses of these nickel steel rails were as follows: 

Cleveland 

Pennsylvania Ry. & Pittsburg Ry. 

Carbon O.504 0.53 

Phosphorus 0.094 0.014 

'Manganese 1.000 O.80O 

Nickel 3.229 3.520 

Silicon 0.048 

Sulphur 0.021 

After steel rails had come into general use, the specifications were often 
vague, and the supervision of manufacture and inspection of rails on behalf 
of the engineers and purchasers were not very close. The quality of the 
rails then naturally deteriorated, the makers turning out only such rails 
as would be accepted. Defective specifications and carelessness in manu- 
facture account for the fact that many of the heavier modern rails were 
found to give less wear or service than lighter rails made when the manu- 
facture was more carefully attended to. At one time engineers and rail 
makers even claimed that heavy rails could not be made which would give 
as good service as the smaller and lighter rails. This, of course, 
was entirely erroneous, but it is a fact that many of the heavier 
rails did not, and do not, give as good service as lighter rails. 
There is undoubtedly too great a tendency on the part of the 
makers to roll the rails too quickly and at too high a tempera- 
ture, with the result that they are likely to be of inferior quality, 
due largely to their having been "squirted through the rolls" as the hot 
and rapid rolling has been termed. With the higher temperatures (2,000° 
or 2,200° instea'd of 1,400° or 1,600°), higher speed of the rolls (900 ft. per 
minute instead of 400 ft), and fewer number of passes for the blocm (9 in- 
stead of 13 or 15), the modern steel rails cannot be expected to.be of as good 
quality as those made under the opposite conditions. As the men are paid 
by the ton, they also have an interest in a large and rapid output, so that 
inspection is necessary as a check upon them. One of the highest records 
in rail rolling is that of the Illinois Steel Co.'s works, where in 1899 a day 
shift and a night shift made 1,301 and 1,310 tons of 60-lb. to 80-lb. rails in 
12 hours each. The quality of such rails is at least open to question. Now 
that the chemistry and physical properties of rails are better understood, 
the specifications are drawn more strictly, but the makers are inclined to be 
arbitrary, having the matter now so largely in their own hands. In fact 



70 TRACK. 

some important railways have been unable to get the requirements of their 
specifications accepted or carried out, the rail makers preferring to follow 
their own ideas or to lose the contract. Under such conditions a high qual- 
ity of product is not to be expected. Of course good rails are made, but as 
a rule they are not as good as they might or should be. In 1875, Mr. Ashbel 
Welch, chairman of the rail committee of the American Society of Civil En- 
gineers, put the economical statement of the case as follows: 

"An unwise saving of a dollar to the manufacturer, or a little unfaith- 
fulness in the workman, will probably reduce the value of the rails $10 or 
$20. Ten or 15% added to the ordinary work on rails would double their 
value. An expert rail maker knows this very well, but he cannot put the 
$10 extra work on a ton in order that it may be worth $60 more to the 
purchaser, who will not allow him any part of the $10 out of the $60 he 
makes. The railway agent who purchases may also know all this, but 
he cannot follow his own judgment, for he knows his directors will say he 
paid $10 per ton more than the market price. It is thus that the interests 
of stockholders are sacrificed." 

This put the responsibility on the purchasers who had been demanding 
"cheap" rails, but in later years, when the manufacturers (who now control 
the prices) put the price up to a high figure, the quality remained unsatis- 
factory in many respects, even when allowance is made for the increased 
wbeel loads which modern rails have to sustain. The reason for this is that 
the high price is largely arbitrary, and does not represent increased care 
or expense in manufacture. In general, the rail mills have so much busi- 
ness that they practically dictate what the purchasers shall have, and are 
too' busy to consider methods of improvement, but a more rational system 
is most desirable and will probably be established in time. 

In 1889, Mr. Whittemore, Chief Engineer of the Chicago, Milwaukee & 
St. Paul Ry., stated that he had 65 to 70-lb. rails, which would carry less 
traffic than 56-lb. or 57 lb. rails made under the same specifications, which 
certainly seemed to indicate that as the mass of metal is increased more 
thorough working of the metal is required in the rolls. In one case, on 
that road, 8 miles of 67-lb. rails were removed in two years as no longer fit 
for service; while joining them, and carrying the same traffic, were 58-lb. 
rails which had been in use for 8 or 10 years and were still in good condi- 
tion. On another road, 56-lb. rails laid in 1875 are still in service, while 
newer 80-lb. rails have a much greater proportion of breakages, and more 
rapid wear. Of late years, similar experiences have been somewhat gen- 
eral. The writer is strongly in favor of paying a good price for a good arti- 
cle, and experience has plainly shown that good rails bought at the price 
which they are really worth are far more economical than "cheap" rails 
bought at the low prices which have at times prevailed. On the other hand, 
many rails are very "dear" when their price and their quality are consid- 
ered. 

Rails should be rolled slowly for the final passes, and at a comparatively 
low temperature (1,400° to 1,600°) so as to give the metal a close texture 
and a smooth, hard, dense surface. The fineness of the grain in the steel is 
governed by the work applied to it as its heat decreases, while the wearing 
quality of the rails depends largely upon the closeness of the grain of the 
metal in the head. This is especially the case with high-carbon rails. A 
suggestion has been made that when the rails have received all but the 



RAILS. 71 

finishing passes, they should be set in a cooling chamber or passed along a 
hot-bed until they reach a uniform temperature low enough for the finish- 
ing passes. This would involve little additional delay or expense, as when 
once, the chamber or the hot-bed was filled there would be a steady de- 
livery to the. finishing passes. It is usual to require all rails to be laid with 
the brand on the outside (or the inside) of the track, but there does not seem 
,to be much importance in this, especially as it requires many rails to be 
turned. Both sides of the head are alike, except when bad or worn rolls 
are used, and such rails should be detected by inspection. Rails that are 
badly worn on one side, are often turned to give a new surface for wear, if 
the form is not distorted by the flow of the metal forming a "lip." 

In some cases the manufacturer is required to guarantee a certain length 
of life, and to replace all broken or worn rails that have to be renewed 
within that limit. The New York Central Ry. and the Chicago, Burlington 
& Quincy Ry. furnish their own specifications and also require a 5-years' 
guarantee, which is embodied in the contract. This system is very gener- 
ally followed in England, for rails for home and colonial railways, and is 
also adopted in European practice. It is generally recognized that the 
methods of manufacture should be left to a large extent to the 
discretion of the maker, the rails being carefully inspected and 

r 115,700 lbs. -, 



Fig. 31. — Track Deflections under Locomotive and Tender; Boston & Albany Ry. 

tested on behalf of the purchaser to see that they meet the re- 
quirements of the' specifications. Some roads, as already noted, have 
no standard specifications, but put the matter in the hands of 
inspecting engineers making this a specialty. Rail inspectors should 
be familiar with rail manufacture and with railway track practice. 
Test bars are sometimes made from the melted steel. Rails are usually 
tested by the drop test, with a weight of 2,000 lbs. falling 16 ft. for rails up 
to 70 lbs. per yd., and 20 to 24 ft. for heavier rails. The rail to be tested is 
placed with head or base upward, resting on supports 3 ft. or 4 ft. apart for 
the weights above noted. The rail must not break under one blow. The 
Dudley specifications for the New York Central Ry. require that in 90% of 
such tests, the rail butts must stand without breaking and must show at 
least 5% elongation in the inch which is subjected to the greatest tension. 
Other roads require only 3 to 4% elongation. Spaces of 1 in. marked on the 
rail under the point of impact enable the elongation to be readily deter- 
mined. In calculating the weight of any section, the weight of the steel is 
usually taken as 10.20 lbs. for a 36-in. bar of 1 sq. in. For rails of 95 lbs. 
and over, however, 10.18 lbs. is found to give a closer result. 



72 TRACK. 

Stresses in Rails. — One of the most important advances in regard to de- 
termining the efficiency of rails, is the introduction of the stremmatograph, 
invented by Mr. P. H. Dudley, to determine and record the fiber stresses in 
rails under load, and the distribution of these stresses in the rails. This 
is a matter which is beyond mathematical analysis. As the load (static or 
dynamic) is applied, the rails deflect, and there is a compression of the ties, 
ballast and roadbed, the deflection and compression being naturally great- 
est under the wheels, or the points where the load is applied. Fig. 31* 
shows the total depression of track laid with 95-lb. rails and stone ballast, 
with a locomotive standing upon it. In regard to the rail under a moving 
load, there is a compression in the head, a tension in the base, and a shear- 
ing stress across the rail section at or near the ties which at that instant 
are bearing the load. The span of the rail deflection under the wheel is 
usually longer than the tie spacing. At a point a little distance on either 
side of the wheel the stresses are reversed, the head being in tension and 
the base in compression.* The tensile fiber stresses per sq. in. in rails of 
different weights (on stone ballast) under the driving wheels of a freight 
locomotive, with 113,800 lbs., and a passenger locomotive with 87,300 lbs. on 
these wheels, were as, follows: Rails 

60Ab. 70-lb. ' 85-lb. 10(Mb. 

Freight ergine 16,050 11,510 10,030 9,430 

Passenger engine 19,540 14,390 10,750 9,840 

In a paper presented to the American Institute of Mining Engineers in 
1899, Mr. Dudley gave complete records of the stresses in rails under and 
between the wheels of trains. A brief summary of a record for a train 
running at 20 miles an hour over 6-in. 100-lb. rails is given in Table No. 7, 
the stresses being measured on a 5-in. length of one rail. 

TABLE iNO. 7.— STRESSES IN RAILS. 

Tension, Compression, 
lbs. lbs. 

In front of first truck wheel 2,362 



Under first truck wheel 

Between truck wheels 

Under second truck wheel 

Between truck and driving wheels. 

Under first driving wheel „ . . 

Between driving wheels 

Under second driving wheel 

Between engine and tender 

Under first tender wheel 

Between wheels 

Under second tender wheel 

Between wheels 

Under third tender wheel 

Between wheels 

Under fourth tender wheel 

Between fender and first car...... 

Under first wheel of rear car 

Between wheels 

Under second wheel of rear car. . . . 

Between wheels 

Under third wheel of rear car 

Behind third wheel 

Between trucks 

In front of fourth wheel 

Under fourth wheel 

Between wheels 

Under fifth wheel 

Between wheels 

Under sixth wheel 

Behind wheel 

Instrument returned to zero. 



13,227 






6,850 


7,086 






5,669 


8,267 






7,086 


6,141 






5,669 


4,960 






2,834 


5,905 






5,432 


4,448 






3,307 


6,377 






4,015 


7,322 






3,071 


3,543 






3,071 


4,017 






1,417 




472 




945 


9,684 






1,890 


7,795 






2,834 


5,905 






709 



♦Engineering News, Oct. 6, 1898; Railroad Gazette, May 20 and Oct. 21 1S98- Feb 
23, 1900. ' 



RAILS. 73 

Wear of Rails. — The life of first-class 60 to 80-lb. steel rails on tangents 
is given in Wellington's "Economic Theory of Railway Location" (1887) as 
150,000,000 to 200,000,000 tons. There are from 10 to 15 lbs. of metal, or 
%-in. to %-in. depth of head, available for wear, and abrasion takes place 
at the rate of about 1 lb. per 10,000,000 tons, or 1-16-in. per 14,000,000 to 
15,000,000 tons of traffic. The rate of wear is increased locally about 75% 
by the use of sand by the locomotives. About half the metal in the rail 
head is available for wear, but this is not obtainable in main track, as the 
rails would be too rough for service; about ^-in. to %-in. is the limit of 
wear in main track, the rails being then removed to branch or side tracks 
(See "Curves*'). The Dudley 100-lb. rails in the main tunnel approach to 
the Grand Central Station, New York (New York Central Ry.), had, in 1898, 
carried 75,000,000 tons with a loss of %-in. The loss was greater at the 
north end of the tunnel, where the oxidization has always been very rapid. 
Many of the 100-lb. rails in the yards of this station carry 1,000,000 to 
2,000,000 tons per month. The Sandberg 100-lb. rails in England, after 
seven years' service, had carried about 7,000,000 tons with a wear of 3-32-in. 
in the head, and he estimated the life at 30,000,000 tons. Mr. Price Wil- 
liams, the English engineer, estimates 20,000,000 tons per 1-16-in. wear for 
bull-head rails, with a safe limit of wear of %-in., or a life of 120,000,000 
tons. 

Modern rails fail more from deformation of section at or near the joints 
than from abrasion proper. The deformation and crushing are largely due 
to the driving wheel loads, the wear from which is estimated at 50 to 75% 
of the total. Heavy freight engines may have three or four driving wheel 
loads of 18,000 to 30,000 lbs. on a length of 12 to 16 ft. of the rail, while 
passenger locomotives have wheel loads of 16,000 to 25,000 lbs. The area of 
contact between the driving wheels and rails is an oval about % x 1 in. 
(or 1 x V/ 2 ins. with worn tires or rails), with an area of 1.07 sq. in. The 
maintenance of rails ought not to exceed y 2 ct., or 1 ct. per train mile, but 
it is very generally as much as 3 cts., owing partly to work on side tracks. 
In tunnels there is apt to be abnormal wear due to use of sand on damp 
rails, and also corrosion due to the effect of the dampness, the gases from 
the engine, and the drippings from coal, ore and refrigerator cars. Seri- 
ous vertical and lateral bending of the rails, or even failure, are often 
caused by "dead" locomotives hauled rapidly in freight trains with the rods 
taken down; or by running engines with small wheels at excessive speeds. 
Tn both cases, the unbalanced forces due to the counterbalance weights in 
the driving wheels have a powerful and destructive effect upon the rails. 
The rails may also be injured by the slipping of driving wheels in carelessly 
starting trains at stations, water tanks, etc. 

Expansion Spacing. — At the rail joints a space is left between the ends 
of the rails to provide for the expansion and contraction of the metal. If 
this is not done, or if the bolts are screwed up so tightly that the rails can- 
not slip in the splice bars, then in very hot weather the track may buckle 
to such an extent as to delay traffic or cause an accident. On a curve the 
line may be thrown out, so as not to be very noticeable, but on tangents the 
whole line, rails and ties together may be thrown out in a bow, or arched 
up from the ballast. The spacing is usually provided for in track laying 



74 TRACK. 

by using L-shaped shims or strips of iron, with the two legs of the dif- 
ferent thicknesses required for spacing in warm and cold weather. The legs 
have the thickness marked upon them for convenience. Wooden spacing 
shims should nevei be allowed. The expansion of a steel rail 30 ft. long 
during a rise of temperature from —20° to +140° F. would be about 7-16 in. 
The coefficient of linear expansion of steel for 1° F. is given by Prof. Merri- 
man in his "Mechanics of Materials" as 0.0000065. The expansion (in inches) 
of a 30-ft. rail for one degree increase in temperature would therefore be 
0.0000085 x 30 x 12 = 0.00234. In Table No. 8, compiled by Mr. W. C. Down- 
ing, Engineer of Maintenance of Way of the Vandalia Line, is given the 
variation in length of a 30-ft. rail for each 10° increase in temperature for 
a range of 160°, or from — 30° F. to +130° F., the rails being assumed to be 
in contact at the latter temperature. 

TABLE NO. 8.— EXPANSION OP STEEL RAILS. 

Temper- Thickness Temper- Thickness 

ature. •, Variation. v of exp. shim. ature. , Variation. , of exp. shim. 



30° 0.3744-in. 2i / 6i 

— 20° .3510-in. 23 / 64 - 

— 10° .3276-in. 21 /e4- 

0° .3042-in. 1Q / 6i - 

10° .2808-in. 18 / 64 - 

20° .2574-in. 1Q / 6i - 

30° .2340-in. 15 / 64 - 

40° .2106-in. ^f^- 



Vie-in. 50° 0.1872- in. iy M - 

Vie-in. 60° .1638-in. w /^- 

n. %6-m. 70° .1404-in. 9 /e4- 

n. Vie-in. 80° .1170-in. </ 64 - 

n. Vie-in. 90° .0936-in. «/e4- 

n. Vie-in- 100° .0702-in. 5 / 64 - 

n. Vic-in. 110° .0468-in. 3 / 64 - 

n. Vie-in- 1#>° -0234-in 1 / 6i - 

130° .0000-in 



n. 8 /ie-in. 

.n. Vie-in. 

n. Vie-in. 

n. Vio-in. 

n. Vie-in. 

in. Vie-in. 

n. Vie-in. 

n. Vie-in. 



There has been much discussion as to the expansion of 60-ft. rails and 
heavy rails. Where heavy rails reach the same temperature as lighter rails 
the expansion will be the same, but as the heavier rail takes a longer time 
to absorb the heat, and as the time of exposure to great heat is short, the 
practical result is that a smaller amount of expansion spacing is required. 
Long rails are usually of heavy sections. On the Illinois Central Ry., about 
half the theoretical expansion is allowed for heavy rails, and on this and 
some other roads the heavy rails are laid with close joints in warm weather. 
On the Chicago & Northwestern Ry., also, less expansion spacing is given 
with 80-lb. and 90-lb. rails than with lighter rails, as it is found by experi- 
ence that the former expand less, even in hot summer weather. The Atchi- 
son, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. specifies a spacing of %-in. for hot summer 
weather, %-in. for moderately cool weather, and %-in. for cold winter weather. 
The. Louisville & Nashville Ry. specifies ^-in. for extremely cold weather; 
3-16-in. in spring, when rails are cold; %-in. if lying in the sun and warm, 
1-16 in. in hot weather, and close joints in the hottest weather. The Baltimore 
& Ohio Ry. specifies 1-16-in. for very warm weather, %-in. during spring and 
autumn, and 5-16-in. during the coldest weather. The Illinois Central Ry. 
specifies 1-16-in. for the hottest weather, %-in. during spring and autumn, 
and 3-16-in. for cold weather (all south of the Ohio River), and Y^-m. for 
the very coldest weather on the northern and western lines. In tracklay- 
ing, when there are great changes of temperature during the day, one set of 
shims should be used between about 9 a. m. and 4 p. m., and another thicker 
set of shims before and after these hours (see "Tracklaying"). On the 
New York Central Ry., no rails are to be laid with temperature below zero 
without instructions from the division engineer. The foremen must have 
thermometers. Continuous rails have already been referred to. The spac- 



RAILS. 



75 



ings specified by railways in widely separated parts of the country are as 
follows: 

TABLE NO. 9.— EXPANSION SPACING FOR RAILS. 



N. Y. Central 


Northern Pac. 






Maine Central 


Quebec Cent. 


Ry. , 


, Ry. , 


, — Southern Pacifi 


c Ry.— > 
M. M. 
dec. 


■ Ry. , 


, Ry. , 


Degs. Spac- 


Degs. Spac- 


Degrees Spac- 


Degs. Spac- 


Degs. Spac- 


Fahr. ing. 


Fahr. ing. 


HFahr.-, mg. 


gage. 


Fahr. ing. 


Fahr. ing. 


%-in. 


Vie-in. 


Oto 32 %-in. 


0.250 


30 %-in. 


58} *--■ 


20 Vie-in. 


20 %-in. 


32 " 50Vs2-in. 


0.220 


45 3 /ifl-in. 


40 %-in. 


40 Vie-in. 


50 " 70 3 /i6-in. 


0.200 


60 %-in. 


50 Vio-in. 


60 Vie-in. 


60 %-in. 


70 " 9OV 04 -in. 


0.150 


75 Vio-m. 


60 %-in. 


80 %-in. 


80 Vie-in. 


90 '* 110 3 / 3 2-in. 


O.095 


90 


70 Vic-in. 


100 Vie-in. 


100 


110 " 130 3 /e4-in. 
130 "150 


0.045 
0.000 




80 %-in. 



Creeping. — In many places the rails develop a tendency to creep or travel 
along the track, both up and down grade, with and against the traffic. This 
is due to a combination of the effect of wave motion in the rails, unbalanced 
traffic in one direction, the action of braked wheels, the contraction and ex- 
pansion incident to changes in temperature, etc. It is usually most trouble- 
some with light rails on steep grades, bridges and swampy roadbed. The 
flanges of angle bars have slots in which the spikes are driven, but the nar- 
row-flanged bars used on some roads do not give much hold for the spikes, 
which are therefore likely to be crowded out of the slots, leaving the rails 








*>l 





Fig. 33.— Bull-Head Rail and Cast- 
iron Chair; London & Northwest- 
ern Ry. (England). 



Fig. 32. 



-Check Plate or Creeper Plate; 
Boston & Albany Ry. 



free to creep. Wide-flanged bars are the best, with slots about % in. deep, 
but hars having holes instead of slots are still better, as they cannot get 
away from the spikes. It is bad practice to slot the rail base for spikes. 
Heavy rails and substantial track usually give much less trouble than light 
rails, and any ordinary creeping can usually be avoided by the use of heavy 
rails and carefully spiked angle bars. Where special trouble is encountered, 
it is best to anchor each rail at the middle of its length by means of a 
creeper plate or check plate, as in this way the motion of each rail is inde- 
pendent and not cumulative. The combined tie-plate and check-plate used 
at the middle of each rail on the Boston & Albany Ry. is shown in Fig. 32. 
It is made at the company's shops from plates %x 6 ins., and the tie-plate 
portion is 6 x 7% ins. Each plate has a bolt through the rail, and is screwed 



76 TRACK. 

to the tie by three spikes. The Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Ry. uses two 
pieces of angle bar 5 ins. long, bolted to the middle of the rail and spiked to 
the tie. Similar plates, used singly or in pairs, are used to prevent creeping 
at grade crossings. The Bonzano device.consists of a steel bar %x 2% ins., 
so twisted that the middle lies flat against the web of the rail, to which 
it is bolted (over one of the ties), while the ends rest upon and are spiked to 
the adjacent ties. The creeping of track (rails and ties together) occurs 
somtimes on swampy roadbed, owing to the wave motion under traffic. To 
resist this on a track used by consolidation engines with a weight of 120,000 
lbs. on ihe driving wheels, the Minneapolis, St. Paul & Sault Ste. Marie Ry. 
used ties 10 and 12 ft. long, with angle bars spiked to two ties at the center 
of the rail to keep the rails from creeping on the ties. 

Many curious instances of creeping are familiar to track men and engi- 
neers. In general, rails are allowed to creep on bridges, and the joints are 
not slot-spiked, so as to avoid throwing undesirable strains upon the struc- 
tures. If the creeping is to be checked, blocking should be placed between 
the ties. In one case, however, the creeping under traffic in one direction on 
a trestle 400 ft. long caused the angle bars (unspiked) to catch the spikes on 
adjoining ties, and pulled the entire deck 8 ins. up a 1% grade. The abnor- 
mal creeping on the Eads arch bridge over the Mississippi River at St. 
Louis has been carefully observed for some years. The bridge is double- 
track, and has a rise of 5 ft. at the center of its length of 1,600 ft, and here 
the creeping is fairly proportional to the traffic. Upon the east approach 
viaduct of 2,500 ft, with a grade of 1.56%, it was excessive, until the steel 
trestle was reconstructed as a much more substantial structure. On the 
bridge proper, however, the flexibility of the arch ribs under traffic will 
always accentuate the influence of the elasticity of the track. The force is 
sufficient to fracture splice bars and %-in. bolts, and to drive a 70-lb. rail 
round a curve of 5%° and straighten it again on the tangent Means are 
therefore provided to allow the rails to creep without injury to the track or 
to the structure, and as there are two double crossovers which must be 
maintained permanently in place, eight creeping places are established. 
Two switch points are placed in the track, and the main rails pass outside 
the switch rails, which are firmly anchored to steel plates on the ties and 
have guard rails on the inside with a flangeway of 2 ins. When a rail has 
nearly pulled past the switch points, another is coupled on, while a rail that 
has pushed through is uncoupled and taken back to the other end of the 
section. From November, 1899, to July, 1900, the creeping per month on the 
bridge proper was as follows, the maximum being in the summer, as a rule: 



-North rail. > , South rail. 



Inbound track 9 ft. 2 ins. to 23 ft. 4 ins. 9 ft. 3 ins. to 26 ft. 3 ins. 

Outbound track ' , 9 ft. 3 ins. to 28 ft. 8 ins. 3 ft. ins. to 42 ft. 3 ins. 

Rails for Relaying. — In worn rails taken out of the track as no longer fit 
for service, the proportion of metal lost by wear is comparatively small, 
and the bulk of the rail becomes scrap. A process for re-rolling such rails, 
to form new rails of somewhat lighter weight, has been introduced by Mr. 
E. W. McKenna, and many railways have availed themselves of it. The 
burr or fin on the outside of the rail head is first ground off and the rail is 
then heated in a reverberatory furnace to a cherry red heat, or about 1,209° 
F., care being taken that the heat is not sufficient to affect the chemical 



RAILS. 77 

composition of the rail. The rails are then passed through two sets of rolls, 
which reduce, them to a symmetrical section, while they derive some 
benefit from the extra working of the steel. The rails are, of course, elon- 
gated, so that often 30-ft. rails of the lighter section are made. They are 
then sawed, straightened and drilled in the usual way. Old 75-lb. rails, re- 
duced to 73 lbs. by wear, have been rolled to form new 69-lb. rails. Many 
rails are taken out of main track on account of the bending and wear at the 
ends, and such rails may be made available for main track on branch lines 
by cutting off the ends and redrilling the rails. After the rails are cut they 
are calipered as to height and sorted in groups varying by 1-32-in., so as to 
form an even track. , On the Michigan Central Ry., they are laid in lots of 
80 upon a bed, and are numbered consecutively with chalk. A man with a 
box of slips or "dominoes" then calipers the height of each end of each rail, 
making the number and the heighis upon a slip. He then sorts out his 
slips, or "plays dominoes" with them until he has matched rail ends of the 
same height, usually matching about 60 rails. He then renumbers the slips 
in this order, and numbers the rails with paint in the same order. A load- 
ing machine then loads the rails on the car, taking No. 60 first, so that in 
unloading on the track No. 1 will be the first handled. In this way good 
rails and good joints are secured at low cost. The 20 rails which do not 
match well go over into the next lot. For sawing rails in this way, several 
roads use rail-sawing cars which are hauled to the various divisional points 
where, the rails are collected. The car of the Chicago, St. Paul, Minne- 
apolis & Omaha Ry. is 61 ft. long, with a framing of 20-in. steel I-beams. 
The equipment includes a 42-in. circular saw, straightening press, and two 
double rail drills, 34 ft. apart. The cars loaded with old rails are on one 
side of the machine, and the rails are handled by pneumatic goose-neck 
cranes, like ship's davits. Eight holes (two rails) can be drilled at one 
time, making the drilling capacity equal to the sawing capacity. In ordi- 
nary service, from 450 to 500 rails can be treated in a day of 10 hours. On 
the Michigan Central Ry. the cost of handling, sawing, drilling and match- 
ing the rails is about 75 cts. per ton, and the crop ends have a value as scrap 
(Engineering News, Dec. 7, 1899). 

The Manning Rail. — In discussing the design of rails, at the beginning of 
this chapter, it was explained that the Am. Soc. C. E. section was specially 
designed for the tangents and easy curves which make up by far the great- 
est proportion of the railway system, although they are successfully used 
also on sharp curves. Mr. Manning, Consulting Engineer of the Baltimore 
& Ohio Ry., has devised a rail which is intended to have a longer life on 
curves. The form is in general similar to the Am. Soc. C. E. section, but its 
special feature is an unsymmetrical head, which feature was embodied in a 
rail section invented a few years ago by Dr. Vietor, of Germany. About 
3-64-in. of metal is added to the top of the rail, and about y±-m. in width is 
added to the gage side of the rail head. The top corner radius of 5-16-in. 
is retained, but the gage side of the head is vertical for only %-in. below 
this, being then curved inward on a radius of 1 in. The outer side of the 
head is vertical. The rail is designed in view of the following conditions: 
(1) The life of rail for main track use is limited to its initial wear (before 
being moved), and that wear cannot extend beyond the point where the 
wheel flange begins to cut the splice bar; (2) the rail is destroyed at a much 



78 TRACK. 

more rapid rate after the wheel flange has got a full bearing. The first of 
these, conditions is provided for by the extra metal on the gage side of the 
head, and it is claimed that the metal between the curved line and a vertical 
line would not only be useless, but would provide a full flange bearing, al- 
lowing the rail to assume such a shape as would invite derailment from 
sharp flanges. Mr. Manning argues against the practice of turning rails, 
on the ground that the wheels do not get a proper bearing on such rails, 
owing partially to the formation of a lip along the top outer corner, and this 
is his main reason for the unsymmetrical head. It does not appear that 
actual experience bears out this reasoning (except in special cases), the un- 
worn outer side being very generally in fair condition for use as the gage 
side. In the rail as first designed it was intended that the additional metal 
on the side of the head should present a vertical face, and that when this 
side of the head was worn nearly to the limit, the rail should be turned. 
The engineer or roadmaster would, of course, see that the rail was not 
allowed to wear such an extent as to make it unfit for service when turned. 
Renewals on account of side wear usually form but a small percentage of 
the total renewals, except on roads or divisions having considerable curva- 
ture and heavy traffic. It certainly seems most improbable that — except, 
perhaps, in a few special cases — this modification of the form of section will 
(as claimed) give the rail from 50 to 75% additional life in its initial posi- 
tion before it is consigned to less important work than main- track. Neither 
does it seem probable that it will effect a saving of 37% per ton per year in 
cost of rail renewals, as claimed. Equally good results could probably be 
obtained by a broad-headed rail which could be turned when the gage side 
had sustained a reasonable amount of wear. In any case, a better quality 
of steel is now of much greater importance than any modification in design, 
and an increase in number of sections is undesirable. 

Double-Head Rails. — In Europe the double-headed reversible rail, carried 
in cast-iron chairs, was early designed, but the indentation of the lower 
head by the chairs made the reversed rails very rough and liable to break. 
In 1858, the bull-head rail was introduced, having the lower head only large 
enough to give a seat in the chair and a hold for the wooden "key" or wedge 
which secures the rail in the chair. This is now the standard in England, 
and is used to some extent in European and other countries. The Pennsyl- 
vania Ry. has experimented with the 90-lb. bull-head rails of the London & 
Northwestern Ry. (Fig. 33), both on steel ties and wooden ties, but this 
track has not been able to stand the heavy traffic. One of the great objec- 
tions to these rails is that they require two heavy cast-iron chairs (26 to 56 
lbs. each) on every rail, merely to hold* the rail up. These involve much 
useless material, and the wear at the chairs limits the life of the rails, being 
even more than the wear at the joints. Some of the rails have rounded 
heads, while others have vertical sides and sharper top corners. In Eng- 
land the erroneous idea very generally prevails that a T-rail track is neces- 
sarily unsafe, and this at one time even led to the use of double-head rails 
for colonial railways, involving much unnecessary expense which might 
have been applied to the construction of a greater mileage of the more 
suitable type of T-rail track now almost universally adopted. Mr. Freund, 
of the Eastern Ry. of France,' proved that a T-rail secured to oak ties by 
screw spikes is as secure from lateral displacement as a bull-head rail in 



RAILS. 79 

chairs or a T-rail with tie-plates on pine ties. He further concluded that 
the T-rail gave better service, as the life of the hull-head rail is limited 
by the wear in the chair rather than that of the running surface. In most 
European countries, except England, T-rails are extensively used, but are 
often of poor design and too light for the traffic, especially with the wide 
spacing of ties, which is very common. The consequent poor results in 
service have caused this form of section to be regarded with some disfavor, 
European engineers, as a rule, not being well informed as to modern Amer- 
ican track and its excellent service under conditions of fast, heavy and con- 
tinual traffic. In some cases, a narrow-based T-rail has been adopted, car- 
ried in cast-iron chairs very similar to those for double-headed rails, and 
secured by large wooden keys, which make an objectionable fastening. 

Compound Rails. — Various forms of compound rails have been designed 
to enable the wearing part of the rail to be renewed, but the majority have 
proved failures. This has been owing to faulty connections or too great 
complication, and consequent cost. In some cases the head was divided 
vertically, but in most designs the head was complete in itself, and detach- 
able from the web or base. A flangeless T was a favorite form for the head, 
with the stem fitting into the grooved web of the base, or between two lon- 
gitudinal angles. The cost of manufacture and of construction in the 
track would make such systems prohibitive even if mechanically successful. 
The small contact surfaces, however, would not suffice to resist the strains, 
especially those imposed by modern loads, and wear of rivets or bolts would 
soon result, with consequent rattling of the track. The worn material 
could only be sold as scrap, while worn rails are available for relaying, and 
command a higher price than scrap. 



CHAPTER 6.— RAIL FASTENINGS AND RAIL JOINTS. 

One of the weakest points of the track is in the fastening of the rails to 
the ties, for in spite of the increase in weight of rail, and the enormous in- 
crease in wheel loads, train loads, traffic and speed, the almost universal 
fastening is still the ordinary spike developed from Col. Stevens' hook- 
headed spike of 1830. This was an excellent device in its day, and is still 
suitable for light rails carrying light rolling stock and traffic, but it is un- 
satisfactory and uneconomical for first-class modern track, with £0 to 100-lb. 
rails, carrying heavy traffic and the great weights of modern locomotives 
and trains. The spike is simply a large nail, and depends solely upon the 
friction of the fibers of the wood for its hold in the tie. The ordinary rough 
spike is a disgrace to a main track, as it tears and crushes the fibers so 
barbarously that their hold upon it is comparatively slight. Improved 
spikes, with smooth sides and Clean sharp edges and points, are being used 
to a considerable extent, and are much less injurious and more efficient, 
but the spike, in principle, is not a sufficient fastening for rails which carry 
heavy and fast trains. Even on good roads, with careful maintenance, 
loose spikes are common, being forced outward or pulled upward by the 
rail. Newly driven spikes in good ties have a tolerably good hold, but 
this is rapidly reduced by the constant vibration and working of the rail 



80 



TRACK, 



under traffic, and by the "spike killing" of the tie by the continual working 
up and driving down of the spikes, which latter work is often an appreci- 
able proportion of the work of maintenance. 

The spike being held by friction only, the vertical wave motion of the rail 
under traffic gradually draws it out of the tie, while the lateral thrust on the 
rail by the wheel flanges (especially on curves) tends to tilt the rail out- 
wards, drawing the inner spike up and pressing the outer spike back into 
the wood. This enlarges the spike holes, besides wearing and abrading the 
neck of the spike. The great advantages of the tie-plate in preventing the 
"necking" of the spikes have already been pointed out. Boring holes for 
the spikes would prevent much cracking and checking of the wood, and with 
holes of proper diameter, would increase the holding power and adhesion 
of the spikes. Comparatively little attention has been paid to the question 
of improved fastenings, although many forms have been designed and some 
have been tried experimentally, while the defects of the spike have very fre- 
quently been pointed out. It is most desirable for safety and for economy 
in maintenance, that some more efficient fastening than the spike should be 
generally adopted, but at the present time the maintenance of way depart- 
ment has, as a rule, only the spike to consider, and must make the best of it. 
For heavy track, a fastening should be adopted which will give a positive 
hold on the tie, and not merely the frictional hold of a spike. 



£^ ^ 




|l 



D. 




Fig. 34.— Rail Fastenings; Spikes and Screws 



The common spike, as used on the Pennsylvania Ry., is of the form shown 
at A, Pig. 34. It is 5% ins. long under the back of the head, 6 ins. long over 
all, 9-16-in. square, with the end wedge-shaped for about 1% ins., and ter- 
minating in a blunt chisel edge. The head is oval, about 1% x 1 3-16 ins. 
The spikes weigh about y 2 lb. and are put up in kegs of 200 lbs. A keg con- 
tains about 450 spikes V 2 x 5 ins., 400 spikes 9-16 x 5 ins., or 375 spikes 9-16 x 
by 2 ins., the length being measured under the head. They have usually 
rough surfaces and blunt points, which crush and tear the fibers of the wood 
to a degree depending in part on the driving. A careful man can so drive 
a bad spike as to do comparatively little injury to the tie, while a good 
spike carelessly driven may cause considerable injury. A great improve- 
ment may be effected by the use of well-made spikes, having clean and 
even (not smooth) surfaces, sharp edges and sharp points, so that the fibers 
will not be torn, but will be cut by the sharp point and pressed back and 
downward by the body of the spike. The fibers thus tightly compressed, 
with their ends slightly bent down against the faces of the spike, offer a 



FASTENINGS AND JOINTS. 81 

strong resistance to pulling and tend to prevent the entrance of water. 
Various forms of spikes have been devised, but extensive experiments made 
at the. St. Louis bridge and elsewhere have proved that it is by no means 
so easy to increase the holding power of a weil-shaped and well-made com- 
mon spike as might be supposed. Many patented forms have twisted, 
jagged or grooved surfaces, but attempts to increase the holding power by 
jagging the spikes have been mainly unsuccessful, as the projections tear 
the fibers unless they are small and so formed as only to press the fibers 
aside and allow them to spring back- against the body of the spike. The 
head may be improved by making it larger and heavier than in the com- 
mon spike. One form of head is much deeper than usual, but flush with 
the back of the spike, the top surface curving down to the rail and the head 
projecting farther than usual over the rail base. Spikes used on foreign 
railways, where they are sometimes used alternately with screws or bolts, 
have usually larger and heavier heads than the American spikes. Thus, 
some %.-in. spikes have heads 1 in. wide (lengthwise of the rail) and extend- 
ing %-in. over the rail base. 

The Goldie steel spike (C, Fig. 34) is designed to injure the tie as little as 
possible. The end is ground to a sharp point, instead of to a chisel edge, 
while both edges and faces of the point are inclined so as to increase the 
cutting and wedging effect. The body is the same size all the way down 
to the point, and is made with clean surfaces and sharp edges. The Dia- 
mond and Crescent spikes have a bayonet groove in the back of the lower 
portion, the face being convex. The point is ground to a sharp edge, and is 
convex in the former (for cedar ties) and concave in the latter (for oak or 
knotty ties). The Greer spike (B, Fig. 34) is of varying section, 5^ ins. 
long, %-in. wide and 5-16 to 9-16-in. thick. The swelling shape is claimed 
to increase the grip of the fibers, while the unusual width gives greater re- 
sistance to lateral thrust. Longer spikes are used for headblock chairs, 
as shown in Fig. 34, and for crossings. The crossing spike of the Pennsyl- 
vania Ry. (D, Fig. 34) is ^-in. square and 8 ins. long under the head, 
which is %-in. square. Boat spikes are better and cheaper than track 
spikes for fastening the planks of highway crossings, and the latter are too 
short for 4-in. planks. These boat spikes are usually %-in. square End 7 ins. 
long. "Where spikes are driven into longitudinal timbers, as in some cases 
on. bridge floors, they are made with the chisel edge reversed, being at right 
angles to the rail so as to cut across the fibers of the wood, the same as in 
cross ties. 

Numerous experiments made on the holding power of spikes show that 
there is a great variation, due to the kind and condition of the wocd and the 
quality of the spike. As an average, a we*-made 9-16-in. common spike, 
newly driven in a good oak or pine tie, may be assumed to have a resistance 
to pulling of 3,000 to 3,500 lbs. Resistances up to 7,000 lbs. have been 
recorded, but cannot be considered as obtaining in ordinary conditions of 
track and spiking. In inferior woods, the initial resistance may be only 
800 to 1,800 lbs. The constant upward pull exerted by the rail under the 
influence of traffic very soon begins to lessen the resistance, and spikes 
redriven in their own or other old holes have a materially decreased hold- 
ing power. Lag screws, or screw spikes, under ordinary conditions, may 
be assumed to give a resistance of 5,000 to 8,000 lbs. in oak, or 4,000 lbs. 



82 



TRACK. 



in pine. This is maintained for a much longer time than with ordinary- 
spikes. 

Screw Spikes.^These have long been common in foreign practice, some- 
times holding the rail direct by the spike head, and sometimes by means 
of a clamp, as in Figs. 21 and 22. They usually have a small projection 
or a number in relief formed on top, so that it will at once be evident if 
the spike has been driven home with a maui, this being strictly forbidden. 
On railway bridges, T-rails and bridge rails are often secured to longitudi- 
nal timbers by screw spikes placed against the rail base, or through holes 
in the base, the spikes being at such an angle that the heads have full 
bearing on the rail base. The holes are often drilled by crank augers, 
without the use of guides, and the spikes are screwed in by socket wrenches. 
In cross ties, the holes are often bored by machinery, but this is not always 
practicable, owing to the varying widths of rail base. The screw spikes of 
the Netherlands State Railways (Pig. 22) are 7.5 ins. long over all, 5.56 ins. 
under the head, 0.57-in. diameter in the shank and 0.89-in. over the threads, 
which have a pitch of 0.84-in. The mushroom head is 2 ins. diameter, with 





Fig. 38.— Bush Interlocking Bolts. 



Fig. 35. — Screw Spike; 
Eastern Ry. (France.) 



a tapering projection, 0.84 to 0.92-in. square, for the socket wrench. Pig. 
35 shows the screw spike of the Eastern Ry. of Prance, and the form of 
hole bored for it. 

In this country screw spikes have been but little used. The Southern 
Pacific Ry., has tried those shown at E, Pig. 34, in redwood ties, the holes 
being bored by machinery, but their use has been discontinued. The 
spike was %-in. diameter, -5% ins. long, with an inclined or ratchet thread, 
and was driven in a 7-16-in. hole. The Pennsylvania Ry. has tried screw 
spikes for fastening the 34-in. angle bars of 100-lb. rails to the joint ties. 
They were %-in. diameter over the V thread, and 6% ins. long under the 
head, which was %-in. thick. They were put through holes in the angle 
bars, the uncut shank of the spike touching the edge of the rail base, and a 
cast washer giving a horizontal bearing to the head. They are not used 
now, as the parts were found to work loose very soon, which ought not 
to have been the case. On a very few roads screw spikes are sometimes 
v,?es\ as rail fastenings on bridges. 



FASTENINGS AND JOINTS, 83 

A screw spike fastening devised by Mr. Katte, when Chief Engineer of 
the New York Central Ry., is shown at F, Fig. 34, and is in experimental 
use. The screw is of steel, with cold rolled threads having a pitch of 0.25 
in. The clamp has a lip to bear upon the rail base, and a shoulder to 
receive the lateral thrust of the rail. The upper surface is approximately 
parallel with the slope of the rail base, while the lower surface is hori- 
zontal. A slotted hole permits of shifting the clamp %rin. in order to 
provide for adjusting the gage without removing the screw. A thin steel 
washer prevents the edges of the spike head from catching in the edge of 
the slot. A %-in. hole (the diameter of the body of the spike) is drilled 
in the tie with a hand auger. It is at right angles with the upper face of 
the clamp, a guide being used which consists of a vertical board with 
brackets at the bottom to enable it to stand, and having one edge cut to 
the desired slope of the spike hole. The bottom of the board is placed 
against the edge of the rail base and the exact position and slope of the 
holes are thus automatically fixed. It is reported that the screw heads 
broke off under traffic. One reason assigned for this is that the fastening 
was too rigid and that a flexible fastening is required to allow for the 
wave motion of rails. This explanation cannot be accepted, and is exactly 
the opposite of that given for the abandonment of screw spikes on the 
Pennsylvania Ry. Probably the screw spikes were not strong enough for 
their work. Rigid fastenings are needed, and screw spikes are so 
generally and successfully used in other countries that the failures of the 
above limited experiments have little significance. If efficient screw spike 
fastenings were in general use, the maintenance work of driving down and 
renewing spikes would be materially reduced. 

Bolts. — Practically the only application of bolted clamp fastenings on 
wooden ties in this country is in the Bush interlocking bolts, F.g. 36, which 
are used to some extent on bridges and trestles, and sometimes at supported 
joints and on curves. The holes are bored with an auger at an angle of 
about 45°, intersecting under the rail, the proper position and angle of the 
holes being given by a guide clamped to the rail. Each bolt has a part 
of the shank cut away, and when driven home the bolts are turned so that 
they interlock, each bolt then pulling against the other. The clamps which 
bear upon the rail base have oval or slotted holes, so that the rails can be 
adjusted to gage and line. The bolt (A) is first driven, and then bolt (B). 
The nut of (A) is then screwed up until the shoulder (C) comes in contact 
with the shoulder (D) on bolt (B). The nut on (B) is then screwed up until 
the shoulder (E) bears against the shoulder (F) of bolt (A). To remove 
the fastenings, the nuts are taken off, and bolt (A) is driven down a little 
so that bolt (B) can be withdrawn. Bolt fastenings are quite generally 
used on bridges having solid steel floors. Usually there are two ordinary 
bolts, with rail clamps held by the nuts, but the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. 
Paul Ry. uses U bolts, with a saddle on the horizontal member, and a 
nut and clamp on each end. Such fastenings may be insulated by laying 
the rail on a strip of insulating material and placing washers of similar 
material between the rail and the clamps. 

In foreign practice, fang bolts are largely used, the head bearing upon a 
clamp or directly upon the rail base, while the threaded end passes through 
a large nut under the tie. This nut has fangs or projections to bite into 



84 



TRACK. 



the wood and prevent the nut from turning as the bolt is screwed down. 
In the author's paper on "The Improvement of Railway Track" (Transac- 
tions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, March, 1890) it was sug- 
gested that a better plan would be to have the head of the bolt under- 
neath, using a fang washer with ribs to prevent the turning of the bolt 
as the nut is screwed on, as shown at (A) Fig. 21. A still simpler plan 
would be to have the fangs on the corners of the bolt head, which is quite 
practicable. Renewals of any through bolts are somewhat difficult, ballast 
having to be cleared away more or less, but such renewals are much less 
frequent than with spikes. 

Rail Braces. — The lateral thrust on the rails at curves, turnouts, etc., is 
very severe, and the outer spikes are very generally reinforced by iron or 
stool rail braces, which are spiked to the tie and bear against the side of 
the rail, thus taking the outward thrust. Guard rails and the lead rails of 
turnouts are also reinforced by braces. Unless the braces are well designed 
and well looked after, their value will be very considerably reduced by the 
outer edge of the rail base cutting into the tie, the load being thus thrown 
on top of the brace and tending to raise its heel. To prevent this, a com- 
bination of tie-plate and rail-brace has been designed, one form of which 
resembles the box brace in Fig. 37, but has the sides cut away at the bot- 




Fig. 37.— Rail Braces. 



torn and the base plate extended in front for the rail to rest upon it. The 
box brace illustrated is of pressed steel, % to 5-16-in. thick, and supports the 
rail head from below as well as at the side. The box fits over the 
rail spike. Another rail brace, of somewhat different design, is also shown. 
Steel braces are preferable to iron, as the latter are liable to be broken in 
spiking and are often made too light and not sufficiently accurate in shape 
to give good service. Almost any form of metal tie-plate will give in- 
creased safety and economy by preventing the cutting of the tie and the 
tilting of the rail, and such plates are now often used instead of rail braces. 
The ordinary braces do not prevent this cutting, so that the rail may be 
held by its head resting on the brace, thus displacing the brace so that it 
does not give proper lateral support. 

The number of braces to each rail depends upon the sharpness of the 
curve. The Louisville & Nashville Ry. requires two braces on every fourth 
tie on curves of 4° and 5°, and on every third tie of curves of 6° and over. 
The Illinois Central Ry. specifies three braces to each rail on curves of 
3 C to 4°, four on curves of 4° to 5°, five on curves of 5° to 6°, and braces 
on alternate ties for curves over 8°. On the New York Central Ry., except 



FASTENINGS AND JOINTS. 85 

where tie-plates are used, there are four braces to each 30-ft. rail on curves 
of 3° to 6°, and six on all curves over 6°. The braces must be on the in- 
side and outside rails, and placed on the same tie for both rails. Some 
roads specify; three braces (at center and quarters) per rail on 5° curves 
with oak ties, and on 3° curves with cedar or other soft ties. Sometimes 
only the outer rail is braced, but generally the inner rail is also braced, so 
as to resist the thrust due to slow heavy trains, and also to relieve the out- 
side spikes of the inner rail from the lateral pull of the tie due to wheel 
pressure against the outer rail. Guard rails at frogs should have two to 
four rail braces, according to length, unless these rails are clamped or 
bolted to the track rails. 

Check Plates. — These plates are used to prevent creeping of the rails upon 
the ties, and have been described in the chapter on "Rails." 

Rail Joints. 

The rail joint has received very much more attention than the rail fas- 
tening, for while weak joints are perhaps no more dangerous than insecure 
fastenings, they cause a roughly riding track and a more apparent wear of 
the rails, the economical necessity of providing against which is more in 
evidence than that of the effects of inefficient fastenings. The joint is a 
troublesome part of the track, but much of the trouble with ordinary joints 
arises from the too general tendency to use cheap material. Whatever 
kind of joint is used, good results cannot be expected unless it is properly 
looked after. In fact a better track will probably be maintained where the 
section foreman is a little anxious about his joints, than where he has new 
joints which he considers can be left to take care of themselves. A good 
joint, well looked after, will require a minimum of expense and labor for 
maintenance. On many roads a considerable proportion of the mainten- 
ance work is expended in tightening bolts, raising low joints and other 
work at this part of the track. 

The difficulty of making and maintaining an efficient joint will be under- 
stood if the work which it has to do is considered. It has to hold together, 
vertically and horizontally, the free ends of two independsnt rails which are 
subjected to very varying strains. At one extreme are the strains due to 
the hammer-like blows delivered by fast trains drawn by engines with driv- 
ing wheel loads of 20,000 to 25,000 and even 30,000 lbs. per wheel, followed 
by a series of rapid blows from car wheels carrying 4,000 to 8,000 lbs. each. 
At the other extreme are the strains due to the pounding of slow heavy 
freight trains, drawn by engines having three or four driving wheel loads 
of 20,000 to 30,000 lbs., and followed by 120 to 200 car wheels with loads 
varying from 3,1:00 to 18,000 lbs. per wheel, aggravated perhaps by flat or 
worn wheels. For a perfect joint and a smooth riding track, the splicing 
must be such as to make the joint as strong and as stiff as the solid rail; 
and also as elastic, so that it will return to position after the depression or 
deflection caused by the loads, and thus carry the wave motion of the rail 
uniformly along the track. It should not, therefore, be more stiff or rigid 
than the rails to which it is applied. Very few joints have yet thoroughly 
met these requirements, and the effect of the loading is, therefore, to cause 
parts to become loose, and the rail ends to take a permanent set. If the 
joint and rail are of equal strength and flexibility, the wave motion will fol- 



86 



TRACK. 



low on evenly with an unbroken curve. 'If the joint is the stronger or staf- 
fer it will check the motion, while if it is the weaker then the rail ends will 
deflect so as to form a depression so sharp that the wheels cannot touch the 
extreme ends of the rails. In either of these latter cases the rails will be- 
come kinked and worn. 

At each rail joint, when under load, there are two beams fixed at one end 
and loaded at the other, each carrying half the load. The deflection of these 
two beams is nearly ten times as great as that of the rail carrying the same 
total load at the middle and considered as a beam. The strength of the 
rail itself counts for little at the joints, and does not suffice to distribute 
the load over several adjacent ties, as it does at the middle of the rail. The 
joint ties therefore have to take practically the whole impact of the load, 
besides being subjected to a rocking or pumping motion. It is for this reas- 
on that these ties go down more than the others. The great wear of the 
rails at the joint is caused by the jumping of the wheels over the deflected 
rail ends, and not over the expansion spacing between the rails. This wear 
is greater just beyond the joint, in the direction of traffic, and on single 
track a greater depression of the rail surface may be found on each side of 
the joint than at the joint itself. Fig. 38 shows a rail joint plotted to an 
exaggerated scale for 2 ft. of each rail end. The upper line is for 80-lb. 
rails on gravel ballast, after 6 months service; the lower line is for older 



IZ" 


6" 


3" 


2" 


: 


!" 


2" 


3" 


6" 


12" 


16 


~~0~ 


~8~ 


4 


M 




2 


24- 








~20" 


~R> 




" 7er~~^- 


^5£~- 


IT 


20 


3 


< ■ 


8 



Fig. 38.— Diagram of Joint Deflections. 



and lighter track. The end of the receiving rail tends to be permanently 
depressed, having a flatter up-grade to the normal level than the leaving 
rail. Investigation and experiment have shown that the wheel, in spite of 
the spring and the vertical play, has not time to follow the deflection of the 
rail ends, but jumps the depression (especially as the curves are convex) 
and strikes the receiving rail a few inches from the end, causing the rail to 
wear or cut out at that point. To this action is largely due the pounding, 
noise and wear at joints. With stiff and heavy rails, the deflection (with 
the consequent jump, noise and wear) is minimized. With lightly loaded 
wheels, stiff rails and heavy splices, the deflection will not be so great but 
that the wheels may touch the whole rail. 

The drop at the gap left between the rail ends for expansion spacing will 
be almost imperceptible, for the versed sine of half the angle which has for 
its radius the radius of the wheel, and for its chord the width of the gap, is 
exceedingly small. With a 33-in. wheel and a y 2 -in. gap the drop of the 
wheel and axle would be only 0.002-in.; and only 008-in. with a gap of 1-in. 
The drop at a gap of %-in. would be as follows: 30-in. wheel, 1-170-in.; 36- 
ins., 1-210-in.; 60 ins., 1-300-in.; 72 ins., 1-360-in. Experiments on the ef- 
fect of the gap were made in Germany in 1892. On a side track in good con- 
dition, notches 0,12-in. deep and 0.6 to 1.2 ins. wide were cut in the rail 



FASTENINGS AND JOINTS. 87 

heads at points directly over the ties, where the rails could not deflect. 
Trial runs were made with a locomotive and inspection car, and the obser- 
vers on the engine experienced noticeable shocks only in passing over the 
widest notches. Observers along the track could scarcely distinguish the 
special noise produced by passing wheels, and increase of speed seemed 
rather to diminish the noise and magnitude of the shocks. On the other 
hand, experiments of the same kind made on the Michigan Central Ry. 
showed considerable wear at the notches. 

Miter Joints.— The idea that the gap for the expansion spacing caused the 
shock led to experiments with miter or bevel points as early as 1816 and 
1824. In 1867, Mr. R. H. Sayre, Chief Engineer of the Lehigh Valley Ry., 
began experiments with rails cut at angles of 45° or 60°. This practice was 
followed from about 1869 to 1895 when it was finally abandoned, as many of 
the rails broke near the ends. The cracks usually started at the junction of 
the head and web, extending back about 3 ins. and then running up to the 
top of the head. The mitered rails on this road (76 and 80-lb.) have now 
been almost entirely removed. Such rails were also tried on the New York 
Elevated Ry., with Fisher joints, but were given up, and the miter joint is 
now practically obsolete. It is hardly possible that the miter cutting of the 
rails caused any appreciable benefit, as it does not in any way affect the 
yielding of the rail ends, which causes the shock. 

Scarf Joint. — This old plan has been revived to a small extent within 
recent years, the rail ends being halved or scarfed, placed side by side and 
bolted together. As used on the Prussian State Rys., the rails are scarfed 
for 8% ins., and have 26-in. splice hars with four bolts spaced 5, 4 and 5 ins., 
c. to c. The two middle bolts pass through both rails and both bars. In 
the ordinary form, the strength of the joint is diminished by the thin web, 
but Dr. Vietor, of Germany, has designed a rail with the head not set cen- 
tral over the web, so that only the head needs be planed away at the scarf, 
leaving both webs of full section. If this joint was put up like a riveted 
connection, or with tightly fitted bolts, it would be very stiff, but as the bolt 
holes must be large enough to admit of expansion, it is helped only by the 
friction of the webs, which depends upon the tightness of the bolts. 

Splice Joint. — The flat splice bar or fish plate was invented in this coun- 
try in 1830 by Col. R. L. Stevens, for the Camden & Amboy Ry., and it was 
reinvented in England in 1847 by Mr. W. Bridges Adams. With the early- 
pear-shaped T-rail the deflection of the rail ends under load tended to force 
the plates apart and loosen the joint. With the modification of the rail sec- 
tion to practically its present form, with a high web and flat fishing angles, 
the joint became more practicable, and began to come into general use 
about 1855. This type of joint is now practically the standard throughout 
the world. It consists of two plates or bars, bearing against the underside 
of the rail head and the top of the rail base, and held together by bolts pass- 
ing through the bars and webs of the two rails. . In order to increase the 
strength, the angle bar was devised (first rolled about. 1868 or 1870), having 
a vertical web like the fish plate and an inclined flange extending over the 
rail base. This flange adds to the lateral stiffness of the joint and keeps the 
track in better alinement. The angle bar joint is now almost universal in 
this country, and will probably continue to be the standard for the lighter 



88 



TRACK. 



track. For first class heavy track, however, it will probably be supple- 
mented by a base support to the rails, as noted below. 

In some of the older joints, the outside bars extended along the side of 
the rail head, but this practice has been abandoned. The bars should be so 
designed and proportioned as to make the joint as strong and stiff as the 
body of the rail, in which particular many joints are defective, especially 
as to the stiffness to resist slight deflections. The bars are usually of uni- 
form section throughout, but sometimes have the thickness of the web in- 
creased at the middle by tapering from the ends or by offsets, as in the 
Samson bar. The flange sometimes extends only about %-in. beyond the 
rail base, or barely enough to give a hold for the slot spikes, as in (B) Fig. 
39, which spikes may be crowded out of position by a creeping track. It is 
better to have wide flanges with deep slots for the spikes, and some roads 
havQ them wide enough for spike holes instead of slots, the spikes then re- 




Fig. 30. — Sections of Splice Bars. 



sisting motion in every direction and the gage being more permanently 
maintained. The base of the flange is usually brought down level with the 
bottom of the rail, so as to take a bearing on the tie, as in Figs. 27, 29 and 
39. Many roads, however, keep the flange clear of the tie, as in Fig. 39 (C) 
and Fig. 41, but this practice is not to be recommended. The sections of 
splice bars vary very greatly, as shown in the illustrations, but one of the 
best is the Sayre section, shown in Fig. 27. The heavy top chord makes an 
exceptionally stiff bar, with wide bearing surface for the rail head. Fig. 39 
(A) shows the Dudley design of bar of high-carbon steel for the 80-lb. rails 
of the New York Central Ry. The thick, narrow-flanged bar of the Penn- 
sylvania Ry. is shown at (B), while (C) is the bar of the Chicago, Burling- 



FASTENINGS AND JOINTS. 89 

ton & Quincy Ry. At (D) and (E) are the heavily flanged bars of the At- 
chison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. and the Boston & Albany Ry., both having 
spike holes, and the latter being grooved to hold the bolt heads. 

Splice bars are commonly made of steel which is far too soft for the pur- 
pose, having only about 0.1 to 0.15% carbon, or rarely 0.25%.- Much better re- 
sults would be obtained with steel having 0.3 to 0.4% carbon, and some for- 
eign railways specify the same steel for rails and splice bars. In many 
cases a desire for increased strength is met by simply increasing the thick- 
ness of the web, coupled sometimes with an increase in the vertical thick- 
ness of the flange at its junction with the web. In the Dudley angle bar 
section, already referred to, the metal has been distributed with a special 
view to stiffness, the web being even thinner than usual, but the steel has 
0.4% carbon, and is hard and tough to resist wear. The section is stiff, but 
has sufficient elasticity to make it give long service before taking a per- 
manent set, and the web is thin enough to stand clean punching, without 
distortion or warping. The steel is required to have an ultimate tensile 
strength of 52,000 to 62,000 lbs. per sq. in.; elastic limit not less than half 
the ultimate strength; elongation, 25% in 8 ins.; and it must bend 180° flat 
on itself without fractures on the outside of the bent portion. The Michi- 
gan Central Ry. has laid several miles of track with splice bars of open- 
hearth steel having 0.65 to 0.7% carbon and 0.05 phosphorus. Under shop 
test they would stand a deflection of %-in. without permanent set. They 
have been very satisfactory in service on new rails, but will not hold up 
well on joints that have already deflected, which in fact few if any joint 
devices will do. 

One of the bars usually has oval, square or kite shaped holes to fit a neck 
of corresponding shape on the bolt, thus preventing it from turning as the 
nut is screwed up. The other bar has round holes, which should be of such 
size as to require a smart tap on the bolt to send it home. If the bolts 
have L-heads bearing on the flange of the bar, or T-hsads used wi;h grooved 
bars (as in the Boston & Albany Ry. joint, Fig. 39), both bars may be 
punched or drilled alike. The holes in the rails are large enough to allow 
of contraction and expansion. On the Memphis bridge, the bolts have a 
driving fit in the holes of the splice bars, the holes in the rails being ^-in. 
larger. In this way the two bars become practically one member, and good 
results have been reported. It is almost impossible to prevent thick bars 
from getting out of true if punched, and they should be straightened, as 
otherwise they will materially impair the efficiency of the joint. When, 
splice bars are once notched or bent, the joint deteriorates rapidly, as it ia 
almost impossible to restore the bars to proper line, though a straighten- 
ing press for this work is used on some roads. To take up the wear at the 
top of the bar, right under the rail ends (which wear at once reduces the 
efficiency of the joint), a thin renewable bearing piece or liner may be set 
between the rail head and the bar, while some English railways use an iron 
washer at this point. It is obviously not economy to keep in service bent, 
worn, or crooked bars, as they lead to wear of the rails and general injury 
to the track. 

In foreign practice it is very common to use bars of Z-section, having 
two vertical webs, the lower webs projecting below the rail and sometimes 
having bolts through them so as to cause the flanges to grip the rail base. 



90 



TRACK. 



This form of bar is being introduced in this country by different designers, 
as in the Bonzano, Thomson and Churchill joints. The Bonzano joint, Pig. 
40, has a pair of angle bars with flanges about 3 ins. wider than usual. The 
bars are heated, and the middle portion of the broad flange is pressed down 
vertically to project about 2% ins. below the base of the rail, thus giving ad- 
ditional stiffness. The bars are not cut or notched for bending, but the 
flat ends of the bars are punched with two spike holes in each. The sec- 
tion of the upper part of the bar is similar to that of the Sayre bars. The 
Thomson joint is somewhat similar, but the bottom webs are inclined in- 
ward at an angle of 45°, and extend 3% ins. below the base of the rail. 
These webs are only 7 ins. long, the ties being set about 22 ins. c. to c. The 
bars are 31 ins. long, With six bolts, and for 100-lb. rails they have an area 
of 6.97 sq. ins., with a weight of 85.40 lbs. per pair. 

Breakage of Angle Bars.— The irregular manner in which splice bars frac- 
ture is due to the very varying conditions of load and support. The joint 
ties may be loose from the rails or loose from the ballast, and the transfer 




Plan. 



sf- =* 



Ew,. News. 



Fig. 40.— Bonzano Rail Joint; Pennsylvania Ry. 



of the load from one rail to the other effects a reversion of strains in the 
angle bar at each wheel passage. Breaking of the angle bars from the bot- 
tom is often due to carelessness in raising track, the joints being raised too 
high before the centers or quarters are raised, instead of . maintaining a 
proper surface in raising. With a wheel on each side of a supported joint, 
the tendency is to throw the joint up, the top of the bars being then in ten- 
sion. With a suspended joint, the bars gradually get a deflection at the 
middle, and when the joint is raised, the tension strain is transferred from 
the bottom to the top of the bar. It has already been shown that the en- 
tering rail receives from each wheel a severe blow a few inches back from 
the end, which tends to loosen and drive down the shoulder tie of a sus- 
pended joint, unless it is kept well tamped. If this tie is allowed to be- 
come low in the ballast, the angle bars get a tension strain along the top as 
each wheel passes. If the tie is tamped up, and then allowed to get low 
again, the bars will eventually crack from the top. This may be prevented 
to some extent by lengthening the bars, though the ends of very long bars 
do but little effective work. Under normal conditions bars which fail 



FASTENINGS AND JOINTS. 



91 



js — 





■*^m 



should crack from the bottom rather than from 
the top. (See paragraph on "Other Joint Devices," 
pp. 94, 95.) Broken angle bars should be replaced 
at once, and the track examined to ascertain the 
cause of the breakage. 

Supported, Suspended, Bridge and Base Joints. 
— There are four general arrangements of joints: 
(1) Supported joints, with the rail ends resting on 
a joint tie; (2) Suspended joints, with the rail 
ends projecting beyond the shoulder ties and held 
only by the splice bars; (3) .Bridge joints, in 
which the rail ends project beyond the shoulder 
ties but are carried by a bridge plate resting upon 
the ties; (4) Base joints, in which the bridge plate 
is replaced by a support under the rails which is 
bolted or clamped to them but does not rest upon 
the ties. The supported joint proper is now used 
to a comparatively small extent. It was found 
that with heavy wheel loads the joint tie did not 
give sufficient support. If tamped hard to prevent 
it from settling, it formed an anvil upon which 
the rail ends were battered, while the wave mo- 
tion was not carried along uniformly and the 
track was likely to be rough. A modification of 
this arrangement, however, is the three-tie joint, 
in which two shoulder ties are placed close to the 
joint tie, and the angle bars are made long enough 
to extend over the three ties. This has been 
adopted by some important roads, including the 
New York Central Ry., and is considered to give 
good results under fast and heavy traffic. On the 
other hand, it is claimed that the three ties are 
too close together (6 to 8 ins.) to allow of proper 
tamping and that consequently one. of three con- 
ditions will obtain: (1) The joint tie will be the 
more lightly tamped, making a suspended joint 
with a long span between the shoulder ties; (2) 
The shoulder ties will be the more lightly 
tamped, making a long and weak supported joint; 
(3) The third tie, or the shoulder tie of the enter- 
ing rail, will be loosened by the jump of the 
wheels at the joint, and will thus cause the splice 
bars to be bent down, which with the reaction of 
the rail ends as the load is removed will cause 
them to crack from the top. Practical experience 
appears to show that these defects need not exist 
on well kept track. The suspended joint is by 
far the most generally used. It distributes the 
load over the two shoulder ties, and if the fasten- 
ings are properly designed it makes good pro- 
vision for the deflection and wave, motion. The 



92 



TRACK. 



ties should be 8 to 10 ins. apart. Fig. 41 shows the three-tie joint of the 
New York Central Ry., and Fig. 42 shows the bridge joint of the Chicago 
& Northwestern Ry. 

Bridge Joint. — This type of joint is coming more and more into favor, 
and is based on the most correct principles combining a base support with 
the necessary elasticity, if the bridge plate is not so heavy and stiff as to 
form an anvil. It is specially adapted for main tracks with heavy traffic. 
The rail ends should be so attached to the bridge plate as to be incapable of 
independent movement. Several forms of bridge joints are shown in Fig. 
43. The Fisher joint, once well known but now very little used, has a 
slightly cambered bridge plate to which the rails are held by a transverse 
U bolt with clamps resting on the rail base and fitting against ribs on the 
sides of the plate. A curved steel spring plate between the plate and the 
horizontal leg of the bolt gives sufficient tension to prevent the nuts from 
slacking loose. To meet objections as to lack of lateral strength the clamps 
were made of angle form, with a vertical web long enough for two bolts, 
one through each rail, but those do not bear against the underside of the 




Fig. 42.— Bridge Rail Joint; Chicago & Northwestern Ry. 



rail head, the inventor considering this unnecessary in connection with the 
base support. This idea is not approved by many engineers. The Church- 
ill joint, used on the Norfolk & Western Ry., has a bridge plate 23 x 8 ins., 
9-16-in. thick, with the sides bent down for 8 ins. at the middle to bear upon 
the ribs of the splice bars. These bars are 23 ins. long, with lower webs 8 
ins. long, fitting the slots in the bridge plate. Two %-in. bolts pass through 
the lower webs, while four bolts hold the upper webs and rails together. 
The cost of maintenance is said to be only 50% of that where angle bars 
are used, while the track is in better condition. The Continuous joint has 
two angle bars with flanges bent round to fit under the rail base, but the 
bars must be of low carbon Steel (0.1%) to stand the bending. 

The Truss (or Long) joint, as used on the Chicago & Northwestern Ry., 
has a bridge plate 26 x 7% ins., with two long U bolts parallel with the rails, 
the nuts bearing on the wide flanges of the 13y 2 -in, angle bars. These bars 
do not touch the rail head. A transverse bar of trough section is fitted 



FASTENINGS AND JOINTS. 



93 




Weber. 



u 




[ 




J U 


n 


H 




r — 


•— a 






n 






J 




1 


I 





Churchill. 




Truss. 



Sect/on A-B. 



Continuous. 




Section. Side Elevation. 

Torrey (Michigan Central Ry.). 

Fig. 43.— Rail Joints of Bridge and Base Types. 

between the bridge plate and the bolts. The Weber joint has an L. shaped 
bridge plate, the web of which is on the outer side of the rail, with a chan- 
nel splice bar and wooden filler between it and the web of the rail. A 
fish plate or angle bar is used on the inner side of the rail. The Heath 
or Common-Sense joint has a combined angle bar and bridge plate, with a 
fish plate on the opposite side of the rail. The bridge plate has a pocket 
stamped down at the middle to stiffen it, which necessitates the use of a 
low-carbon steel. The standard joint of the Chicago & Northwestern Ry., 
Fig. 42, has a grooved bridge plate 24 ins. long, but the rails are not bolted 
to it. A better design is the bridge joint introduced by Mr. Delano on the 



94 TRACK. 

Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Ry., in 1890, and still in use to some extent. 
The 12-in. angle bars (fitting the head and base of rail) were secured by two 
bolts to the rail and two bolts to the bridge plate, though four bolts through 
the rail would probably have been better. Some recent types of bridge 
joints have heavy malleable iron splice bars which extend under the rails 
and are grooved so as to receive and wedge upon the jail base. The bars 
are stiffened by ribs and may have projecting flanges to give an increased 
bearing on the ties. In the American joint, of this type, the bars have a 
dovetailed interlocking joint under the rails and no bolts are used, but lugs 
on the bars lock with studs fitted to the holes in the webs of the rails. This 
joint relies entirely upon wedge action. In the Atlas joint, the bars simply 
meet under the rail (as in the Continuous joint), and are secured by bolts 
through and under the rails. The Heath joint is now very little used, but 
the Continuous and Weber joints are extensively used. 

Base Joint. — The most recent example of this type of joint is that de- 
signed by Mr. Torrey, Chief Engineer of the Michigan Central Ry., and is in 
somewhat extensive use on that road. It is shown in Fig. 43. Under the 
rails is an inverted piece of rail (or crop end) 10 or 11 ins. long, slightly 
cambered so that its ends are 1-16-in. clear below the base of the track 
rails. This is secured by three deep transverse U bolts, whose legs pass 
through the wide flanges of four-bolt angle bars. The flanges are horizon- 
tal, %-in. thick, and do not touch the ties. A modification of the Fisher 
bridge joint is very similar to this, but has a shallow forging of T section 
in place of the inverted rail, while the splice bars bear on the ties and have 
only two bolts. 

Other Joint Devices. — An early form of joint which has of late years been 
revived in Germany and tried experimentally on the Fennsylvania Lines 
has bolted outside of the rails a special piece of rail resting on the shoulder 
ties and having its head touching that of the track rails. This auxiliary 
rail is about 21% ins. long, with its top level with the top of the track rail 
for 7 ins., and then inclined to the ends. The middle of the head must not 
be more than %-in. wide, so as to clear the false flanges of worn wheels. A 
splice bar is used on the opposite side, and a filler splice may be put be- 
tween the webs of the main and auxiliary rails, supporting their heads. The 
joint is said to be free from shock while the rails show little deflection or 
wear. The idea does not seem promising for permanent efficiency, as there 
will almost inevitably be a certain shock as the wheels strike and leave the 
auxiliary rail. As it is important that the ends of the rail heads should be 
held in the same horizontal plane, rising and falling together during de- 
flection, a hinge joint would be ideal in some respects. A hinge joint is the 
standard type on the Indian Midland Ry., the joint being of the fish-plate 
type with five bolts. The middle bolt passes through notches in the ends 
of the rail webs, but the lack of fit between the bolt and the rail, and the 
small bearing upon the bolt, prevent this arrangement from having its full 
theoretical value. Hinged and dovetailed joints with interlocking rail ends 
have been devised, but the expense of shaping the ends makes their use 
impracticable. The number of patented joints is legion, but the majority 
are entirely impracticable. Of those which have been tried experimental- 
ly, many have been found to be inferior to a good angle bar joint. The in- 



FASTENINGS AND JOINTS. 95 

vestigation of the merits of these trial joints is a difficult matter, as in 
many cases they are put on with new rails or when the track is surfaced, 
and are assembled with special care. Any good results are then attributed 
to the efficiency of the joint, when they are really due to the improved track 
and the greater care in putting up the joints. A good angle bar joint, put 
up with equal care and under the same conditions would perhaps show even 
better results than the experimental devices. One road in particular has 
tried a large number of patent joints, but without satisfactory results, and 
in no case has the benefit been commensurate with the increase in cost. 
Many special forms of joint appear subject to a common weakness, in that 
insufficient or no provision is made against upward deflection of the rail 
ends caused by the application of the wheel loads between the first and sec- 
ond ties. This, as shown by the Dudley dynagraph records (Chapter 21). 
causes an upward deflection of the joint, followed by the better known down- 
ward deflection while the wheel is passing over the joint, and a second up- 
ward deflection after the wheel has passed the first tie beyond the joint. The 
standard angle bar in common use provides an extra thickness of metal on 
the upper edge as the practical outcome of experience, but the necessity for 
this appears to be overlooked in many special designs of joints. The series 
of deflections above noted may be provided for by thorough tamping of the 
ties next to the joint ties. 

Insulated Joints. — Where rails have to be electrically insulated at the 
ends of block signal sections, etc., special forms of joints are required. The 
Neafie joint has a long channel-shaped base plate with a layer of insulating 
material upon which the rail ends rest. Long and heavy wooden splice 
bars are wedged between the webs of the rails and the sides of the base 
plate, and secured by six bolts. A block of wood or vulcanized fiber, of the 
same section as the rail, is fitted between the ends of the rails. The Weber 
joint is similar to the track joint already described, but has an L-shaped 
strip of insulating material against the bridge plate, and two heavy wooden 
splice bars. 

Step Joints. — Where rails of different section meet, either on the main 
track, or where sidings have lighter rails than the main line turnouts, the 
smaller one is often blocked up to the proper height and the splice bars are 
bent to fit both webs, but this is not a satisfactory arrangement for first 
class track. On several lines the Atlas malleable-iron step joint is used for 
the purpose. This joint has two heavy side bars, projecting below the rail 
and having grooves made to fit the rail bases, which they grip tightly. 
Bolts are put through and under the rails. Mr. Sandberg has introduced 
cast steel "step" splice bars, while on the Chinese Imperial Rys. Mr. Kinder 
has used cast steel rails 27 ins. long, having half the length conforming 
to a 60-lb. and the other half to an 85-lb. section. These are secured to the 
rails by the ordinary splice bars. A somewhat similar joint has been de- 
vised by Mr. W. G. Curtis of the Southern Pacific Ry., but made from a piece 
of the heavier rail, 7% to 30 ft. long. The outer side of the head is planed 
away gradually to fit the smaller rail, and the bottom is forged and formed 
to conform to this rail about 12 ins.; beyond which the change to the heav- 
ier section is made in 15 ins. A reinforcing plate is riveted to each side of 
the rail so as to but against the splice bars of the lighter rail. 



96 



TRACK. 



Expansion Joints. — With continuous rails, expansion joints must be pro- 
vided at intervals to allow for creeping, and these are usually made with 
switch points. On long steel bridges and viaducts, some special joint must 
be used to allow for the expansion and contraction of the structure, and 
Fig. 44 shows the form used on the Poughkeepsie bridge, which provides for 
several inches of movement. A heavy base plate and upper packing plates 
form a trough in which the rail ends slide, the rails being "halved" for a 
length of 12 ins. Neither rail has its web cut. On the gage side of the rail 
the line is made perfect by planing off from the inside of the head an 
amount equal to the thickness of the web, the rail being slightly bent be- 
yond the joint so as to permit this. The other rail is left of its original 
thickness. From the outside of one rail and the inside of the other %-in. 
of metal is planed off, so as to make the rails enter truly at the joint, al- 
though their webs are 15-16-in. out of line. The axis of the joint is there- 
fore }4-in. from the axis of the rails on each side of the joint. The full 
width of rail head is 2 13-16 ins. The thin end of the left rail is 15-16-in. 
wide. All the sharp ends are rounded, but instead of the long outside taper 




j^J^hA f^w^yl ^p 



Section A-B 



Pac/r/r7gP/,gx/%."x/4" 




Fig. 44. 



Elevation. Section C-D. 

-Expansion Rail Joint; Poughkeepsie Bridge. 



of the right rail, it would have been better to bend down the top, leaving 
the full width. A double-flanged worn wheel would not then tend to crowd 
the wheel over and cause derailment, which is likely to occur with any kind 
of horizontal bevel such as shown in the figure. The rounding on the gage 
side, however, is highly desirable. 

Drawbridge Joints. — At the ends of drawbridges special movable joints 
must be provided in order to allow of the rails bridging the gap between the 
abutment and the end of the bridge. In some cases the end rails on the 
bridge are about 10 ft. long, pivoted at the heel, and projecting so as to 
take a bearing on the abutment tie or sill, this being fitted with channel 
shaped rest plates having flaring sides which guide the rail into its proper 
position in alinement with the fixed rail. When the bridge is to be swung, 
the pivoted rails are raised clear of the rest plates by mechanism operated 
from the locking gear. Sometimes a piece of rail is bolted outside the piv- 
oted rail, and projecting beyond it, to carry wheel treads over the gip. With 
lift or bascule bridges, the rails need not be pivoted, but the meeting ends 
of the fixed and bridge rails may be cut vertically at an angle. 



/ 

FASTENINGS AND JOINTS. 97 

Broken and Even Joints. — The rails may be laid with joints opposite one 
another, or with the joints on one side opposite the middle of the rails on 
the other side. Both methods are followed, but the latter is by far the 
most general practice. Even joints are used sometimes on new lines not 
fully ballasted, on account of the banks settling, it being claimed that the 
track rides easier, has less lateral motion and can be maintained better 
under these conditions. They are used mainly in the west, as with the 
comparatively light roadbed construction the track settles most at the 
joints. With broken joints, according to their opponents, the number of 
low places would be increased, and the weight of the train would be thrown 
against low joints, tending to throw the track out of line. WLh even joints, 
only the shock due to settlement will be experienced, and there will be less 
trouble in maintaining line and surface. On the other hand, even joints 
tend to form kinks in the track, and on many western roads, with compara- 
tively light track, it is considered that broken joints make easier riding 
track, less liable to get out of line and less expensive to maintain. With 
broken, joints, the hammering effect which tends to cause low joints is bet- 
ter distributed over the track (particularly when it is well ballasted), and 
there is less difficulty in keeping up the joints. The cars also ride more 
smoothly, as occasional low joints cause only a slight rocking of the car to 
one side, while low square joints would cause a more noticeable and un- 
pleasant pitching motion. The rail ends also get more severely battered 
with square joints. At broken joints on double track with creeping rails, 
the ties may be slewed out of square, but the creeping should be and gen- 
erally can be, stopped, in which case the objection disappears. Tracklay- 
ing takes more time with square joints than with broken joints, while with 
the latter the joints can run some distance ahead of the middle of the op- 
posite rail (on curves) before it becomes necessary to cut a rail. In fact, 
some roads using square joint on tangents, use broken joints on curves. The 
opinions in favor of square joints, above noted, are by no means generally 
held, even in the west, and the prevailing opinions are strongly in favor of 
broken joints for all kinds of track, as they make a better running track, 
hold the surface and line better, and require less maintenance work. This 
latter point is an important one on a road with light track and a limited 
track force. 

Length of Bars and Spacing of Bolts. — There is a very little uniformity 
in these details of track construction, but there is a decided tendency to- 
wards the use of short bars and closely spaced bolts, as may be seen by com- 
paring the old and modern joints given in Table No. 9-A. Short bars of 20 
to 24 ins. are almost invariably used in England. The length of bars is 
from 20 ins. with four bolts, on the Boston & Albany Ry., to 48 ins. with six 
bolts, on the Savannah, Florida & Western Ry. These 48-in. bars are being 
gradually replaced with the standard 26-in. four-bolt bars of the Plant Sys- 
tem, while the old 48-in. bars of the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Ry. 
were replaced by 32-in. bars with six bolts, and later by 24-in. bars with 
four bolts. The logic of the very long bars is hard to see, especially where 
the bolt holes are several inches from the ends, as the metal beyond these 
holes does little service. The old 36-in. bars of the Concord & Montreal 
Ry. had four bolts 6-ins. c. to c, leaving 9 ins. free beyond the end bolts. 
The best lengths appear to be 20 to 24 ins. for supported joints, 24 to 30 ins. 



98 TRACK. 

for suspended and bridge joints, and 30 to 36 ins., for three-tie joints. The 
bolt hole spacing formerly ranged as high as 12 ins., but 9 ins. is now about 
the maximum, and even that is exceptional, the more common practice be- 
ing to space the bolts 4 to 7 ins. c. to c. Very wide spacing is objectionable, 
and it is advisable to get the center bolts as near as possible to the ends of 
the rails, while still leaving metal enough to ensure against cracking or 
fracture of the rails. Table No. 9-A shows the arrangement of a number of 
joints, and further particulars will be found in the tables of track standards 
at the end of the book. 



Railway. No. of 

bolt's. 

Sav., Fla. & West, (old) 6 

Lake Shore & Mich. So. (old). 6 

Canadian Pacific (old) 6 

Erie (old) 6 

Chic, Burl. & Quincy 6 

New York Central 6 

Pennsylvania 6 

Norfolk & Western 6 

Erie 6 

Union Pacific (new) ' 6 

Lehigh Valley 6 

Concord & Montreal (old).... 4 

Canadian Pacific (new) 4 

Chicago Great Western 4 

Chicago & Northwestern 4 

Southern 4 

Lake Shore & Mich. So. (new). 4 

N. Y., N. H. & H 4 

Louisville & Nashville. 4 

Boston & Albany 4 

Bolts and Nuts. — Track bolts are now usually made of mild steel and are 
%'OY %-in. diameter, a very few roads having them as large as 1-in. for 
heavy rails, while %-in. and 1-in. bolts are used for frogs. They are 3% to 
4% ins. long under the head, according to the style of joint, but should not 
project more than %-in. beyond the nut. They are put up in kegs of about 
200 lbs. A keg contains about 250 bolts % x 3% ins., with nuts 1% ins. 
square; 208 bolts % x 3% ins., with iy 2 -in. nuts; 220 bolts %x4 ins., with 
1% in. nuts; or 195 bolts % x 4*4 ins. with iy 2 in. nuts. The bolts should be 
straight and smooth, with well cut threads, and the threaded portion should 
be as short as possible, so as to give the body of the bolt a full bearing in 
the splice bar. The threads should be of U. S. standard, so made on both 
bolt and nut that the nut can be screwed on by hand only for the first three 
or four threads, after which it must be turned by the wrench, the fit not 
being so tight as to burst the nut or distort the threads in screwing up with 
an ordinary track wrench. The Harvey grip-thread bolt, Fig. 45, is of mild 
steel and has the thread spun up on the body by a cold rolling process, the 
threads rising 1-16-in. above the body of the bolt, while in the ordinary 
bolt (like that of the Pennsylvania Ry., Pig. 45) the thread is cut out of the 
body and so reduce the thickness at the root. The Wrenshall oval bodied 
bolts have been extensively used, but on account of the higher cost their 
use has been practically discontinued. Those on the Northern Pacific Ry. 
were % x 11-16-in. in the body, and 1 x %-in. in the neck, with a head of 
1 7-16 ins. diameter. 



. 9-A.— 


RAIL JOINTS. 
Spacing, 










, — c. to 


c. of bolts. — 






Length 




Interme- 






of bar, 


Middle 


diate, 


End, 


Type 


Weight 


ins. 


ins. 


ins. 


ins. 


of joint. 


of rail. 


48 


6 


12. 


6 


3-tie. 


75 


48 


6 


6 


11 


Supported. 


70 


44 


5% 


6y 2 


9% 


3-tie. 


72 


40 


8 


6 


7 


Suspended. 


80 


38 


5 


5 


5 


Suspended. 


75 


36 


5.6 


5.6 


5.6 


3-tie. 


80 to 10O 


34&30 


4 


5 


6 


Suspended. 


85 to 100 


30 


5 5 /l6 


5 


5 


" 


85 


30 


4 3 /l6 


4% 


4% 


" 


• 90 


29 


5 


4y 2 


4V 2 


" 


80 to 90 


28 


4 


4 


4 


" 


90 to 100 


36 


6 




6 


" 


72 


26 


5 3 / 16 




ey 2 


" 


80 


26 


6 




6 


" 


75 


26 


6 




6 


Bridge. 


90 


26 


4 




7 


Suspended. 


80 


24 


6 




5 


Supported. 


80 


24 


5 




7 


Suspended. 


100 


22% 


5V 8 




6 


" 


80 


20 


4% 




4% 


Supported. 


95 



FASTENINGS AND JOINTS. 



'J 'J 



The track bolt has usually an oval or square neck under the head, fitting 
into a hole of corresponding shape in the splice bar, in order to prevent the 
bolt from turning while the nut is being screwed on or off. The length of 
the neck should be equal to the thickness of the splice bar. The bolts usual- 
ly have cup heads, but the heads are often too small and too thin at the 
edge, so that the wear in the edge is likely to soon reduce the bearing sur- 
face, especially as the contact surfaces are often too rough for a good bear- 
ing. It might be better to use a square or T head, and if a grooved splice 
bar was used with these (as on the Boston & Albany Ry., Fig. 39), or if an 
L-head was used, bearing on the flange of the angle bar, there would then 

be no necessity for a neck on the bolt, and 
both bars could be drilled or punched 
alike. In some joints, the bolts are tapped 
into the bar, nuts being omitted or else 
used as locknuts. This necessitates extra 
expense in manufacture, and any injury to 
one threaded hole renders the whole bar 
useless. If nuts are also used, the expense 
is still greater. 

The nuts should be well formed, with 
true and clean cut threads, and should be 
thick enough to give a good bearing, as 
thin nuts result in loose, nuts and damaged 
threads. Both square and hexagonal nuts 
are used, but the former are by far the 
most general. The corners are sometimes 
chamfered toward the inner face, in order 
to give a better hold for the wrench. The 
nuts may be on the inside or outside of the 
rail, but the former is the most approved 
practice, though with light rails it is some- 
times necessary to put them on the outside, 
to be clear of the wheel flanges. The New 
York, New Haven & Hartford Ry. puts 
them alternately on the inside and outside 
of its 100-lb. rails, so as net to have all the 
bolt necks on one side, and to prevent de- 
railed wheels frcm breaking all the bolts of 
the joints. A nut-lock is usually placed be- 
tween the. nut and the bar, to pre- 
vent the nut from slacking. Lock nuts, however, render these un- 
necessary, and thus reduce the number of parts. The. Harvey grip-thread 
bolt has a ratchet thread, undercut on the bearing side, or about 5° less 
than a right angle to the axis of the bolt. The nut has a similar thread, the 
bearing side of which is about 5° greater than a right angle to the axis of 
the nut. The thickness of face of thread and depth between threads is in- 
creased towards the outer end of the nut by flattening the angle of the 
thread. When the nut is s.crewed hard against the splice bar, the thin sharp 
threads of the bolt are upset so as to fill the space of 10° between the 
threads of the bolt and the nut. The hole in the nut is enlarged at the 




Section 
A 



Section Section 
B. E-F. C-D. 

New York Central Ry. 

Fig. 45.— Track Bolts. 



LofC. 



100 



TRACK. 



bearing face, forming a chamber 3-16-in. deep; thus ensuring good threads 
to screw the nut upon in taking up any slack. The Oliver or "Holdfast" 
nut has the three outer threads of the ratchet form and cut at a slightly 
different angle from the others, thus setting up a tight grip on the bolt. The 
National elastic nut is made from a flat strip so shaped as to form a dove- 
tail, scarf or halved joint when bent into a ring. The rough ring is then 
pressed into hexagon form and tapped slightly smaller than the bolt, so 
that when put in with a wrench it opens about 1-64-in. at its joint and ex- 
erts a grip on the bolt. The nut can be easily slackened or tightened, and 
causes no injury to the threads of the bolt. The Automatic nut is of T 
shape, the wings being slightly curved to act as a spring. The bolt is 




Ncdiona 



Positive. 
Fig. 46.— Nutlocks. 



screwed into the nut, drawing it flat against the splice bar, the spring action 
of the wings then preventing it from slacking. This device has been suc- 
cessfully used at frogs, crossings and guard rails, where heavy strains came 
upon the bolts. 

Nutlocks. — Of the numerous designs in use, the majority are in the form of 
spring washers. Probably the most extensively used is the Verona, which 
is a steel split washer twisted spirally to give about Vi-in. opening. Many 
modifications of this design have the metal twisted, jagged or pointed so 
as to cut into the softer metal of the splice bar, but the advantages of such 



• FASTENINGS AND JOINTS. 101 

practice are dubious. Some nutlocks are made to fit a pair of bolts, like 
the Excelsior double nutlock. The spring action is not the only principle 
adopted. The Jones nutlock is a thin flexible plate, the edge of which comes 
against the rail head or splice bar, while one end is bent up against the nut 
when the latter is screwed home. The Stark nutlock has a keyway on 
the bolt and eight keyways in the nut, so that at each one-eighth turn of 
the nut a slot is formed to receive a split pin. The Young nutlock is an 
oval washer with the bolt hole near one end; this is screwed on after the 
ordinary nut and the weight of its longer end prevents it from working 
loose. Several forms of nutlocks are shown in Fig. 46. 

Examples of Rail Joints. — The New York Central Ry. uses three-tie joints, 
Fig. 41, having ties 9 ins. wide, 6 ins. apart, with splice bars 36 ins. long. 
On the middle tie is a three-flanged Servis tie-plate, 9% x 6 ins., 13-16-in. 
deep. One splice bar has holes 13-16-in. square, with rounded corners; the 
other bar has holes 13-16-in. diameter, while the rails have holes 15-16-in. 
diameter. The Harvey bolt is %-in. diameter, 4%-ins. long under the head, 
with a neck %-in. square having %-in. rounded corners; the cup head of the 
bolt is %-in. thick and 1% ins. in diameter. The nut is 1%-ins. square, %- 
in. thick. The old splice bars shown in Fig. 41 had the flanges extended 
but little beyond the rail base, and 1-16-in. clear of the tie. The new form 
takes a bearing on the tie, as shown at (A) Fig. 39. The Boston & Albany 
Ry. has a supported joint with 20-in. splice bars weighing 45 lbs. per pair, 
and four %-in. holes, 4% ins. c. to c. The rails have 1-in. holes. The bars 
have heavy ribs at top and bottom, and wide flanges, with a 13-16-in. spike 
hole in each, the width of the joint over the flanges being 8 ins. The holes 
are 1 in. on opposite sides of the center line of the joint. The inner bar 
has a longitudinal groove to hold the bolt heads. The bolts are %-in. 
diameter, with double Excelsior nut locks. The Chicago & Northwestern 
Ry. has a four-bolt bridge joint, Fig. 42, with shoulder ties 9% ins. apart in 
the clear. The bridge plate is channel shaped, 26 ins. long, 8% ins. wide, 
%-in. thick for 5% ins. (to fit a 5%-in. rail base), and %-in. for a width of 
1 5-16 ins. at the sides. The splice bars are 26 ins. long, with bolts 6 ins. c. 
to c. They are thin, and the flanges are clear of the bridge plate, projecting 
over it far enough for the spike slots to register with square holes in the 
plate. One bar has oval holes, 15-16 x l 5-16 ins., while the ether has holes 
1 1-16-in. diameter. The Harvey bolts are 13-16-in. diameter, 3 13-16 ins. 
long under the head, with a neck 13-16 x 1% ins., 9-16-in. long. The nut is 
1 7-16 ins. square and 1 in. deep, with chamfered corners. The Louisville 
& Nashville Ry. has a suspended six-bolt joint, with shoulder ties 7x9 ins., 
9 ft. long, 10 ins. apart in the clear. The splice bars are 29 ins. long, with 
bolts spaced 4%-ins. at the middle, 4% ins. intermediate and 6 ins. at the 
ends, leaving only 1 15-16 ins. beyond the center of the end bolt holes. The 
spike slots are 6 and 4 ins. from the ends of the bar, %-in. wide and 9-16-in. 
deep. The outside bar has oval holes 1 x V?i ins., while the inside bar and 
the rails have holes 1 in. diameter. The Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Ry. 
has three-tie joints with shoulder ties 8 ins. wide and 8 ins. apart in the 
clear. The splice bars are 38 ins. long, with six 15-16-in. bolt holes, 5 ins. 
c. to c. The bars are clear of the ties (C, Fig. 39) and weigh 63.75 lbs. per 
pair. The six bolts, nuts and nutlocks weigh 8.26 lbs.; making the total 
weight of splice about 72 lbs. The spike slots are %-in. wide and %-in. deep, 



102 TRACK. 

and are 2>% ins. from one end and 1% in. from the other end of the bar. 
The holts are %-in. diameter, 4 ins. long under the head, the head being 
1 7-16-ins. square and 13-16-in. thick. The nut is square, %-in. thick, and 
the nutlock 1 3-16-ins. diameter and ^-in. thick. 

Track Material. 

The quantity of track material for one mile of single track, with 30 ft. 
rails (giving 352 joints) is given in Table No. 10, together with a general 
estimate of cost at the prices of December, 1899. It may be noted that with 
rails 33 ft, 45 ft. and 60 ft. long, the number of rails per mile will be reduced 
to 320, 234,6 and 176 respectively. The weight of rails per yard divided by 
7 and multiplied by 11 gives the weight in gross tons (2,240 lbs.) per mile 
of single track (two rails). 

TABLE NO. 10.— QUANTITIES AND PRICES OF TRACK MATERIAL. 

No. No. 

Rails, 30 ft. long 352 Track bolts (6-bolt joints) 2,112 

Ties, 16 per rail 2,816 Nuts (4-bolt joints) 1,408 

Tie-plates (2 on each tie) 5,632 Nuts (6-bolt " ) > 2,112 

Splice bars 704 Nut locks (single) (4-bolt joints).. 1,408 

Joint bridge-plates 352 " " (6-bolt " ).. 2,112 

Track bolts (4-bolt joints) 1,408 Spikes or screws, 4 per tie 11,264 

Clips for screw spikes, 4 per tie 11,264 

70-lb. ra'ls. 90-lb. rails. 

Rails, $35.00 per ton \ $3,850 $4,950 

Spikes, 9 /ie-in. x 5% ins., $3.00 per 100-lb. keg. ..... 198 198 

Angle bars, $2.75 per 100 lbs 387 435 

Bolts and nuts, $4.00 per 100 lbs 1 

Washers, $10.00 per 1,000 \ 141 146 

Braces, $30.00 per 1,000 J 

Ties, 75 ct's 2,250 2,250 

Tracklaying, including construction train 690 690 

Ballast 1,050 1,800 



Total $8,566 $10,469 



CHAPTER 7.— SWITCHES AND FROGS. 

The switch is the device by which a train is diverted from one track to 
another, and the split switch (now almost universally used) was introduced 
in England as easly as 1825. In this country, however, the stub switch was 
generally employed, and it is only within recent years that the split switch 
has become the standard type. The stub switch is now rarely used except 
in sidetracks and yards. The switch angle is that contained between the 
two positions of the rail in a stub switch, or between the switch and stock 
rails of a split switch. A switch is right or left handed according as the 
turnout is to the right or left of a man standing on the main track and fac- 
ing the turnout. The Duggan switch, with pivoted rails moving vertically, 
was introduced a few years ago, but it was found that the diversity of dis- 
tance back to back of wheels led to derailment. It was therefore not suita- 
ble for the high speed service for which it had been claimed to be especially 
adapted, and its use did not extend. 

Stub Switch. — This consists of two movable rails, having the heels (or 
ends furthest from the diverging tracks) spliced to the track rails, while the 
free ends slide so as to coincide with the stub or fixed rails of one or other 
track, as shown in Fig. 47. The rails are connected by tie-rods, so as to 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 



103 



act together, and the throw or movement of the free ends is usually 4 or 5 
ins. They are usually 30 ft. long, and are spiked to the ties for a certain 
distance beyond the heel, this distance being about 5 ft. for a 7%° curve 
and 12 ft. for a 15° turnout curve. If only hinged by the splice joints at 
the heel, the rails will not be curved when set for the turnout, but will re- 
main straight, thus forming an angle or kink at the heel and toe. When 
spiked for a certain distance (depending upon the frog number) the rails 




k— - 55' II" >j(— - 22'3"~)\ 

Fig. 47.— Stub Switch. 

when set for the turnout will be sprung to approximate to the proper curve. 
The toe of each rail rests on a head plate or head chair, Fig. 48, about 10 x 16 
ins., which has lugs to limit the throw and is also formed to hold the ends 
of the stub rails and keep them from creeping. These rails should also be 
bolted together, a filler block being placed between the webs, and sometimes 
a U strap is bolted around the ends of the webs. Cast iron is liable to frac- 
ture, and wrought iron or cast steel are preferable, the base plate being 
about 1 in. thick. The head chairs are spiked to a heavy timber head block 
about 8 x 12 ins., 12 to 16 ft. long, the end of which carries the switchstand. 
This form of switch is neither safe, efficient, nor economical, even when 
fitted with such devices as -the safety castings of the Tyler and Cooke 
switches, which move with the rails and carry wheels coming along the 
wrong track, which would otherwise drop off the ends of the stub rails onto 
the ties. The space between the ends of the switch and stub rail is often as- 
great as 2 ins., causing severe wear to wheels and switch. On the other 



5lot5 for 

': Lead Rails 




Head Chair for Stub Switch. 



hand, the switch rails may expand in hot weather so as to be jammed in the 
head chair, though this may be avoided to some extent by beveling and lap- 
ping the rail ends for about 12 ins., as at drawbridge connections. Under 
heavy traffic it is difficult to keep stub switches in proper condition. In 
yards having such switches, a large proportion of the track work is in main- 
taining and repairing the switches, and replacing switch rods and connec- 
tions damaged by derailments. 



104 TRACK. 

Split Switch. — This consists of two point or switch rails (straight or 
curved to fit the curve of the turnout), planed tapering to a vertical edge, 
so that the ends will fit close against the main or stock rails. The heels of 
the switch rails are towards the diverging tracks, which is the reverse posi- 
tion from that of the stub switch rails. The two outer rails of these tracks 
are continuous, the outer rail of the main track continuing unbroken, while 
the inner rail follows the curve of the turnout. The switch rails are be- 
tween these stock rails, with a space of about 5 to 6y 2 ins. between the gage 
lines at the heel, or a clearance of 2y 2 to Zy 2 ins. (preferably 3 ins.) between 
the rail heads. The throw of the point ends is 2>y 2 to 5y 2 ins., so that when 
one switch rail is home against its stock rail the other is Zy 2 to 5y 2 ins. from 
the other stock rail. About 12 or 16 ins. ahead of the point, the stock rail on 
the turnout side is given a decided kink or bend by means of a rail bender, 
so that when set for the main line, the gage sides of the stock and switch 
rails will be in exact alinement. The switch rails are connected by switch 
rods or tie rods, generally three to six in number, though some roads use 
only one, placed close to the point. The rods are either round or flat, with 
jaws on the ends to receive the angle clamps bolted to the webs of the rails, 
and the end switch rod or head rod should be adjustable, so that wear or 
slack can be taken up to keep the gage true. Very often this is done by 
placing washers on the bolts which fasten the head rod to the rail, but this 
is bad practice. In modern switches the adjustment is made by turn- 
buckles or fixed clevises, each end of the rod having a right hand thread. 
The gage is not affected by turning the rod or turnbuckles (as by persons 
tampering with the switch), but the rod must first be disconnected and the 
bolts removed from the end fastenings. Some roads, however, prefer to use 
rigid or non-adjustable rods. The rods should-lie between ties spaced about 
4 ins. apart, to protect them from injury in case of derailment. To the 
head rod is attached the connecting rod from the switchstand. The stock 
and switch rails rest on flat steel plates on each tie, which prevent the rails 
from cutting the ties (with consequent tilting of rails and widening of 
gage), and form slide plates for the switch rails. Each plate may have a 
lug to hold the heel of a rail brace on the outside. On the tie at the point 
of the switch should be a plate extending along the tie under all four rails, 
so as to assist in maintaining the gage, having shoulders or lugs to fit the 
outside edges of the stock rails and lugs to fit the heels of the rail braces. 

The standard split switch for 85-lb. rails on the Norfolk & Western Ry. 
is shown in Fig. 49. The switch rails are 15 ft. long, connected by two rigid 
tie bars, % x 3 ins., set on edge, having riveted jaws bolted to the rails. 
Formerly, 18-ft. switch rails were used, with five rods. The throw of the 
switch is Zy 2 ins., and the width over gage lines at the heel is Qyi ins. Rail 
braces are put at the heel and on six ties at the point. About 5 ft. from the 
heel is a stop lug, riveted to the switch rail, so that when the rail is home 
this will bear against the web of the stock rail, and prevent the pressure 
of the wheel flanges from bending the rail. There are 18 slide plates; Nos. 
1 to 6 are 18 9-16 x 5 ins., y 2 -in. thick for 9 13-16 ins., and then 13-16-in. 
thick; the other three are 14 9-16 x 4 ins., with the raised part 7% ins. long, 
and thicknesses as follows; No. 7, %-in. and 11-16-in.; No. 8, % and 19-32- 
in.; No. 9, % and %-in. All have %-in. spike holes. The switch rails are 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 



105 



planed to fit closely against the stock rails for 5 ft. 7*4 ins. from the point, 
and the inner edge is planed off for 7 ft. from the point. 

The length of switch rail is usually 15 or 18 ft., and since the first edition 
of this book the Norfolk & Western Ry. has changed its standard from the 
longer to the shorter length. Rails 19%, 20, 21, 22, 24, 28 and even 30 ft. are 
used, the latter being employed where double track changes to four track 
(on the Pennsylvania Ry.) and to single track (on the Cleveland, Cincin- 
nati, Chicago & St. Louis Ry.), the switches being used at high speed. On 
the long switch rails in 125-ft. leads of high speed switches at the junction 
of four-track and double track sections, the Erie Ry. uses three stops or 
filler blocks to support these rails against the stock rails. If a 30-ft. 
rail is cut in two pieces, 15 ft. 1 in. and 14 ft. 11 ins. long, and these are 




Rail Brace her? Detail of 5top. 



Cross Section ctt Bar No. 2. 



Cross Section. 

Details of Connection . 

Fig. 49.— Standard Split Switch; Norfolk & Western Ry. 



placed in the curved and straight track respectively, the heels will be exact- 
ly opposite, so that the joint ties at the heel will be square across the track. 
For switches leading from the outside of curves on main line, the switch 
rail on the inner side of the main track should have its point about 24 ins. 
in advance of that of the other, with a guard rail opposite to guide the 
wheels in the reversal of the centrifugal motion of the train and prevent un- 
due wear on the switch rail. Switch rails 10 and 12 ft. long are used in yards 
and unimportant tracks, but 15 ft. is the minimum for main track work. 
The end of the switch rail is left about %-in. thick, and the top is planed 
down on a slope for 6 to 15 ins., giving a drop of % or %-in., below the top 
of the stock rail, the corner of the switch rail being rounded off vertically. 
This is to prevent wheel flanges from striking the point. In the Norfolk 
& Western Ry. switch, the head of the switch rail rises 5-16-in. in 5 ft. 4 ins. 



106 TRACK. 

from the heel, and is then level for 4 ft., beyond which it is planed down to 
the point, 5 ft. 714-ins. In other designs, the heads of the switch and stock 
rails are level at 12 or 15 ins. from the point, but then the former rises to 
% or 5-16 in. above the latter in a length of about 3 ft. 6 ins. Beyond this, 
the head is sloped so that the rails are again level at the heel. The object 
of this is to carry worn or hollow tires and prevent them from cutting the 
stock rail. In the form of switch rail usually employed, the head and base 
are planed away on the inner side to allow the point to fit against the head 
of the stock rail (or in some cases even under the head of that rail at the 
extreme point), the base of the switch rail sliding up on that of the stock 
rail. As the switch rail is not parallel with the main rail, it is necessary, 
in order to obtain the feather edge at the point, to plane off a portion of the 
head and web on the outer side, so that the thin end of the switch rail is 
considerably weakened and its stiffness is reduced. This part of the rail 
may be reinforced by a flat or a T-iron riveted along the outer side of 
the web. In exceptional cases, the switch rails are locked in position by 
automatic devices, which ensure that the rails are properly set and prevent 
any movement. 

Guard rails are sometimes placed close in front of facing switches in order 
to steady all car wheels and put them in proper line for taking the switch, 
thus preventing the points from being struck, and preventing sharp flanges 
from taking the wrong side of a loose switch rail not set well home. These* 
guard rails are either parallel with the track rail, or so placed as to give 
the minimum width of flangeway just in front of the points. The Penn- 
sylvania Lines use two straight 6-ft. guard rails, while the Boston & Albany 
Ry. has a single 10-ft. guard rail on the side opposite the turnout, this rail 
having its end 6 ins. from the switch point and giving a flangeway of 3 ins. 
at the heel and 1% ins. at the toe, the throw of the switch being 4y 2 ins. 
The Southern Pacific Ry. uses two 6-ft. guard rails with a 2-in. flangeway. 
These rails (Figs. 66 and 68) are not generally required for well-built 
switches having a throw of over 4 ins., except on sharp curves. It is, how- 
ever, a good plan to put a tie-rod or bridle rod just in front of the switch, to 
prevent any widening of the gage; and also to use a long slide plate on the 
first tie, extending across the track, as already noted. In switches on the 
sharp right-angled curves of the Chicago elevated loop a guard rail is placed 
close to the stock rail on the side of the curve, and is extended back of the 
point of the switch rail. When the switch is set for the curve, the switch 
rail lies against the guard rail and is thus firmly supported to resist the 
blows from the wheel flanges in taking the curve. The Channel switch, Fig. 
50, has a guard rail about 9 ft. long, bolted to the inside of each switch rail, 
with the proper flangeway provided by spacing blocks. The flaring ends of 
the guard rails extend beyond the switch rails, and have the head rod 
attached to them. No tie rods are used. Rail braces are generally placed 
outside the stock rail on at least two ties at the point, and sometimes back 
as far as the switch rail bears against the stock rail. 

If very heavy switch rails were bolted up tight at the heel splices, they 
would not move freely. In the 100-lb. switches of the Southern terminal at 
Boston, two of the bolt holes in each rail are reamed out to 1% ins., and a 
heavy gas-pipe thimble is put over the bolt through the rail. The thimble 
is long enough to take the pressure on the angle bar and prevent pinching 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 



107 



the rail. This allows the switch to move freely and yet leaves no loose nuts. 
On the Netherlands State Rys. each switch rail has a vertical pivot fitting 
in a casting bolted to the tie at the heel (no splice being used), and the 
switch and stock rails rest en a steel plate 19 ft. long and 13 ins. wide. The 
spread of the rails, at the heel is often a little too wide, but the Bryant de- 
vice used in all split and slip switches and movable point frogs at the abovo- 



□JLD = fl s flJ^l^ ; i£ 




LJULTLni 



J!LJK_ 



^LOJL 



Section E-F. 
Fig. 50.— Channel Switch. 

mentioned terminal (with 100-lb. rails) insures the proper spread and also 
prevents creeping of the switch rails. It consists of a splice trough or 
channel, 10 ins. long and 3 ins. wide, made of varying width to fit the angle 
between the rails. This is bolted between the angle bars of adjacent rails, 
or between the web of the stock rail and the splice bar of the heel joint. 
Stop lugs are sometimes bolted to the web of the switch rails, about 7 ft. 
to 10y 2 ft. from the point, so as to bear against the web of the stock rail 
when the switch is thrown, as already noted. 

Automatic Switches. — In the Lorenz "automatic" switch, Fig. 51, the 
connecting rod from the switchstand is fastened to> a strap surrounding a 
stiff spiral spring carried by the head rod. The rod passes through the 
spring, and the adjustment of length to make the switch rails fit properly 




Fig. 51.— Lorenz Switch, with Ground Lever. 



against the stock rails is effected by a nut at each end. The spring is stiff 
enough to make a rigid connection when the switch is operated from the 
switchstand in the usual way. If set for one track, and a train trails 
upon it from the other track, the pressure of the wheel flanges will force 
the switch rails over by compressing the spring, so that the train is not 
derailed and the switch connections are not broken. This type of switch 



108 



TRACK. 



is now very little used, and the question of allowing trains to trail through 
closed switches is discussed further on, under the head of "Switchstands." 

Slip Switches.— These are used at the intersections of diagonal tracks, 
where there is no room for an ordinary switch and turnout. The curves 
are necessarily very sharp, but the switches work very effectively in prac- 
tice, and are largely used in yard work. A double slip switch is shown 
in Fig. 52. Such switches are not often used for main track connections, 



DOWN MAIN TRACK 




Fig. 52.— Slip Switches. 

but at the Germantown Junction (Philadelphia) of the Philadelphia & Read- 
ing Ry., where the four-track line diverges to form two double-track lines, 
there are slips 112 ft. long, having No. 15 frogs and 28-ft. switch rails, so as 
to give easy and safe passage for high speed trains. 

Three-Throw Switches. — In some cases, two turnouts diverge at the same 
point, requiring a crotch frog in the middle of the track, where the lead 
rails intersect. When permissible, it is better to set one switch a little in 
advance of the other, thus keeping the switch rails distinct, though this ar- 
rangement throws the crotch frog off the center line of the main track. 
Both plans are shown in Pig. 53. 

Wharton Switch. — This type of switch gives an unbroken track when set 
for the main line, as in Pig. 54, while when set for the siding, it carries the 
wheels over the head of the stock rail by means of inclined rails. When 
set for the siding, the grooved switch rail (A), 8 or 9 ft. long, raises the 
outer wheels 1% ins. above the main rail, its heel bringing them upon the 




Two Single Split Switches. Three-Throw Split Switch . 

Fig. 53.— Three-Throw Switches. 



raised lead rail of the turnout. At the same time, the elevating rail (B) on 
the outside of the main track, engages the outside of the treads of the inner 
wheels and raises them in the same way. If trailed through from the sid- 
ing when set for the main track (as in Fig. 54) the wheels run upon grooved 
castings (C) and (D), the latter of which guides the inner wheels over the 
main rail, when the flanges drop into place. If trailed through on the main 
track when set for the siding, the wheels open the switch by forcing back 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 



109 



the pivoted guard rail (E), which rests against the main rail and is con- 
nected with the operating shaft (F) of the switch. The inside guard rail 
(GO should he net mere than 2 ins. from the main rail, so as to force the 
wheels to mount the elevating rail (B) and keep them in position until the 
flanges have cleared the main rail. The elevating rail should also be set 
close to the main rail. A modified form is now made, in which all points 
are made from ordinary rails, the grooved rails being dispensed with. 
Owing to the sharp elevation of the switch rails this device is not adapted 
for high speed tracks, and has been largely replaced by the split switch. It 
is best adapted for lay-over sidings, etc., which are used only a few times 
daily and at speeds of not over 20 miles an hour. 

MacPherson Switch. — In this, as in the Wharton switch, the main rails 
are left entirely unbroken when the switch is set for the main track. When 
set for the siding, the switch rails (which are slightly higher than the main 
rails) engage with the wheel treads, the inner switch rail lapping over the 
main rail. The wheels are thus raised sufficiently for their flanges to clear 
the main rails. 1 This switch is the standard pattern on the Canadian Pacific 




Fig. 54.— Wharton Switch. 



Ry., and is used in connection with the MacPherson frog or frog substitute 
which is described further on. 

Facing and Trailing Switches. — Any switch is a facing switch to trains 
running towards the point, and a trailing switch to those running towards 
the heel. In order to reduce the danger of derailment incident to facing 
switches; especially with high speed traffc, some double-track roads make 
their main line turnouts with trailing switches as far as possible. The Bost- 
ton & Albany Ry. has about 90% of its switches so arranged on double 
track. In such cases, a train taking the sidetrack must trail through the 
switch, and then back through it as a facing switch. Where there is a 
down grade, however, on which a heavy train would have to be started and 
backed up grade through the switch, it would not be advisable to follow this 
practice. 

Switch Protection and Derails. — Too many main line switches are inade- 
quately protected, and the unprotected switch is one of the great dangers to 
traffic. Periodically, a careless or weary man leaves the switch open after 
his train has entered the siding, or thinks he has left it open and hastily 



110 TRACK. 

throws it when startled by the approach of a train, in either case causing 
.a collison on the sidetrack. With almost equal frequency an engineman 
pulls out of a siding without orders, or thinking that the opposing train has 
passed, and so causes a collision. Accidents of the first kind may be pre- 
vented by the use of a distant switchstand, described later, or by a detector 
bar at some distance from the switch and connected to it, while a detector 
bar at the switch will prevent its being moved while a train is passing. 
The bar is somewhat longer than the greatest distance between wheels, 
and lies against the outside of the rail head, being hinged to vertical studs, 
so that in moving it must rise above the rail head, which the wheels prevent. 
The bars should always be fitted to switches in busy passenger yards. To 
prevent a car or train on the sidetrack from fouling or running onto the 
main track, a derailing switch with stub or split rail is placed on the outer 
rail of the sidetrack, being open (as a derail) when the switch is set for the 
main track. This may be operated independently, but is better when inter- 
locked with the switch. The sidetrack may also be continued to a stub 
track beyond the derailing switch, which is normally set for the stub. This 
is somewhat more expensive, but prevents derailment, while ensuring equal 
safety, and the stub track may have its rails covered with sand to check 
the speed of cars. A derailing block or simple stop block is sometimes 
used in similar cases, generally on side tracks where cars are left standing. 
These prevent the cars from being accidentally or maliciously moved so as 
to foul the main tracks. All main line switches should be provided with 
distant signals, and those at passing places, yard entrances, etc., should be 
equipped with interlocking plants so as to prevent either of the kinds oi 
accidents noted above. There are several designs of switches to be operated 
by the engineman, but they are based on the entirely wrong idea of letting 
the engineman interfere in regulating the train service, and such devices 
would almost inevitably result in disaster. There is, however, no fear of 
any such system being put in service. 

Frogs. 

The early frogs were of cast iron, but this is a poor material for the pur- 
pose and has long been abandoned. Cast steel has been used to a very lim- 
ited extent in this country, and quite extensively abroad, the foreign frogs 
being reversible, so that when the top is worn the frog can be turned* 
upside down and continued in service. With any but very stiff rails, how- 
ever, the cast steel frogs are found to be rather hard riding, being rigid 
spots in a more or less elastic track. Frogs are now almost universally 
made of steel rails planed to shape, as shown in the diagram Fig. 55, the 
dotted lines indicating the rail connections. The shorter rail of the tongue 
should not be planed to a point, but its end should be about ;%-in. wide and 
dovetailed into the side of the longer rail. Usually the short point rail is 
placed on the turnout side, but in some makes it is placed on the main 
track, it being claimed that this is the stronger arrangement, and the one 
which will best withstand the destructive effect of hollow tires. Frogs 
with cast steel and manganese steel points and reinforcements to the wing 
rails at the throat are in use on tracks canying heavy traffic. 

The back of the frog, behind the tongue, is called the heel. The space 
between the tongue and the wing rail on each side is the flangeway or 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 



Ill 



flange space, in which is the flange filling composed of blocks fitted between 
the webs of the rails. Beyond the point, the space between the wing rails 
contracts to form the throat, with a width equal to that of the flangeway. 
and then widens out again to the toe (or mouth) of the frog. As a sharp 
point would soon be broken off, the point of the frog is made % to ^-in. 
wide, being a few inches short of the true or theoretical point. It is some- 
Limes strengthened by a piece fitted between the head and base of the rail 
and welded against the web before th?e rail is planed. The base of the 
tongue rail should be left the full width at the point, the base of each 
wing rail being cut away to allow of the rails being brought close together. 
A raising block should be inserted in the angle of the heel, to raise the inner 
flange cf a hollow tire and prevent it from exerting a bursting effect by 
wedging in this angle. Such tires are most destructive to frogs, as noted 
later. This block may also serve as an anchor block, being spiked to the 
tie to prevent creeping. At the heel of the frog are spliced the rails running 
from the tongue rails to the side track, while at the toe of the frog the 
lead rails running to the switch are spliced to the wing rails. In the 
diagram, Fig. 55, the head of the right hand wheel (running to the left on 
the main tracks) will engage with the upper wing rail and the main track 
lead rail. The left hand wheel (running to the right on the turnout) will 




'a// :^^Sy^ 

g^V ZZ. - / HeelBlotkdrRaisinq, 
Banqewa) ■Filhnq _ p/afc 

Diagram of Froa,. 




■ Section C-D. Clamped Frog. Section A- 




Plate Frog,No.8. 



'•- Kg- 

Barred Frog, No.7± 



Fig. 55.— Styles of Frogs. 



have its flange caught by the frog point and will be carried to the turnout 
rail at the heel cf the frog. 

The flangeway should be 1% or 1% ins. wide, and should never exceed 2 
ins., even in crossing frogs. In a paper en "The Relation cf Wheels t? 
Frog Points and Guard Rails,"* Mr. A. A. Schenck pointed out that in ex- 
amining to what extent a narrow flangeway is the more desirable, mere 
width cf tread bearing is not the only consideration, another important 
one being that simultaneous bearing on both frog point and wing rail is 
rarely secured, as one or other of these parts usually carries the entire 
weight. When both point and wheel are new, the bevel on the outer edg? 
of the tread throws all the bearing on the frog point. A wing rail has the 
same effect when it is badly worn by false flanged wheels, is bent vertically, 
or yields under the load of the wheel. In such cases the width of flange- 
way is not of much importance. On the other hand, many frog points 
"duck" as the wheel approaches, leaving the wing rail to carry all the 
weight, and this is aided where the rail forming the frog point has a very 



transactions ot the American Society of Civil Engineers, May, 1894. 



112 TRACK. 

narrow base. In such cases, the width of tread bearing is important, to 
carry the wheel firmly until the depressed portion of the frog point has been 
passed. Hollow tires also prevent simultaneous bearing. It is therefore 
desirable to ignore the end of the frog point as a bearing, and to use a nar- 
row flangeway and a small limit in wheel gage. This is referred to farther 
on in regard to the relations of wheels to frogs and guard rails. The de- 
struction of a frog is due mainly to the shocks it receives, making it loose, 
and increasing the wear on such a loose frog so that it soon becomes un- 
serviceable. Therefore the narrow flangeway will not effect a great in- 
crease in the life of the frog unless the frog is kept in good condition. The. 
severest strain is generally assumed to be the blow upon the point, but it is 
probable that the lateral blow on the inside of the wing rail by the false- 
flange of a trailing wheel, and the wedging action of a similar wheel at the 
heel (unless a raising block is used) are even more destructive. 

The number of a frog indicates the spread of the angle included by the 
tongue rails, the spread of these rails in a No. 8 frog being 1 in. in 8 ins. 
The number may be determined in various ways: (1) Measure the distance 
between points where the width over gage lines is 2 ins. and 3 ins.; this dis- 
tance (in inches) will give the frog number; (2) Divide the length on gage 
line, from heel to true point, 'by the width over gage lines at the heel; 
(3) Take the sum of the width over rail heads at the heel and between rail 
heads at the toe, and divide this into the length on gage lines from toe to 
heel. The frog number is equal to the reciprocal of twice the sine of half 
the frog angle. The frog angle is that included by the tongue rails, and 
Table. No. 11 gives the angle of the frog numbers generally used, together 
with the degree of turnout curve from a tangent. A right-hand frog is for 
a turnout to the right, as seen by a man standing in front of the switch. 
A crotch frog is placed at the intersection of the head rails of a double 
turnout (with a three-throw switch), and its number is equal to that of the 
main frog multiplied by 0.707. 

TABLE NO. 11— FROG NUMBERS AND ANGLES. 





Frog 


Turnout 




Frog 


Turnout 




, angle 


, curve * 




, angle , 


, curve > 


Frog No. 


degs. 


mins. 


degs. 


mins. 


Frog. No. 


degs. 


mins. 


degs. mins. 


No. 5. ... 


. ... 11 


25 


24 


03 


No. 11 


... 5 


12 


4 58 


<No. 6. ... 


.... 9 


32 


16 


40 


No. 12 


... 4 


46 


4 10 


No. 7. . . . 


.... 8 


10 


12 


17 


No. 14 


... 4 


05 


3 04 


No. 8. ... 


.... 7 


09 


9 


23 


No. 15 


... 4 


24 


2 40 


No. 9. ... 


.... 6 


22 


7 


25 


No. 18 


... 3 


11 


1 52 


No. 10. ... 


.... 5 


44 


6 


01 


No. 20 


... 2 


52 


1 28 



It is desirable to have as few sizes of frogs as possible in regular service, 
and the general practice is to have but two or three standard numbers, using 
special frogs where necessary. Some roads even specify a single standard 
for main track and yards, but it is doubtful if they adhere very closely to 
the standard, especially in yard work. When standards are adopted, they 
should be introduced as rapidly as possible to replace the unsystematic ar- 
rangement of odd sizes and numbers of frogs which has been so general. 
If three numbers are made standard, they should be such that the lesser 
numbers will fit as crotch frogs of double turnouts, but such turnouts should 
not be used unless for special reasons. Nos. 7 to 10 are those in most com- 
mon use. No. 4 is sometimes used for very sharp turnouts to warehouses, 
etc., but can only be used by switch engines with short wheel 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 113 

base; its lead cr turnout curve is of 150 ft. radius. A No. 5 
frog is about the sharpest used in ordinary practice* and is for 
sharp turnouts in yards. No. 6 (or better No. 7) is used for ladder track 
connections, so as to occupy as little length of track as possible. Nos. 7, 8 
and 9 are generally used in yards, Nos. 9 and 10 are used in ordinary main 
track, and should be the minimum for main line turnouts, crossovers, etc., 
which are frequently used by road engines. Nos. 12 to 18 are used for high 
speed turnouts, No. 15 having a lead curve of 3°. The Chesapeake & Ohio 
Ry. and Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis Ry. use No. 14 and No. 
18, respectively, at the ends of double-track sections, and the Pennsylvania 
Ry. employs No. 24 frogs in special cases. The frogs should be carefully 
laid and bedded level on the ties, with plenty of good ballast underneath, as 
they are subjected to very severe blows. They should not be spiked to a 
gage %-in. or %-in. slack, or wide, as is sometimes done, unless they are on 
curves where the gage is correspondingly widened. In other words, the 
gage at the frog should.be exactly the same as that of the track in which it 
is laid. The laying of frogs is discussed in the chapter on "Switch Work 
and Turnouts." 

Frogs are built up in various ways, as shown in Fig. 55. Bolted frogs 
have the parts held together by horizontal through bolts, %-in. or 1 in. 
diameter, iron or steel fillers being placed between the webs of the point 
and wing rails. They are light, but the bolts are liable to work loose unless 
riveted over, keyed or otherwise secured, and the supposed advantage of 
being able to replace wornout parts without removing the frog is rarely 
availed of in practice. Yoked, clamped or keyed frogs have yokes which 
pass under the rail and have their ends opposite the webs of the wing rails. 
Fillers are placed between the tongue and wing rails, and steel keys are 
driven between the yokes and rails. One of the yokes or clamps should be 
placed at the frog point. The yokes or clamps are usually flat or T-shaped 
forged bars, but in the Strom frog they are ly 2 ins. wide and 3 ins. deep, set 
on edge, with the ends formed to fit the head web and base of rail. These 
clamps are very stiff, and are held in place by two rods hooked over the 
ends of the wing rails and passing through both clamps, being secured by 
spring keys or cotters. Plate or riveted frogs have the rail bases riveted 
to a heavy rectangular plate, or to three cr four plates which will fit between 
the ties. If one large plate is used, the lower rivet heads must be counter- 
sunk. The rivets are liable to work loose, so that the frog will be noisy and 
clattering. This old style of plate frog, however, is disappearing, but on 
many roads a combination style is now approved, having the rails bolted or 
clamped together (with the usual flangeway fillers between them), and 
riveted to a base plate. This makes a very substantial construction to with- 
stand the effects of heavy traffic. In all filled frogs the fillers should extend 
about 8 ins. beyond the point, and back to the flare of the wing rails. 

Long frogs make a much better riding track than short frogs. A good 
length is 15 ft., but lengths of 10, 12 and 14 ft. are also used. Yard frogs 
may be 6, 8 and 10 ft. long. It is well to have one of the tongue rails longer 
than the other, so that the splice joints at the heel will not interfere with 
each other. The wing rail for the curved lead rail may also be a little 
longer than the other, as the curved lead (B-C, Fig. 57) is longer than the 
straight lead (A-C). If the straight lead of a No. 10 frog is 60 ft. (two lead 



114 TRACK. 

rails, 30 ft. and 22 ft.; toe of frog to frog point, 8 ft), then the curved lead 
will be nearly 2 ins. longer. This will bring the switch connecting rods 2 
ins. out of square, which can be avoided by making the curved lead wing 
rail 2 ins. longer. If the wing rails are curved to fit the curve of the lead, 
they will make an easier riding track, but this is a refinement rarely prac- 
ticed. (See also Chapter 22.) 

The rigid frogs for 85-lb. rails on the Norfolk & Western Ry. are 15 ft. 
long, with a length of 8 ft. from point to heel and 7 ft. from point to toe. 
These dimensions are for Nos. 6 and 7 (special), and 8, 9, 10 and 12 (stand- 
ard), but in No. 15 the lengths are 9 ft. 6 ins. and 5 ft. 6 ins., respectively. 
The plates are %-in. thick; 22 x 42 ins. for Nos. 6, 7, 8; 20 x 42 ins. for No. 9; 
and 20 x 60 ins. for Nos. 10, 12 and 15. They have %-in. rivets, with the 
lower heads countersunk, and %-in. spike holes. The frog point is %-in. 
wide and the flangeways are 2 ins. wide. The ties are spaced 18 ins. c. to c. 
The Pennsylvania Lines West of Pittsburg issue complete specifications for 
switches and frogs, the dimensions and certain details being standard. The 
frogs ordinarily used are as follows: No. 15 spring-rail frogs for high- 
speed turnouts and crossovers; No. 10 and No. 8 springTrail frogs for all 
other main track work; No. 7 rigid frogs for general yard work. Where 
turnouts or crossovers require frogs below No. 7, preference is given to Nos. 
4 and 6. The rigid frogs are of the bolted and clamped types, made by 
various makers. A 2-in. flangeway is specified, measured %-in. below top 
of rail, and the fillers extend 4 ins. ahead of the point. The lengths are as 
follows, measured along the rails: 

Length Length 

^from point— , Total r-from points Total 

No. of frog. To toe, To heel, length, No. of frog. To toe, To heel, length, 

ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. 

3 to 6, inclusive. . 4 6 10 11 to 12, inclusive. . 8 10 18 

7 " 10, " . . 6% 8% 15 13 " 15, . . 8 12 20 

Table No. 12 gives the dimensions of some rigid bolted frogs: 

TABLE NO. 12.— DIMENSIONS OF RIGID BOLTED FROGS. 



Frog 


Heel 


j 


^ICilgLli 




1 


, Spread v 


No. of 


No. 


to point, 


Total, 


Wing 


rail, 


Filler, 


Toe, 


Heel, 


bolts 




ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ins. 


ins. 


ins. 


ins. 




4 


5 


8 


7 


2 


36% 


8% 


15y 2 


7 


5 


5 


8 


7 


2 


36% 


eVie 


12% 


7 


6 


5 


8 


7 


2 


36% 


5% 


ioy 2 


7 


7 


5 


8 


7 


2 


36% 


4% 


9Vie 


7 


8 


8 


15 


11 


2 


36% 


10 


i2y 2 


7 


9 


8 


15 


11 


8 


42 


8Vie 


llVia 


8 


10 


8 


15 


11 


8 


42 


7% 


ioy 8 

llVie 


8 


11 


10 


17 


11 


8 


42 


7% 


8 


12 


10 


17 


11 


8 


42 


6y 2 


10% 


8 


13 


10 


17 


12 


2 


47% 


5 15 /l6 


9% 


9 


14 


12 


19 


12 


2 


47% 


5% 


10 13 /l6 


9 


15 


12 


19 


12 


2 


47% 


5y 8 


10% 


9 



Spring-Rail Frogs. — All the frogs so far described are. of the rigid type, in 
which there is necessarily a jolt as each wheel crosses the flangeway, this 
jolt being very severe when wheels or frog are worn. In first-class main 
track the spring-rail frog is now almost universally used, and makes a 
smooth riding track, as it gives an unbroken main rail. It is therefore spe- 
cially adapted for turnouts where the main line carries heavy and fast 
traffic, as it makes a safer and better riding track and diminishes the wear 
and maintenance work, the frog keeping in better surface than the rigid 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 



115 



frog. The principle of the spring-rail frog is explained by Fig. 57. The 
lead rails are (A) and (B). The turnout wing rail (C) is hinged and is 
normally held against the frog point by a spring, so that wheels (X) on the 
main track have no flangeway to cross, but have a continuous bearing. The 
main track wing rail (D) is fixed. The wheels on the turnout, (Y) and (Z), 
force the spring wing rail (C) back by the wheel flanges entering between 




Fig. 57. — Diagram of Spring-Rail Frog. 

the wing rail and frog point. The spring-rail frog is not generally required 
at junctions or in heavy yards, though it may be used for thoroughfare or 
open tracks in yards. At some junctions, however, where there is heavy 
traffic on both tracks, or where a double-track junction turnout runs into a 
single-track branch, a double spring-rail frog is used. This has both wing 
rails movable and both normally resting against the frog point. 

The spring is often placed near the throat, but it is better to have it near 
the free enu of the rail, while in some cases an additional spring is placed 
at the throat. The outward movement is about 2 ins., limited by stops or 
rail braces. To prevent the end of the spring rail from tilting up when the 
wheels pass the throat, hinged holding-down arms may be used, pivoted to 
the base plate and to an eye in a strap riveted to the web of the rail. Bars 
on the rail sliding in sockets on the plate are also used for this purpose. 
The frog point and the end of the spring rail should rest upon a base plate 
at least 3 ft. long, and the rail should fit against the point for a sufficient 
length to give a full bearing to the wheels. The standard No. 10 spring 
rail frog of the Illinois Central Ry. is shown in Fig. 58. It is 14 ft. long, 




SectionEF Section A B. SectionCD Side Elevationof Y 

Fig. 58.— Spring-Rail Frog, No. 10; Illinois Central Ry. 



with the frog point 7 ft. from toe and heel, and has the spring near the 
throat. The spring rail is 12 ft. 3 ins. long, with a limit of movement of 2 
ins., which is the width of throat and flangeway. The top is planed down to 
allow the free passage of the false flange of a worn wheel, thus preventing 
such wheels from forcing the spring rail outward, while the rail is guided 
and kept in its horizontal position by means of two bars sliding in sockets 



116 



TRACK. 



or cuffs riveted to the %-in. base plate. In the open flangeway is placed a 
filler 30 ins. long, extending back from the frog point. 

A short guard rail or reinforcing rail outside the spring rail is sometimes 
provided as a means of extra security in case of fracture of the spring rail. 
The Eureka frog (Fig. 59) has the spring rail proper extending only beyond 




Section E-F. Section G-H. 

Fig. 59.— Eureka Spring-Rail Frog. 

the throat of the frog, the part of the wing rail towards the switch being 
riveted to the base plate. An outer, or "hinge" rail, is bolted to the fixed 
and moving parts of this wing rail, these parts normally forming a continu- 
ous running rail with a miter joint at the throat of the frog. In the 
Vaughan frog, and in some others, the spring rail is pivoted at its outer end, 
or at the heel instead of the toe end of the frog. It does not extend the full 
length of the frog, but only to the throat, and is controlled by a spring 
placed nearly opposite the frog point. In the ordinary frog the greater part 
of the spring rail is used as a part of the main track, but in the Vaughan 
frog only the end of the rail is thus used. The filling block is so shaped as 
to. guide the wheel flanges in case of any failure of the spring, a rib on the 
block fitting under the head of the spring rail. The Pennsylvania Ry. uses a 



Cast Filler to fit Spring-Rail for r?" from Joint and 
clear it % for Balance of Distance to Point of Frog. 




Fig. GO. — Swing-Rail Frog; Pennsylvania Ry. 

spring rail frog very similar to that shown in Pig. 58, but having the spring 
about 18 ins. back of the point, while from a point 12 ins. back of the point 
the. spring rail drops %-in. to 2 ft. This railway also uses the hinged 
spring-rail frog (Pig. 60), which also has the spring opposite the frog point. 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 



117 



The point of the swing rail is located at the theoretical throat of the frog, 
and the rail is held down by a flat bar or strap passing through a slot in 
the web and attached to the point rail and slide plate. Devices have been 
introduced by which the spring rail is locked against the tongue when the 
switch is set for the main track, but these are very little used. 

In the Jordan frog, used to some extent on the Michigan Central Ry., 
both wing rails lie normally against the frog point, and their ends are 
bolted to the tongue rails (with packing blocks between). The throat 
width is 1% ins., and there is one double spring just beyond the throat. 
The pressure of the wheel flanges springs the rails outward so as to form 
a flangeway on one or other side of the frog point, the movement being 
limited by guides and stops riveted to the base plate. These are not satis- 
factory in yards, as the resistance of the rails checks the momentum of the 
cars in switching movements. Movable point frogs are mainly used as 
crossing frogs, as noted further on, but the Wood frog of this type (Fig. 61) 
has been extensively used in yards. There is no spring, but both wing rails 
move simultaneously, remaining in either position as set by the wheels. 
The Pennsylvania Ry. uses a somewhat similar yard frog, but having a 
spring on each side, 9% ins. ahead of the point, with a filling block between 
the rails. Holding down arms are also fitted to the ends of the wing rails. 

The impression prevails to some extent that the rigid frog, while perhaps 
less economical, is the safer in case of a broken wing rail, and that it offers 



*M AM f ^ vw 1 W* 

8'0\ 
pi 



! «6' 



*V;i 




''Incline 5t< *f' ' F:!kr \ |p= 

■Wjl yw v/m 

Fig. 61.— Wood's Moveable-Point Frog. 






a better resistance to the destructive effects of hollow tires. Spring-rail 
frogs as now made, however, are as safe as, if not safer than, rigid frogs 
in case of breakage. With a worn frog or a hollow tire there is some pos- 
sibility of the spring rail being forced out by a trailing main line wheel, 
the tread (with worn frog) on the false flange forcing it out to such an 
extent as to break the stops so that the wheel will drop into the throat of 
the frog. In some frogs this cannot occur, and it may be prevented by 
beveling or grooving the top of the spring rail, or making that rail % to % 
in. lower than the top of the frog, so as to clear worn wheels. The former 
practice is the better. Accidents of this kind are very rare. The objections 
as to the clogging of the spring rail by snow and ice are found in practice 
to be of little moment. Spring-rail frogs are largely used on roads which 
have much snow and ice to deal with, and in fact they are now almost 
the universal standard for main track work. 

Frog Substitutes. — In view of the increasing number and speed of trains 
and the number of turnouts, several devices have been introduced to avoid 
the use of the ordinary frog, and to give an actually unbroken main line 
rail. Some of these are in use, but not to any great extent. The principle 



118 TRACK. 

is the same in most cases. The turnout lead rail is inclined sufficiently to 
raise wheels so that their flanges will clear the main rail, the lead rail 
having a gap through which the main rail passes. In this gap works a 
pivoted rail or a crossing piece of special shape, operated in connection with 
the switch, and resting upon the main rail when the switch is set for the 
turnout. An automatic connection is provided, so that a main line train 
trailing through a switch set for the siding will throw the frog piece open 
•and so set the switch in advance of the train. A careless man might some- 
times throw a switch before a train taking the siding had cleared the frog, 
thus opening the frog and causing a derailment. A detector bar is there- 
fore sometimes applied, as in interlocking work, to prevent the switch from 
being thrown until every wheel of the train has passed the fouling point. 
It has been objected that the connections between switch and frog are liable 
to derangement by creeping or expanding track, or by a car coming off the 
sidetrack when the switch is set for the main track. These objections, how- 
ever, have little force when we consider the great extent to which inter- 
locking apparatus and connections are in successful use. On some roads, 
also, all passing places are fitted with derails connected up to the switch, 
requiring longer connections than from switch to frog. The frog substitute 
has its limitations, the same as the spring-rail frog. It is not desirable for 
general use in yards, where quick switch throwing is necessary. For sid- 
ings in limited use, where the heavy wear of frogs (even spring-rail frogs) 
is disproportionate to the actual duty performed in carrying wheels in and 
out of the siding, it would be very desirable to have an unbroken main rail, 
and such situations open a field for the frog substitute. 

One of the first of these devices to be put into actual service was that 
patented in 1884 by Mr. C. B. Price, now Division Superintendent of the 
Pennsylvania Ry. The movable piece to fill the gap in the lead rail is a 
large casting, but the wing rail also moves, so that it lies against the main 
rail when the switch is set for the siding. Just beyond the heel of the 
switch is a spring guard rail fitted against the gage side of the turnout rail 
so as to be operated by the wheel flanges. When this is pressed back by 
the flanges its hooked lugs engage with sockets on the operating rod, which 
is then locked so that the switch cannot be thrown until the last pair of 
wheels has cleared the frog. The MacPherson device is very similar, and 
within four years about 150 turnouts on the Canadian Pacific Ry. have been 
equipped with it, in connection with the MacPherson safety stub switch. 
It has shown but little wear, and the cost of maintenance has been small. 
Should a main line train trail through the device when set for the turnout, 
the wheel flanges would mount the incline of the heel of the crossing piece, 
the wheels running along this casting and down another incline upon the 
main rail again, the guard rail opposite the crossing piece holding the 
wheels over so that they cannot get on the wrong side of the main rail. 
When the head of such a train reaches the switch, each set of wheels would 
open it, but this would not throw the frog, owing to a spring connection in 
the switch rod similar to that of the Lorenz switch (Pig. 51). The frog 
cannot move until the switch lever is unlocked and thrown. The action 
of the device under these conditions has been proved in practice. The 
Coughlin spring-rail frog is also on the same principle, but the lead wing 
rail does not move. The only movable part is the frog piece or swing rail, 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 



119 



which is made from an ordinary track rail instead of being a heavy casting. 
The end of this rail has the web and base cut away to let the head swing 
across the main rail, while the ends of the lead rail are riveted to a base 
plate which also supports the main rail, these holding the parts in proper 
line and surface. These three devices are shown in Fig. 62. 

Crossing Frogs. — Where two tracks intersect (as at grade crossings), 
crossing frogs must be used to give a flangeway in both directions, and a3 
there is no uniformity in the angles, the crossings have generally to bo 




Fig. 62.— Frog Substitutes. 



specially made for each case. They are usually of steel rails, fitted and 
bolted together, with filling pieces between, and should be riveted to base 
plates. The rail ends may be beveled off to a miter joint at the frog point, 
or have one rail butted against the other. The inner wing rail or guard 
rail is usually continuous in crossings of 45° to 90°, but is sometimes 
stopped and flared out at each corner. Both methods are shown in Fig. 63 



120 



TRACK 



and Fig. 97. At crossings on busy tracks, a third rail is sometimes placed 
against the outside of the track rail to carry the false flanges of badly worn 
wheels and prevent them from battering the rails at the flangeways. Cross- 
ings may be built up without a joint between the frogs, but this makes a 
very heavy section for transportation, and does not admit of repairs without 
taking up the crossing. As a rule it is better to have a joint in two sides. 
The sharper the angle of crossing, the greater will be the wear on the frogs, 
due to the battering effect of the wheels in jumping over the flangeways. 
With an angle of less than 8°, or where one or both tracks are on a curve, 
movable point frogs may be used, instead of crossing frogs. In this case 
there will be two pair of short switch rails set toe to toe, as shown in Fig. 
64, and operated simultaneously by a lever. A similar arrangement may 
be applied at the crossing of slip switches. In the Norfolk & Western Ry. 
practice, as exemplified by a crossing of 98°, the entire crossing is in two 
pieces. Under each corner, or frog, is a %-in. plate, 24 x 36 ins., to which 
the rails are secured by %-in. rivets, 4 ins. pitch, having the lower heads 
countersunk. There are strips outside the rails and fillers between the 
main and guard rails, all held together by three bolts in each leg of the 




Fig. 64. — Moveable 
Point Crossing. 



Fig. 63.— Crossing Frogs. 



crossing. No satisfactory device to give a continuous rail for whichever 
track has been signaled has yet been brought forward. The Fontaine cross- 
ing, once used experimentally, had four movable corner pieces with a single 
groove or flangeway in each. These were riveted to horizontal rotating 
plates, which were operated simultaneously by rods connected to a wrist 
plate on a central vertical shaft interlocked with the signal apparatus. 

For crossings of minor importance, as where street railways cross steam 
railways, the flange filling is sometimes inclined so as to carry the wheels 
of the street cars over the crossing on their flanges, thus giving an un- 
broken rail to the steam track. Where cable and electric railways intersect 
steam railways, regular built-up crossings are generally used, made with or- 
dinary rails, and having a reinforcing rail placed outside of and touching 
the main rail. In some cases the rails of the electric track and the reinforc- 
ing rails of the steam track are planed down %-in. or ^-in. so as to clear all 
false-flanged wheels. This may be objectionable if four-wheel electric cars 
are run, but with double-truck cars very little shock is felt. The flangeway 
may be 1% ins. for the steam track, and 1% ins. for the electric track, the 
latter having a groove 11-16 in. deep through the rails. of the former. In 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 121 

order to reduce the wear of crossings of this kind in city streets, the rails 
of the steam track are sometimes of manganese steel, made in a special sec- 
tion combining the running rail, reinforcing rail and guard rail. 

In the renewal of crossings, the angles should first he carefully measured, 
and the lines set out by instruments. It will very generally be found that 
the alinement has been affected by creeping of the rails, unless these have 
been anchored or secured by check plates. The gages of tracks should also 
be measured, so as to avoid badly fitting work due to a confusion of the 
gages of 4 ft. 8% ins. and 4 ft. 9 ins. If the alinement is bad, the proper 
location should be made before the frogs are ordered, and a determination 
arrived at as to whether the frog is to be made to fit the alinement, or the 
entire crossing correctly realined. If the two tracks belong to different 
roads, this matter should be arranged before any work is done. If the two 
tracks have rails of different weights, the crossing should be built of the 
heavier rails, and a length or two of this rail laid beyond the frogs on the 
lighter track, so as to avoid excessive shock at the crossing. The light 
rails should have iron blocks or chairs and be spliced to the heavier raiis 
by step joints. Further particulars in regard to crossings will be found in 
Chapters 9 and 22. 

Repairs to Frogs. — When a frog has become worn, it makes a rough rid- 
ing track and may be dangerous, so that prompt repair or renewal should 
be made. On roads where only slight repairs are made and all worn ma- 
terial goes to the scrap heap, there is much waste in throwing away worn 
frogs, as they are usually worn out in one part only. In order to effect a 
reduction in the expenses for new frogs and switch points, some roads have 
adopted a practice of having extensive repairs made by a good blacksmith. 
Thus when a frog is taken out it is sent to the shop to have a new wing 
rail put in, the point shimmed up to its proper level, or new bolts, rivets 
or keys put in, making the frog practically as good as new. New wing rails 
are made from pieces of good rail from the scrap pile, the old rails taking 
their place as scrap. Switch points may also be repaired in the same way. 

Gruard Rails. 

Opposite the frog, and on the gage side of each of the running rails is 
placed a guard rail to hold the wheels in line and prevent them from strik- 
ing the point or getting on the wrong side of the frog point. They are 
sometimes omitted in yards on account of the liability of the men to stum- 
ble over them or to get their feet caught. They should be 12 to 15 ft. long, 
straight for 6 or 8 ft. at the middle, and then flared out to the ends so as 
to bring the wheels steadily into the flangeway. The ends should be about 
4 ins. clear of the track rail. On some roads the rails are bent to a uniform 
curve and placed with the narrowest part of the flangeway opposite the 
frog point. This is based on the idea that the wheels should only be held 
over while passing the frog point and then immediately released, as to hold 
them any longer than this would result in extra wear of the frog and guard 
rail. The straight rails, however, are much to be preferred, and have usu- 
ally the edge of the base planed away to allow of the guard rail being 
placed close enough to the main rail. The rails are usually spiked to the 
ties, and supported by rail braces, using not less than two braces on tan- 



122 



TRACK. 



gents and four on curves, as noted under the head of "Rail Fastenings." 
It is better to fasten them to the track rail, so that the proper width of 
flangeway is permanently maintained. This may be effected by means of 
bolts or clamps, or a combination of these, with spacing blocks or fillers 
between the webs of the rails. In one form, the outer side of the clamp 
holds the base of the track rail and the inner side is bent to fit the guard 
rail like an angle bar, a bolt passing through the bar, both rails and the 
spacing block. A 15-ft. guard rail should have 8 or 9 ft. of its length ahead 
of the frog point. Light rails may be used, being mounted on combination 
chairs and braces to give them the proper elevation, as is done in the South- 
ern Pacific Ry. 

The easy riding of trains at turnouts and the durability of frogs depend 
largely upon the proper placing of the guard rails. The gage of track 
should be the same at the frog as at adjacent points, and should be accu- 
rately maintained. The standard guard rail gage is 4 ft. 5 ins. over the 
heads of wing and guard rails. The flangeway on tangents should be uni- 
formly 1% ins. or 1% ins., or even 2 ins. when the objectionable gage of 4 ft. 
9 ins. is still in use. On curves, the flangeway should be the standard width, 
plus the amount of widening of the gage. The standard guard-rail gage 
adopted by the Master Car Builders' Association in 1894 has lugs 1% ins. 
wide and 4 ft. 5 ins. apart in the clear, giving a distance of 4 ft. 6% ins. from 
point of frog to gage side of guard rail, irrespective of the gage of track. 
The importance, of accuracy and uniformity of flangeway width is not suf- 




Fig. 65.— Standard Frog Guard Rail; Norfolk & Western Ry. 



ficiently well understood by trackmen, and where the guard rail is inde- 
pendent of the main rail they will often merely guess at the width or vary 
it to suit their own ideas. The standard width should be insisted upon, and 
should be measured at the widest point of the rail heads (over the bottom 
of heads with flaring sides). 

The Norfolk & Western Ry. uses a 15-ft. guard rail (Fig. 65), straight for 
7 ft., with a flangeway of 1% ins., flaring out to 2V 2 ins. at 2 ft. from the 
>end of the rail. This is for tangents and for curves up to 5°. On curves of 
'6, 7 and 8° (4 ft. 8% ins. gage), the flangeway is 2 ins. and 2% ins.; 9 to 12° 
<4 ft. 9 ins), 2% and 3 ins. The guard rails are spiked to the ties and bolted 
to the track rails with four bolts. The Pennsylvania Ry. uses a 15-ft. guard 
rail, straight for 3 ft. at the middle, and then curved for 6 ft. to a radius 
of 91 ft. to give a clearance of 4 ins. at the end. The rail has 8 ft. of its 
length ahead of the frog point. For frogs of 100-lb. rails, the Duluth & 
Iron Range Ry. uses guard rails of angle iron, %x6x6 ins., 20 ft. long, with 
1% ins. flangeway for 8 ft., and then flaring out to a clearance of 4^ ins. at 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 123 

the ends. The guard rails are secured to the track rail by seven %-in. 
bolts with cast-iron spacing sleeves. 

Footguards. 

Accidents are continually happening to railway employees from their feet 
getting caught under the rail heads in the angles at the heels of frogs and 
switches, and at the flaring ends of guard rails. Being unable to free them- 
selves, the men are often run over and either killed or maimed. These ac- 
cidents are specially common in yards. It is now recognized that it is a 
humane and an economical precaution to fill in such places so that a man's 
foot cannot get caught in the space below the rail heads, and in some States 
the use of metal footguards is required by law. Wooden blocking is the 
most common form of footguard, but has the disadvantage of soon becom- 
ing broken and decayed, and is apt to be left neglected in such condition. 
The Hart footguard, however, consists of a strip of wood of triangular sec- 
tion bolted to the inner side of the web of each rail. The outer (sloping) 
face extends from the bottom of the side of the rail head to beyond the 
edge of the rail base. Gravel or cinder filling is also sometimes employed, 
but soon settles down or shakes out so as to lose its efficiency. Metal foot- 
guards are preferable, and several forms, patented and otherwise, are in 
use. One of these, is an iron strap of the same height as the rail web, bent 
into a loop and driven between the rails. This plan, with a bar % x 2% ins., 
is used by the Norfolk & Western Ry. for rigid and spring rail frogs, heels 
of switches, etc. The National metal guard resembles a box open at the 
bottom and one end, being made of two pieces of sheet steel held together 
by two bolts and forced apart by springs. When being put in place, the 
sides are pressed together to allow the guard to be slipped in between the 
webs of the rails, and a spike or brace is put at the heel to hold it in place. 
Owing to its flexibility it can be used at the heels of switches and in spring- 
rail frogs. In the Green metal guard there are two horizontal plates, one 
under the other, held apart by springs and connected at the heel, the upper 
plate being formed to fit the rail head. In frogs, a special heel block or 
raising block sometimes acts also as a footguard. 

Relations of Wheels to Frogs and Switches. 

In 1885 the Master Car Builders' Association adopted as standard a dis- 
tance of 4 ft. 5% ins. back to back of wheel flanges, with a variation of 4 ft. 
5% ins. maximum and 4 ft. 5^4 ins. minimum. This standard is almost uni- 
versally adopted, but in practice many wheels of improper gage are kept in 
service. These are very destructive to frogs, switches and guard rails, and 
are the probable cause of many "unexplained" derailments at such parts. 
A variation of %-in. in wheel gage is sufficient, but it has been objected 
that to rectify all improperly gaged cars would cause serious expense and 
interruption to traffic. It is probable, however, that the number of such 
cases is insignificant as compared with the damage which they cause, and 
that the saving in maintenance of frogs, etc., would soon compensate for 
the expense. Similar trouble is caused by the use of cheap wheels having 
thick and irregular flanges, which do not conform to the standard form 
adopted by the Master Car Builders' Association. The trouble is aggra- 



124 TRACK. 

vated by the track gage of 4 ft. 9 ins. still used by some roads, and by the 
variations in shape of rail heads (having sharp or round corners and verti- 
cal or inclined sides), though this latter condition is becoming of less im- 
portance with the wide adoption of the uniform type of section recom- 
mended by the American Society of Civil Engineers. 

It is an expensive practice to keep in service engines having worn or 
hollow driving-wheel tires, as the false flanges of such wheels are seriously 
destructive to frogs and switches, lead to much expense in track mainte- 
nance and repairs, and are liable to cause derailment. Worn blind tires,, 
owing to their width, exert a powerful bursting force on frogs, switches and 
guard rails, which parts are not designed to stand such strains. Badly- 
worn tires on new rails with wider or flatter heads than the old rails, will 
slip and cause the engine to roll, to the detriment of the track and the 
reduction of the efficiency of the engine. Switch engines are often allowed 
to run with tires very badly worn, causing excessive wear of the track, and 
making it almost impossible to maintain the yard tracks in proper condi- 
tion. If complaint is made, the motive power department is apt to claim 
that the engines cannot be spared to go into the shops, and the excuse is- 
very generally allowed. It is, of course, a somewhat expensive and lengthy 
piece of work to run an engine into the shops, take down the rods, get the 
wheels out and turned, and re-erect all the parts. Some roads, however,, 
keep spare wheels on hand, so that an engine can be sent out at once with 
a new set of wheels and the old ones turned at a convenient time ready for 
some other engine. This work, however, is required only occasionally, while 
the destruction of frogs and the excessive wear of track causes a continual 
drain on the maintenance expenses. "Tire dressing" brakeshoes, which 
bear on the whole width of the tread and also on the flange, are a great 
factor in increasing the mileage of the wheels before turning is necessary. 

The permissible limit for depth of wear of tires in regular service should' 
be y 8 to %-in. for road engines, and % to %-in. for switch engines. It is not 
of much use to distinguish between passenger and .freight engines, as they 
are frequently used in similar service, but the %-in. limit might well be set 
for high-speed engines. The deep flanges are liable to break the track bolts, 
and the limit of depth of flange should be iy 2 ins. for road engines and 1%. 
ins. for switch engines. The present limit of wear allowed by different rail- 
ways ranges from 3-16-in. to %-in., though wheels worn %-in. hollow are 
sometimes met with in practice. Some roads insist upon the observance of 
the rule against a greater wear than %-in. on any engine, and this practice 
is to be recommended, but on many roads there is no general or observed! 
rule. The roadmaster should have a tire gage, somewhat similar to the 
M. C. B. flange thickness gage, and promptly report any engines whose tires 
are worn beyond a proper limit. By putting a straight edge across the 
tread, the depth of groove can be measured with a rule. On the Chicago, 
Burlington & Quincy Ry. a gage is used, consisting of a steel plate with one 
edge formed to the standard outline of a new tire. This plate has a slide 
moving across it, with graduations on the slide and plate, as on a curve 
elevation gage. The gage is set on edge against the tire, fitting the flange 
and tread, and the slide pushed out until it touches the bottom of the worn 
groove, the scale showing the depth. On the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul; 
Ry., the Keen gage is used, having a number of small square pins in a. 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 125 

row between two plates. The frame is set across the tire, the pins being 
allowed to drop freely and then clamped, so that when the gage is removed 
the pins show the contour of the worn tire. The measurements are re- 
ported by the roundhouse foremen monthly, and the results are tabulated 
by the Motive Power Department in columns varying by 1-32-in. The al- 
lowable limit is *4-in., but since the use of this gage tires are seldom worn 
more, than 3-16-in. before being 'turned. 

According to a committee report of the Roadmasters' Association of 
America in 1895, the damage to spring-rail frogs consists mainly in batter- 
ing and shearing off the wing rails and point. It is on this class of frog 
that the greatest danger of derailment from hollow tires consists, for in 
trailing through the frog the tendency of the tire is to crowd the spring 
rail out. The tire also delivers a severe blow to both the point and wing 
rail, the latter becoming bent or strained in time. This retards the free 
action of the spring rail so that it cannot be relied on to close properly, and 
in this is a danger of derailment which may be traced to worn tires. To 
prevent such action, the spring rail is often planed down where the tire 
strikes it, as already noted, so that the false flange will clear it. There should 
also be a flaring opening left at the point, so that the tire flange would be 
started in before any pressure is put on the spring rail, thus relieving the 
guard rail. The damage to rigid frogs is of a similar character, but there 



* It F IS 

.Si; n Bt §-fe 3;^ 

c n r - r n^ ^n p^^ r. n - - - ^^ : J ..^ /^^r^" r n H n 
n r 




U Li U " 

57 '2 f'-- *<-" I5'0"- -> 

Fig. 66. — Turnout Laid on Ordinary Ties; Boston & Albany Ry. 

is less danger of derailment. The swing given to a locomotive with hollow 
tires when running over a frog causes the gage of track and guard rail to 
be affected, and disturbs the general line of the frog, necessitating frequent 
readjustment. The effect of hollow tires on split switches is about the same 
as on spring rail frogs, there being some danger of derailment, especially 
when a train trails through. For this reason, the switch rails are kept 
below the level of the head of the stock rail near the point, as already 
noted. 

Switch Ties and Timbers. 

The rails of turnouts may be laid upon sawed switch timbers or switch 
ties of varying length, carrying the main and turnout rails, as shown in 
Figs. 65 and 67, or upon ordinary ties alternating for the two tracks, as in 
the Boston & Albany Ry. practice, shown in Fig. 66. The former plan 
looks better, makes a more solid connection between the tracks, and is 
generally used. The long ties are somewhat difficult to renew, and have 
generally to be renewed in sets, while the alternated ties give a closer sup- 
port to the lead rails. ' On the other hand, it is more difficult to tamp the 
separate ties to an even and uniform bearing. Switch timbers should be of 
the same thickness as the ties, and not less than 7 or 8 ins. wide on the 



126 TRACK. 

face. Some roads have them 9 and 10 ins. wide, to give a good bearing to 
the curve lead rails, as the sharp curve makes them liable to cut into the 
ties along the outer edge of the rail base. It is better to prevent this cut- 
ting by the use of metal tie-plates, and great economy has been effected by 
their use, while they are also frequently used to replace rail braces on turn- 
out curves. The timbers should be spaced about 20 to 24 ins. apart, c. to c, 
not less than 8 ins. apart in the clear, but the spacing must be varied to fit 
the rail joints and to get a tie under the frog point, or as nearly under as 
a yoked frog will permit. 

The required length of the timbers is ascertained by taking the distance 
(in inches) between the tie at the heel of the switch and the tie under the 
frog point, dividing this by the number of ties to be placed between them, 
and adding the amount thus obtained to the length of each tie, starting 
from the heel of the switch. This arrangement, with every timber cut to 
length, is shown in the Erie Ry. turnout (Fig. 67). Very frequently, how- 
ever, instead of using a different length for each timber, the timbers are 
made in groups of the same length to the nearest 6 or 12 ins. This is done 
by the Southern Pacific Ry., as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 68, but on 
that road after the ties are laid their ends are cut off parallel with the side- 
track rail, as indicated, which seems to be entirely unnecessary, involving 
useless labor and time. This turnout is for a No. 9 spring-rail frog, and 
tracks 15 ft. c. to c. Where the sidetrack rails are lighter than the main 
track rails, step chairs or joints must be used to connect them beyond the 
switch. Switch rails are curved as follows, before being laid: 38 ft. from 
frog, 11%° curve; 22 ft. to heel of point rails, ly 2 ° curve. At each heel 
joint, one of the angle bars has its flange planed off. The. turnout rail is 
bent (not curved) to the proper angle at the point (A) by means of a rail 
bender, 16 ins. from the end of the point rail. The point guard rails in 
front of the switch are. 6 ft. long, with 2-in. flangeways, or 4 ft. 4y 2 ins. face 
to face of rails. 

The last long timber should not exceed 16 ft. in length, though for cross- 
overs on double track the middle timbers are often made long enough to 
take both tracks. A practice sometimes followed is to have a plank about 
1 x 10 ins., 16 to 18 ft. long, with the lengths of the several timbers scribed 
and marked upon it. This is used as a gage in sawing the timbers to length 
before laying, but it is better to have them sawed to specified lengths at the 
mill, if this can be done. To ascertain the length of timbers for a three- 
throw switch, subtract half the length of the standard tie from the length 
of the switch timber for a single switch, and then multiply the remainder 
by two. Most roads have fixed tables or bills of material for switch tim- 
bers, which are issued to the foremen. The arrangement of ties at track 
crossings will be found in Chapter 9, under the heading of "Track Cross- 
ings." The ties or timbers should be carefully laid on good, well drained 
ballast, and firmly tamped, especially under the frog, except that where 
plate frogs are used the ties may be set a little low, or allowed to settle, 
to allow for the thickness of the plate. This is better than cutting the ties 
to receive the plate. In Table No. 13 are given examples of bills of material 
for switch timbers, and on the Lehigh Valley Ry. these bills give, the num- 
ber and length of each timber in consecutive order. 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 



127 





.9;£1*>U.Z \ • 



\ fefe=fep? : 



.0:91 

.9.ZI&1C 

J:Z/»1Z 

.9:11 &15 



.S£!l"!Ltr 



.9:5*315 



.00.5^18 \ ;JC| ~mZ& 



.9:8»ie 




128 



TRACK. 



TABLE NO. 13.— BILLS OF TIMBER FOR SWITCHES. 
Southern Pacific Ry. 

No. 9 spring rail frog; tracks, 15 ft. c. to c. ; timbers, 7x8 ins. or 7x9 ins., as 
ordered; headblocks, 7x10 ins. The lengths given are for 8-ft. main track ties; for 
3 ft. ties add 1 ft. in each case. The table shows lengths where the longest commer- 
cial lengths are 22 ft. and 26 ft. 



No. of 


Length, 


0.1 IfcJHglLl, Z^ J.L. v 


No. of 


Length 


ai leuguu, ^u jl 


t. \ 


pieces. 


ft. 


ins. 


Remarks. 


pieces. 


ft. ins. 


Remarks. 


1 


16 





Headblock, 7 x 10 ins. 


1 


16 


Headblock, 7 


x 10 ins. 


3 


16 







3 


16 






6 


8 


6 




1 


8 6 






3 


15 


6 




3 


15 6 1 






2 


15 







3 


8 6 






2 


11 


6 




2 


15 






3 


14 







2 


9 






2 


13 


6 1 




2 


14 6 






2 


8 


6 




2 


9 6 






3 


13 







3 


14 


Cut from 19 


pieces 24 


3 


9 







3 


10 


ft. long. 




3 


12 


6 


Cut from 13 pieces 22 


2 


13 6 






3 


9 


6 


ft. long. 


2 


10 6 






2 


12 







3 


13 






2 


10 







3 


11 






3 


11 


6 




3 


12 6 






3 


10 


6 




3 


11 6 






3 


11 


= 




2 


12 






3 


9 







2 


10 " 






1 


10 


6 


Cut from 5 pieces 20 


2 


10 6 


Cut from 3 


pieces 20 


1 


9 


6 


ft. long. 


2 


9 6 J 


ft. long. 




2 


10 







1 


9 6 " 






2 


9 


o ; 




1 


8 6 


■ Cut from 3 


pieces 18 


1 


9 


6 


► Cut from 2 pieces 18 


4 


9 J 


ft. long. 




1 


8 


6 


ft. long. 


2 - 


9 


Cut from 2 


pieces 26 


1 


10 







4 


8 6 | ft. long. 





61 



61 

Philadelphia & Reading Ry. 



No. 


10 spring rail frog; 


tracks, 


12 ft. 


1% 


[ns. c. to c. ; 


all timbers 7x9 ins 


., ex- 


■cept those marked 


(*), which are 8 


x 9 ins. 










i 




Turnout 






\ 


, 


-Crossover — 


— , — k 


No. of 


Length, 


Feet, 


No.of 


Length, 


Feet, 


No.of 


Length, 


Feet, 


pieces. 


ft. ins. 


B.M. 


pieces. 


ft. 


ins. 


B.M. 


pieces. 


ft. ins. 


B.M. 


5 


8 9 


230 


2 


13 


3* 


159 


10 


8 9 


460 


o 


9 


237 


1 


13 


6* 


81 


10 


9 


474 


4 


9 3 


194 


2 


13 


9* 


165 


8 


9 3 


389 


4 


9 6 


200 


1 


14 





74 


8 


9 6 


400 


3 


9 9 


154 


2 


14 


3 


150 


6 


9 9 


308 


3 


10 


157 


1 


14 


6 


76 


6 


10 


315 


3 


10 3 


162 


2 


14 


9 


154 


6 


.10 3 


323 


2 


10 6 


111 


1 


15 





79 


4 


10 6 


221 


2 


10 9 


113 


1 


15 


3 


80 


4 


10 9 


226 


2 


11 


116 


2 


15 


6 


162 


4 


11 


231 


2 


11 3 


119 


1 


15 


9 


83 


4 


11 3 


238 


2 


11 6 


. 121 


3 


16 





252 


4 


11 6 


242 


1 


11 9 


62 


1 


16 


3 


85 


2 


11 9 


123 


2 


12 


126 


1 


16 


6 


86 


4 


12 


252 


1 


12 3 


64 


1 


16 


9 


88 


2 


12 3 


129 


2 


12 6 


131 


2 


17 





178 


2 


16 


168 


1 


12 9* 


77 


2 


17 


3 


181 


13 


20 9 


1,417 


1 


13 0* 
Total 


78 


. .. 71 








16 
113 


20 9* 


1,992 




4,385 


7.908 



Switchstands. 

The switchstand contains the mechanism for operating the switch, and 
consists essentially of a frame carrying a vertical shaft (of sometimes 
horizontal for yard switches) with a double target at the top and a hori- 
zontal crank at the bottom, the switch-connecting rod being attached to 
this crank. The shaft is turned by means of a lever hinged to it, the lever 
normally hanging down, and held by a lug or socket on the stand. When 
the switch is to be thrown, the lever is raised to a horizontal position and 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 



129 



swung round until it is in position to engage with another lug or notch, 
turning the shaft and crank and operating the switch. This is the opera- 
tion of the switchstands shown in Figs. 69 and 71. In some cases the crank 
is replaced by a bevel gear rack and segment, while in others the lever oper- 
ates a segmental spur gear at the top or base of the switchstand. In the 
latter case, the crank shaft and target shaft are separate rods, connected by 
the horizontal gears keyed to them, the lever being attached to the target 
shaft. In some yard switchstands a spiral slot on a drum or barrel, with 
a stud on the switchrod, replaces the crank generally used. With the 
steady increase in the use of the block system and interlocking plants, there 
is a more general use of the interlocking system at main line turnouts and 
yard entrances and in passenger yards. In such cases the switches are 
operated from levers concentrated in a tower, but the subject of interlock- 




Fig. 69 —Low Switchstand; Illinois Central Ry. 

ing is too broad to be dealt with here, and only the ordinary switchstands 
operated by hand are referred to in this chapter. (See Chapter 14.) 

Main line switches, whether interlocked or not, should be connected with 
distant signals 1,000 to 1,500 ft. distant, according to the situation, condi- 
tions of train service, etc. It should not be possible to open the switch for 
the sidetrack until the signal has been set to step main line trains and to 
give a clear signal again until the switch has been set for the main track. 
This may be provided for by a double-lever switchstand, with levers so 
interlocked that the switch lever must be fully reversed and the switch 
rails properly set before the signal lever can be operated. For the reverse 
movement, the signal must first be changed before the switch can be moved: 
A single-lever switchstand is sometimes used for the same purpose. The 
first part of the movement throws the signal to "danger," and the second 
part opens the switch for the siding. The reverse motion first sets the 
switch for the main track and then sets the signal at "clear." Where dis- 
tant signals are not regularly used, they should be used to protect main 



130 



TRACK. 



line switches on a curve or where the view is so obstructed that the switch- 
stand cannot be seen until the train is close to it. The Illinois Central Ry. 
places a semaphore signal 1,200 ft. from the switchstand of outlying 
switches. 

The distance from rail to switchstand varies considerably. On the Chi- 
cago & Northwestern Ry. it is 6 ft. 6 ins. On the Pennsylvania Lines the 
standard distance from gage side of rail to center of target rod is 6 ft. 8%: 
ins. for high automatic stands and 3 ft. 9% ins. for low stands. Main line 
switchstands should have target rods 6 to 8 ft. high, so that the targets and 
lamps will be prominent. Ordinary yard switchstands should be 4 to 5 ft. 
high, while low ground or dwarf stands may be 2 ft. high. Yard switch- 
stands are sometimes horizontal, as in Fig. 70. Where two or three switches 
near together open out from a main track connection, the switchstands- 
should be set at varying distances from the rail, so that the targets will not 
be in line, or should have the targets at different heights, increasing from 
that at the first switch. A simple device for unimportant yard switches is a 
drop-lever switchstand (Fig. 51) operated by a lever lying on the head- 
block. If little used, targets may not be required, and the lever may be 
secured by a padlock. Such switchstands are sometimes used (but most 




Fig. 70.— Horizontal Switchstand; Norfolk & Western Ry. 



improperly) for main line connections. Underground switchstands are used 
abroad to some extent, and have the advantage for yard use, that they offer 
no obstructions for men to trip over. One form has an iron box sunk in the 
ground, with its top flush with the surface. An inverted T rocking lever 
inside has a stirrup handle at the top, passing through a slot in the cover 
of the box, and the switch rod is connected to this vertical leg. A heavy 
weight rolls along the lower leg, and ensures the switch being fully thrown 
in either direction. Many accidents have occurred through men neglecting 
to close the switch after a train has entered or left the siding, and various 
devices for preventing this have been patented, but are of little use. The 
New York, New Haven & Hartford Ry. at one time had the switch lever 
placed in a cabin whose door was so arranged that the man had to enter 
the cabin and close the door before he could set the switch for the siding, 
and then could not open the door until the switch had been reset for the 
main track. To prevent hand switches from being thrown while trains are 
passing, a detector bar (operated in connection with the switchstand) may 
be used, while some roads require the man to stand 10 or 15 ft. away from 
the switchstand until the rear car has passed. The hand switchstand may 
be electrically locked, so that a train cannot pull out of a siding without 
permission from the signalman or telegraph operator. The use of inter- 
locking plants, however, is the. most effective insurance against wrongful 
operation of hand switches. 



SWITCHES' AND FROGS. 



131 



The Illinois Central Ry. has three standard sizes of rigid switchstands; 3 
ft. 10 ins., 5 ft. 5 ins. and 7 ft. 1%-ins. high to the top of the rod (exclusive 
•of the lamp). Where three switchstands come in line at one end of a sta- 
tion, the low stand is used. for the first or outer switch; then the medium 
and then the high stand. Where two come in line, the medium is used for 
the outer and the high stand for the inner switch. These stands have a white 
disk and red target, as shown in Fig. 69. On the high stand the disk is 17y 2 
ins. diameter, of No. 16 A. W. G. steel; the red target is 30x12 ins., of No. 12 
;steel. The Norfolk & Western Ry. high stand is 7 ft. 5% ins. from the tie 
to the top of the rod, and has an oval white target %-in. thick (No. 10 iron) 
12x8^ ins., made in two pieces, flanged and riveted; the red target is 24 
xl2 ins., rectangular, with a 6-in. fishtail notch. The stand has switch rods 
1% ins. diameter, target rod %-in. square, and a throw of 3% ins., the dis- 
tance from center of shaft to center of pin being 2%-ins. The lamp has 5%.- 
in. lenses. The medium stand is 3 ft. 11%-ins. high to the top of the shaft. 
The medium, low and pony (horizontal, Fig. 69) switchstands have white 
oval targets, 6 x 10 ins., and red targets, 6 x 12 ins. The Great Northern Ry. 




Half Thrown by Wheels 
Trai !ina throuah Switch. 



Half Thrown by Hand . 
Fig. 71.— Ramapo Automatic Switchstand 



uses a high stand 8 ft. 10 ins. high to the top of the lamp fork, with a white 
target 12 ins. wide, on which is painted a 9-in. red disk. The target for the 
turnout may be shaped to indicate to which side the switch leads. On 
double track the back of each target may be painted black. 

The switchstand is carried on one or two long ties, called the headblocks, 
so as to be kept immovably fixed in relation to the switch, but for high 
switchstands the shaft carrying the lamp and target is frequently supported 
by collar bearings on a vertical braced post or a set of three or four inclined 
rods, the post or rods being fitted to a framed foundation independent of 
the headblock. In this way the lamp is relieved from some of the shock and 
jar incident to the operation of the switch. The switchstand should be 
firmly bolted to well tamped headblocks, and no lost motion should be al- 
lowed, while the working parts should be kept true, clean and well oiled. 

To allow for trains trailing through a closed switch without injury to the 
switch, an automatic switchstand is frequently used. In the Ramapo 
switchstand, Fig. 71, the upright rod has a sliding sleeve, with a clutch 
connection and spring. This gives a direct and rigid connection when 



132 TRACK. . 

worked by hand, but when worked automatically by a train, the pull on the 
connecting rod (as the wheels engage with the switch rails) turns the lower 
part of the shaft, compressing the spring and pulling down the lower jaw 
of the clutch so that it can turn without affecting the upper part of the 
shaft, which is locked to the switchstand. The spring closes the clutch 
connection and returns the switch to its normal position as soon as the 
pressure is removed from the switch rail. There are various styles of au- 
tomatic switchstands, generally having a combination of clutch and spring, 
but in the Weir switchstand the clutch is done away with and two horizon- 
tal springs connect with the lever casting on the shaft. If a train in ma- 
king switching movements should trail partly through a closed switch and 
then back up, the train would be split, the cars behind the switch keeping 
to the sidetrack, while those in front would take the main track. This 
would probably result in derailment, with damage to cars and switch, and 
such an accident would indicate neglect and carelessness on the part of the 
train crew and switchmen. To provide against this, however, switches have 
been arranged to remain in the position to which they are thrown by the 
wheels, but this is a dangerous plan and rarely followed. The automatic 
switchstand may be made so that the switch can be trailed through from 
either track when set for the other track, or so that it will be locked when 
set for the main track. In the latter case, a train trailing through from 
the sidetrack would break the connections, and show that the switch had 
been misused, as it is a dangerous practice to allow trains to thus run 
through a switch set for the main track. The automatic switchstand is safer 
than the automatic switch, already described, Fig. 51, as the latter can have 
the lever thrown even when the switch rails are not fully thrown, owing to 
obstruction between the switch and stock rails. In the automatic switch- 
stand this cannot be done. While there are certain places where the use 
of automatic switchstands is permissible, and while they are quite gener- 
ally used, the best practice is to adopt a rigid stand, as in Fig. 69, and to 
forbid the running of trains through closed switches. 

Switch Targets. — The targets are usually of sheet iron (No. 10 to No. 16 
American wire gage) of square, diamond, circular or other shape. The 
two targets for the two tracks governed by the switch should be of as dis- 
tinct shapes as possible, and should be kept clean and well painted, as in 
gloomy weather, or with smoke and steam blowing across the track, an en- 
gineman may easily mistake what he can see of a dirty red square to be a 
dirty white disk. On the New York Central Ry. they are painted in April 
and October of each year. The stands for three-throw switches should have 
targets indicating for which track the switch is set. The targets should not 
be too large, or they will be a danger to brakemen hanging on the sides of 
the cars, and some of the horizontal arrow targets are very objectionable in 
this respect. On low stands, or pot signals, the targets may be attached to 
the sides of the lamp case, or to a rod rising above the lamp. As to the 
color of the targets, plain red and plain white are usually the most distinc- 
tive, and can be seen at the greatest distance. A black spot on the white 
does not make it any more readily distinguishable, except against snow. 
Any white on the red tends to make it appear pink and consequently less 
bright and prominent, but at a short distance and with a dingy background, 
the combination may be more prominent than the plain red. Red and white 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 133 

are most commonly used, though some roads use green and white for the 
targets of yard switchstands and green targets for the distant signals. As 
vermilion paint is expensive, a bright red chromate of lead paint may be 
used and applied more frequently, and the colors are practically the same af- 
ter a little exposure. If the switchstands are painted white, or whitewashed, 
their positions will be more easily seen by the engineman, and the same ap- 
plies to the signal posts of block signals. Enameled iron targets have been 
tried with good results on the Grand Trunk Ry.; they do not catch the dirt, 
do not fade and are easily cleaned. The high stands for main track switches 
on the Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac Ry. have a circular target for 
the main track, and a fixed red and white arm like a semaphore blade for 
the sidetrack. On the Pennsylvania Lines West of Pittsburg, the main line 
switchstands are connected with standard semaphore signals, the running 
face of the blade being yellow, with a black band; and the back face white, 
with a black band. This is good practice in view of the fact that the sema- 
phore is practically the standard form for block signals, and the same prac- 
tice should be followed where interlocking plants or distant signals are 
used. 

Switch Lamps. — The switch lamps should be of good construction, sheet 
steel or galvanized iron being usually preferable to tin. They are either 
square or round, and have generally hinged doors, which are preferable to 
slides. In some cases there is no door, the oil pot being removed, put in 
and taken out from the bottom of the case, while in some of the round 
lamps the top is hinged to swing open. Side doors and slides should be air 
tight, and the ventilating openings so protected that the light cannot be 
blown out by the wind. In the Adams & Westlake lamp, the Watts upper 
draft system is employed, the air supply being taken above instead of below 
the flame, as at A, Fig. 72. Kerosene is generally employed for the lamps, 
and chimney glasses are not often used. There should be a peep hole and 
wick raiser in the outer case, so that the lamp can be inspected and trim- 
med without opening the door. A spring bottom is also sometimes used 
to prevent the. wick from being shaken down by the jarring of the switch- 
stand. The lenses should be of ample size and good design, so formed as to 
throw a direct beam of light of the greatest intensity, and not a diffused 
light. The lenses may be of plano-convex form (flat at the back and spheri- 
cal on the face), but the best form has the back cut in concentric corruga- 
tions, a? shown at A and B, Fig. 72. In some cases, however, the corruga- 
tions are on the face of the lens, as at C, Fig. 72. The ordinary size of lens 
is 4^ to 6 ins. for semaphores and main line switchstands, and the larger 
size is preferable. A diameter of 8 to 8% ins. is sometimes employed for 
lamps at signals, tunnels and crossings. The lamps for yard switches may 
use 4-in. or 4%-in. lenses; and those for dwarf signals, 3-in. lenses; while 
backlights may be 2 ins. diameter. 

To ensure the lamp being in proper position on the switchstand, the 
socket or fork should be so shaped that the lamps can be put on only in one 
position. If a socket on the lamp fits on the top of the vertical shaft of the 
switchstand, the top should be rectangular instead of square, or one corner 
of the socket may be filled up to fit a chamfered corner of the rod. The 
lamps should be kept clean, in good repair and properly trimmed, the lenses 
especially being wiped free from grease and dirt. The wick should rarely 



134 



TRACK. 



be cut with scissors, but the crust on its top may be removed by the fingers 
or a match stick. The light should be turned down as soon as lighted, and 
then gradually turned up to give the proper size of flame, being watched for 
a few moments to see that it burns steadily and does not flare or smoke. 
When the light is extinguished the wick should be turned down to prevent 
waste of oil. If the lamps are carried lighted from the section house they 
should be examined after being put in position on the switchstand. The 
filling and trimming of the lamps should be done on a shallow zinc-lined 



HOT AIS OUT LIT 




B. C 

Fig. 72.— Switch Lamps. 



tray or shelf with raised edges to prevent waste of oil, and the oil cans may 
be set on a shallow tray filled with sand, to prevent the floor from getting 
greasy. The lamps are usually kept lighted from sunset to sunrise, and 
during foggy weather. 

Red and white are the colors most generally used for switch lights (Pig. 
51), while some roads use green and white for yard switches. There is, 
however, a strong tendency towards the use of green instead oil white as the 



FENCES AND CATTLEGUARDS. 13* 

clear signal for main track. This is a very desirable change, as station and 
street lamps are liable to be confused with white signal lights, especially at 
yards in towns. Red and green are therefore frequently used for main 
line switchstands, the lamps showing a green light in each direction when 
the switch is set for the main track and a white light in each direction 
when it is set for the side track. On some roads, however, the light is 
shown only in the facing direction, the lamp having only two lenses. This 
is specially the case on double, track. (See Chapter 14.) 



CHAPTER 8.— FENCES AND CATTLEGUARDS. 

Fences. 

The numerous styles of right-of-way fencing in use by railways are due 
to local conditions, and the varying ideas of engineers and manufacturers, 
while some States have laws specifying the style of fence more or less in 
detail. The height should be at least 4 ft. 6 ins., and 5 ft. is preferable 
where cattle are kept. 

Wooden Fences. — Rail and board fences are now the most common forms 
of wooden fences. In the former, the posts are slotted to receive the ends 
of the rails, having the ends flattened to fit into the slots, where they either 
lie loosely or are secured by pins through the post. The board fence is by 
far the more common, and has flat boards or planks nailed to the posts. 
Oak, tamarack, locust, cedar and chestnut are used for fence posts, the two 
latter being the more durable. They are usually 7 to 8% ft. long, 6 to 6% 
ins. diameter at the large end, and 4 to 5 ins. at the small end. They should 
not be split, but left round, stripped of bark, and may be pointed if they are 
to be driven, but this is not necessary where they are set in post holes. It 
is best to put the larger end downward. The posts should be not less than 
2y 2 or 3 ft. in the ground, and may be driven by mallets or a small pile 
driver mounted on wheels; or they may be set in holes made by long- 
handled shovels or post-hole augers or diggers. If the hole is 24 ins. deep 
and the post is driven 12 or 18 ins. deeper and the earth then well rammed 
and tamped into the hole, the post will be very secure. The tops should be 
cut off square at a uniform height above the ground, the height being gaged 
by a stick having a flat board at the bottom. The posts are usually spaced 
8 ft. c. to c. If the ground is heaved by frost and throws the posts out of 
line and partly out of the ground, as is specially the case in clay soil, the- 
soil should be dug away, the posts redriven and the earth tamped in again. 
Fences have sometimes to be built on rocky or swampy ground where posts 
will not hold, and in such cases the posts may be mortised into sills 4 ft. 
long, made of old ties cut in half, and secured by braces nailed to the top or 
side of the sill and back or side of post. Rough A-frames made of posts 
may also be used. 

The boards are generally of pine, hemlock or other cheap wood, 16 ft. long, 
1 or 1% ins. thick, and 6 to 12 ins. wide, 6 or 8 .ins. being preferable. They 
should all be of the same size, the bottom boards being placed closer to- 
gether than the upper ones so as to stop small stock. The boards are 
placed on the field side of the posts, and each is secured by three or four 10 



136 



TRACK. 



or 12 penny (4-in.) nails, while occasionally the posts are notched or boxed 
out %-in. for the boards. If all the joints come on the same posts, a batten, 
1x6 ins., may be nailed to cover them, but in general the joints are broken, 
and come on alternate posts. Five boards are usually sufficient, and in some 
cases a cap board is laid flat on the top of the posts. When this is done, the 
top board may be omitted, but the standard board fence of the Michigan 
Central Ry., Pig. 73, has both cap and top boards. It is not often that the 
bottom board is laid on the ground, as shown here, but this is the legal rail- 
way fence in Michigan. The Baltimore & Ohio Ry. uses two bottom boards, 
a top board, and two diagonal boards across the. intervening space, with a 
batten at the intersection. 

Wire Fences. — These are extensively used, on account of their efficiency, 
safety from fire, and small amount of maintenance required. They are of 
two kinds: strand fencing and woven 'fencing. The former consists of in- 
dependent horizontal strands of plain, twisted, ribbon or barbed wire, 
weighing about 345 lbs. per mile, or 6% lbs. per 100 ft. The posts may be 
8 to 16 or 20 ft. (or even 24 to 33 ft.) apart, and four or more wires may be 
used as required, the lower wires having a closer spacing than the upper 
ones, pome makers are using a high carbon wire of exceptional strength, 



6" Post 



8'0' 



.l"*6" 



I"x6': h S'O" ->1 



t-* — 


, ^ 




/"*6" 


=jf 


V'Post 




■ ■ ■ —■ 


"5 


...5" 


mm 


7////////7///////////W///////}) 


w/////////////////////////)/ 


f .: ■ \ • — ■-r-4" 
V/////////AWW/, 



Fig. 73.— Board and Wire Fences; Michigan Central Ry. 



enabling the posts to be set farther apart. Thus a No. 11 wire of 0.4 to 0.45% 
carbon has a breaking strength of 1,800 lbs., as against 1,000 lbs. for a com- 
mon wire of 0.1% carbon. Barbed wire fencing is objectionable in many 
ways, and its use is prohibited in some States, while many railways as well 
as landowners are opposed to its use. With this wire, and in fact with al- 
most any fence of longitudinal wires, a top board should be used so that 
horses and cattle may see the fence more clearly and so be prevented from 
running against the wire and being injured. Some roads cut the tops of the 
posts at an angle of 45° and spike on a top board or rail 2x4 ins. The 
standard wire fence of the Michigan Central Ry., Fig. 73, has six wires, a top 
board and a cap board. At the starting end of each length of fence, the 
wires are secured to a strongly braced anchor post, and in order to allow of 
taking up the slack and sag of the wires, their free ends are attached to 
spools in an iron post or to some other adjustable fastening by which the 
wires may be wound up and tightened. To prevent the wires from pulling 
the posts over, some of the posts (say, at every fifteenth or twentieth panel 
of 15 ft.) must be braced. The braces may be of plank or a 3 x 5-in. stick 
having one end let into the top of the post, and the other end let into the 



FENCES AND CATTLEGUARDS. 



137 



next post at the ground line or into the top of a stake driven into the ground 
between the posts. Posts may also be braced by a stout wire wrapped 
around the top of the post and carried down to and wrapped 
around the two adjacent posts at the ground line. Gate, corner and end 




i&'o' 



Plan. 



'This Side 

towards Track. 



Fig. 74. — Wire Fence and Farm Gate; Fremont, Elkhorn & Missouri Valley Ry. 

posts must also be well braced and anchored to ensure their maintaining a 
vertical position. The strands are usually attached to the posts by wire 
staples (70 or 75 per lb.), and for long panels they may be stapled to a bat- 
ten at the middle of each panel, so as to keep the wires evenly spaced and 
prevent them from sagging. Hogs are very difficult animals to turn, and 
sheep will often get through a barbed wire fence that seems impassable. A 
special fence for holding hogs may have a bottom board, then two boards, 
and then two, three or four wires and a top board. The close (4-in.) spacing 



btiles notched I" 
: forBoards 




Shoulder V^/rT" — ^ ^a 1 ' '' ~^ "lh^ 




Details of Crate H 

{ ^*- * 

Detailsof&ate Latch. K"" 3 ""* 
Fig. 75.— Wire Fence and Farm Gate; Canadian Pacific Ry. 

•of the bottom wires of the Michigan Central Ry. fence, Fig. 73, is to prevent 
sheep and hogs from getting through- 

The standard wire fence of the Fremont, Elkhorn & Missouri Valley Ry., 
Tig. 74, has 16-ft. panels, with five lines of barbed wire, spaced 5, 7, 10, 14 
and 18 ins., and has no top board. The fence of the Canadian Pacific Ry., 
Tig. 75, has four wires, a top board, and an inclined cap board. The posts 



138 



TRACK 



are of round cedar, not less than 5 ins. diameter at the top, straight and 
peeled. The wire has barbs not less than 6 ins. apart, and is stapled to the 
posts. The boards are nailed to each post with six 4-in. cut nails, and 
braces are put in at intervals of 300 ft., notched ly 2 ins. into the posts and 
secured by 40-penny nails. Fig. 76 shows the styles of fence used by this 
road on rocky ground, the vertical post style having four wires, and the, 
A-frame style, five wires. The wire fence of the Louisville & Nashville Ry., 
in Kentucy, has posts 7 ft. long, 10 ft. c. to c, with seven wires, spaced 4, 
4, 6, 8, 10, 12 and 12 ins. The three lower wires are of barbed cattle wire, 
except where there is danger to stock, in which case the two top ones are of 
plain ribbon wire. The estimate for one mile of one line of this fencing is 
as follows: 

2 plain ribbon wires 6.66 lbs. per 100 ft. 704 lbs. 

2 barbed cattle wires .7.14 " " 100" 754 " 

3 barbed hog wires ...7.69 " " 100" 1,218 " 

Staples „ 49 " 

Posts, 10 ft. apart 528 

Bracing, 1 x 6-in. yellow pine boards 440 ft.B.M„ 

Labor . , $105 




Fig. 76. 



Alternate Section 
for Rock or Boulders. 
-Fence Posts for Rocky Ground 



Section for Rock 

Canadian Pacific Ry. 



Woven wire fencing has now largely superseded line wire or strand fenc- 
ing, and is very extensively used, being adopted as standard by many import- 
ant railways. It is usually delivered in 40-rod rolls, and can be erected rap- 
idly and at comparatively small expense. The McMullen fence, Fig. 77, re- 
sembles poultry netting of very large mesh. It could only be made, of 
light wire on account of the twisting required, while the twisting injured 
the wire so that the fence did not prove very satisfactory for railway pur- 
poses, and it has been superseded by woven fences with rectangular mesh 
and heavier wires. The. first of these was the Page fence, Fig. 78, com- 
posed of longitudinal wires (variously spaced according to require- 
ments) and vertical stay wires about 12 ins. apart, the latter being 
twisted round the former at each intersection. The special feature 
is that the longitudinal wires (of hard steel) are first coiled round 
a %-in. rod, forming spiral springs, which are then straightened 
out and connected by the vertical wires. The effect of the coil- 
ing is to give the wires a spiral twist, so that any tendency to slack, sag or 
tighten is taken up by the spring of the wires. This gives the fence elas- 
ticity enough to resist stock pushing against it, and to throw down an ani- 
mal that may run against it. The wires are usually No. 7 or No. 9 for the 
top, No. 9 for the bottom, No. 11 for the intermediate and No. 14 for the 
vertical wires. The railway fence is usually 4 ft. 10 ins. high. It is deliv- 



FENCES AND CATTLEGUARDS. 139 

ered in rolls of 20 to 40 rods, weighing 11 lbs. per rod, and the panel length 
may be 30 ft., but 16 ft. is preferable. In erecting the fence, a full roll of 
40 rods is set up, and given a strain of 5 tons by means of a stretcher, so 
that strongly braced end posts are needed. The vertical stays extend 
only to the second wire from the top, short stays connecting the two top 
wires, so that animals leaning over the fence will only depress the top 
wire. The Lamb fence is very similar to the above, but has the stays 
secured to the longitudinal wires by a tie wire at each intersection. This 
enables heavier stay wires to be used. In the American fence, the longi- 
tudinal wires are not coiled, but provision for contraction and expansion 
is made by giving the wire a slight kink or curve at each point of inter- 
section with the vertical stays and between these stays. Another feature 
of the fence, is that the stay wires instead of being continuous for the full 
height of the fence, only extend from one longitudinal wire to another, 
the ends being wrapped around each wire. The standard railway fence, 
which is in use on a number of important lines, is 49 ins. high, with nine 
wires spaced 4, 4%, 5, 5%, 6, 7, 8 and 9 ins. apart, connected by vertical 
stays 12 ins. apart (or sometimes only 6 ins.). The top strand is of No. 7 
wire; bottom strand, No. 9; other strands, No. 11, and stays No. 12. The 
panel length is usually 16 or 16% ft., and the fence weighs about 9}4 lbs. 






j| s'o-,---^- e'o jj: J 

Fig. 77.— McMullen Woven-Wire Fence. 



Fig. 78. — Page Woven-Wire Fence. 



per rod, or 12 lbs. with 6-in. stay spacing. The Elwood fence has hori- 
zontal strands of twisted wire cable, connected by diagonal stay wires 
woven together and to the cables, forming a diamond mesh. The mesh is 
made smaller for a height of 34 ins., and is subdivided by two longitu- 
dinal wires between the lower cables, so as to effectively turn small stock. 
For station grounds, this is made of small mesh, 30 to 58 ins. high, with 
cables 4 ins. apart. 

The Jones wire fence consists of 8 to 10 horizontal galvanized steel wires, 
spaced from 4 to 5 ins. apart at the bottom, to 8 and 10 ins. at the top, the 
height being 4% to 5 ft. The posts are 16% to 24 ft. apart, and between 
them are vertical stays of No. 7 hard steel corrugated wire, about 30 ins. 
apart, secured to the longitudinal wires by special flexible clamps. This 
fence is built in the field, and will weigh about 13 lbs. per rod. The Bark- 
ley & House fence has seven No. 9 galvanized wires, with galvanized wire 
stay guards or flat spacing pieces between them. These connect each pair of 
wires and are not continuous from top to bottom, being staggered. The 
flat pieces are easily bent by compression or side blows, pulling the fence 
out of shape. The ends of the wires are in stretchers in the straining post, 
and the wires can be tightened up at any time, as they are not stapled tight 
to the post. The Betts fence consists of six No. 11% galvanized wires stapled 



140 



TRACK. 



to pine pickets about 1 ft. apart, the pickets making a close fence and pre- 
venting animals from hanging their heads on it. It is delivered in rolls of 
100 ft. and is fastened to posts 12 to 14 ft. apart. In strand fences it is often 
necessary to take up the slack or sag of the wire, and this cannot always 
he done by the end stretchers in the anchor posts. One plan is to loop ver- 
tical stays to the wires, these being attached by a special wrench. Another 
plan is to wind up the slack on a tightener, hitched to the wire, a lug pre- 
•venting the device from unwinding. , Such devices are shown in Fig. 79. 
The Jones stay wires, extending the full height of the fence, can be applied 
to old and new fences, and have already been mentioned. All wire fences 
are liable to corrosion by the smoke and gases from the locomotives, this 
being more particularly the case near yards. 

Metal fence posts are slowly coming into use, and many of them are of 
%-in. steel plate, 7 or 8 ft. long, pressed to form a post of circular or V-sec- 




Barkley Stayfauard 
for Fence Wires. 



Standard Wire Tightener 
for Fence Wires. 



Fig. 79. — Fence Wire Tighteners. 



Fig. 80.— Steel 
Fence Post. 



tion, with holes, slots or notches for the wires or staples. Some of these 
posts can be driven without post holes being dug, a temporary cap being 
put on to receive the blows of the maul. The Avery post, Fig. 80, is of 
semicircular section, tapering to the top and having prongs stamped out at 
the bottom. For end, corner and brace posts, two line posts are set a few 
feet apart and fitted with collars having studs to fit a horizontal brace of 
gas pipe, as shown at "a." The method of attaching the wires, by staples 
fitted into the slots is shown at "b." Light posts of steel angles, tees or 
tubes are used for lawn fences at stations and similar posts of larger size, 
secured in vitrified clay bases by cement filling are used for right-of-way 
fences, track signs, etc. The Union Pacific Ry. has made some use of con- 
crete posts in timberless regions. The line posts are 4x5 ins., and 16 and 



FENCES AND CATTLEGUARDS. 141 

54 cts., respectively. Several of these are made at a time, the moulds filling 
the bottom of a box in which the concrete is dumped. The concrete is com- 
posed of about 1 part Portland cement and 3 parts clean, sharp sand. Four 
two-wire cables of No. 10 wire are embedded in each line post and eight 
in each corner post. Holes are cored for fence clips and gate irons. 

Gates. — Fence gates should be not less than 15 ft. wide in the clear, with 
gate posts in addition to the end posts of the fence. The gate shown in Fig. 
74 slides back for half of its length and then swings round, while some gates 
slide back for their whole length, parallel with the fence. An ordinary 
swinging gate is shown in Fig. 75, and this is well supported against droop- 
ing by means of the long brace. Iron-framed sliding and swinging gates are 
extensively used, and many forms of these have a framing of l^-in. gas 
pipe, with wires or netting attached to the frame. Gates should be strongly 
built and well hung on strong hinges. It is a good plan to hang the gates 
so that they will close by their own weight after having been opened, as 
farmers are frequently very careless about the gates, but even if made in 
this way there is a liability of their being propped open. A sheet iron sign, 
lettered "Close the Gate" may be attached to the gate. Trackwalkers should 
be on the lookout for open farm gates, and report any that may be habit- 
ually left open, as accidents have frequently been caused by cattle straying 
onto the track through an open gate, and in such cases a country jury may 
award damages to the farmer, in spite of the fact that the railway was 
properly fenced and the farmer himself was really responsible for the 
accident. 

Walls and Hedges. — In districts where field stones and boulders are plen- 
tiful, dry rubble walls are sometimes built, but as a rule they are not very 
stable and soon get more or less broken down. Hedge fences are rarely 
seen in this country, and have the objection of taking up considerable space, 
and rendering an adjacent .strip of field land useless on account of the shade, 
though they are sometimes considered desirable near cities for the sake of 
appearance.. The Pennsylvania Ry. has some hedges of osage orange, but 
they are thinner and smaller than the dense and almost impenetrable 
hedges characteristic of English railways. Hedges are sometimes used as 
snow breaks, for which purpose the Russian olive is very satisfactory, and, 
will survive heat, cold and drought. Honey locust, barberry or California 
privet may also be used for both right-of-way and snow fencing. The best 
English hedge fences are made of thorn quicks, about three years old, 
which are planted in November or December. The ground is well dug by 
hand, and the quicks are. generally planted in a single row, about 4 ins. 
apart, but are sometimes staggered in two rows 6 ins. apart. In about 8: 
years, when the stumps are 1 to ly 2 ins. diameter, the hedge is clipped to 
the required height, and afterwards it is trimmed about 12 ins. each year. 
They thrive best in heavy land, and are usually failures in light gravelly 
or sandy soils. In autumn or winter the ground is turned over for about 
2 ft. on each side, to prevent damage in case of sparks setting fire to grass 
on the slopes, and this is also beneficial in giving air to the roots. 

Station and Yard Fences.— Brick walls and high board fences with verti- 
cal or horizontal boards placed close together, are frequently used at station 
yards. Picket fences or neat (and more or less ornamental) iron railings or 



142 



TRACK. 



fences are often used at passenger stations, around the grounds, or to pre- 
vent persons from crossing the tracks, especially where there are separate 
tracks for through and local trains. A picket fence may have posts 5x7 
inches., 10 ft. apart, with two triangular rails (cut from a stick 4x4 ins.) 
let into V-shaped notches in the posts. To these are nailed pickets, 1x3 
ins., or 2 x 2 ins., with pointed tops, the pickets being 2y 2 to 4 ins. apart. The 
Pennsylvania Ry. uses a fence between tracks at way stations, having 
pickets 1% ins. square, 4 ft. long, 6 ins. apart, on rails 3x3 ins., the ends of 
which rest in iron sockets attached to the posts, so that the panels can be 
lifted out when track repairs are going on, or to allow room for attention to 
hot boxes or the running gear of trains standing at the station. The posts 
are 4% ins. square, 10 ft. 1% ins. apart, c. to c. A neat iron fence between 
the tracks may be 4 ft. high, with two rails % x m ins. and pickets %-in. 
square, 5 ins. apart, with ornamental tips and spacing pieces, made with 



I A LI a Li A L_ 




Fig. 81.— Iron Fencing for Stations. 



removable panels. All fences between tracks should have gates for the use 
of employees, the gate having a spring lock, which is opened by a button 
or knob not readily found by the reckless passenger who tries to cross the 
tracks. Two designs of iron fence used in railway service are shown in Fig. 
81. For station grounds, a fencing of horizontal ribbon wire carried in 
notches in flat, angle or T-iron posts, is very generally used. The posts 
have back and side braces at intervals. Horizontal railings of rods or gas 
pipe in iron or wooden posts are also used, and woven wire fencing is also 
used for the ornamental grounds which so many railways are now form- 
ing at stations. Expanded metal is also used for the same purpose, and 
for high right-of-way fences in suburban districts. 

Snow Fences. — The style of fence to be used on any road depends upon 
the topography and the amount of the snow. In prairie country these 



FENCES AND CATTLEGUARDS. 



143 



fences are of great importance, as that is often the most troublesome coun- 
try in which to deal with snow, especially if the track is raised but little 
above the normal surface. The fences may be either permanent or portable, 
the latter being made in sections and having portable braces, so that they 
can be taken down and piled in stacks when the winter is over. The per- 
manent fence should be at least 50 ft. from the track, to allow for the slope 



/ "« 6 "Fen ce Boandsj I "Space. 




"% Drift Bolts, 
24" long. 
Cross Section. 






k -14 0" -» 

Elevation. 

Fig. 82.— Permanent Snow Fence; Canadian Pacific Ry. (Winnipeg Yard). 



of the drift, and may be 6 to 8 ft. high, with eight or ten boards. If there 
is no room for this on the right of way, then the portable fence may be used, 
having the advantage that it can be set when needed, and that it does not 
permanently obstruct the view. The permanent fence shown in Fig. 82 is 
that used by the Canadian Pacific Ry. at division yards, etc., and has ver- 
tical boards 1x6 ins., 12 ft. long, set 1 in. apart. The permanent snow fence 
shown in Fig. 83 is used by the Fremont, Elkhorn & Missouri Valley Ry. on 
its right of way. In Fig. 84, is shown the movable fence of the railway, and 
is a good example of its type. The sections are 16 ft. long, and the braces 



, Posts l2'0"long. 




^Tv^^mm^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 



M 



7'0" *- 

m 



i'e" 



--A— 76 

ievation. 



u 



7 '(,' 



IE. 



16 



Plan. 



~V7 



I6'0" ' — — -» 

Fig. S3. — Permanent Snow Fence; Fremont, Elkhorn & Missouri Valley Ry. 



and stakes are pivoted by carriage bolts, so that when taken up in the 
spring the panels can be folded flat and piled on the ground. A similar 
fence on the Boston & Maine Ry. has two posts intersecting and pivoted, 
with a cross piece connecting their feet. The panels are set a panel length 
apart, the fence side facing the track, and the intermediate spaces are filled 



144 



TRACK. 



by loose, panels made of planks nailed, to two battens. These panels rest 
against the rear posts of the folding panels, and slope away from the 
track. 

On the Minnesota Division of the Northern Pacific Ry. the greater part of 
the snow fencing is 9 ft. high, posts 8 ft. apart, with 8 boards 1x8 ins., and 6 
ins. apart. There is also a considerable quantity of tight-board fence, 8 ft. 
to 10 ft. high, which is found to be by far the most effective in heavy snow. 
The portable snow fence is of the "saw-buck" pattern, with legs 2x6 ins., 
bolted 2 ft. from the top, with a spread on the ground of 5 ft. 8 ins. 






/«"<$"■< r 


16'0' Planks 




L_ 






i 


,,... 




















' i 


=3 




_____ , — j 


L 


_3 




__! 


! 


_3 




i 


„ jj 


_3 


Jd 


^ 


S^^^gl 


Sw 



i-ZW Hardwood 



Fig. 84.— Portable Snow Fence; Fremont, Elkhorn & Missouri Valley Ry. 

The boards are Spaced as in the permanent fence. This fence is fastened to 
stakes driven in the ground. On one part of the Boston & Maine Ry., per- 
manent snow fences are built down the slopes of the cuts, about 90 ft. apart, 
alternating on opposite sides of the cut, and placed at right angles to the 
direction of the prevailing winds which tend to fill the cuts with snow. 
They serve admirably to prevent snow from drifting across the tracks, but 
the portable fences would answer the purpose equally well and be less ob- 
jectionable in appearance. 

If the movable fence is used as an auxiliary to a permanent fence it may 
be placed 100 ft. beyond the latter, or where required to break the force of 
the drifting snow, the eddy formed by the wind causing the snow to be de- 
posited on the field side, as in Fig. 85, while beyond is the secondary drift. 
Landowners may demand a small rental for the right to put up this fence in 
the winter. When the first drift is as high as the fence the snow will blow 
over, and the fence may then be placed on top of the drift. If it becomes 
buried in the snow, a wall may be built of blocks of snow, wide enough for 



100 ft 4 




Pig. 85.— Position of Permanent and Portable Snow Fences. 

stability and 6 or 8 ft. high. Many Western roads prefer this plan to the 
use of movable fences, employing extra gangs to build the snow walls, but 
work of this kind is usually very hard, being carried out during the severe 
cold and often in the face of a high wind and blinding, snow. The snow 
fences should extend beyond the ends of cuts and then flare in gradually 
towards the track, so as to protect the cut from drifts caused by winds 
blowing at an angle to as well as directly across it. If they are not extended 
far enough, a drift may be formed by a wind blowing obliquely through the 
cut, and cause a derailment, the engine or snow plow first striking one side 



FENCES AND CATTLEGUARDS. 145 

of the oblique drift. The Canadian Pacific Ry. finds the best and cheapest, 
snow fence to be made by setting 8-ft. slabs 12 to 18 ins. in the ground, 75 
to 100 ft. from the track. The big ends are placed in the trench, touching 
one another, which leaves the fence a little open at the top. The cost is 
about $4 per 100 ft, it is easily moved, and there is no trouble from its being 
blown down. This road also follows an excellent plan in widening out cuts 
to give very flat slopes, using the material excavated to form permanent 
snow banks or fences a little distance from the edges of the cuts. Rows of 
small balsam, cedar or small evergreen trees, 8 ft. apart, staggered in two 
rows, the nearest row being 100 ft. from the track, make good snow fences 
or snow breaks, but their use is not generally practicable. The Russian 
olive and certain other bushes make good snow hedges, as already noted. 

Cattleguards. 

Where highways are crossed at grade, a cattleguard is usually placed 
across the track at each side of the road, with wing or lateral fences extend- 
ing to the main fences, to prevent cattle from straying onto the track or 
right of way. They are also used to some extent at the approaches to 
bridges, tunnels or deep cuts. The cattleguard is placed some distance from 
the bridge, and the fence is carried along on each side to the abutments or 
under the first span. At tunnels, the cattleguard is placed near the mouth 
of the approach cut, and the fence is carried along the cut and over the 
portal. For deep and narrow cuts the cattleguard is placed near the mouth 
of the cut. 

It is not as easy to turn cattle as might be supposed, and very generally 
they will become accustomed to the guards and find a way to cross them. If 
straying along the road they will sometimes spend considerable time in 
trying the guards, either from a desire to wander or to reach a tempting 
patch of grass or hay. Hungry cattle are especially venturesome. Some 
cattle are inveterate wanderers, and will cross almost any form of guard, 
even as others are inveterate fence breakers or jumpers. If being driven 
they will often either run blindly into or over the guard, and the length of 
the guard should be sufficient to deter them from jumping. Hogs and 
sheep are difficult to stop, and are very persistent in their attempts to 
reach forbidden ground. If cattle are standing up when struck by a train 
there is a good probability of their being thrown clear of the track, but if 
they are lying down a derailment is almost inevitable. The killing of cat- 
tle is a troublesome feature, especially in the west, where so much "land 
is unfenced, both on account of the liability of injury to trains and pas- 
sengers, and the amounts involved in paying for cattle (the value of the 
animals being usually put at a maximum). It does not seem reasonable, 
however, to hold the railway company alone responsible for the killing of 
cattle, as is usually the case, and not to hold the owner responsible for not 
fencing his land or for allowing his cattle to stray in such a way as to en- 
danger the safety and lives of railway passengers. The trains have a right 
on the track, but trespassers and cattle have no right, and this should be 
recognized. 

The cattleguard should be considered as a part of the fence, and not a 
part of the track, and this distinction puts the pit cattleguard out of the 



146 



TRACK. 



question. Cattleguards may be divided into two general types: pit and sur- 
face, the latter of which is now most generally used. 

Pit Cattleguards.— The pit guard consists of an excavation in the roadbed, 
the full width between wing fences, or about 12 ft. wide in the clear, 5 to 10 
ft. long (lengthwise of the track), and 30 to 36 ins. deep below base of rail. 
The pit is often entirely walled up with timber or masonry, but the ends 
should be left open to provide for drainage. The rails are carried across the 
pit upon stringers, or upon crossties laid upon the stringers. In the latter 
case, shown in Fig. 86, the edges of the ties should be beveled off (except at 
the rail seats) for about 4 ins. in depth of a tie 6 ins. thick, so as to afford 
but an insecure footing to cattle attempting to cross. This has the objection 
of being liable to cause the animal to slip through while trying the guard, so 
that it could not escape and would probably cause the wreck of the train. 
The pits are rarely made large or deep enough to allow an animal to fall 




Plan 



With Bev^d Ties. With Slats . 

Fig. 86.— Pit Cattleguard. 



clear of the track, and in fact a pit designed for such a purpose would neces- 
sarily be almost entirely open, and therefore dangerous in other ways. 
In case of a derailed wheel or truck reaching the guard the beveled ties 
would afford little greater security than the open pit. Another plan, also 
shown in Fig. 86, has ordinary ties laid on the stringers, and a series of 
longitudinal beveled wooden slats nailed upon them, parallel with the rails. 
The pit guard, however, has many disadvantages and objections, and it is 
as dangerous a structure as the open culvert, which latter structure rail- 
ways are rapidly eliminating. In case of a derailed wheel or truck the pit 
is almost certain to cause a wreck, while cattle are very liable to fall into 
a pit whether entirely open or crossed by beveled ties. The pit also makes 
a bad riding place in the track, by breaking up the continuity of the road- 



FENCES AND CATTLEGUARDS. 147 

bed, and in case of track heaving on either side the blocking or shimming 
of the rail on the stringers is not easily done so as to make a good piece of 
work. As the pit is below subgrade, the frost is likely also to he'ave the 
side walls. The timbers are also likely to catch fire, to rot. or to settle; 
and the pit forms a receptacle for dirt, refuse and moisture. 

Surface Cattleguards. — These are rapidly supplanting the old pit guard, 
since they are free from danger to trains, and (if properly constructed) are 
fully as efficient in turning cattle. The simplest form consists of wooden 
slats 5 to 8 ft. long, and of triangular section, made from 3% or 4-in. pine 
sticks cut diagonally, nailed to the ties, but these are generally seen only 
on branches and small country lines, and are, as a rule, in poor condition, 
with slats split, broken off or ripped up. A better plan is to have slats and 
spacing blocks bolted together in sections. One or two of such sections are 
placed between the rails, and two are placed outside the rails. Other sec- 
tions are placed in the space between the tracks on a double track line, being 
nailed to three or four ties placed between the tracks. The construction is 
similar to that covering the right hand side of the pit cattleguard, Fig. 

86, the slats being about 10 ft. long, 4 ins. deep, %-in. wide on top, and 2 ins. 
on the bottom, the lower 2 ins. of the sides being vertical, so as to fit the 
spacing blocks, 2x 2 ins., and 8 ins. long, placed between the slats at the 
ends and middle. The parts are held together by three %-in. rods passing 
through the slats and spacing blocks. In some cases a strip of barbed or 
twisted wire is nailed along the tops of the slats, but these are liable to get 
loose and make a very poor looking guard. 

Among the various designs for surface guards are some in which the ani- 
mals are compelled to step on planks between the ties, which planks are 
loose, and are connected to a transverse rod carrying several prongs 18 to 
24 ins. long, forming a fence which rises in front of the animal, but lies 
normally flat on the ties. A simpler plan consists of four or five rows of 10- 
in. drain tiles placed on end between the ties, the latter being capped by 
timbers of triangular section. The tiles are about 18 ins. long, placed on 
a bed of gravel 3 or 4 ins. thick to provide drainage, and have their tops 
level with or a little above the rail head. Snow can be removed with a 
scoop, and renewals are easily effected. Vitrified blocks forming triangular 
ridges parallel with the rails have been tried, but have the objection of cov- 
ering the ties and tending to cause decay, like some of the metal surface 
guards. 

Metal surface guards are now very generally adopted as they are efficient, 
economical, permanent, and do not interfere with the track work. The ma- 
jority of these consist of a series of iron slats or rods parallel with the rails, 
and arranged to form but an insecure footing. One of these (of the Bush 
type), used on the Pennsylvania Lines West of Pittsburg, is shown in Fig. 

87. The slats are supported in triangular iron cross-pieces, and are set al- 
ternately high and low. In seme cases flat bars set on edge are used, having 
wavy or saw-tooth top edges, and sometimes barbs on the sides, so as to 
cause pain to any animal making a determined effort to cross. Flat plates 
sometimes have teeth punched up out of the metal for the same purpose. 
While the teeth and barbs may add to the effectiveness of the guard in turn- 
ing hogs and small stock, they are open to the objection of possibly causing 
injury to stock, for which the railway company may be held liable. Such 



148 



TRACK. 



cattleguards have also been the cause of serious injury to flagmen sent back 
from trains, and to other persons walking on the track. Metal guards which 
have a flat bottom plate covering the ties and ballast have disadvantages 
over the slat forms in interfering with tamping and track work, and being 







Plan. 
Fig. 87.— Metal Surface Cattleguard; Pennsylvania Lines. 

liable to cause rotting of the ties by holding water between the plate and 
tie, while the heat of the plate in summer also aids in this effect. 

While the old style of pit cattleguard is objectionable in many ways, and 
is an element of danger to traffic, it has proved more effectual in turning 
stock than some of the surface cattleguards designed to supersede it. Its 
specially deterrent feature is the depth of the pit, the sight of which dis- 
courages animals which try to cross. In view of these conditions the Wal- 



,5uppori- 




News 



■.Tie Spacing 
Block and 
5trutfcrTrouqh 



Fig. S8.— Wallace Cattleguard. (The troughs should be V-shaped, affffording no footing.) 



lace combination cattleguard, Pig. 88, has been introduced on the Arkansas 
Midland Ry. It has sufficient depth below the rail, gives no foothold for 
animals, and is yet a part of the track and can be readily inspected and re- 
paired. The ties are spaced 24 ins. c. to c, and the earth is shoveled out 



FENCES AND CATTLEGUARDS. 



149 



between and below them to form trenches, in which are set wooden or 
pressed steel troughs. The cut shows flat-bottomed troughs, but they are 
preferably of V-shape, so as to afford no footing to the most persistent 
animal. Under the rails are put blocks to prevent the ties from shifting, 
and to brace the tops of the trough. Over each tie is set an inverted trough 
of V-section, made in three parts to cover the middle and ends of the ties. 
The sides are in two parts hinged together, so that the lower part can be 




Koiamczoo. Bush 




/E - - 

C. B. S< K. C. Hy. 

Stand a rd. 
Fig. 89.— Metal Cattleguards. 



thrown up to allow of tamping the ties. As there is plenty of air space it is 
not expected that the covering will affect the life of the ies. 

Some metal surface guards are shown in Fig. 89. The Kalamazoo guard 
has triangular ridges, and triangular teeth punched up out of the flat strips 
of plate between the ridges, so that an animal's hoof will slip down upon 
the teeth; the ridges are higher than the teeth, so that a person falling on 



150 TRACK. 

the guard would not be likely to be badly hurt. This guard, 9 ft. long, 
weighs about 375 lbs. The National guard has slats of T or A. section at- 
tached to cross pieces, alternate slats being ly 2 ins. above the others. A 
guard 9 ft. long and 10 ft. wide across the track, weighs about 400 lbs. An- 
other form of the National guard has flat plates, 2y 2 and 3% ins. high, 2% 
ins. apart, set on edge in the transverse pieces; this weighs 560 lbs., or 140 
lbs. for each of the four sections. The tops of the plates may have saw 
teeth pointing towards the highway, and where small stock are to be dealt 
with the plates may have barbs punched out of the sides and pointing diag- 
onally upward; this latter plan has been specially designed for the southern 
"razor-back" hog, who usually surmounts any cattleguard. The Merrill- 
Stevens guard has slats of T-iron, about l 1 /^ x V/± ins., parallel with the rails, 
set diagonally in the end cross pieces, and made level with the rail head; 
the space beneath the guard and the insecure footing of the slanting bars 
tend to check cattle from attempting to cross. The Standard guard has 
slats of flat or Z-shaped plates, parallel with the rail and set to incline 
towards the rails, the lower edge of each plate being bent to form a sup- 
porting ridge for the adjacent slat. The Bush guard has slats of inverted 
T-irons, 2 ins. apart, carried in slotted cross-pieces of pressed steel, the bars 
being at different heights; this guard is made in four interchangeable sec- 
tions and weighs about 450 lbs. The metal cattleguards are more expensive 
than the others in first cost, but they are more durable, require little atten- 
tion, and are independent of the track construction. 

Wing Fences. — To shut off the right of way between the track and the 
boundary fence, a board or wire wing fence is built opposite the middle 
or end of the cattleguard, and should have the end post inclined away from 
the track, so as not to be struck by persons on car steps or freight car 
ladders. The clear width between wing fence posts at rail level should be 
10 ft. to 12 ft. on single track. Sometimes the wing fences alone are used, 
but the more general practice is to put a rectangular or triangular panel 
of apron fence on each end post, parallel with the track, as shown in Figs. 
86 and 87. The ditch may be closed against small animals by stakes driven 
into the ground and nailed to the bottom of the wing fence. The wing and 
apron fences should be kept in good repair and well whitewashed, as cattle 
object to passing a whitewashed fence more than an ordinary fence. 



CHAPTER 9.— BRIDGE FLOORS AND GRADE CROSSINGS. 

While solid floors for steel bridges are coming into more general use, the 
most common form is still the open floor, consisting of sawed ties laid upon 
the track stringers of through bridges or the top chords of deck bridges, 
and secured by hook bolts taking hold of the flanges of stringers or chords. 
In rare cases, the rails are laid on longitudinal timbers, as on the Long 
Bridge of the Pennsylvania Ry., at Washington, and on the old Victoria 
Bridge of the Grand Trunk Ry., at Montreal. In designing the floor system 
of a bridge or trestle, the emergency of derailed trains must be provided 
for. This need involve but little additional expense, but may save many 
lives and many thousands of dollars in case of a derailment. The flimsy 
construction of the floor on the iron deck truss bridge of the Grand Trunk 



BRIDGE FLOORS AND GRADE CROSSINGS. 151 

Ry., at St. George, Ont., caused the wreck of a derailed train in 1889, with 
a loss of about 13 lives an! $200,000, while it was estimated that for $520 a 
floor could have been built which would have carried the train This 
iloor had ties at least 8 ins. apart in the clear, with guard rails on the ends 
of the ties only, so that the wheels easily "bunched" the ties, leaving wide 
gaps into which the wheels dropped. Bridge ties should be not more than 
4 ins. apart in the clear, and kept from bunching by having the guard tim- 
bers boxed out over each tie, or by having spacing blocks between the ties. 
Every tie or alternate tie should be secured to the stringers by hook bolts 
on metal structures, or by drift bolts or screw bolts on timber structures. 
Sawed ties of oak or yellow pine are commonly used, the latter being less 
liable to warp. For single track, the length may be 8% ft. to 16 ft. Some- 
times the standard length is 10 ft., and every fourth tie is 14 ft. long, carry- 
ing two lines of planks for a footwalk. On double track, timbers 24 ft. long 
may be used, carrying both tracks. Bridge ties are usually 8x8 ins. to 10 x 
10 ins. or 10 x 12 ins. section, and sometimes 8 x 16 ins. It has been pro- 
posed to build deck plate girders without cover plates on top, riveting them 
to the sides of the chord, so that ties will not have to be notched or bored 
to fit the rivet heads. 

Solid floors for steel bridges have advantages in safety, permanence and 
smooth riding. The first cost is, of course, greater, but there is a decided 
saving in maintenance work, while with a ballasted floor the track main- 
tenance can be regularly attended to by the permanent section gangs in- 
stead of by the bridge gangs. Ballasted floors are generally preferable to 
bare floors. They enable the standard track construction to be carried 
across the bridge, while the extra dead load of the heavier floor and the 
ballast not only requires a heavier construction of bridge, but the ballasted 
floor absorbs much of the vibration which causes objectionable noise and is 
detrimental to metal bridges. As a rule, the floors are built up of trans- 
verse troughs of rectangular or trapezoidal section, but are sometimes 
formed of flat deck plates over the floor beams. Some roads consider that 
ballast tends to corrosion of the floor, and prefer to use deep ties resting in 
the troughs, but experience has shown that the objection is of little impor- 
tance. On the track elevation work in Chicago, with some 474 plate girder 
through bridges, most of the roads have unballasted solid floors, with the 
rails bolted directly to the deck plates or resting on strips of wood. The. 
noise in the street and in the cars is very pronounced. The. Pennsylvania 
Lines, however, have used a trough floor and ballast 6^ ins. deep above the. 
troughs, with the result that the passage of trains over these bridges is. 
hardly noticeable in the street or in the cars. On the solid floor of the New 
York Central Ry. viaduct in New York, the 100-lb. rails were at first bolted' 
directly to the transverse troughs of the floor system, steel tie-plates being 
used, and as the rails form a circuit for the block signal system they were, 
insulated from the floor by means of fiber packing. The noise of traffic on, 
this structure, however, was so great that to stop complaints the troughs; 
were filled with broken stone and the rails laid on creosoted wooden ties 
embedded in the ballast, tie plates being used on every tie. By this means 
the noise has been almost entirely stopped. The thunderous reverberating 
sound caused by trains running on plate girder viaducts, with or without 
solid floors, suggests the desirability of using a cushion bed of ballast to 



152 TRACK. 

absorb the vibrations. This is specially important on city viaducts, as 
noted above in regard to New York and Chicago. 

For plate girder deck bridges, ballasted floors of transverse troughs or old 
rails have been used to some extent. The Chicago & Northwestern Ry. has 
some double track bridges of this type, with floors of transverse troughs 28 
ft. long, overhanging the outer girders about 4 ft. Along each side is a 
light plate girder 21 ins. deep, with gusset plates riveted to the floor, and 
gravel ballast is filled in to a depth of about 25 ins. above the troughs, the 
ties being embedded in the ballast. For through plate girders, 13 ft. c. to c, 
transverse 15-in. ^beams 3 ft. iy 2 ins. apart, carry two lines of 15-in. longi- 
tudinal channels riveted to their webs, and in each floor panel is a %-in. 
buckle plate, 3% x 11 ft., with a drainage hole. The buckle plates and I- 
beams are covered with asphalt %-in. thick, and a 1-in. layer of asphalt and 
s.'iiid is placed on the floor. Gravel ballast is filled in, the drainage holes 
being protected by stones, and the ties are embedded in the ballast. The 
floor is quite thin, only 16 ins. from bottom of floor beam to base of rail. 
Fig. 90 shows a floor of old rails on a deck bridge of the Chesapeake & Ohio 
Ry. The rails are 70-lbs. r'^r yd., 4 ins. high, spaced 6 ins. c. to c, so as to 
fit between the rivet heads. The rails are 10 ft. 5 ins. long for single track 
and 23 ft. 5 ins. for double track. An angle iron y 2 x 6 x 6 ins. on each side 
of the floor, is secured to the extra wide bottom plate of the chord by %-in. 
bolts, 12 ins. apart. To the vertical flange of this angle iron is riveted a 



frlY-^r 8-0' 5K"/J-->j 

Fig. 90.— Bridge Floor of Old Rails; Chesapeake & Ohio Ry. 

plate % x 12 ins. to retain the ballast, which is 4 ins. deep under the ties. 
The floor is well coated with tar, and the spaces between the rails allow for 
drainage. An angle iron retains the ballast at each end of the bridge, and 
a plate covers the space between the bridge and the back wall of the abut- 
ment. A greater depth of ballast and greater width of floor would be pref- 
erable. Floors of longitudinal troughs, carried on the floor beams, have 
been used in some cases. In Europe, the floor is sometimes made to form 
a deep trough for each rail, in which derailed wheels would run, but this 
plan is rarely used here. No general plan can be laid down for solid floors, 
but various designs may be made to suit different classes of bridge. The 
design should be made with special regard to strength and safety, and with 
reasonable regard to weight and economy also. 

Open culverts and small trestles may often be advantageously replaced 
by solid banks, having masonry arches or iron pipes for the waterway. 
Where the depth is insufficient for an embankment, concrete or masonry 
walls may be built to carry a solid floor of short plate girders (which may be 
built from scrap at the shops), old rails or steel troughs. The Michigan Cen- 
tral Ry. uses concrete side walls, spanned by plate, girders carrying I-beams 
12 ins. c. to c, with %-in. deck plates. The ballast is put over this to a depth 



BRIDGE FLOORS AND GRADE CROSSINGS. 153 

of at least 12 ins. under the ties. The New York Central Ry. uses a sin- 
gle row of old 65-lb. rails (laid closely, side by side) for a clear span of 8 
ft., reinforcing this for a span of 10 ft. by four inverted rails under each 
track rail. These floors are covered with broken stone ballast, about 15 ins. 
deep, under the ties. For spans of 15 to 30 ft., longitudinal trough floors 
are used, the troughs being built up of rectangular section, 12 ins. wide and 
16 ins. deep. Rolled troughs may also be used for short spans. On some 
roads the rail floors are covered with concrete about 12 ins. thick at the 
middle and 4 ins. at the sides, the ballast being laid upon this. The rails 
should be held together by tie rods at the ends. For crossing irrigation 
ditches, the Southern Pacific Ry. uses two 12-in. channel irons under each 
rail, the channels being placed back to back, with riveted channel iron bear- 
ing pieces or saddles between. The saddles carry creosoted blocks, 4 x 12 
ins., 12 ins. long, and the rails are bolted through these to the saddles. The 
channels weigh 30 and 50 lbs. per ft. for spans of 12 and 15 ft., and their ends 
rest on shoes on 12 x 12-in. cap sills. It would be better to use wooden 
stringers instead of wooden blocks, so as to give a continuous bearing for 
derailed wheels. For crossing gutters which have to carry surface water, 
the railway sometimes uses two pieces of old rail bolted together at inter- 
vals of 18 ins., the track rail resting on the spacing sleeves on the bolts, the 
length of the sleeves being equal to the width of the rail base. 

On iron structures, corrosion is often caused by brine dripping from re- 
frigerator cars. To prevent this, planks 1x6 ins. may be nailed under the 
ties, a strip 1x2 ins., or the width of the tie spacing, being nailed to the 
top of the plank. The bottom of the troughs thus formed may be coated 
with tar, and a trough laid along one side of the ties to catch the water, 
brine, etc., which is carried off by drain pipes. On solid floors, experiments 
have been made with asphalt and paint, and with a tar and gravel composi- 
tion, the plates being first calked with hemp. This prevents the 
leakage of water through the floor, and, if put on thick, has some effect in 
deadening the sound of trains. 

Ballasted floors for trestles built of creosoted timber have been in use on 
the Louisville & Nashville Ry. for over 20 years, and those 20 years old are 
still in good condition. The trestles have bents 13 ft. c. to c, with 12-ft caps, 
12 x 14 ins. Upon the caps are six lines of stringers, 17 ins. apart in the 
clear, each composed of two planks 3 x 16 ins., 28 ft. long, breaking joints 
and spiked together. They are easily accessible for repairs. Between the 
stringers, over the caps, are double bridging pieces, 2x4 ins. Upon the 
stringers is a floor of transverse planks, 3x8 ins., 12 ft. long, bolted through 
the stringers and caps, and having curb timbers 6x8 ins. The ballast is 
rather thin, being only 4 ins. deep under the ties, and is filled in level with 
the tops of the ties. Creosoted piles are extensively used in salt water, but 
on the northern divisions cedar piles are generally used. Solid floor trestles 
on the Illinois Central Ry. have 14 longitudinal cypress timbers 10 x 12 ins., 
with similar timbers on each side for copings. These copings are fastened 
at the caps and midway between them, by %-in. bolts, 42^ ins. long. On 
each side of the caps, planks 2x6 ins., 11 ft. 8 ins. long, are spiked to the 
underside of the floor timbers by boat spikes % x 6 ins. These prevent any 
creeping of the floor upon the caps, which are very wide. The timbers are 
of black and red cypress, not creosoted, and last about 12 years in the low, 



154 



TRACK. 



swampy country of the South. The first cost is 10 to 20% in excess of that ot 
open-floor trestles, but they are very durable, and are safer, while all track 
work is done by the regular section gangs instead of by special bridge 
gangs. Ballasted floor culverts, Fig. 91, are used on the Southern Pacific 
Ry. Four piles at each end carry caps 12 x 12 ins., 12 ft. long where 8-ft. 
ties are used, and 13 ft. for 9-ft. ties. These support a close floor of longi- 
tudinal timbers, with coping timbers 4x6 ins. The floor timbers vary in 
depth from 6 ins. for 4-ft. spans, to 8 ins. for 10-ft. and 12 ins. for 14-ft. 
spans. There is a good supply of ballast, 9 ins. thick under the ties, and the 
face of the bank at each end is held up by planks behind the piles. For 
culverts having two bents, the caps are 13 ft. long, with 13 floor timbers. 
Guard timbers should be used, as on standard trestle floors. These solid 
floors have the following advantages: (1) Safety from fire; (2) Low cost of 
maintenance, as repairs are small, and the lining and surfacing can be done 
by the. section gangs instead of by the bridge gangs; (3) They give an easy 
riding track, and (if provided with proper guard rails) there is less liabil- 
ity of damage in case of derailment. 

A plan adopted on the Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac Ry. to pro- 
tect the floors of timber structures from fire, is to fasten boards, 2 or 3 ins. 



converqe I to meet af\a Point 
ZS ft -above C. of\ Track 



3xl2x/4-» %0$rMJ2 : xlb'$W? 



"of Ballast underlies 




Fig. 91.— Ballasted Culvert; Southern Pacific Ry. 

thick and 6 ins. wide, under the ties and along their ends, forming troughs 
which are filled with gravel. The durability of the stringers is not affected, 
and the arrangement is considered preferable to the open floor. On some 
of the long, high trestles of the Canadian Pacific Ry., which are not likely 
to be replaced by permanent structures for some years, and which are so 
located as to make reconstruction difficult in case they should be destroyed 
by fire, the floor is protected from sparks and hot cinders by laying planks 
across the ties and filling in gravel or cinders to a depth of 2y 2 or 3 ins. On 
long trestles or deck bridges there should be a plank foot walk on one side 
or between the tracks, or else refuge places should be provided at intervals. 
The latter may be conveniently located where the water barrels are placed 
on trestles. 

Bridge Guard Rails. 



A bridge floor is a dangerous place for a derailed car or train; and in ad- 
dition to a substantial floor construction, special means should be taken to 
prevent derailed cars from striking the bridge or falling over the side. As 
a general thing all bridge floors are provided with wooden guard rails, 



BRIDGE FLOORS AND GRADE CROSSINGS. 155 

placed outside the track rails and bolted to the ties. These guard timbers 
are usually 6x8 ins. (which is too small) to 10 x 8 ins. (laid flat) or 10 x 10 
ins. They should be boxed out %-in. to 1% ins. for the ties and bolted to 
every tie, or every second or third tie, by a %-in bolt, the head resting on 
an ordinary washer about % x 3^ ins. or in a cup washer let into the timber. 
On trestles with jack stringers the bolts may go through the stringers. The 
joints are usually scarfed vertically, with a bolt through the scarf. The 
timbers are usually set 10 to 18 ins. from the gage side of the rail head, or 
7 to 9 ft. apart. The sooner a derailed wheel is met and guided, the less is 
the liability of its causing trouble, and with guard timbers more than 8 ft. 
apart the wheels have a chance to turn or slew to such an angle as to be 
more likely to break or move the guard, or to climb over it. The purpose 
of the wider spacing is claimed to be to provide for wheels very far off the 
track, but these should be provided for by flaring the timbers out on the 
approach for a distance of 30 to 60 ft., so as to catch any wandering wheels 
and guide them into position for crossing the bridge in safety. The guard 
timbers are more thoroughly effective if faced with angle irons on the top 
corners. In some cases the guards serve merely to keep the ties from 
bunching, being so far apart that a derailed car would strike the bridge 
truss before the wheels encountered the guard. This is not good practice, 
but on wide bridges with long ties, extra timbers are sometimes placed near 
the ends of the ties. 

Iron guard rails placed between the track rails are very commonly used, 
either with or without the outside guard timbers, but it is better to use 
both. On some roads, however, the inside guard rail is considered rather an 
element of danger than of safety, though the general opinion is quite the 
reverse. They are of old or new rails, well spiked and spliced, spaced 5 to 
12 ins. clear from the gage side of the track rail, the spacing being sufficient 
to allow derailed wheels to run between the guard and track rails. They 
should be extended about 150 ft. on the approach, being gradually brought 
together and bolted to an old frog point or special point, beveled so as not 
to catch loose chains or brakebeams. At the leaving end of the bridge on 
double track, the rails need extend but a few feet beyond the structure. 
Heavy angle irons, with the horizontal flange set either to or away from the 
track rails, are sometimes used for guards. In some cases, also, there are 
inside guard timbers, with an angle iron on the top corner, or laid on the 
ties and bolted through the guard timber so as to form a path for derailed 
wheels. Such wheels are less likely to burst or mount inside guard rails, 
as the back of the wheel bears against them while the sharp flange would 
strike an outside guard. It has been proposed to lay each rail in an iron 
trough (see Bridge Floors), or in a 15-in. channel iron, leaving about 6 ins. 
clear between each side of the rail head and the flanges of the channel. It is 
questionable, however, whether these flanges would serve the intended pur- 
pose effectively. 

Rerailing devices are not so generally used as they should be, in view of 
their importance as safety devices. They are intended, as their name im- 
plies, to replace derailed wheels upon the rails. One of the best of these 
is the well-known Latimer rerailing guard, a modified form of which is 
shown in Fig. 92. The. wheels are carried up the incline, and guided 
laterally until their flanges drop into position on the inside of the rail head. 



156 



TRACK. 



In the modified Childs-Latimer rerailing guard, inclined blocks are fitted 
inside and outside the track rails at the abutment, where the guard rails 
begin to converge. It is sometimes considered best to place such devices 50 
to 150 ft. from the bridge, so that if the wheels are too far out to be saved 
the car will be wrecked on the approach and not on the structure. The 
possibility of a car being so far off the track that its wheels are beyond 



Section A-B. 

-c n i~ii ii >i ii — ii — ii — ii — ii — ii — ii — ii — i 




Fig. 92. — Rerailing Device at Bridges. 

the center line, and will take the wrong side of the guard rail point, may 
be provided for by placing special guard timbers or guard rails just ahead 
of this point. These rails would be 30 ft. long, 8 or 10 ins. from the track 
rails opposite the guard rail point, and flaring out to 4 ft. 8% ins. from them. 
A piece of rail 15 ft. long should extend from the inner ends of these guards 
towards the bridge (being parallel with the track rails), and a rerailing 
device may be set between them and the track rails. Flaring guard tim- 
bers at bridge approaches or entrances should be laid on long ties firmly 
bedded and tamped in good ballast for their entire length. In some cases, 
bumper posts are placed on the approach in line with the bridge trusses, so 
that a derailed car far enough off the track to strike the truss would have 
its trucks stripped from under it before reaching the structure. These 
bumpers may be formed of three piles in a cluster or a timber 16 x 16 ins.., 
10 or 12 ft. long, with 4 ft. above ground. 

The standard bridge floor of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Ry., 
Fig. 93, has ties 11 ft. long for single track and 24 ft. for double track, all 



6x8" A"fo lf5 ~-A vV> 


3" 

/Boxed, 4 
— ;V » 


uWWw^W' 4 ^"''' W&-- -filt- 

1 SIT. T I §§ 


->\ 

~>l 

1 


^mwwwrM 


8"x8" 


l 



Fig. 93.— Bridge Guard Rails; New York, New Haven & Hartford Ry. 



8x8 ins., 8 ins. apart (which is too far). The outside guard timbers are 6 x 
8 ins., laid flat, boxed out %-in. for the ties, and faced on the upper corner 
with an angle iron % x 2y 2 x 3 ins., secured by countersunk 5-16-in. 
screws, 3 ins. long, 24 ins. apart on the top and side, staggered. The timbers 
are lO 1 ^ ins. from the outside of the track rails, and flare out till they are 



BRICGE FLOORS AND GRADE CROSSINGS. 157 

10 ft. apart, 83 ft. from the edge of the bridge, the end ties being 12 ft. 
long. They end 8 ft. beyond the point of the inside guard rails, being there 
9 ft. apart in the clear opposite the point. The inside guard rails are 8 ins. 
clear from the track rails to a point 15 ft. beyond the abutment, -whence 
they are inclined on a flat curve for 60 ft., until they meet at a point. At 
the leaving end, on double track, the guard timbers and rails end 5 ft. 
beyond the end of the bridge. The Erie Ry. uses inside guards 7 ins. clear 
from the track rails and outside guard timbers 16% ins. from the gage side 
of the track rail. On the Northern Pacific Ry., the ties are 10 x 9 ins., 14 
ins. c. to c, and are 12 ft. long. The inside guard rails are 8 ins. and the 
outside timbers 26 ins. clear from the track rails. The timbers are 6x8 
ins., laid flat, and boxed out 1% ins. The Kansas City Southern Ry. has 
yellow pine ties 8 ins. wide and 10 ins. high, boxed out V 2 -m. over 
the stringers, and spaced 5 ins. apart. The standard length is 10 ft., but 
every fourth tie is 14 ft. long, and carries two lines of plank as a walk for 
trackmen, etc. The 60-lb. track rails have 60-lb. inside guard rails 5 ins. 
from them. The outside guard timbers are 8 x 10 ins., laid flat, boxed 
out 2 ins. (which is an unusual depth, intended to provide ample security 
against "bunching" of the ties), and bolted to every tie, the %-in. bolts 
being staggered in two rows. The timbers are 8 ft. c. to c. The Michigan 
Central Ry. uses the Jordan guard, consisting of three lines of rails 
between and parallel with the track rails. 

All openings, culverts, waterways, small trestles, etc., are a source of 
danger, and should have guard timbers at least, with the timbers flaring 
out on long ties beyond the abutmments. Small structures of this kind, 
however, too often have short ties, with mere sticks of guard rails on the 
ends, while the ballasf slope is continued right up to the floor, so that a 
derailed wheel would strike the end of the structure instead of running 
across it. Trestles with long ties may have jack stringers under the outer 
guard rails to prevent the ties from being tilted up by derailed trucks. 
Trestles and bridges for electric railways are very often deficient in guards, 
although with light cars run at high speed there is often great danger of 
derailment. In fact many serious accidents have happened in this way. 

Elevated Railways. 

The floor and track construction of elevated railways usually resembles 
that of bridges, except that there are generally inside and outside guard 
timbers secured to the ties by wooden pins or iron screw bolts, the nuts of 
the latter being usually in cup-shaped washers let into the tops of the tim- 
ber. These timbers are frequently faced with angle iron on the top inner 
corners, and are heavily reinforced by additional timbers on curves, while 
the inside timbers are replaced by iron guard rails on the low side of sharp 
curves. The New York elevated railways have 90-lb. rails, with suspended 
or bridge joints, and have 20 ties per rail, with tie-plates on each tie. The 
track of the South Side Elevated Ry., Chicago, is shown in Fig. 94, but the 
wide spacing of the ties is an objectionable feature. The 90-lb. rails are 
secured by spikes 9-16 x Zy 2 ins. to hardwood ties 6x8 ins., 8 ft. long, the 
joint ties being spaced 13 ins. c. to c. and the intermediate ties 20y 8 ins. c. to 
c. The ties are fastened to the top chords of the girders by %-in. hook 



158 



TRACK. 



bolts. The four guard timbers are 6 ins. wide and 8 ins. high, the inner 
ones 4 ins. from the rail and bolted to alternate ties, while the outer ones- 
are 11 ins. from the gage side of the rail and are bolted to every tie. 
Extending between the tracks, or in some places on the outer side, are 
timbers 6x6 ins., carrying four lines of plank 2x6 ins., forming a walk 
for the trackmen and employees. The outer walks are usually protected by 
gas pipe hand rails. The line is operated by electricity, the third rails (not 
shown) being carried on insulators just outside of and a little above the 
outer guard timbers. In some cases ties have been dispensed with, and 
each line of rails rests on wooden blocks or saddles riveted between a pair 
of channels placed close together and acting as guard rails. This system was 
originally used on the Hoboken line, but when the company began running 
its electric surface cars over the line, cross ties were substituted, resting 



\ Station Platform 




I 



Fo 



'ChordL s 
<- \'Web of Plate Oirder 

r 



.-/v- 



Cross f 



Section . 



Half Plan. 



«A. 



f3 

o] 



fl 



»>U|[*Av 



% 



Fig. 94.— Track and Floor System; South Side Elevated Electric Ry. (Chicago). 



on the channel stringers. This was partly on account of the attachments 
allowing too much lateral play of the rails to suit the narrow tired wheels, 
and partly because the gear cases came too near the stringers. The Kansas 
City line has 48-ft. pin-connected trusses with top chords of two 10-in. 
channels, 8 ins. apart, having bent steel plates riveted between their webs 
at intervals of 16 ins. The rails were originally laid directly on these plates, 
but this arrangement caused considerable noise and the rails are now 
spiked to ties laid across the chords in the usual way. It has been pro- 
posed to lay longitudinal timbers in a similar way to the above, giving 
greater security than the blocks, and less obstruction to light than the 



BRIDGE FLOORS AND GRADE CROSSINGS. 159 

ties. The latter point is important for lines built in city streets. Felt 
packing under the timbers would reduce the noise. 

Road and Street Crossings. 

The avoidance of grade crossings has rarely been a consideration in rail- 
way location in this country, and it is worthy of note that in the St. Louis 
extension of the St. Louis, Keokuk & Northwestern Ry., built in 1894, the 
grade line was laid out as to avoid crossing at grade wherever possible, 
some of the roads having their grades slightly changed on condition that 
the railway company would macadamize the roads. Inexpensive timber or 
plate girder bridges were used. In too many cases, railways still run 
through towns and cities on the street grade, generally having their own 
right of way and merely crossing the streets, but sometimes running 
along the middle or side of a street, and in such cases it is very difficult to 
keep the track in good condition. In many cities steps have been taken 
to eliminate the grade crossings, the railway being either depressed and 
laid in an open cut with retaining walls, and crossed by bridges, or raised 
on a viaduct or bank and crossing the streets by bridges. Street grades are 
very frequently changed at the same time so as not to require the tracks 
to be raised higher than necessary. Such work is often very difficult and 
almost invariably very expensive, involving a large amount of railway and 
municipal work, and the execution of the work during traffic, which is an 
unfavorable condition for economy. The railway, however, is free from 
the expenses incident to gates, watchmen, accidents, etc., and from the 
delays caused by crossings, so that it can operate its traffic to better 
advantage. In Chicago the comprehensive system of elevated tracks in- 
cludes about 60 miles of line, with 280 miles of main track and 575 miles 
of track of all kinds, eliminating some 400 grade crossings. The cost is 
about $15,000,000, all paid by the railways. This work was described in 
Engineering News, Jan. 11 and Feb. 22, 1900. 

Where the tracks run along or across city streets, an iron guard rail 
is generally placed inside the track rail, and the paving filled in over the 
ties, leaving only a flangeway, which should have a filling piece up to the 
level of the underside of the rail heads. In some cases a line of planking 
is laid along the. outside of the rail head. A substantial form of construc- 
tion through paved streets has been tried by the New York Central Ry., 
but is expensive and not entirely satisfactory. With this system, the ties 
are placed 4 ins. deeper than usual, laid upon 6 ins. of gravel ballast, with 
6 ins. of concrete between the ties and extending to the sides of the street. 
Upon each tie are spiked two iron chairs 4 ins. high, with a base of lO 1 ^ x 
4y 4 ins., and weighing 21 to 28 lbs. each, for intermediate and joint chairs. 
Upon these are laid the track rails, secured by steel spring clamps of ap- 
proximately semicircular form, which are driven on parallel with the rail, 
gripping the rail flange and top of chair. The chair brings the top of the 
rail to the level of the paving blocks. To the inside of the web of each 
rail is bolted a continuous angle bar of special section with a broad flange 
at the top, the built-up section resembling a side-bearing street-rail, the 
depth of flange being the full depth of the rail head, or 1 9-32 ins. for an 
80-lb. rail. The bolts are at intervals of 4 ft. 4% ins., and at the rail joints 



160 TRACK. 

only an outer six-bolt splice bar is required, the clamps on the three joint 
chairs gripping the flange of this bar. The track and special rails break 
joint about 18 ins. Over the concrete and ties is a 2-in. layer of fine sand, 
upon which are set the paving blocks, the outside blocks being level with 
the top of the rail, and the inside blocks level with the top of the angle bar. 
The cost is about $13,500 per mile of single track, laid and ballasted, but 
exclusive of concrete and paving, which is the city's work. 

Country road crossings are usually either planked all the way across or 
have planks against the rails, with gravel or cinder filling between. The 
planks are 3- x 8, 3 x 12 or 4 x 12 ins., 8 to 12 ft. long for farm crossings 
and side roads, or 30 ft. for main roads. Five 10-in. or four 12-in. planks 
will fill in neatly between the rails, while a similar plank will be laid 
outside of each rail. If the rails are. high, the planks rest on strips nailed 
to the ties, so as to bring the planks flush with the top of the rails or %-in. 
below. The ends of the planks are adzed to an incline of 6 to 12 ins. at the 
ends, so as not to catch loose hanging rods, chains or breakbeams. Pine 
planks are more suitable than spruce or oak, the former being too soft and 
the latter having a tendency to warp. They should be spiked by %-in. 
boat spikes, 7 or 8 ins. long, track spikes being too short and more ex- 
pensive. The outer planks are laid close against the rail heads, but the 
inner ones must leave flangeways about 2% ins. wide. These planks may be 
set that distance from the rail, or their edges may be rabbeted to fit under 
the rail heads, leaving flangeways 2% ins. wide and the full depth of the 
rail head. A shallow flangeway has the objection of being more easily ob- 
structed by loose stones, etc., but if the space is left open for the full depth 
of the rail, horses are liable to get the calks of their shoes caught under 
the rail head. It is generally best, therefore, to put in a filler against the 
web. If the planks are laid only against the rails, cross planks may be 
laid between their ends, forming a shallow box to be filled in with broken 
stone or gravel for roads, or gravel or cinders for private and farm cross- 
ings. Where track is liable to heave, the planks may be removed from 
unimportant crossings in the winter, so as not to be struck by engine pilots 
or snow plows. At narrow crossings the planks should, if possible, be 
placed so as not to cover any rail joints. It is difficult to properly inspect 
and repair such joints, and in some cases 60-ft. rails are used to bring the 
joints beyond the crossings. 

A steel rail is frequently placed as an inside guard rail to form the 
flangeway and protect the edges of the planking or the gravel filling. If 
placed upright or laid on its side with its base toward the track rail, a 
wooden filler strip should be placed against the web of the track rail, 
as already noted. In the latter arrangement a plank must be cut to 
shape to rest upon the guard rail, the plank being secured by long 
spikes driven through holes in the rail web. Another plan is to lay the 
rail on its side, with its head resting against the web of the track rail, 
thus forming a shallow flangeway with filler. The ends of the guard rails 
should be flared out from 6 to 12 ins. at the ends, giving a clearance of at 
least 4 ins., this space being filled with some form of footguard. For busy 
crossings on the Toledo, Peoria & Western Ry., guard rails are used in 
the position last described, with six planks 3 x 12 ins. (four between the 
rails) laid on 1-in. strips. For minor crossings, planks are laid outside the 



BRIDGE FLOORS AND GRADE CROSSINGS. 161 

rails and old steel rails are laid inside, standing upright and having a 
filling of broken stone between them. The flangeway is 2% ins. wide. The 
planks are 20 to 30 ft. long, according to the width of the road. Two plans 
of road crossings are shown in Fig 95. 

The approaches to the crossings should be properly built and graded, and 
may be carried across the roadway ditches by planks spiked to timbers or 
old ties, resting on the bank and the roadbed, but these timbers are liable 
to rot and easily become loose, making an unsightly crossing. It is gen- 
erally better to carry the ditch through by a box drain about 8 x 10 ins., or 
an iron pipe 8 to 12 ins. diameter, and then to fill in the earth to make a 
properly graded approach. Clay pipe is likely to be broken or displaced 
unless the earth cover over it is pretty thick, while a wooden box drain is 
likely to break or decay and allow the earth to fall in and block the drain. 
The ends of the pipe or drain may be laid in small dry walls and be covered 
by screens. These pipes should be of ample capacity, and should be cleaned 
out occasionally. Crossings should always be kept in good repair, not 
only on account of the safety of railway and highway traffic, but also 
because defective and unsightly crossings are a frequent cause of public 
complaint, leading to an ill-feeling against the railway. 

Road Crossing Signals and Gates. — Country road crossings are generally 
protected only by warning signs and cattleguards, though flagmen are 

4"/ o'" •'£" ■ 

<5* &w >>.: 



'' :< 12 0" 

9'0"- & 9'0"~ 

Plank Crossing. Gravel Crossing. 



Fig. 93.— Road Crossings. 

employed in some cases, and gates and automatic bell or gong signals are 
also sometimes used. For suburban crossings of busy lines, signs and 
gates are very generally used (or flagmen instead of gatemen), and are 
often supplemented by automatic gong signals, having either a large gong 
to warn persons approaching the railway, or a small gong to warn the 
watchman to flag the highway traffic or to close the gates. These audible 
signals are of two classes; in one the train puts in motion a force which 
will ring the gong for a certain time, and in the other the train closes an 
electric circuit, so that the gong continues to ring until the train has passed 
the crossing. Many of these appliances have proved uncertain in 
action, and this unreliability is specially dangerous at crossings where 
this is the only warning, as persons who have once found the gong inopera- 
tive are likely to disregard it in the future. Some of these signals, how- 
ever, are reliable within all reasonable requirements, and an automatic 
audible signal is valuable as an auxiliary to the gateman. In this con- 
nection it is pertinent to call attention to the folly of paying poor wages 
and employing cheap and incompetent men as flagmen or gatemen at 
crossings. Such men will not and do not attend faithfully to their duties, 
and many accidents have resulted from the carelessness of such watchmen. 
In many of the automatic signaling devices the apparatus is set in 
operation by some sort of track instrument operated by the wheels, but 



162 TRACK. 

others are operated from an electric circuit controller, which may be 
placed on a telegraph pole and thus be free from the shock and vibration 
to which a track instrument is subjected. Two opposite rail lengths are 
insulated, and wires from these rails and the adjoining uninsulated rails 
are led to the box containing the controller and battery, while live wires 
from the controller lead to the gong apparatus at the crossing, the current 
for which is supplied by a second and smaller battery. In another 
system, a Siemens armature (made of an iron spool wound lengthwise with 
copper wire) is arranged to revolve in the. magnetic field of permanent 
horseshoe magnets, each revolution producing two impulses of electricity 
of opposite polarity, or alternating currents. The revolutions of the arma- 
ture are produced by a fly-wheel train of gearing, which is operated by the 
recoil of powerful springs, these springs being compressed by the action of 
a hinged lever placed alongside the rail and depressed by every passing 
wheel. There is no battery, and the entire plant is out of operation 
except during the passage of the train and during the revolution of the 
fly-wheel by its momentum. The mechanism is placed in a box beside the 
track, 1,200 to 2,000 ft. in advance of the crossing. 

Street crossings at yards and stations, where trains and switch engines 
are constantly moving to and fro, are often protected only by flagmen, 
'who signal the drivers of vehicles when to cross. If there are many 
tracks, an open refuge place should be provided near the middle, so that 
teams need not wait until the entire crossing is clear. Such crossings, 
however, are extremely dangerous, especially in dark and stormy weather, 
when the drivers cannot see the flagmen distinctly, and the flagman's 
view is obstructed by smoke and steam. Ordinary street crossings have 
usually gates operated by watchmen. In rare cases "portcullis" gates are 
used, sliding vertically in high frames, while an arrangement has been 
suggested by which the gates would drop into deep narrow slots in the 
street. The most common form of crossing gate is a light wooden arm, 
swinging vertically and pivoted to an iron post near the curb, and being 
operated by gearing by means of a crank handle in the post. The sidewalk 
arms are operated by segmental racks on the shafts. The arms on both 
sides of the track are worked together, the connections being wires or 
chains led through pipes underground, while in one style of gate pipe 
connections are used, with, bell cranks and levers as in interlocking plant. 
The arms are counterbalanced and may be fitted with targets and lamps. 
They are sometimes as much as 55 ft. long, with 35 ft. sidewalk arms 
where the tracks cross the street at an angle, but for wide streets it is 
common to use two arms on each side of the track. The gateman usually 
has a small cabin at the side of the track, or an elevated cabin like a 
signal tower, from which latter he operates the gates by means of levers. 
Gates of this kind should have a flexible piece at the end, opening upward 
and outward, so that if a team is shut in on the track it may be driven 
through, and thus perhaps avoid a serious accident. 

Many gates of this kind are operated by compressed air from the cabin, 
by means of a hand pump, one or two strokes of the pump lever being 
required for each movement of the gate. The operating cylinders and 
mechanism are enclosed in the gate posts, which are connected by V^-in. 
pipes. A pressure of only 7 lbs. per sq. in. is required, and the arms are 



BRIDGE FLOORS AND GRADE CROSSINGS. 163 

locked in either position. In one form of pneumatic gate a rubber 
diaphragm in an iron case is used instead of a cylinder and piston. One 
strcke cf the pump operates the arm or arms on one side of the track, 
thus requiring two strokes to close the crossing and so reducing the liabil- 
ity to shut a team in on the track. One diaphragm of each pair closes the 
gates, and the other opens them, motion being transmitted by a rod, chain 
and bell cranks in each post, connected by rods underground. Automatic 
gates, operated from air pumps connected with a track lever, have been 
proposed, the air also operating signals and a gong apparatus. 

At street crossings having tracks for horse, cable or electric cars, there 
should be provided some means of automatically stopping or derailing these 
cars if they run past a certain point when the gates are closed, as many 
accidents occur through carelessness or neglect on the part of car drivers, 
conductors and gatemen. The ordinary rule is that the car must be stopped 
and the conductor walk onto the crossing to see if trains are approaching, 
but he may be neglected, or his view may be obstructed by steam, smoke 
or moving cars. Derails or stop blocks, about 50 ft. from the crossing and 
interlocked with the gate, should be s.et in the street track, and for elec- 
tric railways the current may be automatically cut off from the trolley wire 
for a short distance on each side of the crossing. This matter is further dis- 
cussed in the following section on "Track Crossings." 

Track Crossings. 

Railway crossings at grade were freely adopted in the early days of rail- 
way construction, but it is now generally recognized that every such cross- 
ing is a point of danger and expense, causing more or less interference with 
traffic and increase in maintenance work, as well as an increase in fuel 
consumption where trains are frequently stopped. At small "know-noth- 
ing" or unprotected crossings, where all trains are required to come to an 
absolute stop, there is likely to be increased wear of rails due to the fre- 
quent, stopping and starting and the use of sand. The extent of the wear 
will vary with the local conditions of grade, speed, traffic, etc. There is, 
therefore, a growing tendency to protect busy crossings by interlocking 
switch and signal plants, so that a train will not have to stop unless the 
right of way has already been given to a train on the other line. There is 
also a general tendency to eliminate groups of crossings near large cities, 
and enormous sums of money have been expended in the separation of 
grades, which expenditures have been fully warranted by the increased 
safety and freedom of traffic. Near Philadelphia, the four tracks of the New 
York and Philadelphia divisions of the Pennsylvania Ry. connected with the 
line leading to the Broad St. terminal station in such a way that all pas- 
senger trains had to cross the through main tracks at the freight yards, 
causing numerous delays, and also causing complication in handling the 
enormous number of freight trains at that point. This has been avoided 
by lowering the passenger tracks of the New York Division on a grade of 
0.5% until they can pass under the yard at 1%, and then rising again by a 
grade of 1.2% to the normal grade. The crossing of trains at junctions, 
especially on four-track lines, has also been avoided in some cases by car- 
rying one track over or under the normal grade. Such improvements not 



164 TRACK. 

only facilitate the traffic and ensure safety, but also reduce the expenses for 
maintaining crossings, switches, derails, interlocking plant, etc. 

In the building of new railways there should be some legislative re- 
striction upon the right to cross existing railways at grade, thereby inter- 
fering with the traffic of the latter and conferring upon it no corresponding 
benefit. The permission of the Railway Commissioners (or similar au- 
thority) should be required in each and every case, and should only be 
granted when the impracticability of separating the grades (or other good 
reason) can be proved. Unprotected crossings should only be permitted in 
exceptional cases, and the new railway might well be required to pay the 
entire cost of the construction and equipment of the crossing, including 
signals, interlocking plant, etc., subject to the approval of the existing line; 
and to pay also the expenses of watchmen, signalmen, and maintenance of 
plant. With such requirements, greater care would be taken to avoid such 
crossings, and there are comparatively few -cases where they could not be 
economically avoided without much additional expense, especially if the 
continued expense for their operation and maintenance is taken into ac- 
count. In some States (including New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Indiana, 
Ohio and Illinois), there are laws in regard to the avoidance and protec- 
tion of grade crossings, of electric and steam railways as well as of steam 
railways alone. 

The increased weight, speed and momentum of electric cars, and the 
numerous accidents and narrow escapes at crossings, have made it evident 
that the grade crossing of a steam and electric railway should be as effi- 
ciently protected as a crossing of two steam railways, and should be under 
the same state regulations. This is specially important in view of the 
great development of suburban and country lines of electric railway, on 
which cars run at high speeds, and the action taken by some States is much 
to be commended in putting a check upon this multiplication of dangerous 
grade crossings, and requiring over or under crossings to be made, or at 
least putting facilities in the way of providing such a separation of grades 
by permitting the condemnation and purchase of land for the diversion of 
an electric railway to avoid a grade crossing. Grade crossings of this kind 
call for more careful watching than grade crossings of steam railways and 
are really more dangerous, as the steam road claims the right of way, and 
the movement of cars on an electric road is liable to derangement without 
notice or apparent cause. Cases are numerous in which electric cars have 
in some way been deprived of power while passing over grade crossings. 
Interlocking plants may be used, it is true, but cannot ensure absolute safe- 
ty, while they involve continual expense for maintenance, and their use 
may in some cases be almost impracticable, as when the electric line t crosses 
switching tracks or a yard. In the construction of some electric railways 
intended for high speed service, considerable expenditures have been in- 
curred in building diversions or viaducts purposely to avoid crossing steam 
railways at grade. This matter was discussed very fully in "Engineering 
News," May 18, 1899. 

The construction of the crossing frogs has already been described, and it 
is, perhaps, best to rivet them to base plates, particularly where they carry 
heavy traffic, but the riveting must be good and substantial work or the 
rivets will work loose and the frogs will clatter. The rails and frogs may be 



BRIDGE FLOORS AiND GRADE CROSSINGS. 



165 



supported in either of three ways: (1) By ordinary ties placed at such angles 
as to afford the best support of all the rails; (2) Upon long switch ties 
or timbers; (3) By framed timbers which are halved together under the 
crossing frogs and give a continuous bearing to each rail. Where ties are 
used at a right-angled crossing they are usually laid at an angle of about 




Fig. 96.— Track Crossing Laid on Ties and Long Timbers. 



45°, but the arrangement cannot be anything but unsightly, and is inferior 
to the second plan. The third plan is the most substantial, especially for 
angles of nearly 90°, and it affords the best resistance to lateral shifting or 
creeping of the crossing. Where a main line crosses a minor line at right 
angles, one track may have a longitudinal timber about 6 x 10 ins. or 10 x 
12 ins., 12 to 14 ft. long under each rail, while the other track has ordinary 
ties. Tie-plates should be placed on the longitudinal timbers. 

The Chicago & Eastern Illinois Ry. uses ties and long timbers 8 x 10 ins., 
10 ins. apart, for crossings of less than 75°, as shown in Fig. 96, and uses 



jyvw 




Fig. 97. — Track Crossing Laid on Framed Timbers. 



framed timbers for other angles. The Chicago, Burlington & Quincy 
Ry. usually employs sawed ties, except at right-angle crossings, where 
framed timbers are used, as shown in Fig. 97. The New York, New Haven 
& Hartford Ry. uses frame timbers in all cases, but many roads use switch 
ties (about 7x9 ins., 8 ins. apart) for all crossings up to 80°. The earth 



166 TRACK. 

and old material should be dug out and replaced with broken stone or clean 
gravel to a depth of 12 ins. on banks, and even deeper in cuts where the 
drainage is bad, while tile drains are sometimes laid. It is very important 
to have a thoroughly good foundation at the crossing. 

All important crossings should be equipped with interlocking plant for 
home and distant signals and derailing switches, but local conditions must 
govern the application of these switches, as in some cases they may be very 
dangerous. Every interlocking plant should have both home and distant 
signals. If an engineman finds the distant signal clear he knows he has; 
the right of way over the crossing, but if he finds it against him he slows 
down and runs under control, expecting to be stopped by the home signal. 
The derailing switch should be not less than 300 ft. from the crossing on 
level track, and in Illinois the distance is now required to be at least 400 ft., 
on account of the increase in weight and speed of trains. On a double track 
line there should be a "backup" derail, 150 to 300 ft. beyond the crossing. 
The home signal may be 150 to 200 ft. from the crossing, and the distant 
signal 1,200 to 2,000 ft. from the home signal. The location of the signal and 
derails will depend upon the speed of trains, grades, etc., but the distant 
signal should be so far back as to give room for a fast train to be stopped 
before reaching the home signal, while the derail should be just beyond the 
home signal, but so far back that a derailed train will not be likely to reach 
the crossing. The derail may open to a short curved spur ending in a sand 
bank, so "as to turn the train away from the crossing. It should be dis- 
tinctly understood by all enginemen that the towerman is the man in au- 
thority at the crossing and can give the right of way to which train he 
pleases (subject to the general instructions given him), and the engineman 
has simply to look out for the signals and obey them implicitly. 

Crossings of small country lines with little traffic are often left entirely 
unprotected, except by "slow boards" or signs. If near a station, there may 
be a gate or horizontal bar swinging around a vertical post, and having a 
target or lamp on it; one or other of the tracks being always blocked. Lift- 
ing gates, as used at road crossings, are also used in some cases, being so 
interlocked, that only one road can be cleared at a time. The protection of 
crossings of steam and electric railway's has already been discussed. A 
simple interlocking system for grade crossings of main lines by smaller 
lines or electric railways, consists in equipping the less important track 
with derailing switches standing normally open, these derails being inter- 
locked with the signals of the main track. In a system of this kind at a 
crossing of the St. Louis, Keokuk & Northwestern Ry. by a small single 
track line, the latter track is fitted with derailing switches, which must be 
held closed by a trainman to allow the train to reach the crossing. When 
a train on either main track reaches a point half a mile ahead of the HalT 
automatic signal governing the block in which the crossing is located, it 
causes an indicator to be displayed at the derailing switches, giving warn- 
ing of the approach of a train having the right of way. If the train on the 
single track finds that no main track train is approaching the trainman 
closes the derailing switch, and thereby sets the main track block signals 
at danger, thus showing that the crossing is occupied. (See also Chapter 
14.) 



TRACK SIGNS. 167 



CHAPTER 10.— TRACK SIGNS. 

Various marking and warning signs are required along a line of railway, 
to indicate distances, boundaries, special points, danger points, etc., for the 
guidance of trackmen, enginemen, property agents, etc. In the case of re- 
organization or general improvement of railways, and the purchase or 
building of new lines, it is often necessary to establish a system of signs, or 
to reduce a heterogeneous variety of styles to some standard of uniformity. 
It will be appropriate, therefore, to give some consideration to the design 
and general practice in regard to track signs. The signs should be strong 
and durable, simple in design, economical in construction, free from orna- 
mental molding or painting, of as few different styles as practicable, and 
designed specially with a view to being permanent, conspicuous and easily 
recognized. The signs which are for the guidance of enginemen should be 
set at a uniform distance from the rail, the length of post therefore vary- 
ing on cuts and banks, but this cannot be universally observed. Mile posts, 
for instance, are often placed on the right of way, beyond the toe of the 
bank, instead of on the slope. These signs should be on the engineman's 
side (right-hand side) of the track, except where sidetracks or buildings 
interfere. They should never be less than 6 ft. clear from the nearest rail, 
and 8 ft. is a better distance, some roads specifying 6 ft. 6 ins. on embank- 
ments and 8 ft. in cuts. 

The signs may be either simple posts, or posts carrying boards of 
various sizes. On many roads, posts of different sizes and shapes are used 
for a variety of purposes, and these signs have the advantages of sim- 
plicity and low cost, but they do not allow of as much lettering as is 
sometimes required; besides which they are not conspicuous enough for 
some of the most important signs. Boards or flat signs may be of wood, 
cast iron or sheet iron, the latter being sometimes enameled instead of 
painted. Wooden board signs are usually of 1-in. plank, and if of large 
size they should have battens about 1x3 ins. screwed to the back. Iron 
straps o'r wooden strips may be nailed to the ends of the board, but the, 
use of molding strips as a frame is not to be recommended. The boards are 
generally nailed, screwed or bolted to the post, and are sometimes let into 
it, but this latter practice involves extra work. For a large board a strap 
or brace of wrought iron, y 2 x 1 in., may be used, passing over the back of 
the post and having its ends secured to the ends of the board by %-in. car- 
riage bolts. Cast iron plates with raised letters or figures, are quite fre- 
quently used, being screwed to the posts. Small ones may be %-in. thick, 
with rim and letters %-in. thick, while large ones may be %.-in., and 1-in. 
thick. Cast iron posts with fiat disk tops are very liable to be broken and 
cannot be repaired. A simple, cheap and effective sign has targets of heavy 
sheet iron fastened to posts of angle or tee iron or old boiler tubes, set in a 
base of concrete, sewer pipe, or burnt clay. Scrap material of little value 
can often be utilized to advantage in this way. Old rails are sometimes 
used for posts, depending upon their value as scrap. Stone, in the form of 



168 TRACK. 

pests or slabs, is sometimes used for mile posts, but rarely for any other 
signs. 

The posts should be set not less than 3 ft. deep in the ground, 
and deeper if the sign is high or the board large. The lower end should be 
coated with pitch or creosote to about 12 ins. above the ground line. The 
top should be cut pointed, slanting or rounded, so as to shed water, and 
sometimes a piece of thin sheet iron is nailed upon the rounded top, but 
this is rarely necessary. Cast-iron caps are objectionable; they serve no 
useful purpose, and are liable to become loose and fall or be knocked off, 
being then often broken, stolen or lost. Broken stone or small field stone 
piled around the base of the post looks neat, protects the post from burning 
grass, and tends to keep weeds from growing. The edges of square posts 
may be chamfered, but no other decoration or trimming should be at- 
tempted. 

There should be as little lettering as possible, and the letters or figures 
should be large, clear and plain. If much lettering is required, it is a good 
plan to have letters of malleable iron, about Y^-in. thick, screwed to the 
post, so that an ordinary track laborer can renew and repaint them. Oth- 
erwise a regular painter may have to be detailed to this work. Where a 
word is placed vertically (and this is a poor practice as a rule), it should 
read downwards if the individual letters are upright and upward if they 
are sideways. Caution boards with long worded warnings in small letters 
are of little practical use. They may serve to meet legal requirements in 
some cases, but nobody will stop to read them. 

As to color, plain black letters and figures on a white ground is the most 
common practice, and is most conspicuous, but sometimes the lettering is 
white, on a black or blue ground. Two colors are usually sufficient for 
ordinary signs, but in some cases a third color is desirable for the back of 
signs, to render them inconspicuous. The third color may for the same 
reason be used for boundary and other signs which are not for the infor- 
mation of enginemen. Red and green, with white lettering, should be used 
for stop and slow signs respectively. White is in general the most striking 
color and should be liberally used. It is also the best color for signal posts, 
as the brown and dull ochre colors sometimes used are less distinct and 
tend to "kill" the brightness of the color of the signal blades. On the 
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry., a brown mineral paint is used, except 
that where letters or figures are to be marked, the face is white with black 
border and lettering. The Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Ry. paints mile 
and section posts white, all other posts mineral red, boards white with 
black block lettering. Posts should be painted with coal tar to 6 ins. above 
the ground line. On the New York Central Ry., all signs are painted twice 
a year, in April and October. 

The signs used vary on different roads, but the principal ones are noted 
below. Besides these, there are such signs as "Shut this Gate," for farm 
crossing gates; "Keep off the Track," at bridges and streets where people 
are likely to trespass; "Derailing Switch in this Siding," placed at the head- 
blocks of sidings so equipped; and miscellaneous temporary or movable 
signs such as "Clean Ashpans Here," "Dump Ashes Here," etc. 

Block Section Limit Signs. — With automatic block signals, the Cincinnati, 
New Orleans & Texas Pacific Ry. places a triangular sign 150 ft. in advance 



TRACK SIGNS. 



169 



of the signal and 9 ft. from the rail. The triangle is 3 ft. high, with its top 
10 ft. above the rail. It is painted black, with white letters. 

Boundary Posts.— The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. marks its cross- 
ings of State lines by a rather elaborate sign, Fig. 100. It is of oak, set 13 
ft. from the rail and facing the track. County and township lines and city 
limits may be marked by round posts with faces flattened for the lettering, 
as in Fig. 101, which is that of the Pennsylvania Lines. Board signs are 
less frequently used. 

Bridge Signs. — Bridges, trestles and large openings are usually num- 
bered, for convenience of reference in regard to repair, etc. The number- 




aHRk " 




Fig. 101. 



•Z"A 



Fiq.100. 




FigJEE. 



Track Signs. 



ing should include every opening and waterway, however small, and where 
additional openings are afterwards provided, fractional numbers may be 
used. The structures or openings may be numbered consecutively from di- 
visional points or by miles and letters, as 250A, 250B, etc.; indicating the 
first and second bridges beyond milepost 250. The numbers may be on 
iron plates or wooden boards; attached to the portals of through bridges, 
or to posts or %-in. iron rods, 4 ft. 6 ins. long, on the abutments of deck 
bridges or trestles. In some cases a wooden block of triangular section is 
spiked on top of the end of a tie, having the number marked on the inclined 



170 TRACK. 

face towards the abutment. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. uses for 
pile and trestle bridges a plank 2 x 12 ins., 4 ft. long, spiked to the side of a 
tie, while for Howe truss bridges it uses a plate of %-in. boiler iron, 10 x 30 
ins., with four %-in. holes. The plank is painted brown, and the plate 
black, with a white panel and black figures. 

Clearance Posts. — These are to indicate the nearest point at which the 
end of a car on the turnout may stand without fouling cars on the main 
track, this point being where the tracks are 7 ft. apart in the clear, or 13 
ft. c. to c. They are usually square oak stakes, about 4x4 ins., 2% to 4 ft. 
long, with 6 to 24 ins. above ground. The post of the Baltimore & Ohio Ry. 
is shown in Fig. 102. They are usually placed between the tracks, and as 
they are liable to be stumbled over by switchmen and yardmen they should 
be made clearly distinguishable, being painted white, with a flat or rounded 
black top. The Canadian Pacific Ry. uses a tall post with a black cross arm 
having two white disks, and places this sign on the turnout side of the 
track. 

Crossing Signs (Highway). — These signs are erected at grade crossings 
to warn people to look out for trains. In some states the style and lettering 
are specified by law. Whether above or at the side of the road, the sign 
should be so placed as to be conspicuously visible to persons approaching 
the track, but at the same time clear of such bulky traffic as wagon loads 
of hay, etc. A gong, or other automatic signal, may be attached to a post 
at the crossing, as already noted. The Pennsylvania Ry. uses large oval 
boards, on posts, with white letters on a black ground. Three very com- 
mon styles are as follows: (1) A horizontal board; (2) two boards crossed 
at 45° to form an X; (3) four boards framed together in diamond form. 
The crossing signs of the Baltimore & Ohio Ry. and the Lake Shore & 
Michigan Southern Ry. are shown in Figs. 103 and 104, the latter havicg 
a post built up of planks. The posts should be of oak or cedar, and tli e 
boards of 1% to 2-in. pine, 12 to 20 ins. wide. They should be set 10 to 15 ft. 
from the rail. 

Crossing Signs (Railway). — These are to warn enginemen approaching a 
grade crossing. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. uses a high post 
carrying two boards, forming an X, facing the train, and lettered "Railway 
Crossing," while on the post is lettered the distance to the crossing, 2,600 
ft. The Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Ry. uses a 12-ft. post and a board 
2 x 6 ft. set half a mile from the crossing. In some cases an additional 
sign reading "Stop, Railway Crossing, 200 Feet," is used. At crossings pro- 
tected by interlocking plant this "stop" sign is not used, but the regular 
sign may be lettered "Look Out for Signals," as in that of the Southern 
Pacific Ry., Fig. 105. 

Curve Signs. — On lines (or divisions) with numerous curves, it is a good 
plan to number and mark the curves for convenience in directing the at- 
tention of trackmen or enginemen to any particular point. The degree of 
curve may be marked on the sign for the guidance of trackmen in giving 
the proper superelevation and in bending rails for renewals, as well as for 
the guidance of enginemen in handling the brakes. The Erie Ry. uses a 
small white board on a stake, close to the ground. The Buffalo, Rochester 
& Pittsburg Ry. uses boards 12 x 18 ins., attached to the telegraph poles at 
each end of the curve. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. uses a post, 



TRACK SIGNS. 



171 



Fig. 106, lettered on the sides facing the trains. It is set on the right of the 
track (in the direction in which the miles are numbered), being placed op- 
posite the point of curve and 2 ft. from the rail. Roads using transition 
curves, set posts at the point of main curve and point of spiral curve. 
These resemble clearance posts, and the latter has the superelevation 
marked upon it. The curve elevation post of the Pennsylvania Lines, Fig. 
107, is set 6 ft. from the rail; it is white with black letters. 



M*? 



ONE MILE TO / 

RAIL ROAD CROSSINGS 

LOOK OUT FOR SIGNALS. \ 




Fig. 110. 



Rg. III. 



Fig. 109. 



Fig. 117. 



Track Signs. 



Drawbridge Signs. — The Southern Pacific Ry. uses three oval signs, 27 x 
42 ins., in advance of the bridge. All are made of 3-in. plank on posts 6x6 
ins., 16 ft. long, set 4 ft. in the ground. The signs are lettered "Draw 
Bridge" at top and bottom, with "1 Mile," "1000 Ft." and "Stop," respec- 
tively, in large letters in the middle. A similar arrangement is used for 
railway crossings. 



172 TRACK. 

Flanger Signs. — These are to indicate where the blades of snow plows 
and flangers are to be raised to clear switches, etc. The Northern Pacific 
Ry. uses a black board, 12 x 24 ins., ly 2 ins. thick, let flush into a white post, 
6x6 ins., with the top 8 ft. from the rail. The board is not lettered. This 
sign is for temporary use only, and is placed 8 ft. from the track, on the 
right-hand side, and 50 ft. in advance of the obstruction. Other roads use 
black with white disks, or yellow with black disks. On the Boston & Maine 
Ry., the signs are taken down in April and stored in the section tool houses. 
In November, the section foremen are. notified to have them painted and 
erected. 

Junction Signs. — The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. puts up signs 
2,600 ft. from junctions, these being identical in style with its railway 
crossing signs above described, but lettered "Railway Junction." 

Mile Posts. — These are commonly timber posts, about 10 x 10 ins., 8 ft. 
long, set 3 ft. 6 ins. in the ground and 12 ft. from center of track. The mile 
post of the Baltimore & Ohio Ry., Fig. 108, is of this style. The post 
is set either with one side or one edge towards the track, and may have the 
distance from (and the name or initial of) one or both of the terminal 
points painted on opposite sides. In some cases, where cheapness is spe- 
cially desirable, small board signs may be nailed to the telegraph poles. The 
Northern Pacific Ry. sign, Fig. 109, is a post of barked cedar, set on the 
north side of the track, 8 ft. from the rail. Two boards, 2 x 12 x 16 ins. are 
let into the post at an angle of 60°, and have the names of the terminals of 
the division maked upon them, with the distances therefrom. The post and 
board are painted white, with black letters 3% ins. high and %-in. thick, 
and figures % x 5 ins., with a margin of at least 1 in. The Atchison, Topeka 
& Santa Fe Ry. uses a plate of %-in. boiler iron, 10 x 18 ins., secured to the 
telegraph pole nearest to the exact distance by means of two lag screws 
y 2 a 3 ins. 

Stone mile posts are used by several railways. The Boston & Albany 
Ry. has square granite posts, Fig. 110, with two sides dressed down 3 ft. 
from the top, and pene-hammered. The cost, with one letter and three fig- 
ures cut on each dressed side, is about $5 per post. The Lake Shore & 
Michigan Southern Ry. uses 10 ft. posts, Fig. 111. The Maine Central Ry. 
uses a rough dressed stone slab, 12 ft. long, 20 ins. wide and 8 ins. thick, 
set 4 ft. in the ground. It has 30 ins. at the top dressed smooth, and painted 
with three coats of white lead, with black lettering. The post is lettered on 
both sides, thus: "249 Miles to Vanceboro" on one side, and "2 Miles to 
Portland" on the other. The Ohio Division of the Erie Ry. uses flat 
stone slabs, with the letters cut into them. The slabs are set edgewise to 
the track and are painted white, with the letters and lower part black. Sim- 
ilar slabs, but of smaller size and less height, are used for half-mile and 
quarter-miie marks, but the use of such intermediate posts is not common 
in this country. 

Premium Signs. — On roads having annual awards for condition of track, 
a sign is sometimes placed on the best section. A black board with "Pre- 
mium Section" in gilt or yellow letters is a conspicuous sign for this pur- 
pose and may be erected on the section house or on posts at the section 
house or at a station on the section. There is no doubt that the men feel 



TRACK SIGNS. 



173 



proud of such a trophy, and will work hard to prevent another section gang 
from winning it away from them. 

Property Post. — The marking of property lines or right of way boun- 
daries should be done very carefully, and permanent monuments should be 
established. The Baltimore & Ohio Ry. uses a piece of rail, with the web 
split for about 6 ins., and the head and base bent out to form an inverted T, 
as shown in Fig. 112. The top projects about 6 ins. above the ground. The 
Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Ry. uses one of the best monuments that 
has come to the writer's notice for marking important land corners, etc. 



r^hf 




Plan. 

Fig. 113.— Property Monument; Lake Shore & 
Michigan Southern Ry. 



YARD 
LIMIT 




<Black 
Stripe 



>?f<. 



■ '". 




!„ ■ ■ 




*<■ 


% 


£ 








\:$> 


d) 














=5 




t ' 




■fi® 


& 


■, 









Sleeper 



Ij. P 



Fig. 123. 



-Yard Limit Sign; Main* 
Central Ry. 



It is a cast-iron post, Fig. 113, with the section of a cross, and having a top. 
cap 2 ins. square and a circular base. In the center of the cap is a 34-im 
hole, %-in. deep. All corners or angles in the boundaries of station grounds, 
etc., should be marked by posts, and if these cannot be set at the corners 
they should be set in the lines running thereto and have the distance plainly 
painted on the side facing the corner to be marked. These posts may be 8 
ft. long, rough below ground, and 5 ins. square for the 3 ft. above ground. 
The Cincinnati, New Orleans & Texas Pacific Ry. uses pieces of old tele- 
graph poles, 7 ft. long (3 ft. in the ground), placed at every corner and 500 



174 



TRACK. 



ft. apart along the right of way line. They are painted white and lettered 
"Ry. Co. Right of Way," at the top. 

Rail Signs.— On the same road, the make of rail and date of laying are in- 
dicated on a 12-in. disk set in the slot of a post, 2 ft. above the ground, 10 
ft. from the center of the track. This is all black, with white letters. Other 
roads use stakes or small posts for a similar purpose. 

Section Posts.— These mark the limits of track sections, and should be 
smaller and less conspicuous than signs to be observed by trainmen. On 
the Pennsylvania Lines West of Pittsburg, an oval iron sign, 10y 2 x 20% 
ins., is used, being secured by two bolts to the top of a post 4% ins. square, 
Fig. 114. The plate has two panels sunk %-in., with raised figures flush 




I-: 



4x8'- 



-i 




Front Elevation. Side Elevation. 

Fig'.. 104. 

Track Signs. 





Fig. 103. 



with the surface of the plate. The panels are white; figures and face of 
post, black; post and back of casting, white; it is set 7 ft. from the rail. The 
Southern Pacific Ry. uses iron signs of the style shown in Fig. 115, having 
a target of old sheet iron, 10 ins. deep, bent to form two faces 10 x 12 ins. at 
right angles to each other, one of these facing the track. At its corner the 
target is fastened to the top of an old boiler tube by three rivets. The 
Northern Pacific Ry. uses a 1-in. board, 24 x 13 ins., with a frame % x 2 ins., 
and nailed to a post 6x4 ins., 7 ft. long, set 3 ft. in the ground. The At- 
chison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. uses only an oak post 2x6 ins., 5 ft. long, 
set edgeways to the track, 6 ft. from the rail, with the section numbers 
painted on opposite sides. 



TRACK SIGNS. 175 

Sidetrack Limit Sign. — On long sidetracks, for use by two trains, a square 
post like a mile post, but without figures, is placed to mark the middle of 
the sidetrack, for the guidance of enginemen. 

Slow and Stop Signs. — These are used at the approaches to track cross- 
ings at grade, drawbridges, etc., and should be painted green and red, re- 
spectively, and lettered- in white. They are usually either flat posts about 
3 x 12 ins., or large boards on posts. Sometimes the boards are only 4 ft. 
above the ground, but a greater height is preferable. On the Pennsylvania 
Lines West of Pittsburg, these signs are made to conform to the standard 
position of signals. Thus, one has ''Slow" in white letters on an inclined 
green arm; and the other (Fig. 116) has "Stop" in white letters on a hor- 
izontal red arm. The arms are 8 ins. wide, with 6-in. letters, and point to 
the right of the track. The posts carry switch lamps with green or red 
glasses. These signs are used where all trains must be under control, or 
come to a stop, the "Slow" sign being set 2,000 ft. from the danger point, 
while track crossings have the "Stop" signs at a distance of 300 ft. in each 
direction. Where only freight trains are required to be under control, a 
post 3 x 10 ins. is used, 6 ft. high above ground, painted green, with "F. S." 
in 8-in. white letters. The "Slow" board of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa 
Fe Ry. is shown in Fig. 117, and the "Stop" post of the Baltimore & Ohio 
Ry. in Fig. 118. 

Station Signs. — A sign is usually placed one mile from each station, and 
whistle posts are also usually placed half a mile from the station, directing 
the engineman to whistle for the station. The distance should be measured 
from the outer switch of the station yard, or from the yard limits. A com- 
mon style is that of the Northern Pacific Ry., Fig. 119, which is set 10 ft. 
from the rail. The board is 10 x 10 ins., 1-in. thick, with a frame 1x3 ins., 
and a 1-in. molding strip. The post and board are white, with black letters, 
frame and molding. The letters and figures are 5 ins. high, ly 2 ins. thick, 
with a 2-in. margin, and 3y 2 ins. between lines. 

Station Name Boards. — These should be large, boldly lettered, and con- 
spicuously placed. No advertising signs should be placed near them, and 
no advertising signs of similar style should be allowed. They are fre- 
quently placed so that at night (or even by day) they cannot be seen from 
the cars, as, for instance, when they are placed on the eaves of the platform 
roof. They should be set back from the track, and have lamps specially 
placed to illuminate them, while it is also a good plan to have glass name 
slips in the windows of the agent's office, waiting room, etc. The sign 
should be not less than 18 ins. wide, the length varying with the name to 
be painted on it. The distances to the terminals or divisional points may be 
painted on each end of the board, before and after the name. White or yel- 
low block letters on a black or dark blue ground are very prominent. Fig. 
120 shows the station sign of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry., which 
is attached to the side of the building facing the track, with the bottom 8 
ft. above the platform wherever practicable. Where there is no station 
building, the sign is bolted to two posts, 6x6 ins., 15 ft. long. The board is 
12 ins. wide and %-in. thick, with frame boards iy 8 x 2y 2 ins: It is an ex- 
cellent plan to make the name of the station in large clear letters of white 
stones, shells, flowers, etc., on a turfed strip or a leveled surface of cin- 
ders just beyond the platforms. 



176 TRACK. 

Water Tank Signs. — At stations having water tanks for the engines, 
the words "Water Tank" may he painted on the one-mile station sign, 
while for tanks between stations a special board sign with "Water Tank, 
One Mile" (or "y 2 Mile"), may be put up. The ends of track tanks are usu- 
ally marked by green targets, mounted on iron rods, which also carry green 
switch lamps at night. This is to indicate to firemen when to lower and 
raise the tender scoop, the latter signal being placed about 100 ft. from the 
end of the tank. 

Whistle and Ring Signs. — These are usually set ^-mile on each side of 
the road crossings a'nd %-mile or 1 mile from stations, placed on the en- 
gineman's side of the track. They may be flat posts, 10 x 4 ins., set with the 
edge to the track and having the top cut to a point or rounded. Fig. 121 
shows the Baltimore & Ohio Ry. post. Square posts, 8x8 ins., are 
also used. The length is from 8 to 12 ft, with 5 to 8 ft. above ground, the 
higher ones being used where deep snows occur. The posts are usually 
white, with a large black R or W (or both) Qy 2 ins. high, the sides and back 
being sometimes painted light blue, so as not to be conspicuous. In some 
cases the face is cobalt blue with white letters, or brown with a white panel 



Denver 476 Mies JfT T TlTWnn'n 

El Paso897 Miles \ j& Is JL i H W UU JLJ 


' Atchison 260 Miles 1 
l Kansas City275 Miles J 



Top. Bottom, Ends & Back, Brown, 

Fig. 120. 

Fig. 120.— Station Name Board; Atchison, To.peka & Santa Fe Ry. 

and black letters. A simple sign, made from scrap, is that used by the 
Southern Pacific Ry. for road crossing whistle signs, Fig. 122. It is painted 
white, with black letters. The X on this sign is to indicate that it is a 
crossing sign, and some roads put "S. W." on the station whistle posts. For 
a post 10 or 12 ins. wide, the letters should be about 9 ins. high and 
8 ins. wide, with lines ly 2 ins. thick; plain block letters should be used. 
"Whistle and Ring" signs (lettered W. R.) are used at places where it is 
necessary to give warning to track and bridge men of the approach of 
trains; these should be 1,000 ft. distant from the point to be warned. 

Yard Limit Signs. — These denote the limits covered by the yard gangs, 
and to which switching engines work. All trains (except those of the first 
class) are usually required to stop at them before entering the yard, un- 
less the track is plainly seen to be clear (see Chapter 12). The Chicago, 
Burlington & Quincy Ry. uses a board 24 x 38 ins., on its standard post, with 
the name of the station: 'Aurora; Yard Limit." On the Penn- 
sylvania Lines West of Pittsburg, is used an oval cast-iron sign, SSy 2 x 20 
ins., 4 ft. 6 ins. above the ties; it is painted green, with white letters. The 
Maine Central Ry. sign is shown in Fig. 123. 



TRACK ACCESSORIES. 177 



CHAPTER 11.— WATER AND COALING STATIONS AND OTHER 
TRACK ACCESSORIES. 
Tanks and Water Supply. 

The construction and maintenance of these structures and of all fittings 
pertaining to water supply frequently come more or less under the charge 
of the track department, and may be considered here. The quality of the 
supply is a very important matter, affecting the life of the boilers and the 
steaming capacity of the engines, and, therefore, the expense of operating 
and maintaining the motive power. It is rarely given much thought in lo- 
cation, however, the only consideration then being to get water, regardless 
of quality. Good boiler water is rather exceptional, and if it is not ob- 
tainable from natural sources then chemical treatment should be adopted, 
the water being treated before it is delivered to the engines. The princi- 
pal trouble is hardness of the water, with scale-producing properties. The 
character of the water varies so much that each supply must be tested and 
the proper treatment prescribed, some simple means being adopted by 
which the proper proportions of chemicals can be used by the man in 
charge of the station. Heating the water in the station tank by a steam 
coil will cause the water to throw down much of the matter held in solu- 
tion. Sedimentation and filtration may also be required for dirty water. 
The treatment (chemical or mechanical) need not involve much expense, 
and will effect great economy in reducing the cleaning and repairing of lo- 
comotive boilers, and increasing their life. A report on this subject is con- 
tained in the Proceedings of the American Railway Master-Mechanics As- 
sociation, 1899. Several roads employ soda-ash (carbonate of soda) 
and lime water, mixed with the water in an auxiliary tank, and then added 
to the supply in the main tank. The Baltimore & Ohio Ry. has employed 
soda-ash (carbonate of soda) to neutralize the acids in the water. The so- 
lution is placed in a small tank connected with the supply pipe to the main 
tank, the quantity of soda-ash being varied according to the depth of water 
in the main tank. The Union Pacific Ry. has used tri-sodium phosphate 
for neutralizing sulphuric acid in the water. In some chemical plants 
there are two tanks, one above the other. The water is first pumped to 
the upper tank, passing through a chamber containing chemicals, and is 
there stirred mechanically. After settling, it passes to the lower tank, 
ready for the engines, and the upper tank is again filled. The character and 
amount of chemicals, and the cost of treatment, depend largely upon the 
the character of the water. In consequence of a bad local water supply, the 
Long Island Ry. established a pumping plant of 2,000,000 gallons daily 
capacity and a pipe line of 8% and 10-in. pipe to supply the tanks, etc., at 
Long Island City from wells 10 miles distant. Such a practice may some- 
times be adopted with advantage, the cost of establishing and maintaining 
the plant being more than offset by the reduction in engine expenses, etc., 
incident to the use of bad water. In districts where the supply is 
scarce and uncertain, improvements have been made by damming streams 



178 



TRACK. 



to form large reservoirs, thus ensuring a permanent and abundant supply 
and often a better quality of water, while in some cases it also does away 
with the necessity of hauling tank cars to supply the engines and stations. 




k — 6'/0"-—?t-:6'/0'% 



Half Elevation. Half .Section 

Fart Plan 



Floor Framing. 




_s$ TwofP/anka'\^ 
0* I* 



IkI 



\~-~6'/0"—>. 



iSfetf* 



Part Plan of Part Plan of 

Foundations. > Substructure. 

Fig. 124. — Water Tank for Supplying Locomotives. 



The most common form of tank is of wood, with vertical staves, bound by 
iron bands and supported on a masonry tower, or upon trestle towers of 
wood or steel. A very general size is 16 ft. high and 24 ft. diameter, with a 



TRACK ACCESSORIES. 179 

capacity of 50,000 gallons. Steel tanks are used to some extent, but for 
capacities up to 100,000 gallons wood is very generally considered to be 
more economical, being cheaper and more durable. Where steel is used, the 
tanks are sometimes in the form of standpipes, their construction being 
cheaper than elevated tanks on steel towers, and allowing ample space for 
sediment. On the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Ry. there are standpipes 
12 and 20 ft. diameter, 40 to 60 ft. high. Those on the Atchison, Topeka & 
Santa Fe Ry. are of the same heights, 24 ft. diameter, with capacities of 
96,000 and 202,000 gallons or 57,700 and 163,800 gallons above the outlet, the 
spout being 12 ft. above the rails. The level of water in the tank is shown 
by a float connected to a ball sliding on a staff above the tank or to a pointer 
moving on a vertical graduated scale fixed to the side. The supply pipe 
leading up the tower to the tank is usually boxed in as protection against 
freezing. A steam pipe may be led into this chamber, or a stove may be 
placed therein. During extremely cold weather the section foreman is of- 
ten called upon (through the roadmaster) to furnish a man to look after 
the water station. All the pumps, pipe connections, valves, tanks and other 
equipment, should be thoroughly examined at least once a year, and a 
special examination made before winter to see that all outdoor work is 
tight and properly protected against freezing. 

Where engines take water directly from the tank, a horizontal pipe from 
the bottom leads to a hinged spout which may be let down to enter the 
manhole of the tender, but is counterweighted to stand vertically. It is 
pulled down by a chain within reach of the fireman standing on the tender, 
who also operates the valve by means of a chain or lever, or it may be op- 
erated from a handwheel on a stand on the ground. This system of supply, 
with a wooden tank on a wooden tower, is shown in Fig. 124. When the 
tank cannot be placed close to the engine track, or where engines on sev- 
eral tracks have to be supplied, two tanks may be connected by a horizontal 
pipe crossing the tracks and having a hinged spout and valves over each 
track. The usual practice, however, is to place water columns or standpipes 
beside or between the tracks. The water column consists of a vertical sta- 
tionary pipe, with a horizontal swinging arm, which should be so mounted 
as to lie normally parallel with the track, its end being over a catch basin 
with grated top. The arm may be hinged so as to reach down to the ten- 
der, or it may have a leather hose or adjustable vertical spout on the end. 
The position of the column in relation to the track and catchbasin is shown 
in Fig. 125. Many water stations have too small a discharge so that fast 
trains are delayed unnecessarily in taking water. The standard plan of the 
Chicago & Northwestern Ry. is to use tanks 16 x 24 ft., on towers 16 ft. high, 
with a 14-in. main to a 12-in. water column. Tanks have been put 20 ft. 
high for supplying 10-in. and 12-in. standpipes and with the latter a dis- 
charge of 4,000 gallons per minute may be obtained, but care must be taken 
to avoid elbows in the pipes, as they greatly reduce the capacity. The Bal- 
timore & Ohio Ry. uses 50,000 gallon tanks, 20 ft. above the rail, with 8-in. 
mains supplying 8-in. columns (30 to 40 ft. distant), the discharge being 
about 1,200 gallons per minute. It is proposed, however, to, increase the 
size of main and standpipe to 12 ins. thus greatly increasing the discharge. 
The new water stations of the Chicago & Alton Ry. have 90,000-gallon tanks, 
20 ft. above the rail, with 14-in. mains and 12-in. water columns, having 



180 



TRACK. 



a discharge of no less than 5,000 gallons per minute. The Lake Shore & 
Michigan Southern Ry. supplies the water columns from tanks on 30-ft. 
wooden towers, the center of which is enclosed by a 12-in. brick wall to 
form a chamber for the pipes. At tanks and columns, provision must be 
made to prevent leakage, or in winter there may be an accumulation of ice 
over the rails which may perhaps cause a derailment. 

In the water column, which is shown in Fig. 126, the pipe is sup- 
ported by a high base casting, and is automatically latched when the 



Catch Basin 




Fig. 126.— Water Column. 



arm is parallel with the tracks. The latch may be locked by a switch lock. 
The spout has a joint of vulcanized rubber, except in large sizes, where the 
force of the water would make it difficult to hold the spout down in the 
manhole. The weight of the spout is carried by a wrought iron hinge, with 
counterbalance. The valve may be operated by a handwheel on the end 
of the spout, to prevent shutting off the water too suddenly. A relief valve 
may be provided where the pressure is heavy or an air cushion to absorb 



TRACK ACCESSORIES. 181 

the shock due to water hammer if the valve is closed too quickly. In the 
pipe shown in Fig. 126, the main valve is operated by the water pressure 
and not by hand. The piston in the hydraulic cylinder over the valve has 
an area considerably larger than that of the valve, and the flow of water 
to and from the cylinder is controlled by a slide valve operated from the 
lever on the end of the spout. The exhaust is controlled by a small stop 
cock which can be set to secure slow closing of the valve if required. 

The water supply may be delivered to the tanks by pumps driven by wind, 
gas or steam engines. Gasoline engines are in many cases preferable to and 
more economical than steam, as shown by reports presented at the meeting 
of the American Society of Railway Superintendents of Bridges and Build- 
ings in 1899. On the Chicago & Eastern Illinois Ry., the cost per 1,000 
gallons pumped at different stations ranged from 1.70 to 2.27 cts. with gas- 
oline engines, and 2.96 to 3.57 cts. with steam. The economy varies with 
the cost of coal, and is largely in the reduced labor for attendance. Wind- 
mills have wheels 8 to 30 ft. diameter, running at 54 to 26 revolutions per 
minute, and operating pumps of 2 x 4 ins. to 10 x 24 ins. The delivery per 
stroke is as follows: 

Ins. Gallons. Ins Gallons. Ins. Gallons. Ins. Gallons. 

2 x4 0.052 3 x6 0.178 4x 8 0.422 6x15 1.814 

2y 2 x5 0.102 3%x7 0.284 5x10 0.835 10x24 8.040 

The pumps for railway service usually have a stroke of 6 to 18 ins. With 
double acting pumps, the delivery will be doubled. The diameter of the 
pipes should be half that of the cylinders, or rather larger for double acting 
pumps. The capacity of some standard sizes of Knowles steam pumps for 
this class of work is as follows: 











Delivery 


, 


Pipe 


1 


, 


Cylinders > 


Delivery 


Strokes 


per 




Ex- 


De- 


Steam 


, Water, Stroke, 


per stroke, 


per 


minute 


Steam, 


haust, Suction, 


livery, 


ins. 


ins. ins. 


gallons. 


minute. 


gallons. 


ins. 


ins. ms. 


ms. 


6 


6 12 


1.47 


100 


147 


% 


1 4 


4 


6 


7 12 


2.00 


100 


200 


% 


1 5 


o 


7% 


iy 2 10 


1.91 


100 


191 


1 


1% 5 


5 


8 


7 12 


2.00 


100 


200 


1 


VA 5 


5 


8 


10 12 


4.08 


100 


408 


1 


1% 6 


6 


10 


12 12 


5.87 


100 


587 


1% 


1% 8 


6 



An automatic arrangement has been invented by Mr. McHenry, Chief 
Engineer of the Northern Pacific Ry., to do away with the pumping en- 
gines. At the bottom of a well is placed a closed tank of rather greater 
capacity than the average tender tank, and in this is a float or loose piston. 
From the bottom of the tank a pipe leads to the water column, which has 
no valves, while another pipe extends to a steam standpipe, from which 
connection is made to a pipe on the engine. When steam is turned on, the 
float is forced down, and forces the water through the pipe to the water col- 
umn and tender. 

Track Tanks. 

In order to enable trains to make long runs without stopping, means must 
be provided for supplying the engine tenders with water, and for this pur- 
pose track tanks are used, being shallow tanks laid upon the ties between 
the rails. A vertical pipe with its end terminating in an elbow is placed in 
the tender tank, and extends through the bottom, its lower end being fitted 
with an adjustable hinged "scoop," which is lowered about 3 ins. into the 
water while the engine is running over the tank. The speed of the engine 



182 



TRACK. 



forces the water up the pipe into the tender, and water can be taken at 60 
miles an hour. The scoop is operated by the fireman by means of a lever, 
and is counterbalanced against the water pressure. This system was in- 
vented in England by Mr. J. Ramsbottom in 1861. The purpose is mainly 
to save time, and the system is specially adapted for fast passenger and 
freight service, except in regions where permanent water supplies are few 
and far between. The track tanks are usually 25 to 30 miles apart, and are 
supplied by direct pumping or from elevated water tanks. 

The track tanks of the Michigan Central Ry., Fig. 127, are about 1,400 ft. 
long, 19 ins. wide and 7 ins. deep. They are of 3-16-in. steel, with a half- 
round 1%-in. stiffening bar along the upper edges, and an angle iron 1% x 
1% x 3-16-in. to support them on the ties, which are 8x8 ins., 8 ft. long, 
boxed out to fit the bottom of the tank. Water is supplied by a pipe enter- 
ing at the most convenient point through a box riveted to the bottom of the 
tank, from which it flows through a 5-in. orifice into the tank. 
Branch pipes to admit steam to prevent freezing in winter are placed 
about 40 ft. apart along the entire length of the tank, and the construction 
of the %-in. brass nozzle is such as to throw the jet of steam downward. 
With very cold weather, however, steam jets are not sufficient to prevent 
the formation of ice, and on the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry. a cir- 




Cross Section 



of Track 



^; am* /*** -^Si [ 



Cross Section, 
Enlarged 




Part Longitudinal Section. 
Fig. 127.— Track Tanks; Michigan Central Ry. 



culating system has been introduced. At the mid length of the tank a 5-in. 
pipe enters the bottom, and forms the suction pipe of a steam pump. From 
the pump the water is forced into an 8-in. return pipe, into which is led a 
1-in. steam pipe from the boiler. From the end of the return pipe two 3-in. 
pipes are laid parallel with and leading to each end of the tank, the water 
being discharged behind the inclined iron apron which raises the scoop in 
leaving the tank if the fireman has not raised it in time. The pipes are all 
laid in square boxes of 2-in. plank. This combination of heating and circu- 
lation has proved successful at 20° F. Men must be employed to clear the 
rails from ice formed by the spray and spilling of water. 

The Baltimore & Ohio Ry. in 1890, adopted a very fast schedule between 
Philadelphia and Baltimore (1 hour 47 minutes for 92 miles with heavy 
trains), and two track tanks were put in, dividing the distance into three 
sections of about 30 miles each. These tanks were planned and built under 
the direction of Mr. G. W. Andrews, Superintendent of Bridges and Build- 
ings. The troughs being 1,200 ft. long, it was necessary to make the track 
level for that distance, running off easily at each end to regular grade. This 
work was done by the regular track force. At Tank No. 1 it was necessary to 



TRACK ACCESSORIES. 183 

raise 17 ins. at one end, including a double-track through-truss bridge of 
115-ft. span. Tank No. 2 was on a bank, where grades of 0.2% formed a dip 
of about 4 ft. The grade having been leveled, the hewed ties were replaced 
with sawed ties of white oak, 8x9 ins., boxed 1% ins. x 19 ins. for the tanks, 
but some roads using high and heavy rails now lay the tanks on the face of 
the ties. The tanks are 6 ins. deep, 19 ins. wide, made of 3-16-in. steel 
sheets, 15 ft. long, with an angle iron ly 2 x l 1 /^ ins., riveted to each side, ly 2 
ins. from the bottom. These rest upon the ties and the tanks are fastened 
to the ties by ordinary track spikes, the heads of which catch on the angle 
iron. This allows the tanks to expand or contract, but they are fastened 
firmly at the centers. They were made in 30-ft. sections in the shop. In 
laying, each joint was red-leaded, and cold riveted with 0.7-in. rivets, 20 to 
the joint. At each end is placed an inclined plane, with a total length of 13 
ft. 8 ins.; the inner end of this is riveted to the bottom of the trough and 
the outer end fastened to the tie by means of rail spikes driven at the edge 
of the plate, with heads of spikes resting thereon, thus allowing for ex- 
pansion of the tiough. The object of this plane is to force the scoop on the 
tender of the locomotive up into position to clear the tank should the fire- 
man fail to raise it, thus preventing any damage either to scoop or tank. 

At Tank No. 1 it was necessary to construct a dam 6 ft. high and about 
75 ft. wide. From the reservoir the water is drawn through a 6-in. cast- 
iron pipe a distance of 600 ft. by means of a steam pump, and forced into a 
tank of 40,000 gaUons capacity, placed 28 ft. above the track. At Tank No. 
2, the supply flows ry gravity from a mill race about 600 ft. distant to a fil- 
tering well at the pump house, and from this it is forced by a steam pump 
into a tank of 50, 00(> gallons capacity, 28 ft. above the track. These tanks 
are circular, with hexagonal roofs, covered with slate. The staves and bot- 
tom are of 3-in. white pine, the whole bound with 11 hoops of iron 3-16 x 
4 ins. These tanks are always kept full, and from them the water is deliv- 
ered to the track troughs in the following manner. An 8-in. cast-iron pipe 
is connected to the elevated tanks, and run to a point at or near the pump, 
where it is reduced to 6 ins. At this point is placed a 6-in. gate valve. The 
supply pipe, running direct to the trough, branches off to three points by 
means of tees, reduced at the point of leaving the valve to Zy 2 ins. Two of 
the branches are connected to the troughs at points 200 ft. from the ends 
and the third is connected to the center of the trough. At the points of 
connection of the water-pipe to the trough there is built a pit the full width 
of the track, about 3 ft. wide and 3 ft. 6 ins. deep, with the side and enci< 
walls of masonry; the top is covered with 2-in. plank, and the bottom, 
drained to one side. Into these pits the pipe is run, and it is connected to, 
the trough by means of a 3%-in. pipe flange, nipple and metal expansion, 
joint. These expansion joints were made in 1890, and are still in good con- 
dition (1900). The only repairs required have been slight repairs to the. 
packing. Some roads have used a rubber hose in place of an expansion, 
joint. At this point is placed a 3%-in. globe valve for use in emptying the> 
troughs for cleaning or repairing. 

In order to keep the tanks free from ice during cold weather, a 2%-in. 
pipe is connected to the steam dome on the boiler in the pumping station, 
whence it is carried to the center of the tracks on double track, or to the 
ends of the ties on single track. There the pipe is reduced to 2 ins., and 



184 TRACK. 

run to a point 5 ft. from the end of the trough. On this pipe at intervals of 
45 ft. is placed a cross, from which a 1-in. pipe is carried to the troughs. 
This connection is made with a nipple of extra strong pipe, cut 3 ins. long, 
tapped out at one end and plugged with a %-in. hole, inclined downward. 
Immediately back of this nipple is placed a 1-in. check valve to prevent 
the back flow of water when steam is turned off. The 2-in. pipe in the cen- 
ter is drained from both ends with a drain cock placed at the lowest point. 
To prevent breakage through expansion or contraction, expansion joints 
were placed at intervals of 200 ft. All steam pipe should be boxed in and 
packed with mineral wool or covered with magnesia or asbestos pipe cov- 
ering, to reduce the condensation. The pressure of steam necessary to pre- 
vent freezing in the coldest weather was found to be about 80 lbs. During 
the warm months, when steam is needed for pumping only, an upright 
boiler of 25 HP. is used. During cold months, when it is necessary to have 
steam constantly in the troughs, an old locomotive boiler of about 80 HP. 
is used at each station. Each is, of course, connected to both it§ boilers. 
At these, as well as at all other water stations on the Philadelphia Division, 
a No. 9 Blake pump is used, with a capacity of 260 gallons per minute. This 
system of heating has been in use for ten years, and has been tested by ex- 
tremely cold weather, but none of the troughs have been frozen up. 

At the end of a trough nearest the approaching train is placed a signal 
similar to a high switch stand. This is to notify enginemen and firemen 
where to lower the scoop. At 100 ft. from the far end is placed a similar 
signal, at which point the fireman is supposed to raise the scoop, provid- 
ing he has not filled his tank before reaching that point. As already men- 
tioned, a 6-in. valve was placed in connection with the supply pipe at or 
near the pump house. Over these valves is built a small valve house, with 
its floor about on a level with the track. After an engine has taken water 
these valves are opened and water is allowed to run into the trough for 
from four to six minutes. When these tanks were first put in use there was 
considerable complaint that the troughs were often not more than two- 
thirds full. On investigation it was found that freight trains run- 
ning over the trough had thrown out considerable water by the current of 
air caused by the passage of the cars. The pumpmen were, therefore, in- 
structed to inspect the troughs five minutes before schedule time of trains; 
to see that they were properly filled; and to remain in the valve house 
from that time until after the train passed. The cost of these track tanks 
was as follows: 

No. 1. No. 2. 

Preparing roadbed $1,094 $? ,7 !?I 

Labor (placing trough, running pipe, etc.) 2,135 1 '9 4 ^ 

Trough (including all shop work).... 4,159 4,1 2~ 

Hauling 61 30 

Material (including ties, pipe fitting, pipe) 2,939 3,030 

Total $10,388 $11,535 

Labor includes all labor in the field except grading. Included in each 
cost is the running of 8-in. cast-iron pipe (75 ft. for No. land 600 ft. for No. 
2) and placing two water columns for the use of freight engines. The cost 
of operating each station per month is $132.50 (2 pump men at $45, $90; coal, 
15 tons, $22.50; ordinary repairs, $20). 



TRACK ACCESSORIES. 185 

Coaling Stations. 

Coal may be loaded onto the engine tenders in various ways, according to 
the location, the number of engines to be supplied, and the ideas of the of- 
ficers, but in any case the structures and apparatus are usually more or less 
under the care of the track department. The coal should be handled as 
little as possible and given as little of a direct drcp as possible, so as to 
avoid breakage of the coal and the expenses due to rehandling. 

The coal may be delivered into the tender by either one of four princi- 
pal methods: (1) Hand shoveling from a coal stage; (2) Buckets handled 
by a crane on the ground or on a coaling stage; (3) Dump cars running 
on a coaling stage beside or above the track; (4) Elevated chutes. These 
general plans admit of various combinations and modifications. The coal 
may be shoveled from gondola cars or dropped from hopper bottom cars 
onto the storage space on the ground or at the back of the coaling plat- 
form, and then either shoveled directly into the tender, or into buckets 
or cars which are wheeled to the crane or to the dumping track on the 
edge of the platform. For an important station the coal is usually stored 
in piles or bins and removed as required to the loading tracks by various 
forms of mechanical conveyors. On elevated or suburban lines using tank 
engines with small bunkers, a drop-bottom bucket is sometimes used, 
swung on the end of an arm operated by power. The bucket is not opened 
until it is swung down close over the bunker, so as to avoid dust and waste. 

The coaling station of the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis Ry., 
at Chicago, has a coaling stage or trestle 130 ft. long, with 46 ft. of straight 
track for unloading. The dump cars are of 5,000 lbs. capacity, 5 ft. long, 8 ft. 
10 ins. wide and 2 ft. 4 ins. deep, the back being over the inner wheels and 
the front projecting over the edge of the trestle. The body is pivoted over 
the. sill nearest the edge of the trestle, and is held by a hook or latch at each 
end, while a rod under the body operates an iron apron which is lowered au- 
tomatically as the car tips. This directs the coal properly into the tender, 
and avoids the use of fixed chutes or aprons on the platform. The cars are 
run from the loading place to an elevator at one end of the platform (on 
which they are weighed automatically while ascending), then pushed" by 
hand to the point where they are to be discharged, and then onto another 
elevator by which they are lowered to the ground, where a down-grade 
track carries them automatically to the loading place. 

Where coaling chutes are used, they may be on a bridge over several 
tracks or in the side of a shed with a coaling track on one or both sides. In 
some cases small cars are wheeled by hand from the coal pile and dumped 
at the chutes, but the better and more common plan is to have bins or 
coal pockets behind the chutes. These pockets may be filled directly from 
coal cars run into the coaling trestle (up an approach grade of 5 or 6%), 
but at large stations they are usually filled from the storage piles or bins 
by tubs running on a cableway or by a conveyor consisting of an endless 
chain with blades or scrapers running in a trough. Transverse troughs 
fitted with gates control the discharge into the various pockets. These 
pockets may have a capacity of 3 to 5 tons each, and should be charged 
with different quantities so as to deliver any desired quantity to the engine. 



186 



TRACK. 



In Fig. 128 is shown the construction of a coaling station fitted with the 
Burnett & Clifton chutes. The floor of the pocket is covered with No. 12 
sheet steel and is at an angle of about 35° with the horizontal for bitumin- 
ous coal, while anthracite will slide on a somewhat flatter angle. The door 
which retains the coal in the pocket is of oak, and is latched or unlatched by 
the movement of the apron. .This apron, which may be of wood or iron, 
serves to direct the stream of coal into the middle of the tender, and when 
not in use swings up to a vertical position, covering the door of the chute. 
The apron is pulled down by the fireman by means of a chain, and is bal- 
anced by arms which extend to the rear and carry an iron balance whose 
weight slightly exceeds that of the chute, so as to return it automatically 
to position when all the coal has run out. This avoids the use of chains 
and pulleys for counterweights. In the construction of a system of pock 




Crosi Se^'on . 

Fig. 128.— Coaling Station. 



Part Side Elevation. 



ets, strength, durability and reliability must be carefully looked after 
The rough handling, and the dirt and dust are likely to cause any compli- 
cated mechanism to get out of order, but it is necessary to have the open- 
ing and closing effected easily and quickly. 



Ashpits. 

A common arrangement where engine ashpans are cleaned, is to run the 
engine over a brick-lined pit, dump the ashes, and then shovel them up 
onto the ground and then into cars to be hauled aways. In some cases 
small cars or buckets run on a narrow gage track in the pit, and are han- 



TRACK ACCESSORIES. 



187 



died by a crane, the cars receiving the ashes as they drop from the engine. 
The shoveling of ashes -is unpleasant and expensive work, and should be re- 
duced as much as possible. If the engine track is raised or the cinder car 
track is depressed, so that the floor of the pit will be somewhat higher than 
the sides of the cars, the ashes will merely have to be shoveled to the side 
instead of being lifted. One side of such a pit can be left open and the floor 
inclined, so that the ashes can be shoveled readily into the car; or iron 
chutes may be provided, down which the cinders will fall direct from the 
engine to the car, a water jet being used to wash down the heavier parts. 
Conveyors may also be used where space is limited and the ashes from a 
large number of engines have to be handled. 

With narrow pits, the rails may rest on wooden stringers on the side 
walls. With wider pits, they may be carried on wooden or iron stringers 
resting on iron columns or brick piers. Two 15-in. I-beams, under each 
rail, bolted together and connected by tie-rods, make a substantial sup- 
port for the track, the span being about 15 to 20 ft. The rails may be at- 
tached by bolts, or keyed in iron chairs. The ironwork, brick walls (of 
narrow pits) and piers, and wooden stringers, should be protected from con- 
tact with hot ashes by sheet-iron coverings. The pit at the Burnside shops 
of the Illinois Central Ry., Fig. 129, is 80 ft. long. It has the outer rail car- 




3-:- ^~i^-^s::^zttjPj?JTt'^ 



26 ~* Ij.! ™ 



U^ 



K 3'4"~ -a k 3'4'-~* 

Fig. 129.— Ashpit; Illinois Central Ry. 



ried on a 12 x 16-in. oak timber on the side wall, protected by a channel iron 
with asbestos packing; and the inner rail is carried on a line of 12-in. I- 
beams supported by cast-iron pedestals 10 ft. apart. These beams are bolted 
through to the timbers by l^-in. rods, with 4^-in. sleeves. The floor is of 
firebrick and has an oak fender 8 x 13 ins. A pipe is laid on each side of the 
pit and provided with cocks to supply water for cooling the cinders and 
washing the pit. The pit at the Chicago (27th St.) yards of this road has a 
grated bottom covered by removable iron plates, with a spiral conveyor 
running below the grating. When the ashes are quenched, the plates are 
removed, and the ashes fall through to the conveyor. Pits 16 to 20 ins. deep, 
with rails on longitudinals, and having an iron lining for the bottom and 
sides, are sometimes used, particularly on elevated railways. 

Turntables and Transfer Tables. 



Turntables usually have a pair of fish-belly or parallel-chord deck gird- 
ers (cast or built up), though through and half-through girders are some- 
times used when a shallow pit is desired. The tables are 60 to 75 ft. long, 
built for engines and tender loads of 100 to 150 tons. New tables should 



188 TRACK. 

be long enough and strong enough to take the largest and heaviest engines, 
should be well braced to resist racking, and should- swing true and steady, 
it being borne in mind that they have heavy work to perform, and are of- 
ten roughly used and indifferently cared for. The bearings, wheels and 
track should be carefully looked after, especially in roundhouse tables, as 
any failure of such a table may tie up all the engines. When turned by 
hand, two men bearing against the levers ought to be able to operate them 
readily, but in some cases gearing operated by crank handles, or by pneu- 
matic or electric power is used. In many cases a little pony truck running 
on the turntable rail is operated by electricity and hauls the table round. 
Power operation is very desirable where many engines have to be turned, on 
the score of economy in time and expense, and in one case the use of an 
electric pony truck reduced the cost of operation from $7.37 to $3 per day. 
The pit may have a dished bottom, paved with brick, but the more usual 
plan is to have a flat bottom, and to form a step or bench in the side wall 
to carry the circular track. The masonry should be of substantial con- 
struction, and the pit should be well drained, and kept free from weeds 
and refuse. It is usually open, but sometimes covered by a circular deck, 
though this is likely to result in a damp and dirty pit. 

Turntables are of two general types: (1) Those which have a center bear- 
ing or pivot and a r;m bearing of wheels running on a circular track at the 
circumference of the pit; (2) Those which swing entirely from the center. 
The Erie Ry. has a 65-ft. table of the first type which is operated like a 
drawbridge, the drum being 8 ft. 2 ins. diameter and resting on 32 cast steel 
rollers. The ends have a rocking movement of %-in. A 15-HP. electric 
motor is placed vertically against the drum, and operates a train of gear- 
ing which ends in a pinion working in the fixed circular rack. The wires 
are carried up through the center. The Strobel turntable is of the second 
type, having a horizontal faced ring which bears upon a live ring of con- 
ical rollers on the top of the pedestal, the rollers being held in their relative 
positions by a spider. The live ring is about 4 ft. diameter, and the table 
has a bearing upon it at four points, instead of at two points only, as in 
many tables. As an engine enters or leaves, the table rocks to take an end 
bearing on bolster plates, the use of trailing wheels being optional. The 
Greenleaf turntable has conical rollers concentrated in a cap bearing, no 
spider being used, and the table is steadied by vertical guide rollers on ver- 
tical axes, these rollers bearing against the base of the pedestal. The table 
tips and locks in line and surface for the engine to run on or off, unlocks 
when the engine is completely on or off the table, and then balances to a 
horizontal plane. Articles on turntable design were published in "Engi- 
neering News," New York, April 1 and 15, May 13 and Nov. 18, 1897; March 
31, 1898. 

A transfer table runs on a straight track at right angles to several par- 
allel tracks, transferring engines and cars from one track to another. It is 
supported by several pairs of wheels running on rails spiked to ties or 
short blocks, the rails being usually 10 to 12 ft. apart. It may be operated 
by steam or electricity. A 70-ft. transfer table of 70 tons capacity on the 
Union Pacific Ry. has nine sets of 36-in. wheels with flat chilled treads. 
Each pair of wheels is carried between the ends of a pair of I-beams form- 
ing the transverse, girders of the table, the bearings being on top of the 



TRACK ACCESSORIES. 189 

beams so as to keep the pit as shallow as possible. The nine wheels on one 
side are attached to a single shaft, made in sections, and this is driven by 
an electric motor of 15 to 25 HP., current being supplied by a trolley wire. 
The table has a travel of 300 ft. and will run at 90 ft. or 250 ft. per minute 
with full and light loads. The full power is not required for moving the 
table, but for hauling cars on and off the table by means of a capstan, the 
speed of the hauling attachment being 90 ft. per minute. The transfer table 
at the Oelwein shops of the Chicago Great Western Ry. has a travel of 750 
ft., and will run at 200 ft. per minute with the heaviest engines, or 400 ft. 
with light loads. At the Burnside shops of the Illinois Central Ry. is a 
transfer table with pit 80 x 426 ft., having five tracks 17 ft. 7% ins. c. to c. 
The depth from track rail to pit rail is only 13 ins. The walls are of con- 
crete, 16 ins. thick, capped with yellow pine timbers 8 x 16 ins., laid flat and 
secured by anchor bolts. The table is operated by an electric motor, cur- 
rent being taken from an overhead wire. 

Where many cars have to be turned, a Y track may be more expeditious 
than a turntable. The Peoria & Pekin Terminal Ry., which operates as the 
terminal of a number of railways at Peoria, 111., uses a Y track for turning 
combination cars, sleeping cars, etc. It is situated about a mile from the 
yards, and a switch engine takes out 12 to 15 cars and turns them in 30 to 
40 minutes. 

Track Scales. 

The pit for track scales should have walls of concrete, brick or stone, and 
a concrete floor graded and guttered for drainage. Walls of timber or dry 
rubble masonry are not to be recommended. The through track across the 
pit has its rails supported by stringers, so that cars running on this track 
do rot bring the scale mechanism into action. The weighing track and the 
through or straight track ari panlleteti, with a distance of about 10 or 12 
ins. between the rails. The weighing track extends about a rail length on 
each side of the scale table and then another rail length connects it with 
the through track. The table is usually 30 to 42 ft. long, with a capacity 
of 60 to 100 tons. Those for weighing cars in motion may be 100 ft. long 
and of 150 tons capacity. They should be tested weekly, or at least month- 
ly, by a test car. With the growth of the system of making up freight trains 
by actual loaded weight of cars, a greater number of track scales will be 
required, as noted in Chapter 12. Scales having the table suspended from 
overhead scale beams, instead of being supported by mechanism in the pit, 
are believed to be advantageous in many ways, and to have less wear on 
the knife edges, so that they are more durable and more reliable. 

Bridge Tell-Tales or Ticklers. 

Low overhead bridges are a constant source of danger to freight train 
brakemen, whose -duties call them on top of the cars to set the hand brakes, 
although the general use of power brakes has greatly diminished the neces- 
sity for this work. Where low bridges are carried over the railway, men 
on the cars must be warned to stoop or lie down, as there is sometimes so 
little headway that unless a man lies flat on the roof or steps down between 
the cars he is very liable to be killed or injured. A tell-tale or "tickler" is 
usually placed for this purpose about 100 to 200 ft. on each side of the bridge* 



190 



TRACK. 



(or 50 to 100 ft. in yards.) The ordinary form consists of a gallows frame 
with single or double post, having a row of ropes or leather thongs, about 
30 ins. long, hung from the. cross-arm and reaching 3 to 6 ins. below the 
level of the lowest part of the bridge. When ropes get wet or frozen they 
will strike quite severe blows, and in this respect the leather thongs or 
straps are better, but, unfortunately, the brakemen have a propensity far 
cutting off the thongs for personal use. They also show their dexterity by 
catching the ropes or thongs and throwing them up as the train passes, so 
as to twist them around the cross-arm, and thus the brakeman on another 
train may be killed for lack of the warning. To prevent this, as well as to 
prevent the wind from blowing the ropes over the arm, the ropes or thongs 
may be attached to a bar suspended by links from the cross-arm, or each 
rope may be attached to the eye of a 1%-in. rod, the upper end of the rod 
passing through the cross-arm and being secured by a nut; or by being bent 
over. »This latter arrangement is shown in Fig. 130, which is the bridge 
alarm used on the Pennsylvania Lines at all bridges and structures less. 




Fig. 130.— 'Bridge Tell-Tale; Pennsylvania Lines. 

than 19 ft. 6 ins. clear above the top of the rail. The timber is of white pine,, 
the post being tarred below the ground line. The bottom of the ropes must 
be at least as low as the lowest point of the bridge, and the requisite di- 
mensions are as follows: 



ft.ins. 


ft.ins. 


ft.ins. 


ft.ins. 


ft.ins. 


ft.ins. 


ft.ins. 


ft.ins 


16 


16 6 


17 


17 6 


18 


18 6 


19 


19 6 


3 7 


3 1 


2 7 


2 3 


2 3 


2 


2 


2 O 


2 11 


2 8 


2 5 


2 2 


1 11 


111 


1 11 


111 


22 6 


22 3 


110 


21 9 


21 6 


21 6 


21 6 


21 6 



ft.ins. 
Clear headway ...15 6 
Length of rope (A) 4 1 
Length of rod (B). 3 5 
Height fr'm r'l(C)23 

The Southern Pacific Ry. uses side frames built of old boiler tubes, each 
frame forming an inverted V with a spread of 8y 2 ft., the ends being set in 
concrete. These are 16 ft. apart for single track and 29 1 / 4 ft. for double 
track, the posts being 8 ft. from center of track on curves and 9 ft. on tan- 
gents. To the cross-arm is attached a wire screen fringed with ropes, and' 
on double track this arm is trussed. A similar arrangement is used by the 



TRACK ACCESSORIES. 191 

Cincinnati Southern Ry. Suspended from the cross-arm by three %-in. eye- 
bolts is a wire screen, 8 ft x 2 ft. 8 ins., made cf No. 10 wire, with 1-in. mesh 
and having a rim of ^-in.rcd. From this are hung dcuble braided y 2 -in. 
cottcn ropes, well knotted to the screen and having the ends bound to pre- 
vent raveling. The ropes are 3 ft. 8 ins. long, 6 ins. apart, with the ends 17 
ft. 10 ins. above the ties. Single and double post frames are used, with 
cross-arms 3x8 ins., and corner braces 3x6 ins. The clear width between 
the posts is 20 ft. Where there are several tracks to be guarded, as at yards, 
the ropes or thongs may be hung from a %-in. wire cable, stretched across 
the tracks, but care must be taken to brace the posts well on the track side, 
and to provide means for taking up the slack of the rope, or the cable may 
sag so much as to strike a man and throw him from the train. The posts 
may extend above the point of attachment cf the cable, and have suspension 
or stay cables from the top of the post to support the middle portion of the 
main cable. 

A different type of tell-tale consists of a light pivoted horizontal rod about 
1% ins. diameter, projecting across the track at proper height. The rod is 
pivoted so that when struck it swings easily round parallel to the track, 
a light suspended weight bringing it back to its original position. In the 
Walling tell-tale the rod is attached to a shaft inclined at an angle of 45° 
from the horizontal, and this shaft is carried by a swivel on the post so that 
it is free to swing at an angle of 45° from the vertical. When struck, the 
rod swings backward and upward, and the action of gravity returns it lo 
and keeps it at its normal position. These rods, however, may strike a 
severe blow unless nicely balanced, and are liable to become frozen fast. 
They are inferior to the ether type, and are comparatively little used. 

Mail Cranes. 

These are the fixed stands to which are hung the bags to be snatched off 
by the "catcher" on the passing mail car, and in 1893 there were about 8,700 
post offices supplied with cranes and catchers. The cranes usually consist of 
a vertical post with two hinged horizontal arms, one above the other, to 
which are attached the top and bottom cf the mail bag. These arms extend 
towards the track, and when not in use lie vertically against the post, so as 
to be cut cf the way. Cn four-track lines where the two middle tracks are 
the passenger tracks, the ordinary crane cannot be used. The Pennsylvania 
Ry. uses a crane with a long swinging arm to reach across the intervening 
track, but a better device is the iron crane used by the New York Central 
Ry., which is set between the tracks, and has the upper part turned parallel 
with the tracks when not in use. This is shown in Fig. 131, together wkh 
the gage for erecting it at its proper position in relation to the catcher od 
the mail car. The stand should be carried cn the ends cf two long ties, so 
that any alteration cf level of the track by surfacing, heaving, etc., will noc 
affect the relative position cf the crane to the car. 

Wooden mail cranes are generally used, and the standard form on the 
Louisville & Nashville Ry. is also shewn in Fig. 131, being very similar 10 
the form recommended by the Railway Mail Service Bureau of the Post 
Office Department. The arms are shewn in position for the bag, but when 
it is taken off they swing to a vertical position, the upper one against the 



192 



TRACK. 



back and the lower one against the front of the post. Small rubber blocks: 
prevent jarring when the arms fall. The iron tongues over which pass the 
straps of the bags have no springs to hold the straps, a slight groove in the 
irons and the tension on the straps due to the arms, affording ample se- 
curity. In the Post Office style of crane, the iron tongue is straight and 
flat, with a light spring of curved steel fitted to hold the straps. Sometimes 
the lower part of the post is enclosed in a box filled with stone, the steps 




Fig. 131.— Mail Cranes. 



•7'k9° 



iWrtb"-- 



forming a part of the box. The bill of material for the wooden crane shown 
in Fig. 131, is given in Table No. 14. 

TABLE NO. 14.— BILL OF MATERIAL FOR MAIL CRANE. 

r-ins.--, ft. 



1 vertical post 4x4x11.0 

1 upper arm 4x4x 8.0 

1 lower arm 4x4x 29 

4 braces 4 x 4 x 4.0 

2 cross pieces 4x6x 4.9 

2 steel spring straps. 

2 straps (curved) at top vertical post(A). 



,— ins.— \ ft. 

2 cross ties 7x 9x17 

2 blocking pieces 7 x 9 x 3 

2 step boards 2x14x32 

1 step board 2 x 12 x 7 

1 step board 2 x 5 x 5 

1 strap for lower arm (B). 
30 cast washers for iy 2 -in. bolts. 



8 bolts 1V 2 ins. diameter, through post and arms oV 2 ins. under head. 

2 " ]i/2 " " " post and braces 9V 2 " 

7 " I 1 /-} " " " cross pieces 13 " " 

3 " lVo " " " cross ties 23 

1 movable pin for lower arm, y 2 x 5 ins. 

The present standard height of crane is objectionable in that it brings 
the upper arm (when carrying a bag) so high and so near the engine cab 



TRACK ACCESSORIES. 



193 



window that enginemen are frequently struck when looking out of the win- 
dow. It would be well if the height could be slightly reduced, the catching 
bar on the mail car door being correspondingly lowered. Mechanical de- 
vices to deliver and receive the bags automatically instead of being operated 
by the mail clerk on the car are in experimental use to some extent. 

Bumping Posts. 

At the ends of tracks in yards and stations, bumpers or bumping posts are 
generally erected to prevent cars from running off. In some yards it is 
considered preferable to leave the ends open, except near buildings, as it is 
cheaper to re-rail a car than to repair the end of a car which has struck the 
bumper heavily. In some cases, also, it has been found effective to replace 
the bumper by a flag, and to issue an order prescribing summary punish- 
ment for the first man who sends a car over the flag. In general, however, 
it is better to provide the posts and to rely on discipline to prevent the 




Fig. 132.— Low Bumping Post; Pennsylvania Lines. 

rough usage of the cars. It is a poor plan to simply bend up the ends of the 
rails and place a heavy timber across them, as cars will easily jump the 
track and pull it endways, wiiile there is liability of stripping the trucks 
and damaging the brake gear. One form of low bumper for yard use, which 
is not likely to be jumped, is shown in Fig. 132, and is used on the Pennsyl- 
vania Lines. High bumpers, however, which will catch the car frame or 
body of the. car, are generally preferable. A bank of earth or cinders may be 
used in yards, being 2 to 3 ft. high, with a slope of 2 to 1, or it may have a 
vertical planked face backing a bumper post or frame. Concrete blocks are 
sometimes used for backing, as being more permanent, and less unsightly 
than earth banks. 

The simplest form of high bumper consists of three heavy timbers: a sill, 
a vertical pest, and an inclined back brace, all framed and strapped to- 
gether, the sill being buried in the earth (parallel with the rails). A better 
form has two such frames, with one or more horizontal transverse timbers 
or deadwoeds between them to take the blow of the car coupler or platform, 
and having inclined tie rods to the front ends of the sills. The bumper of 



194 



TRACK. 



the Louisville & Nashville Ry., Fig. 133, is of this type, and is built of tim- 
bers 12 x 12 ins. The bottoms of the sills are 4 ft. below and the tops of the 
posts 5 ft. 8 ins. above the base of the rail. The deadwoods are faced by a 
^-in. iron plate 34 x 36 ins. With dressed faces and chamfered edges, the 
frame has a neat appearance for passenger stations, and the number of the 
track may be painted on the tops of the posts. The rails rest upon stringers 
supported by the cross timbers, bolted to the posts. An elaborated bumper 
of this same type is used at the ends of tracks on a slight down grade in the 
Cincinnati freight station, where there is a platform right behind the bump- 
ers. This has sills 14 x 14 ins., 50 ft. long, 4 ft. apart in the clear, with five 
transoms 6 x 14 ins. (framed 1 in. into the sills at each end), and 1-in. trans- 
verse tie-rods. The posts are 14 x 14 ins., 7 ft. 8 ins. high from the sills, 
and placed 10 ft. from their rear ends. The back braces are 12 x 14 ins., and 
the inclined tie-rods are 2 ins. diameter, with special beveled cast-iron 
washers to avoid cutting the posts. The deadwood is 12 x 18 ins., and in 
front of it is a striking plate 8x8 ins., separated from it by six rubber 
(blocks 6 ins. diameter and 5 ins. thick, with a 1-in. bolt through each. To 
the face of this latter timber are bolted two pieces 8 x 18 ins., 3 ft. 3 ins. and 




30 
Side Elevation . 



gFrontView. | ^RearView. 

Fig. 133.— High Bumping Post; Louisville & Nashville Ry. 



2 ft. 2 ins. long, the front one being faced with a %-in. iron plate 18 x 26 
ins. The track ties are laid directly upon the sills, the alternate ties being 
secured by %-in. bolts. Many bumpers are fitted with rubber or coiled steel 
springs, but rubber is of little use, and the steel springs are almost invar- 
iably of insufficient capacity to take up any severe shock. Friction buffers, 
resembling the Westinghouse draft gear, have been suggested. 

For terminal tracks in passenger stations, low bumpers are sometimes 
used, having double timbers with car springs set horizontally between them 
to take up the shock. It is more common, however, to use high bumpers 
of the type above described, but having the deadwood and striking timber 
separated by two or three pair of heavy car springs. Vertical stirrup irons 
are sometimes used to keep the springs from deflecting vertically, the upper 
end being bolted to the striking timber and the lower end embracing the' 
rail head. A bottom timber may be provided to catch the car wheels when 
the frame strikes the upper one, and this may be a loose sliding timber, 
as the distance from wheel to end of car is variable. A sand track has 



TRACK ACCESSORIES. 



195 



been used for this purpose, as already noted. Instead of braces and tie-rods, 
long A-frames made of old rails, attached to the sills and passing over the 
ends of the deadwood, may be used. The number of the track may be dis- 
played on a target attached to the top of the bumper frame, for the in- 
formation of trainmen and passengers. The hydraulic buffer stop designed 
by Mr. F. W. Webb and used by him on the London & Northwestern Ry. 
(England) is shown in Fig. 134. To the deadwood are attached two hydrau- 
lic cylinders, the piston rods of which have mushroom heads to fit the spring 
buffers on the end sills of the cars. The cylinder is 9 x 24 ins., with the 
front end open and the sides perforated with 30 holes %-in. diameter, and is 
enclosed in another cylinder, leaving an annular space of 2% ins. An air 
chamber maintains a pressure of 40 to 45 lbs. in the cylinder, and this is 
retained for some months with one charge. The cylinder is filled with, a 
mixture of petroleum, soap and water, ensuring good lubrication. When 
a train strikes the buffers, the liquid is forced through the small holes and 
into the air chamber, the resistance increasing towards the end of the 
stroke as the number of holes for escape becomes less. The Ellis bumping 
post, which is largely used, has a single upright. Two T-rails secured to 
the ends of the. track rails by six-bolt angle bars are bent upward and in- 
ward on an incline so that they meet at the back of the post, and are bolted 



Cylinders, 5'8fC.toC. 



, This cylinder to be perlbrtred mfh JO, k holes 
'i dross Ramsbottom padrlnb rinp 




- Compressed Air, 40 lbs per sq. inch. 

Fig. 134.— Hydraulic Buffer Stop; London & Northwestern Ry. (England). 



to a heavy casting supported by an oak block or post just behind the main 
post. A rubber-cushioned striking plate is used for passenger car tracks, 
but rubber is liable to lose its elasticity and become hard. For bumpers on 
docks and wharves, the sill should be the same depth as the track string- 
ers and the track in front of the bumpers should be well anchored down, 
while a back brace may be put in between the bumping timber and one of 
the dock piles or a special pile. 

Terminals of elevated railways should be provided with specially strong 
bumpers to prevent cars in trains from falling into the street, but, as a rule, 
the bumpers are not very substantial. They are generally similar to those 
used on steam railways, the posts being braced by timbers at the back and 
tied in front by rods to the structure. A portable stop-block to skid the 
front wheels might well be used in front of the bumper, the principle of the 
device being the gradual absorption of the energy of the train, and all the 
space that can be spared should be given up to it. Beyond these devices, 
the track should incline sharply on an ascending grade, which rapidly grows 
steeper toward the end, thus absorbing the energy of the train. At the end 
should be a heavy timber bumper designed to take the shock of a collision 
and set perpendicular to the inclined track. 



196 



TRACK. 



One form of the portable stop-blocks above referred to is shown in Fig. 
135. It consists of a pressed steel or iron tongue (A), resting on the rail and 
connected by a loop or strap (B), at its rear end with a small double flanged 
wheel (C), journaled in the sides of the strap. Between the wheel and the 
back of the tongue is a wrought-iron brakeshoe (D), pivoted to the strap at 
(E), and resting on the rail and in a groove in the flat tread of the wheel. 
When a car wheel runs up on the tongue and strikes the block, this block 
is pressed hard against the wheel and rail, stopping the revolution of the 
car wheel, while the force of the blow carries the stop-block back along the 
rail until it comes gradually to rest, being held on the rail by the grooved 
wheel and by lugs on the tongue. A useful form of portable stop-block for 
use in locking cars on yard or shop tracks is shown in Fig. 136, and may be 
fitted with a padlock. 

Spare Rails. 

It is the custom to place one or more spare rails at the side of the track 
-on every section or at every mile post, ready for use in case of emergency. 
They are generally carried on three stakes, 6 x 12 or 3 x 8 ins., 3 ft. to 4 ft. 
long, with the top cut like a step to form a seat for the rail base, or notched 





Fig. 135.— Rolling Stop Block. 



Fig. 136.— Portable Stop Block. 



to hold the head and web of an inverted rail. They are placed at the side 
of or in front of the mile post, set 12 ft. apart, with the inner face 7 ft. 
from the rail and the top about 18 ins. above subgrade. If special atten- 
tion is paid to neatness and finish, the ground may be dressed off level and 
covered with cinders and gravel for a length of about 33 ft. Where the 
spare rails are more than a mile apart, it may be desirable to keep two or 
more rails at each place, in which case the tops of the stakes can be offset 
to give two seats 4 or 5 ins. wide, or iron posts with brackets may be used. 

Handcar Turnouts. 



These are provided for convenience in taking handcars off the track and 
storing them while the men are at work. The Southern Pacific Ry. places 
them % mile apart, every third turnout being at a mile post, though this 
arrangement is varied where necessary. The roadbed is extended to 11 ft. 
from the rail for a width of 9 ft. and covered with 3 ins. of gravel to the 
level of the bottom of the ties. 



TRACK ACCESSORIES. 197 

Buildings. 

Many of the smaller buildings have to be looked after more or less by 
the track department. These include section tool houses; cabins or shan- 
ties for switchmen, flagmen and gatemen; signal towers; small stations 
and flag stations; and dwelling houses for foremen and section men. Such 
buildings are usually of frame construction, and care should be taken that 
they are not allowed to get into a delapidated and unsightly condition. The 
roofs may be of shingles, tin, corrugated iron or tarred roofing felt; while 
corrugated iron may be used also for the covering or paneling of small sta- 
tion buildings and gatemen's cabins, and for the covering of freight sheds. 
The material and style of construction will depend largely upon local con- 
ditions, the climate and the amount of attention paid to appearance. Par- 
ticulars of buildings of various styles are given in the book on "Buildings 
and Structures of American Railway," by Walter G. Berg. They should be 
at least 7% ft. from center of main track or 7 ft. from center of sidetrack. 

For painting frame buildings (of yellow pine) Mr. Samuel Wallis has rec- 
ommended a priming coat as follows: 100 lbs. of pure white lead in oil, 
4i£ gallons of pure raw linseed oil, and 1 gallon of pure spirits of turpen- 
tine. This gives 8 gallons of paint ready for use, and should be allowed 
48 to 60 hours for drying, or longer in damp weather. The second coat 
should never be applied until the priming is thoroughly dry. The second 
coat should be composed as follows: 100 lbs. of pure white lead tinted to 
shade with not more than 12 lbs. of tinting material, 5 gallons of raw lin- 
seed oil and 1 quart of good strong turpentine dryer. The third coat should 
consist of 5 gallons of pure kettle-boiled linseed oil to 100 lbs. of a paste 
composed of 60 lbs. of pure white lead, 30 lbs. of zinc white free from 
sulphides, and 10 to 12 lbs. of tinting material. Old and dry timber should 
he given a coat of pure linseed oil before being painted. For ironwork, the 
following is recommended: Priming coat; 100 lbs. of pure red lead to 5 gal- 
lons of pure linseed oil; second and third coats (for black color), 20 gal- 
lons of pure kettle-boiled linseed oil to 100 lbs. of a paste composed of 
65 lbs. of finely hydrated sulphate of lime, 30 lbs. of fine quality lamp- 
hlack, and 5 lbs. of red lead. This makes 30 gallons of paint. If much 
painting is to be done, it is well to have it made from good raw materials 
purchased by the company; but for repairs and small jobs ready made 
paints of good quality may be used to advantage. 

As to the color cf the buildings, various shades and combinations are 
affected by different roads. A plain dark tuscan red is a serviceable and 
well wearing color, and may be relieved by a darker amber brown on belt- 
rails, posts, etc., if some attempt at a pleasing effect is permissible. Two 
shades of green also make a good combination, but the common dull yel- 
low ochre with dull red trimmings (which is used by several roads) is ex- 
tremely ugly. The tool house in Fig. 137 is painted in two shades of grey- 
ish brown, one being of a very light shade. One of the most attractive and 
cheerful styles is the colonial buff or yellow with white trimmings, adopted 
hy the Chesapeake & Ohio Ry. A little light paint on mouldings, etc., will 
lighten up almost any style of coloring. Paint having an admixture of sand 
may be used at stations, etc., at about the height where loungers are in the 
habit of whittling the boards. It has a very discouraging effect upon the 
destructive amusement. 



198 



TRACK. 



The painting and whitewashing of buildings, fences, cattle pens, etc., 
can be quickly, conveniently and economically done by compressed air. 
Several roads now have cars fitted up with air-brake pumps and reservoirs, 
the pumps being driven by steam from a locomotive, and a pressure of 40 
lbs. being maintained in the reservoirs. Paint tanks are also mounted on 
the car. The painting nozzle consists of an iron tube with a flattened or 
funnel-shaped end, and to each nozzle are attached two lines of y 2 or %-in. 
hose, one from the air reservoir, and the other from the paint tank. The 
flow of air induces a stream of paint or whitewash which is expelled in 
the form of spray, the flow being regulated by a valve on the nozzle. 
Paint must be mixed somewhat thinner than when it is to be applied with 
a brush. One gallon of paint has thus covered 150 sq. ft. of rough boarding, 




Fig. 137.— Section Tool House; 

Pennsylvania Lines West 

of Pittsburg. 



and two men with nozzles can paint 5,000 sq. ft. per day. The advantages 
of this method of working are the rapidity of the work, the saving in cost 
Of brushes where rough or unplaned lumber has to be painted, and the 
general reduction in cost, while paint thus applied readily finds its way to 
joints and narrow spaces almost inaccessible by a brush. On some large 
roads there is a regular traveling paint gang, which is carried from place to 
place on special cars fitted up with living accommodations and the neces- 
sary appliances. 
Section Tool Houses.— These vary very much in size, and design, but 



TRACK ACCESSORIES. 



199 



should be large enough to hold the hand-car, tools, supplies, etc., and still 
leave room for the men to do such work as cutting shims, sharpening tools, 
sorting scrap, etc., in wet weather. The building is generally oblong in 
plan, and if very small it should be placed with its longer side towards the 
track, with the hand-car track laid through one end of that side, so as" to 
leave the other end of the building unobstructed for the men to work in, 
but with buildings 14 or 15 ft. wide the track may be in the middle. There 
should always be room for the car to stand between the house and the 
track. 

Shelves, hooks and racks for tools should be fitted up to suit the equip- 
ment. There should also be boxes for small tools and supplies; and boxes 
kegs or half-barrels for different kinds of scrap. Long handled tools, bars, 
etc., may be stood on end, with the tops resting in inclined notches in a 
shelf. Edge tools should be placed where they are not liable to injury. 
There should be a locker or cupboard for special or expensive tools and 
supplies, and this may be placed in a room partitioned off and fitted with a 




Second Floor Plan. 
Fig. 138.— Section House 



First Floor Plan. 



Canadian Pacific Ry. 



desk for the use of the foreman in writing up his reports, time books, requi- 
sitions, etc. A sliding door, carried on an overhead rail, like a freight car 
door, is generally preferable to double swing doors, as being more easily 
handled in stormy weather, and less likely to get out of order or to be 
damaged by being swung to and fro. 

The standard tool house of the Lehigh Valley Ry. is 16 x 20 ft. inside; and 
has the narrower gable end toward the track, with a wide sliding door for 
the hand-car at one side, and a smaller door for the men at the other side 
of the same end. As the sliding door fouls the smaller swing door when 
open, it would probably be better if the smaller door were placed in the 
side of the house. The building has a foreman's room, 6x8 ft, in one cor- 
ner; and at the rear end of the house are a fireplace and workbench. A 
neat and convenient design is that of the Pennsylvania Lines West of Pitts- 
burg, Fig. 137. It is 15 ft. 2 ins. long, and 13 ft. 3 ins. wide in the clear in- 
side, and has the hand-car track in the middle, with room for the hand-car 



200 



TRACK. 



and push-car, as shown by the dotted lines. Double swing doors are used, 
but there is said to be no trouble in handling them. The general construc- 
tion and arrangement are clearly shown. The building is painted in two 
shades of light grey, and the average cost is about $175. 

Section Houses. — In order to have the trackmen live on their sections it 
is often necessary to provide houses for them, the foremen very generally 




boarding the single men. Sometimes these buildings are very cheap and 
unnecessarily bare in appearance, but they may be made quite attractive 
with very little expenditure. Fig. 138 shows a very plain house of the Can- 
adian Pacific Ry. In "Engineering News," (New York), of May 26, 1892, 
were shown some simple but neat and inexpensive little houses built for 



TRACK ACCESSORIES. 



201 



the negro section hands on the Macon & Birmingham Ry. The cost of 
these was only about $200, and to avoid monotony three or four standard 
designs were used. Boarding houses should be well built, roomy and con- 
venient. They should be made comfortable and kept neat, and these re- 
quirements are specially important for buildings far from a town, as good 
men will not stay in unpleasant quarters. Sometimes the house is furnished 
to the foreman, free of rent, the foreman undertaking to keep it in good 
condition and repair. On some roads a prize is awarded annually for the 
best kept section house and grounds. A simple and convenient plan is 
shown in Fig. 139, which is the standard section house of the Southern 
Division of the Louisville & Nashville Ry., and Fig. 140 shows the section 




■ 17' 0" ■ ->l 

First Floor Plan 

Fig. 140.— Section Foreman's House; Louisville & Nashville Ry. 
foreman's house of the same railway. A sketch plan of a dwelling house 
for section men is shown in Fig. 141. 

Telegraph and Signal Tower. — A neat design of tower for telegraph op- 
erators, signalmen, etc., is that of the Chesapeake & Ohio Ry., shown in 
Fig. 142. It has two rooms, the lower one square and the upper one octag- 
onal. The platform sills, joists and floor are of oak, while the timbers of 
the tower are of heart pine. 



202 



TRACK. 



Watchman's Cabin. — The cabin for watchmen, gatemen or switchmen 
may be square or octagonal, the latter giving the better view, and if two 
adjacent sides are extended to meet at right angles, the extra space will 
afford convenient room for a long bench or a berth. The cabin should be 
not less than 6 ft. square or diameter, 7 ft. high inside, and fitted with a 
locker, chair and stove. There may be a shelter over the sidewalk where 




• Section. 



V ,-Fx/g y 



Section of Platform. 




7F. 












y- 




V-- '-B— *= 




■5?^, 


-2^T 




p: 




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r 














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fck 










H /ffiv 








KtF^^cralF 




s 


ecc 


nd Floor P/an. 









Fig. 142.— Telegraph Tower; Chesapeake & Ohio Ry\ 



the man stands when operating the gates. For suburban, crossings, where 
appearance of the cabins is to be considered, very neat and tasteful de- 
signs can be built at small expense. The comfort of the men should be 
carefully looked to, an inner lining and ceiling or a layer of felt or tarred 
paper being used where the winters are severe. Similar cabins may be used 
for. watchmen, yardmen, car inspectors, weighing machine men, etc. In 
yards, and where the railway runs through the streets, it is sometimes nee- 



TRACK ACCESSORIES. 203 

essary to place narrow cabins between the tracks or between the track and 
the roadway. These may be about 3 ft. 8 ins. x 8 ft. 3 ins., but should never 
be placed between tracks which are less than 15 ft. 6 ins. c. to c. 

Station Platforms. 

Railway station platforms are, in this country, usually level with or only 
a few inches above the level of the rail heads, except for elevated and some 
suburban railways, where the platforms are level with the car floors (on 
the English system), as in Fig. 93. The platform should in general be 3 to 6 
ins. above the rails, and within easy reach of the lowest steps of the. cars. 
The edge should be 24 or 33 ins. from the rail, or 5 ft. 6 ins. from center of 
track. The main part of the platform should not be less than 10 ft. or 12 ft. 
wide, but at small stations the. portions beyond the station building may be 
reduced to 6 ft. in width. The platform should be level with the floor of the 
station building, and incline slightly towards the track, while the ends 
should have an incline of 1 in 10 to the ground level. Where there is much 
passing across the tracks (though this should be avoided wherever possible), 
planking may be laid between the rails and between the tracks, being flush 
with the tops of the rails, and leaving the necessary flangeway. Freight plat- 
forms should be level with the floors of the. cars, being about 3 ft. 8 ins. or 4 
ft. above the rail, and having the edge at least Zy 2 ft. from the rail, this 
clearance limit varying on different roads. A platform about 3 ft. 3 ins. high 
should also be provided for loading freight from or upon wagons and carts, 
an inclined approach being built in each case. In some cases the passen- 
ger platform is carried along in front of the high freight platform, each 
being 6 ft. wide, and the edge of the latter being about 8 ft. from the rail, 
but this is awkward for handling freight, as bridging planks have to be 
thrown across the car. It is better to extend the freight platform to the 
clearance limits, and the passenger and freight platforms should be con- 
nected by an easy incline for baggage trucks, etc. 

For terminal and important stations (freight and passenger), concrete, 
asphalt or flag paving is very generally used, and the former is an excellent 
material, providing that it is of such quality that the surface will not read- 
ily become slippery. A cheap cinder concrete may also be used for ordinary 
platforms, having a curb of brick or wood. Where brick paving is used, it is 
generally uneven and noisy, owing to poor foundation and the use of ordi- 
nary cheap building brick. Good paving brick on concrete should stand 
well, and special hard paving bricks, 9 % x i 1 /^ x 4 ins. have been used, being 
laid on 2 ins. of sand or 6 ins. of gravel, tamped to surface, and the joints 
properly grouted. Wood, however, is the usual material for platforms, and 
where the surface is to be level with the rails, it may have pine planks 3 x 
6 or 2 x 4 ins., nailed to oak sills 4x6 ins., laid at right angles to the rails 
and 24 to 30 ins. apart. The timber, however, is liable to be damp and to rot, 
even if laid on sand, gravel or cinders, and under such conditions it will 
gradually develop holes which are likely to trip persons walking on the 
platform. It is much better to support the sills on small concrete or 
masonry piers, excavating the ground so as to leave an air space under the 
platform, as in Fig. 142. For a platform 18 ft. wide, the sills may be 8 x 8 
ins. or 6 x 10 ins., 18 ft. long, with the ends and middle supported by brick 
piers 12 x 12 or 16 x 24 ins., about 3 ft. deep, and 8 to 12 ft. apart, c. to c, 

8 " ~ ' ' 



204 TRACK. 

longitudinally. Oak posts or pile ends may be used instead of the piers. 
The sills slope 2 ins. towards the track. Upon the sills are joists or floor 
beams about 3 x 10 ins., 12 to 16 ins. c. to c, laid parallel with the track and 
braced by bridging pieces. To these beams are spiked 2-in. floor planks. 
A layer of ashes or gravel should be placed under the platform, with its 
surface at least 6 ins. below the sills, so as to prevent the growth of weeds. 
For the ends of small platforms extending beyond the station buildings, an 
economical plan is to lay two lines of timbers 8 x 16 ins., connected at inter- 
vals of 10 ft. by transoms 6 x 12 ins., and %-in. tie-rods, between which is a 
filling of gravel or cinders. (See also Chapter 2.) 

Floors for Roundhouses and Shops. 

For roundhouses, etc., brick is probably the best paving material, as it 
will stand heavy trucking, and is easily drained and kept clean. Hard- 
burned vitrified brick should be used, laid on edge on concrete or 2 ins. of 
sand or 6 to 12 ins. of slag or gravel, tamped level and grouted with hot 
tar. The rails may rest on timbers 12 x 14 ins. on the pit walls, with a 
plank between , the outside of the rail and the paving. A wooden floor 
having planking spiked to sills (of old cars or ties) embedded in cinders 
is rarely kept in good repair, but is better than a floor of loose gravel, the 
dust of which is blown over the engines. A floor of wooden blocks sawed 
from old ties and laid on plank or rolled gravel would be better. 

For tracks in shops, the rails may be laid on longitudinal timbers or cross 
ties (with wooden or iron cross ties under the former) embedded in or laid 
upon concrete; a tie-plate being placed under the rail ends at each joint. 
They may also be laid directly upon the concrete, being held by clamps 
and nuts on 12-in. bolts bedded in the concrete and having anchor plates 
on the lower heads. A groove or channel about 6 or 8 ins. wide should be 
left for each rail, to be filled in after with concrete, so that in renewing 
rails, etc., the concrete of the main floor will not be broken. A floor of this 
kind may be made as follows: 1 12 ins. of gravel, tamped and leveled; 3% 
to 4% ins. of concrete (2 to 4 sand, 4 fine gravel and 1 cement) ; 2 ins. of 
cement (5 sand to 1 cement), and a %-in. finishing coat of equalparts ot 
sand and Portland cement, or 1% ins. of sand and cement 2 to 1. The new 
shops of the Philadelphia & Reading Ry. have floors of bituminous con- 
crete (cement concrete at pits) composed of 1 gallon of coke-oven compo- 
sition to 1 cu. ft. of screened cinder, laid hot and well rammed. In this 
are embedded yellow pine sleepers, 6x6 ins., 4 to 5 ft. apart, on which is 
an under floor of hemlock planks, 3x8 ins., with a wearing floor of maple 
boards, 1% x 4 ins., laid at right angles to the hemlock. Tracks are laid on 
pine ties 6x8 ins., Sy 2 ft. long, embedded in the concrete with their tops 5 
ins. below the floor surface. The. wooden floor is more comfortable for the 
men in winter. 

A tar concrete floor may be made of a layer of clean, fine gravel and sand, 
well mixed with pitch and tar (1 part pitch to 2 tar), the layer being 1 to 
2 ins. thick and laid on a 6-in. bed of gravel or of broken stone mixed with 
gravel to fill the voids. Plank floors laid directly upon cement concrete are 
subject to rapid decay, as the cement is hygroscopic and contains water in 
the pores, and is a good conductor of heat. Asphaltic concrete is a poor 
conductor of- heat; it is antiseptic in its properties, and wood floors placed 



TRACK ACCESSORIES. 205 

upon it have proved very durable, though the pungent smell of the tar lasts 
a long while, and may be objectionable in storehouses where certain goods 
are stored. The use of tar concrete is not advisable where heating pipes 
come near it, and in cement concrete fine crushed granite, in place of sand, 
will give a more durable and better looking surface. The bottom planking 
should be well seasoned, and painted with some preservative, otherwise 
dry-rot may set in where any considerable area is covered by machines. 



CHAPTER 12.— SIDINGS, YARDS AND TERMINALS. 

Sidetracks may be considered as being divided into two classes: (1) Those 
used in train service; (2) Those used for trains and cars entering and 
standing in yards and at stations. The former are now very generally 
called by the English term "sidings," to distinguish them from tracks of the 
second class. The track of the latter is generally of inferior construction, 
having light and worn rails, few and old ties and a partial equipment or 
spikes and bolts. This may be permissible to a certain extent, but the track 
should be in good and safe condition for its service, and should not be left 
neglected with rotten ties, battered rails, loose bolts and spikes, etc. A 
sidetrack in such condition, with bad line and surface, is generally an indi- 
cation of carelessness or neglect in the maintenance department. Freight 
sidetracks at small stations may be placed to suit local requirements', the 
freight house track being (1) at the back of the building, (2) between the 
main track and station, or (3) between the main track and a freight shed 
on the opposite side from the passenger station. The side track may be 
slightly lower than the main track, so that cars will not foul the main 
track. All turnouts should be well laid and ballasted, and kept up to the 
standard of the main track, while passing sidings should be maintained as 
part of the main track. Turnouts from main track to sidings or sidetracks 
should be protected by safety devices, as noted in Chapter 7. 

Sidings. 

These are provided to enable trains to pass on single track reads, and to 
relieve traffic on double track. In the latter case, they allow freight or in- 
ferior trains to keep out of the way of faster superior trains and at the 
same time to continue their own course on the relief track or siding. Pass- 
ing and main tracks should be at least 13 ft. c. to c. 

Arrangements for "lap" passing sidings are shown in Fig. 143, the first 
four being used on the Pittsburg, Fort Wayne & Chicago Ry., to suit local 
conditions. Plan No. 1 is a middle siding with the pulling-out switches at 
the tower. Westbound trains take the siding at (A) and pull out at (B) ; 
while westbound trains take the siding at (D) and pull out at (E). Each 
of the two sidings will hold four trains, which requires 4,300 ft. or track on 
the Eastern Division. The sidings are connected and have the end switches 
(C) and (F), so that in case of emergency the entire length of track can be 
used for trains in one direction. The telegraph tower is located at th? 
center, or "lap," the switches (B) and (E) being operated from the rower 



206 TRACK. 

This relieves the trainmen from responsibility for the switch when they 
have a clear signal to go* on, and prevents them from pulling out onto the 
main track without the knowledge of the operator. Plan No. 2 is a middle 
siding in which trains pull in at the tower. Westbound trains enter at (B) 
and pull out at (C) ; while eastbound trains enter at (E) and puil out at 
(F). This plan is not used as much as the former. As the entering switches 
(B) and (E) are operated from the tower, trains do not have to stop before 
taking the siding. In order to control the outgoing movements and place 
the siding entirely under the control of the operator, an electric starting 
signal may be placed at the pulling out switches (C) and (F). This is oper- 
ated from the tower and interlocked with the switch, so that a train cannot 
pull out without the knowledge of the operator. 

Plans Nos (3) and (4) are outside lap sidings, the operation of which is 
similar to that of Nos. 2 and 1, respectively. These outside sidings are used 
on long, straight lines to avoid the necessity of putting the reversions in 
Tower main track which the construction of a mid- 

die siding would require. The capacity of 
the. siding for trains in one direction cannot, 
however, be temporarily increased, as with 
middle sidings, except by crossing over and 
interfering with through traffic in the other 
direction. On the Eastern Division, the lap 
sidings are placed at intervals of ten miles, 
the intention being to build additional sid- 
ings between them as the traffic may demand. 
By having sidings with a capacity for four 
trains, at intervals of five miles, with switches 
operated from a tower so that trains need 
not stop, a maximum facility of train move- 
ment is obtained. When the traffic becomes 
too heavy for such a movement an addi- 
tional main track or tracks will be re- 
quired. On the Pennsylvania Ry., the ar- 
rangement shown in Plan No. 5 is used 
where the sidings hold only one or two freight trains, and also where it is 
desired to maintain only one telegraph office. Where the third tracks are 
of such length as to lap over two block sections and get the use of these 
telegraph towers, the connections are made as shown in Plan No. 6. A sim- 
ilar arrangement to Plans No. 3 or No. 4 can be applied to single track, as 
shown in Plan No. 7, and this greatly facilitate the handling of heavy traffic 
With such an arrangement, two trains, headed in opposite directions and 
waiting upon the sidings, may proceed upon their respective ways imme- 
diately after the passage of the train on the main track, without waiting 
upon each other's movements. These sidings may be long enough to accom- 
modate two or more freight trains, each of which pulls out as it gets the 
signal from the tower, the other following up to the tower. Thus trains in 
opposite directions do not interfere with one another, and no time is lost 
in waiting for train orders from a tower at a distance. The switches may 
be operated from the tower, the signalman being notified of the train orders. 
These sidings may be eventually extended to form a double track. 



\_ 


\ / 


/ 


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D 
C 


Plan E N° I. F 
*>B + — A 


v 


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D 


Plan E N22. '' F 


c/~ 


3 V) < 




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Plan N23. 

C/b \A 


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0V_ 


Plan N°4. 




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Plan N°5T^ 


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"Ptan N°6/* 




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V. 


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Plan N°7. 

Fig. 143.— Plans of Lap 
Passing Sidings. 



SIDINGS, YARDS AND TERMINALS. 207 

On double track roads, relief sidings are often used, placed between or 
outside the main tracks, as already shown, and these are sometimes long 
enough to be used as a running track. If they are short, they may have a 
switch at one end only, thus avoiding facing switches, and obliging trains to 
back into the sidings. When a middle relief track connects with the cross- 
over connecting the two main tracks, the movement of trains from the relief 
track may be governed by the dwarf signal at the crossover switch. In 
order to allow of a second train being got clear of the main track when the 
relief track is occupied, the train may be switched onto the opposite main' 
track, a call bell connected with the block signal tower and interlocked 
with the dwarf signal being used to control the heading out of this train. 
Similarly, where a train takes an outlying sidetrack on a block section, and 
the block is thus clear and yet has a train on it, the towerman is notified 
and gives a following main track train the green or "caution" signal. In 
such cases, a bell circuit connects the outlying sidetrack with the tower, 
by which the conductor can notify the signalman when his train is clear 
of the main track, and when the superior train has passed the switch. 

Yards and Terminals. 

The word "terminal" is properly applied to cover all the property and 
facilities provided for the conduct of business at the end of the line, or at 
the end of a division or a district. The terminals may be subdivided into 
passenger and freight terminals, and further classified as line terminals, 
division terminals, branch or district terminals, etc. The word "yard" is 
properly applied to the system of tracks, independent of running tracks, 
which is provided at terminals and division points, intermediate points, 
stations, etc., for storing and switching cars in the work of making up, dis- 
tributing and inspecting trains. The cost of yards and of yard operation is 
an important item in the total cost of transportation and general operation, 
and among the improvements which have a bearing upon the reduction in 
these latter costs is the designing of yards and terminals with two special 
objects in view: (1) To increase the speed and facility of handling the 
cars in the necessary switching movements; (2) to increase the facility of 
handling freight in loading and unloading cars. Freight handled in bulk 
between fixed terminals, as in the case of coal and ore, requires compara- 
tively little switching and inexpensive terminals. General freight, how- 
ever, has to undergo a complicated series of movements (aggregating a con- 
siderable mileage) in extensive yards which often occupy highly expensive 
land. The cost of terminal work, therefore, is an important item in the 
total cost of freight service. These matters were discussed by the writer 
in a paper on "Railway Yards and Terminals," read before the Western 
Railway Club in November, 1900. 

As to passenger terminals and yards, very little can be said in 
the way of laying down general rules, the conditions and re- 
quirements varying so greatly in each case. Convenience of operation 
is usually of greater importance than economy of yard service, 
as the switching movements of passenger cars are comparatively 
limited. At terminal stations, the tracks are generally arranged in 
pairs, with platforms between, but in the Southern terminal station 
at Boston, which represents the latest practice and was designed with a 



208 TRACK. 

free hand, the two tracks of each alternate pair are separated by a plat- 
form 8 ft. wide, used exclusively for baggage. These tracks are 17 ft. c. to 
c, while the passenger platforms are 14 ft. wide, the adjacent tracks being 
23 ft. c. to c. In the Grand Central station, New York, the platforms are 
only 8 ft. and 10 ft. wide, 21 ft. 6 ins. apart in the clear, with tracks 11 ft. 
6 ins. and 12 ft. c. to c. The new station of the New York Central Ry. at 
Albany has tracks jn pairs between platforms 20 ft. wide and 20 ft. apart, 
with two rows of columns (for umbrella roofs) on each platform, 5 ft. from 
the edge. In the new Pittsburg station of the Pennsylvania Ry. the pairs 
of stub tracks are 17 ft. between outer rails, and 20 ft. between the inner 
rails of adjacent pairs. Platforms between tracks should have a minimum 
width of 12 ft., and 18 to 20 ft. is a better width, especially if there are col- 
umns or if baggage is conveyed on the platforms. The main platform be- 
tween a sidehouse station and the tracks (parallel with the latter) should 
be 20 to 30 ft. wide; while the transverse platform between the headhouse 
and end of tracks in a terminal station should be 30 to 75 ft. wide. At many 
large stations there must be stub tracks for trains making these their ter- 
minal points, and also through tracks. Stub tracks should be in pairs, and 
connected at their ends by a crossover or transfer table, so that the engine 
of an incoming train can be sent to the roundhouse, coaling station, etc., 
without the necessity of waiting for its train. Ample connection should be 
made between the station or house tracks and the main tracks, with inter- 
connections by slip switches, etc., so that there will be no liability of a sta- 
tion track being blocked. At the Boston station, above mentioned, two in- 
tersecting double track lines form an X in the middle of the yard, and cross 
all the approach tracks. At each intersection is a double slip switch, thus 
giving an almost illimitable variety of combinations for connecting any of 
the 28 station tracks with any of the approach tracks. The special equip- 
ment for passenger yards will include express, baggage and mail car tracks, 
car cleaning tracks, inspection and repair tracks, engine and car storage 
tracks, turntables, coal and water supply for the engines, water supply and 
ice for car tanks, etc. Passenger terminals were discussed in Engineering 
News Jan. 12 and June 1, 1899. 

For freight yards and terminals, the facilities must include provision for 
sorting and distributing cars in making up outbound trains or breaking up 
inbound trains, as well as tracks for cars which are to be loaded, unloaded, 
repaired or stored. They must have provision for changing engines and 
cabooses, inspecting and repairing cars, cleaning and housing engines, sup- 
plying coal and water to the engines, ice to the refrigerator cars, and water 
to the stock cars. Cattle pens, spur tracks to factories, docks, elevators, 
etc., and other special equipment, may also be required for special classes 
of traffic. There must be ample crane equipment for handling freight, par- 
ticularly very heavy articles. Where engines merely lay over for a 
short time, and then make a return trip, a convenient plan is to put in a 
turntable and radial tracks for these engines. At division points, through 
freight trains will require little attention beyond the changing of engine 
and caboose and the general inspection of the train. Incoming local trains, 
however, must have the through cars sorted out and the terminal cars 
switched to unloading tracks, while the outbound trains must be made up 
with cars in proper order for delivery consecutively at the several stations 



SIDINGS, YARDS AND TERMINALS. 209 

on the run. At small stations only a few tracks are required for switching, 
loading and unloading cars, and these do not form a "yard" unless they 
include at least three parallel tracks arranged to be operated in series for 
the switching and storage of cars. A terminal yard is subdivided into sep- 
arate groups of tracks, termed "yards"; such as receiving yards, distrib- 
uting yards, classification yards, advance yards, eastbound and westbound 
yards, etc., all interconnected. 

The switching movements are sometimes made entirely by switch en- 
gines coupled directly to each car or cut of cars to be moved, but this plan 
is not adapted for large yards. In a poling yard, the distribution of cars 
is effected by an engine running on a track parallel with a "drill" track 
and pushing cars onto the "ladder" track by means of a swinging pole at- 
tached to the engine or a special poling car. In a gravity yard, the dis- 
tribution is effected by sending cars down grade on the drill track to the 
ladder track. Both of these methods are often used in combination. Poling' 
is the method most commonly used, often assisted to some extent by grav- 
ity, but this latter method is not employed so comprehensively in this 
country as abroad. In Europe, some yards are operated almost entirely by 
gravity, the cars passing in this way from one set of classification tracks (or 
"gridiron") to another. In this country, however, the gravity system is 
usually confined to a few tracks for certain movements. A grade of 0.5% 
is very generally used where the gravity system is merely auxiliary to pol- 
ing, but where cars are switched by gravity alone a steeper grade is used, 
from 1 to 1.25%. A "lead" track connects either end of the yard with the 
main track. The "body" tracks are the parallel tracks (in groups) upon 
which cars are switched or stored, and these are connected with or open 
from a diagonal "ladder" track. One of the. body tracks of each group 
is' kept open, or clear of cars, to allow of through movements from one 
group to another. A "drill" track connects with the ladder track (being 
generally parallel with but beyond the body tracks). In poling yards, the 
cars are fed from the receiving track to the drill track by switch engines, 
and each car or cut of cars is pushed forward by the poling engine on the. 
parallel poling track, giving it sufficient impetus to run down the ladder 
track and through the switch of the body track for which it is intended. 
The poling track should extend as close as possible, to the ladder track, 
and may even be continued parallel with it, so that heavy cars or those 
which fail to reach their proper switches may readily be handled. Car 
storage, tracks should be double ended, or else there is a tendency of old 
cars to remain neglected at the dead end. They should also be so con- 
nected with the classification tracks that in making up trains the cars can 
be taken from the classification or storage tracks, as required. 

The tracks should be developed from one or two principal side tracks, 
so that the only switch in the main track will be that of the lead track. 
Where 20% of the trains are of maximum length, the receiving tracks 
should be long enough to take these trains, but otherwise they may be long 
enough merely for the average train. They should be of sufficient capacity 
to avoid blocking the main track by holding a second train until the first 
one is inspected, marked and distributed. The length of track should be. the 
same in all the groups, and if the length is too great it will necessitate 
switching the cars at high speed, making it dangerous for the men to jump 



210 TRACK. 

on and off, and inducing a liability of injury to cars by colliding with each 
other. The aggregate length of the yard will also be excessive, causing 
considerable trouble in the movements of the switchmen and yardmen. 
The separate "yards" or tracks, which make up the terminal yard as a 
whole, must be so arranged in series that the cars will move steadily for- 
ward in the several switching movements, as all backward or reverse move- 
ments detract from the highest efficiency of working. The entire yard 
terminal will be in two parts, for traffic in opposite directions, and each 
part will have separate groups of tracks for classifying, sorting, etc., as 
shown in Fig. 144. It should be located on a tangent if possible, and the 
main track may pass through or around it, provision being made for a 
route around or through the yard, respectively, in case of any block on the 
main track. 

The body tracks should be not less than 13 ft. c. to c, while the car re- 
pair- tracks should be 20 ft. c. to c. The first yard track may be 16 or 20 
ft. from the main track (c. to c.) to allow room for water columns, etc. 
Tracks for cars to be unloaded by teams may be 25 to 30 ft. apart, to allow 
of the passage of wagons and teams between the cars. The space between 
these tracks should be macadamized or paved with brick or stone if there 
is much heavy trucking. It should at least be well coated with cinders or 
gravel, to prevent mud and enable the wagons to be hauled easily. The 
15th St. yard (New York) of the New Jersey Central Ry. has the team tracks 
in pairs, 360 ft. long, 12 ft. c. to c, with stone driveways 35 ft. wide (rail to 
rail) between the pairs of tracks. These tracks are at an angle of about 
45° with the ladder track and have turnout curves of 39°. The terminal 
yard of the Harlem Transfer Co., New York, has circular tracks around an 
annular oval freight house 188 x 158 ft., 35 ft. wide, the wagon court being 
on the inside. This gives a great amount of house track, with facility in 
operating. The curves are of 90 and 104 ft. radius, the outer rails being ele- 
vated 2 ins., and the gage widened %-in. The surface of the roadway is 
generally 12 ins. above the ties, with a curb at the sides, or having the 
paving crowned. 

The freight yards are a very defective part of the railway system as a 
whole, one reason for this being that the great expense involved in switch- 
ing and handling cars in yards has only been recognized by operating offi- 
cers within recent years. While there are many yards which are well laid 
out for economical operation, yet very often- the general design and detailed 
arrangement have been made more or less at haphazard. Many yards of 
importance have developed gradually from smaller yards, and tracks have 
been lengthened, new switches and tracks put in here and there, and alter- 
ations made from time to time as immediate requirements seemed to de- 
mand, without regard to any general plan. Such a yard becomes event- 
ually a mere patchwork of tracks and switches, the operation of which in- 
volves much unnecessary work and delay in handling the traffic, with 
heavy maintenance work. In large yards, the traffic is usually so great 
that entire reconstruction is practically impossible, but a good and com- 
prehensive design should be planned and gradually introduced. In staking 
out tracks in a large yard, stakes of different colors for different tracks 
may conveniently be used to avoid confusion, and the stakes at mouth of 



SIDINGS, YARDS AND TERMINALS. 211 

switch and point of frog may be marked "M. S." and "P. F." (See also 
Chapter 22). 

Defects in yard design are very frequently due to a lack of co-operation 
between the constructing and operating officers. In some cases a yard is 
enlarged or extended without the assistance of the engineer, and the re- 
sult is an awkward arrangement of curves and switches which increases 
the difficulty of handling cars and increases the wear on wheels and rails. 
In other cases a freight yard has been planned without inquiring into the 
local conditions and the traffic requirements, with the result that the yard, 
while appearing very convenient on paper, is a source of much trouble to 
the operating department. Thus the switches may be badly located, or the 
track scales, repair tracks, or other special points may be inconveniently 
arranged or so located that they can only be reached by crossing or foul- 
ing other tracks which are in constant use. Most railway engineers give 
too little study to the operating side of railway service, and in consequence 
do not realize the importance of many smaller items and details in econo- 
mizing work, or realize their relation to the general operating expenses of 
the railway. For these and other reasons it is imperative, in the interests 
of efficient service, that the officers of the constructing and operating de- 
partments should consult together as to the best arrangement for any one 
yard, while information should be sought from the yardmaster or other lo- 
cal officer as to any special or local service to be provided for, or any spe- 
cial difficulties resulting from the existing arrangement. 

The main idea in enlarging a yard is usually to provide more tracks for 
cars to stand on, the too general idea of a yard being that the principal 
consideration is to have plenty of tracks upon which to store cars, while as 
a matter of fact a yard is intended for sorting and distributing cars, rather 
than for storing them. The quicker the car is passed through the yard from 
the time of its arrival off the road until it is delivered at its unloading 
track or sent out again to continue its journey, the greater will be the oper- 
ating efficiency and economy of the yard service. This economy and effi- 
ciency will also extend through the whole freight service, for if the cars 
are handled promptly there will be less delay in providing empty cars as 
called for, and consequently the capacity of the equipment will be increased, 
thus avoiding the necessity of purchasing new cars. If a yard is too large, 
or its track capacity too great, there is likely to be a lack of promptness in 
clearing it and getting the cars moving over the road. On the other hand, 
if it is too small, blockades will almost certainly occur, interfering with the 
movement of freight trains on the road, while the hurried and complicated 
switching in an overcrowded yard will tend to greatly increase the damage 
to rolling stock. In all yards there is more or less of a tendency to rough 
handling of cars, which can be kept in check only by strict enforcement of 
discipline, and a full enquiry as to the cause of and responsibility for each 
case of damage. 

One important defect resulting from the general failure to recognize the 
important relation of yard service to the general operation of a railway sys 
tern is the common failure to provide proper equipment. Not only are th>» 
yard tracks very often of light and poor construction, but their maintenance 
is more or less neglected, and low joints, missing bolts, loose spikes, worn 
ties, and switches and frogs in various grades of bad repair are common 



212 TRACK. 

conditions to be met with in the average yard. The sectionmen in charge 
of the' yard, finding it impossible to keep all these tracks in proper con- 
dition under the traffic which they sustain, naturally become more or less 
careless and discouraged. The condition of the switching engines is fre- 
quently on a par with that of the track, the tires being worn hollow to an 
extent which is most destructive to the track, while the valves are badly 
set, and all the connections are more or less loose. It is not in the nature 
of the average engineman to give his best endeavors to the proper handling 
of such a "mill," so that the amount of damage to cars in switching will 
probably bear some relation to the amount of maintenance expenses for 
tracks and engines. 

The use of heavy rails, or even of good rails, in yards, is very generally 
assumed to be unnecessary and uneconomical in view of the severity of the 
service and wear, and this is one reason for the dilapidated yard tracks - 
which are. so common. The fact that good heavy rails will reduce the 
wear of both tires and rails in yards as well as on the open road, and that 
the expenses of maintenance of track and equipment will be correspond- 
ingly reduced, have probably never occurred to many officials, and they 
have felt that it would be waste of money and material to put such rails in 
their yards. The New York Central Ry. has introduced its 100-lb. rails in 
the passenger yards of the Grand Central terminal station, New York city, 
and has obtained a decided economy in track work, in conjunction with 
other advantages. The yard has about 7.86 miles of track in all: 2.3 miles 
with 100-lb. rails, 1.2 miles with 80-lb., and 4.36 miles with 60-lb. rails. 
There are 23 double slip switches, 1 single slip switch, 65 single turnouts, 
4 crossovers, and 2 crossings with rigid frogs. The tracks now laid with 
the 100-lb. rails include those carrying the heaviest traffic between the sta- 
tion tracks and the four-track main line approach, and they are equipped 
with split-switches, slip-switches, turnout frogs and crossing frogs, all of 
the 100-lb. rails. The yard is controlled entirely by interlocking plant, and 
the lever men in the main tower at first objected to the heavy switch rails, 
claiming that it would be very hard work to throw them. As a matter of 
fact, these switches are found to work even more easily than those with 
lighter rails, as the latter become bent vertically, causing them to bind on 
• the slide plates, whereas the former are stiff enough to hold their shape. 
The yard maintenance, force includes 3 track foremen, 3 track men and 30 
laborers; for maintenance of the interlocking plant there is a foreman 
with 6 repair men. 

Split switches should be used, of a uniform pattern, and the frogs should 
be as far as possible of one number. No. 7 and No. 9 frogs are largely used' 
(the former corresponding to curves of 12°), as shown by the tables in the 
appendix. Frogs of lower number should only be used in special cases, but 
it must be remembered that the easier curves of frogs of higher numbers' 
require longer leads and consequently more yard space. The Chicago, Bur- 
lington & Quincy Ry. uses a No. 7 frog in its 1 to 6 ladder tracks, putting 
a short curve beyond the point of frog. Complicated arrangements of 
switches, crossovers, etc., should be avoided. Slip-switches, though valu- 
able and often necessary, are expensive in first cost and maintenance. The 
switchstands should be of good make and kept in good order, and if the 
numbers of the tracks are painted on the switchstands or targets the work 



SIDINGS, YARDS AND TERMINALS. 213 

cf the yardmen will be much facilitated. Usually the yard switches are 
worked independently, but in a large yard with heavy traffic it may often 
be economical to concentrate all the levers for the switches of a ladder 
track, etc., in a tower, instead of operating each one on the ground. These 
need not be interlocked, and the entire interlocking of yard switching is 
impracticable on account of the complication. The concentration of levers 
will simplify the switch movements. In the large yard of the Pennsyl- 
vania Ry. at Altoona, the switches are worked by compressed air, on the 
Westinghouse electro-pneumatic system. All movements are controlled by 
push-buttons in a switch board in front of the operator, and an indicator 
shows when each car has cleared its switch. The yard entrances should be 
equipped with interlocking signals and switches to ensure facility and 
safety in the operation of traffic. An ample supply of ties, slide plates, 
etc., should be provided fcr yard switches, and the whole yard should ha 
well ballasted, well drained and kept in good condition, one or more men 
being detailed to clear up scrap iron, paper, refuse, etc. A difficulty ex- 
perienced in most yards is that of keeping the surface of the yard neat and 
free from weeds. The yard gangs have other and more important work, 
and have little time for this incidental work, with the result that the sur- 
face gets irregular, and weeds grow thickly on little used tracks, making 
the general appearance of the yard unsightly. 

The weighing of cars is a necessary and important item in yard work, but 
generally involves considerable delay and trouble. With the growing in- 
crease in the use of the tonnage rating system of making up trains, by 
actual weight of cars instead of number of cars, greater numbers of track 
scales are required. The Chicago, Lake Shore & Eastern Ry. has at its 
Chicago yard a'track scale 100 ft. long, en which all cars entering and leav- 
ing the yard are weighed. The track has a down grade of 0.5% from 100 tt. 
in front of the scales to the storage tracks. Trains are pushed to the sum- 
mit by switch engines, and each car is uncoupled and started in its turn, 
passing over the scales and being caught by a brakeman as it slows down 
before reaching the storage tracks. There is then no delay in stopping and 
starting each car on the scale. The cars are kept about 100 ft. apart, and 
in ordinary service a 40-car train can be weighed and switched in 20 min- 
utes. Reference may be made to the failure to provide proper lighting 
for the yards, night work being done under adverse conditions by the aict 
mainly of small hand lamps. It must be admitted that the proper lighti 
cf a yard is not an easy matter, owing to the interference of cars, whef • 
black shadows alternating with lighted spaces, and moving from place to 
place, may be mere dangerous than a uniform darkness to which a mavs 
eyes become more or less accustomed. Nevertheless, the matter is not im- 
possible cf solution, and there are already some few yards which are ef- 
ficiently lighted. 

The discussion in detail of the design of individual yards can be of but 
little value, since the conditions and requirements, and the nature and ex- 
tent of the traffic, are so diverse. What may be a desirable and economical 
plan at one yard may be entirely inapplicable at another. The freight yard 
of the Erie Ry. at Port Jervis, however, is shown in Fig. 144 as an illustra- 
tion of some of the points discussed. The main tracks pass through the 



214 



TRACK. 



I 1 



,V* 



dfu? 



middle of the yard, and the yard tracks ag- 
gregate 42 miles. The. receiving yard for 
eastbound trains has five receiving tracks, 
and also two gravity tracks with a grade 
of 1.25% and about 800 ft. long, or of suf- 
ficient capacity to hold an eastbound train. 
At the bottom of this track are seven classi- 
fication tracks, by which cars are sorted for 
transportation over the next division. By 
this arrangement, one man can sort 100 cars 
per day in station order. 

The yard extends between block stations 
(J G) and (B C), a distance of 2.9 miles, and 
will hold 4,200 cars. Eastbound freight 
trains generally enter the yard at (J G) and 
are left there for classification. The three 
tracks nearest the main tracks in the east- 
bound yard are also "receiving" tracks, being 
used for that purpose when those at (J G) 
are filled. In this case the trains enter the 
yard at (W X) block station. The caboose 
is cut off at (J G) or (W X)" as the" case may 
be, and allowed to run down the main track 
by gravity to a caboose siding. The cars are 
classified in the "eastbound" yard, and thence, 
taken in solid trains by yard engines to the 
"eastbound advance" yard, whence they are 
taken by road power to leave the yard at 
(B C) block station. The local cars are 
switched out and set on the four available 
tracks west of the "gravity yard," after 
which they are placed on the two "gravity" 
tracks which hold a maximum train. West- 
bound freight trains enter the yard at block 
station (P A). The cabooses are cut off 
about 1,000 ft. east of station (B C), and 
drop by gravity into the "eastbound ad- 
vance" yard, whence they are taken as re- 
quired by eastbound trains. The general 
operation of the "westbound" yard is about 
the same as that of the "eastbound," except 
that there are no gravity tracks. The track 
next to the. main track, and the one on the 
extreme outside of this yard are kept open 
to facilitate the movement of engines to and 
from the coal pockets. Westbound trains 
leave the yard at station (W X). The ar- 
rangement of the yard is fairly satisfactory, 
but like most yards in this country, it has 
been developed from time to time, without 
any special arrangement in view. 



SIDINGS, YARDS AND TERMINALS. 215 

All connections with the main tracks are at the two block stations, so 
that these tracks can be fouled only at points protected by block signals. 
At the block tower at the entrance to the yard is a fixed red light, and 
the signalman is forbidden to show the hand green light until a train has 
slowed down for the red. This effectually prevents fast running through 
the yard. At the second tower in the yard (the yard being divided into four 
block stations), there is also a fixed red signal, with a green lamp below, 
lighted by electricity. This light is switched in by the signalman when no- 
tified that the block is clear, but the key is so arranged that he cannot fix 
it to display the green continually, as may sometimes be done by careless 
signalmen when a green hand lamp is used. It will be seen that trains are 
never given a clear signal through the yard, but only the green or caution 
signal. Where the block system is not used, freight trains should be re- 
quired to stop at the yard limit sign, unless the track is plainly seen to be 
clear, and then proceed carefully into the yard, rear flagging being required 
within this limit, except when the freight train (or engine) is running on 
the time of a first-class train. 

For city freight terminals, a problem of increasing importance is that of 
not only attaining efficiency and economy in the handling of cars and 
freight, but of attaining these ends on a minimum area of ground. In 
many cases it will be economical to abandon large city yards, selling the 
land or utilizing it for more remunerative purposes, and then to establish 
outlying yards on less valuable ground, with a limited number of tracks 
leading to central freight houses. To fully develop the area of these lat- 
ter, the double deck system of freight houses, so generally used in Europe, 
may well be introduced. Cars are successfully handled on grades of 6 to 
10% at coaling stations and even 25% at coal shipping piers, and are also 
very generally handled on curves of 50 to 100 ft. radius in yards, so that 
curves, inclines and elevators will enable tracks to be operated on at least 
two stories, with several floors above, for warehouse or freight storage pur- 
poses. In regard to the economising of space in this way, English railway 
practice is largely superior to American practice. The great attention paid 
to this matter, in England, necessitated by the very high value of land, has 
enabled them to devise methods for handling enormous quantities of 
freight in city terminals of restricted area, while even the outlying and 
divisional terminals are laid out with greater care and with a greater at- 
tention to the operating side of the question than is common in this 
country. 

In freight houses on piers, with a dock on each side, from one to three 
tracks are required down the middle of the pier, with trucking space on 
the outside, between tracks and edge of pier. Where warehouses are par- 
allel with the wharf front, space can be economized by having tracks enter 
the building at the side, and run at right angles therewith or nearly so, 
and about half way across the width of the building. This method will 
give more car room, or rather more loading room, than where the track 
is parallel with the building. This is especially the case where the tracks 
are in pairs, say 12 ft. c. to c, with trucking space of 15 to 20 ft. between 
pairs, putting in as many sets of tracks as are needed. The ends of tracks 
should be within reasonable distance of wharf front to save as much as 
possible in the work of trucking, a very considerable item of expense in 



216 TRACK. 

handling freight. In Europe, hydraulic power is largely used for operating 
cranes, capstans, car elevators, turntables, etc., for handling freight at 
terminals. 

It may be said without hesitation that on nearly every railway it would 
pay to have an extended and systematic investigation made as to the con- 
struction and operation of each important yard, and as to the means by 
which increased efficiency and economy can be secured; and then to fol- 
low such an investigation by a prompt and systematic undertaking of the 
improvements which are found to be desirable and practicable. Below are 
given extracts from a comprehensive paper by Mr. W. L. Derr, Division 
Superintendent of the Erie Ry., on "Railway Yards and Terminals," which 
was published in "Engineering News," New York, June 18, 1896. This pa- 
per discussed the principles involved in yard design, and yard work, and 
the points to be specially considered in a typical design. The details of 
the design of any actual yard should conform as closely as possible to the 
general principles and rules here laid down. 

The following general proposition may be stated as a fundamental prin- 
ciple in yard working: Cars that are to be held at a yard must be kept 
apart from those in the regular movement, and separate tracks must be 
provided for the "hold" cars. To a violation of this principle, more plainly 
than to anything else, may be traced the delay to cars in yards, for, as will 
readily be seen, "hold" cars, when mixed in the regular movement, require 
a continual handling, having to be switched out every time the tracks they 
are on are worked. Yards otherwise poorly designed may often be oper- 
ated in a fairly economical manner by providing storage tracks for the 
"hold" cars, both empty and loaded. It follows that, to secure order, sep- 
arate tracks must be provided for cars of the different destinations. 

All general movements of the traffic should be forward ones, and only 
under great stress are backward movements to be made. This point can- 
not be too firmly impressed upon those designing yards, as to neglect it 
will ever after cause great delay to the yard movements. Promptness in 
moving locomotives between the yard and the engine house is necessary, 
and the tracks should be so arranged that an incoming locomotive can, af- 
ter placing its train on the receiving track, proceed immediately to the en- 
gine house. Where engines have to be changed quickly, as at division ter- 
minals in the case of the engines of passenger trains, a track should be 
placed near the changing point, for the accommodation of the incoming 
and outgoing engines. The coaling station, ashpits, sand house and water 
supply should be near the round house, and be accessible at all times. 

A freight yard, of which a typical arrangement is shown in Fig. 14F, 
should have receiving tracks of the length, each, of the longest incomi v .i? 
train, for the reception of the trains as they arrive at the yard; "poling" 
tracks, if the poling method of switching cars is practiced (where ther 
is not sufficient length of yard for poling tracks the "poling" can be donv 
direct from the receiving tracks); classification tracks — one for each classi- 
fication; advance tracks to receive cars taken from classification tracks, 
and upon which trains are to be made ready to be sent forward; short 
tracks, commonly called a "gridiron," holding from five to ten cars each, 
and used in classifying cars in station order for the division in advance; 
tracks for storing empty cars; tracks for "cripple" or damaged cars, and 



SIDINGS, YARDS AND TERMINALS. 



217 



tracks for cars with fast freight. "Poling" and 
classification tracks may be of any convenient 
lengths. For poling tracks, this would be about the 
length of an incoming train. For the shortest 
classification track, in order that switching may be 
continued during a temporary blockade of the main 
line in advance, it would be a sufficient length to 
hold the cars of that classification of several hours' 
working. Where there are advance tracks, the 
classification tracks may be. somewhat shortened, 
but it 'must be. borne in mind that the filling of 
one classification track blocks the classification of 
cars on all the others until the filled track is re- 
lieved. Spare tracks should, therefore, be. provided 
near the classification tracks. Very long yard 
tracks are not desirable, for several reasons; 
among these, are the high-speed required to pass 
cars to the extreme ends of such tracks (especially 
if the switching is done against a rising grade), 
and the great delay and consequent expense in 
returning the men to the switch engine after they 
have taken cars long distances. Separate tracks 
for stored empty cars should be provided in order 
to keep these cars out of the regular yard move- 
ment, which they would otherwise greatly com- 
plicate. 

If cars with fast freight and those with slow 
freight are handled on the same classification 
tracks, they will become mixed, causing serious 
delay to the fast freight. The latter should be 
handled on separate tracks next to the main track 
in the classification or in the advance portion of 
the yard, or, better, a set of tracks in advance of 
all the other tracks, so that the fast freight will 
always be ahead of the slower. The care of dis-. 
abled or "crippled" cars must be provided for, and 
the faster the traffic the greater the necessity for 
facilities for the prompt handling of these cars. 

The tracks for cabooses or cabin cars should be 
so located that the cabooses can be got out of the 
way quickly on their arrival at the yard and yet 
will be accessible, without undue handling, to out- 
going trains; and, if practicable, as soon as these 
cars arrive at the yard arrangements should be 
made to so place them. When there is room for it, 
a loop caboose track reaching from the receiving 
tracks, incoming, to the advance tracks, outgoing, 
will be found to be. a convenient arrangement. 
When certain trains are run regularly by one set 
of crews and others by another it will facili- 
tate matters to keep the two sets of cabooses sep- 
arate, by providing a double caboose, track. 



Signal .■ 




LI 




Advance 
Home 



Home Signal 
r Distant Signal 



218 • TRACK. 

Heavy track scales should be placed at the entrance to the classification 
tracks, so that cars can be weighed while being switched. They should 
have a separate "dead" track, permitting cars that are not to be weighed 
to be passed over without affecting the scales. The location of scales for 
local purposes, will, of course, be governed by local requirements. 

The location of the yard with reference to the main tracks is an im- 
portant matter. The yard may be placed on the outside of each main track, 
or to one side of both of the tracks, or between them. The first plan is 
objectionable on account of the necessity of crossing the main tracks in 
passing from one side of the yard to the other; and the second on account 
of the traffic in one direction crossing the other main track to get into 
the yard. The third plan, that of placing the yard between the main 
tracks, is open to neither of these objections, and, if it further provides 
for the sufficient separation of the main tracks to make room for the en- 
gine house as well, the yard movements will not foul the main tracks from 
the time the trains leave the main tracks when entering the yard until they 
come on them again when leaving the yard. Main tracks so located should, 
when practicable, be placed far enough from the yard tracks to admit of 
additional tracks being built in the space, as required. At points where 
there are yard connections with main track the connections may be so 
arranged that ordinary switching movements will not cause the main 
track to be fouled when the switch is set for the main track movements. 
This may be effected by connecting the main track and the first yard track 
with a crossover and extending the yard track a short distance beyond 
the crossover, thus forming a "run-by." The "ladder" track is generally at 
an angle to the parallel tracks equal to the angle of the frogs, Figs. 144 
and 218. When it is necessary to divide a series of parallel tracks without 
breaking their continuity, a straight ladder track with slip switches is run 
diagonally across them, the crossing of the tracks being effected by means 
of crossing frogs, and connections effected by slip switches, as in Fig. 53. 

Where there is a large number of tracks, such as classification tracks, 
it may be advisable to make the entering end of the set wedge shaped in 
order to concentrate the switches and also to lessen the wear of the frogs 
and switches by trains crossing them. For the prompt operation of switches 
on the ladder track the levers for throwing them should be grouped, so that 
they can be worked by one attendant from a central station. This is not 
only the quickest but the safest method of operating the switches, because 
it avoids such misunderstanding as is apt to ensue if more persons than one 
handle a set of switches. The levers need not necessarily be interlocked. 
The switch lights are placed on stands near the points of the switches they 
govern and are turned by the movements of the switch rails. The lamps 
are provided with lenses of two colors indicating whether the switch is set 
for the ladder or the side track. Switch lamps should be placed close to 
the ground, so that they will not conflict with any block or interlocking 
signal in their neighborhood. The principles of signaling are the same in 
yards as on the line. At the entrance to the yard the main track switches 
should be operated from a central station and be interlocked with the sig- 
nals that govern the main track movement and movements, which may 
foul the main tracks. 

Electric lighting is the best for yard illumination, provided the lights 



SIDINGS, YARDS AND TERMINALS. 219 

are located with care. Electric lights cast a deep shadow, and unless they 
are located high over the tracks the shadows of cars and buildings near by 
will be troublesome. They should never be placed near an important sig- 
nal, as their strong light obscures the weaker light of the signal. Elec- 
tric lights make the best switch lights, also, giving a much stronger light 
than oil and requiring less attention in their care and maintenance. Water 
columns should be located at the engine house, at points where switch en- 
gines work, at coal pockets (if distant from the engine house) and at the 
outgoing ends of the yard. A main with hydrants about every 200 ft. 
should be placed along the receiving tracks for the use of car inspectors 
in cooling journals and in other work. There should be fire hydrants near 
important buildings and at points where cars are stored. 

On rapid transit lines the headway, or interval between trains, is largely 
dependent on the arrangement of the terminal tracks, for in practice trains 
cannot be run on a headway less than the time used by a train entering 
and leaving a terminal. Any arrangement of track that makes it neces- 
sary to stop a train for the purpose of putting it in proper order as to 
engine or cars, or of putting it on the proper track for the outgoing trip, 
or that permits an incoming engine to be blocked in and thus necessitates 
an exchanging of engines, is defective so far as the running of trains at 
short intervals is concerned. Quick movements can best be made by ar- 
ranging for the forward movement of the trains in all cases, and avoiding 
the necessity of having the traffic in one direction cross the traffic in the 
other direction. 

The "loop" plan of track is the only one that fulfills the desired condi- 
tions. The loop, which is simply a circular track connecting the incoming 
and outgoing tracks, forms a continuous track to permit trains to pass 
from an incoming to an outgoing track by direct forward movement. No 
change in the arrangement of the train is necessary, and the locomotive 
is always run in the forward motion. By any other plan it is necessary 
either to run the engine backward (thus placing the engineman on the 
off side, away from stations and signals) during one-half its entire mile- 
age, or else to turn the engine at the end of each run. In addition to the 
main line loop a sufficient number of tracks should be provided along it, 
or at least not far from it, for the purpose of storing the engines and cars 
which it is necessary to keep at the terminal. These additional tracks 
should be connected at both ends with the main track. Their exit ends 
should be far enough back of the. starting station to make it unnecessary 
for a train, after pulling out, to back up in order to reach the station. 
The loop plan with forward movements, in Fig. 146, is, perhaps, the ideal 
loop track for this purpose, no backward movement being necessary in 
handling the ordinary traffic, either in passing from the main track to the 
side track or in returning to the main track from the side track. At points 
where there is not room for a loop, space should be reserved for terminal 
tracks of the usual order. If the room is so limited that even these cannot 
be accommodated, a trailing crossover should connect the two main 
tracks about an engine length from the end of the incoming track, so that 
an arriving engine can get out of the way without having to move against 
incoming trains or without having to wait for the train that it brought to 
be taken away. There should be another crossover a train length farther 



220 



TRACK. 



back to admit of the passage of trains from the incoming to the outgoing 
track. 

Items which make up the cost of yard operation are, besides interest on 
capital invested and depreciation, the cost of yard engine repairs and sup- 
plies, wages of yard enginemen, yard firemen, switchmen, yardmasters, 
signalmen, telegraph operators, way bill clerks and of trackmen, a percent- 
age of general office expenses and of wages of train dispatchers, the cost 
of material used in track repairs, and the cost of labor and material used 
in the repairs of cars damaged in the yard. 

Sand Track. 

A sand track for stopping runaway cars and trains has its rails covered 
with sand, which rapidly absorbs the momentum on the treads and flanges 
of the wheels run into it. This system is used instead of derails at two 
junction points on the Chicago loop elevated electric railway, the length of 
track covered being about 100 ft. This will receive and stop trains which 
may pass home signals indicating "stop." The faces of the outside and 
inside guard timbers (6x8 ins. flat and 6 x 6 ins.) are both 6 ins. from the 
gage side of the rail head, and a trough is formed by 2-in. planks wedged 




Fig. 146.— Loop Terminals for Rapid Transit Railways. 

between the timbers and the bottom of the rail web, the joints being 
tarred. The sand just covers the rail head. 

In the Friedrichstadt gravity switching yard at Dresden, Germany, about 
20 sand tracks were installed for stopping cars in ordinary switching work, 
few cars having hand brakes. The grade of the switching tracks is 1%, 
and the resistance with 2 ins. of sand is about 0.0625% of the load, so that 
the sand track can take care of cars at a velocity of 14 miles per hour. 
The cars on the two gravity tracks of 1.8% down grade, leading from the 
gridirons of the classification tracks to the train tracks, are controlled 
by portable stop blocks (Fig. 135), which are placed upon the rails as re- 
quired, men being stationed for that purpose. It was desired, however, to 
provide some means of stopping cars or trains which might get beyond 
control on the grade, so as to prevent damage to the cars, the freight 
or the yardman, and to prevent the possibility of collision with trains in 
the yard at the foot of the grade. For this purpose a sand track was 
adopted, gantleted with the running track, as shown in Fig. 147. The- 



SIDINGS, YARDS AND TERMINALS. 



221 



latter track has main line rails laid on thick tie-plates, while the former 
has lighter rails, giving a difference of about 1.05 in. in height. Guard 
timbers are placed on each side of the lighter rail, and the space between 
them is filled with sand, covering the head of the rail by about 2 ins. for 
a distance of about 1,150 ft. If a car gets away, a yardman throws the 
switch of the sand track and the car is promptly stopped, while it is easily 
hauled back. On one occasion a freight train of 27 cars (with 55 axles), 
weighing 417 tons with engine and tender, got beyond control on the 1.8% 
grade, in spite of having brakemen on eight cars. It was diverted onto the 
sand track while running at about 30 miles an hour, arjd ran for 328 ft. over 
a thin layer of sand and 738 ft. over a 2-in. layer. After the train was 
stopped, the sand was cleared away and the train then ran on through 
the lower switch to the running track. The ends of the tracks in the 



| . ''Sand Track Rail 


. ; 


i 'Sand Track Rail. 

1 Plan. 


z*H" 




1^ 




f 


lig 






K-(?."7l->) 
i 1 


~ 1 




1 

E 


- 14" 
ilarge 


1 
7 ~*j 

i Cross Si 


ction 





Fig. 147.— Sand Track for Stopping Runaway Cars. 

Dresden passenger station are covered with sand, as an auxiliary to the 
buffer stops or bumpers, but this involves a loss of track room, as trains 
must normally stop before reaching the sand track. 



CHAPTER 13.— TRACK TOOLS AND SUPPLIES. 



The tools used in track work are an important item in the proper main- 
tenance of way, and they should be of first-class quality, as these need 
cost but little more than inferior tools, while they do better work and have 
greater durability. It is bad practice and false economy to purchase the 
cheapest tools obtainable, and to neglect to see that the tools are properly 
and carefully used. The use of steel instead of iron enables the weight 
to be reduced in many cases, without reducing the strength or efficiency of 
the tools, and thus increasing the facility with which they can be handled. 
Tools with parts subject to wear should be bought under a guarantee that 
these parts are interchangeable. 

Each section gang should have a complete equipment of the necessary- 
tools and supplies. Special tools, of which only a few are required, such 
as rail saws, rail benders, etc. (averaging 1 to 50 miles of track), should 
be kept at division headquarters or other convenient points. Some roads 
also keep cross-cut saws, wheelbarrows, scoop shovels, etc., at these points, 
to be sent out to the section gangs for temporary use as required. A few 



222 j TRACK 

spare frogs and switch rails are usually kept at such points for emergency 
use. Two extra jacks on a division will usually be sufficient, but the New 
York, New Haven & Hartford Ry. has a special gang to do all work 
requiring the use of jacks, as noted below. On each division there will 
be a velocipede or inspection car for the roadmaster, and one for the en- 
gineer. There may also be the following for each division or a certain num- 
ber of divisions: (1) A ditching car, with blades and mold boards for clean- 
ing ditches and trimming ballast to the standard cross section; (2) A 
spreader car for leveling earth and ballast in widening banks, double track- 
ing, etc.; (3) A steam derrick car of 8 to 12 tons capacity (and hoisting 
velocity of 1 ft. per second) for handling stone, lumber, etc., in emergency 
work or repairs; (4) a pile driver car; (5) a flanging car; (6) a snow 
plow; (7) a wrecking train. At division headquarters there should be a 
repair shop for repairing tools, frogs, and switches; for making guard rails, 
and for sawing and drilling rails for such work as can be done away from 
the place where it is to be used. 

There should be a good supply of tools maintained constantly in the 
storekeeper's charge, so as to be ready to equip an increase of force in case 
of emergency, such as a flood, washout, snowstorm, landslide, wreck, etc. 
An accumulation of odds and ends of old articles and tools in the store- 
room or the section tool house should be vigorously fought against. The 
cars of wrecking trains should always be kept fully equipped. Extra gangs 
will be equipped on the requisition of the division roadmaster, who will 
be held responsible for the return of the tools to the storekeeper. Road- 
masters and foremen should see that no unserviceable tools are kept on 
hand, but that when damaged or broken they are sent at once for repair, 
or requisitions made for new ones. The section foreman is held responsible 
for all the tools issued for the use of his gang, and it is a good plan to 
have the tools of each gang plainly stamped with the number of the sec- 
tion. A close check should be kept on all tools issued, and not more issued 
than are*properly required by the section, while, except for an increase of 
force, new tools should not be issued until those worn out or broken are 
returned, their disposal properly accounted for, or a satisfactory reason 
given for requiring the additional tools. A car should be sent over the 
division every month to pick up broken and surplus tools to be sent to the 
storekeeper, and the same car may collect the scrap from the section houses. 

There should be some organized system for sending tools by train be- 
tween the section and the shop or store. The ordinary tag on a bundle of 
tools is likely to be torn off or to have the address obliterated, and if this 
occurs on a bundle sent to the shop, the tools are either held or are sent 
cut to some other gang, while the section to which they belong suffers 
from the delay. A good plan is to have brass disks or checks, like baggage 
checks, with the number of the section and name of station for that sec- 
tion stamped on one side, and the address of the shop on the other side. 
Two slots are cut at opposite edges for a leather strap, so that the. strap 
can be slipped through to cover one side of the check, leaving the other 
side exposed to show the address to which the tools are to be sent. The 
checks for different divisions can be made of different shapes. The fore- 
man should take a receipt from the station agent for tools shipped. The 
carying out of these check systems and the enforcement of the rules 



TRACK TOOLS AND SUPPLIES. 223 

above mentioned, will check carelessness, and result in a greater efficiency 
and economy as compared with the haphazard systems in force on some 
roads. Gages and levels should be periodically tested for accuracy. On the 
New York Central Ry. they are required to be sent in October to the Di- 
vision Engineer to be compared with the standard in his office. They are 
then painted a distinctive color, so that roadmasters can see if the. fore- 
men have, had these tools tested. 

Each section should have a full equipment of good tools to supply every 
man, and some extra of such tools as have occasionally to be sent to the shop 
for dressing or repair. The number cf these extra tools will depend upon 
the method of handling repair work and the frequency of the repairs re- 
quired. The number of such extra tools should be specified by the road- 
master, and the extra tools should not be put in use until the regular 
ones have to be repaired or renewed. For sections having stone ballast 
it is recommended that there should be two tamping picks at the repair 
shops (or en their way there) for every pick in service. There shoulct 
be a shovel for each man and the foreman, and two extra shovels. Proper 
supplies and appliances, oil, lamps, etc., should also be furnished, and all ap- 
pliances not in regular use should be kept ready for service. The section 
house, lockers, etc., should be kept locked when not in use. 

The foreman should see that the tools are taken care of, and properly 
used, not left on or between the rails, and not used for other purposes than 
those for which they were intended. He should also see that all tools and* 
appliances are clear cf the track before each train, and that the men do 
not wait until the last moment before quitting work in front of a train. 
Bars should not be thrown aside into the grass, where they are difficult 
to find, but should be stuck in the ground. Tools having bearings or 
cutting edges should not be thrown about on the ballast, where they are 
liable to damage by striking stones or other tools. The tools should al- 
ways be taken to the section house at night, and not left out en the road- 
way. At the section house the tools should be placed en racks and shelves, 
or in tool boxes, and the sharp-edged tools kept carefully separated from 
the others. A little firm exercise of authority in disciplining the men as 
to the care and use of tools will result beneficially to the company. 

Such tccls as picks, bars, mauls, etc., are frequently made at the com- 
pany's blacksmith shops, although they can usually be purchased ready- 
made almost as cheaply. The cost, however, varies with the skill of the 
men and the shop facilities, and whether the tools are made from new ma- 
terial or from the scrap heap of bridge rods, old tools, etc., always col- 
lected arcund a railway blacksmith shop. As a general thing, however, 
it is best to keep the scrap pile small and to purchase tools from reliable 
makers. The best design cf tool should be aimed at, to secure the best 
service, and it is well to have as few different styles or makes of the 
same tool as possible. Clawbars and other heavy tools are often un- 
necessarily heavy, and of defective shape, while shovels are often too heavy 
and awkward to enable the men to do their best work with them. The 
desirability of adopting standard designs of track tools has been recognized 
by the roadmasters' associations, and some standard designs have been 
officially adopted, but the actual adoption cf these standards in service v 
appears to make but slow progress, as individual roadmasters apparently 



224 



TRACK. 



still prefer their own familiar styles of tools, although they may have 
voted in favor of standard designs on general principles. Tamping ma- 
chines have been tried experimentally. 

For an ordinary section gang the equipment given in Table No. 15 will 
be generally sufficient, but, as shown, it varies on different roads, accord- 
ing to the ballast and other conditions of the track, as well as to the char- 
acter, and amount of the traffic. Ballast hammers, forks, and tamping picks 
are not needed with gravel or soft ballast. Besides the tools, each section 
will usually have about 50 to 100 bolts, 100 nutloeks, 200 spikes, 5 lbs. of 
nails, 5 lbs. of fence staples, 6 or 8 angle bars and a few extra pick or 
hammer handles. On a section where rocks are liable to fall, the equipment 
should include tools to facilitate their removal, such as rock drills or jump- 
ers, stone wedges, blasting powder and fuse. When a special watchman is 
detailed to look after a dangerous rock cut, sliding bank, etc., he should 
be provided with a wheelbarrow, pick, shovel, ballast hammer, two flags 
or lamps, and torpedoes or fusees. 



TABLE NO. 15.— TOOL EQUIPMENT FOR SECTION GANGS. 



Article. 



Chic. 



N.W. 

2 



-Railways 



Spiking mauls . . 
Hammers: 

Ballast 

Trackwalker's . . 

Nail 1 

Sledges 1 

Tamping bars .... 8 
Lining bars: 

Chisel point 

Diamond: point. . . 6 

Pinch bars 1 

Claw bars 2 

Spike puller 1 

Picks 8 

Tamping picks 

Scoops 6 

Shovels 7 

Snow 

Long-handled 

Ballast forks 

Axes 1 

Adzes „ 2 

Hatchets 1 

Track wrenches . . 4 
Trackwalker's 

wrench 

Monkey wrench .. 1 

Punch 1 

Ratchet drill ..... 

Brace 1 

Files 

Chisels 6 

Hand saw 1 

Cross-cut saw 

Scythes and snaths 7 



111. 

Erie. Cent. 
4 3 



N.Y., 

N. H. 
&H. 



Article. 

Bush hooks 

Grub hoes 

Rakes 

Hand car ; . . . 

Push car 

Track jack 

Track gage 

Center gage 

Level board 

Spirit level 

Tie square 

Rail tongs 

Tape line, 50 ft 

Ditch line, 100 ft.. 
Wire stretcher 
Padlock and chain. 

Oil can 

Oiler 

Brooms 

Grindstones 

Scythestones 

Wheelbarrows 

W. pail and dipper 
Water kegs .'..... 
W-wash brushes. . . 

Tool boxes 

Red flags 

Green flags 

White flags 

Lanterns: Red 

Green 

White 

Torpedoes 

Shims 

Spike-hole plugs. . 



Chic. 

& 
N.W. 

2 

i 

i 
l 
l 

i 

i 
l 



-Railways- 



N.Y., 

111. N. H. 
Erie. Cent. & H. 
1 



4 
24 

Yes. 
1,000 



1 

3 

3 

3 

4 

3 

5 

12 

2,000 

1,000 



Chicago & Northwestern Ry. — This list is not a standard, but represents 
the equipment of a gang of 7 men (including foreman) on a 3y 2 -mile sec- 
tion on a double-track division with gravel ballast. There are two rail 
benders on the division, and instead of giving a ratchet drill to each sec- 
tion, there are three good drills which are sent out as required. Shims 
and tie-plugs are also furnished as needed. No grub hoes are used on this 
division, as the right of way is clear. A tool-box is only furnished to the 
extra gang. 



TRACK TOOLS AND SUPPLIES. 



225 



Illinois Central Ry. — The equipment listed in the table is for a gang of 
7 men (including the foreman) on a single-track section 6 miles long, with 
stone ballast. The list varies on different sections according to local con- 
ditions. 

Erie Ry. — The list represents the equipment for a gang of 8 men (includ- 
ing foreman) on a double-track section 5 miles long, with gravel ballast. 
The ratchet drill has four 1-in. bits and the brace has three %-in. bits. 
Each division has a rail bender at the shops. 

New York, New Haven & Hartford Ry. — The equipment in the list is for 
a four-track section with 9 men (including foreman). No jacks are al- 
lowed, as their use on main line is prohibited except in case of emergency, 
when they are handled by an extra gang. The track wrenches are of the 
double-end pattern, and the ratchet drill has %-m. bits. The equipment 
also includes an elevator block. 

Description of Tools. 

Hammers. — The spiking maul of the Pennsylvania Ry., Fig. 148, has a 
head 13 ins. long, 2x2 ins. square at the middle and tapering to 1% ins. dia- 
meter at the ends. Its weight is 11 lbs. Another form is shown in Fig. 
149. The head is fitted to a straight wooden handle about 3 ft. long. The 
ballast or napping hammer, Fig. 150, is for breaking stone ballast, and is 
7 ins. long, 1% ins. diameter at the ends, and weighs 4 lbs. 3 oz. A lighter 




D 


v; 


* 1 \ 

8 






J •<-£? 


V J 




CD 




L 




r )J 




_,/» 


\ 


1 




17 J \ 


lbs. | 


Weight ! IS 


[( ~\ ' 



Fig. 14-9. 



Fig. 148 



Track Tools. 



one, 6% ins. long, weighs 3 lbs. The trackwalker's hammer, Fig. 151, has a 
long head with a short handle. One end is curved and either finished to a 
point or to a 1%-in. chisel edge. The weight is about 14 lbs. The sledge 
has a short heavy head, set on a long, straight handle. It is used for knock- 
ing out ties and for striking track chisels, and foremen should see that 
spike mauls are not used for such purposes. The head, Fig. 152, is octag- 
onal, with circular ends 2y 2 ins. diameter, and weighs 12 to 15 lbs. 

Tamping Bar. — For tamping ballast (except stone or slag), a bar is used 






226 



TRACK. 



about 5% ft. long, weighing about 12 lbs. Two forms are shown in Figs. 
153 and 154, the latter being the form adopted as standard by the Road- 
masters' Association of America. The bar is generally of %-in. round iron, 
straight, with a flat piece 6 ins. long and 4 ins. wide, %-in. thick at the edge, 
welded on at an angle of 24°, so as to strike well under the tie. The upper 
end should be flattened to a chisel edge 2 ins. wide. Some bars have the 
lower end bent, made %-in. square, and having a tamping head Sy 2 ins. 




wide and %-in. thick. A larger diameter gives a better grasp for the hand, 
and in some cases a gas pipe handle is used to increase the diameter with- 
out increasing the weight. 

Lining Bar. — For lining and throwing track, a straight bar is used, Fig. 
155, generally about 5 ft. 6 ins. long, weighing 22 to 30 lbs., and tapering 
from ly 2 ins. square at the lower end to %-in. diameter at the top. A weight 
of about 24 lbs. is sufficient in a well made bar. The smaller end should be 
formed with a sharp diamond point, and the square (or lower) end should 



TRACK TOOLS AND SUPPLIES. 



227 



have a l^-in. chisel edge for about 3 ins. In throwing track, the flat end of 
the bar is driven into the ballast, and two men can take hold of it. In some 
cases the pinch bar serves as a lining bar, as it answers very well for the 
purpose and thus saves the expense and trouble of extra bars. 

Pinch or Raising Bar. — This is used for heavy lifting and prying up, and 
for raising and holding a tie for spiking or for slight raising of track, rais- 
ing low joints, etc., although on some roads the track jack is used even for 
raising track very slight amounts. The bar, Fig. 156, is 5 ft. to 8 ft. long, 
weighing 26 to 40 lbs., and tapering from V-/ 2 or 1%, ins. square at the 
lower end to %-in., or 1-in. diameter at the top. The lower end is chisel 
shaped for about 3 ins., but sometimes the front face is vertical, only the 
back face of the chisel edge being inclined, while in the lining bar, Fig. 155, 



Fig. 154. — Tamping Bar. 




Fig. 175.— Tamping Puddle. 



t<5X^*** 



Fig. 162.— Clawbar. 
Standard Forms of Tools Recommended by the Roadmasters' Association of America. 

both faces are inclined. The end of the pinch bar is sometimes straight, 
but is more useful when slightly curved outward so as to get a good hold, 
and form a fulcrum when prying. 

Holding-Up Bar. — In spiking rails it is customary to hold the tie up to 
the rail by a bar (or two bars) placed under the tie end, the holder-up either 
pulling up on the bar, or using a block for bait and bearing down on the 
bar. This is usually very ineffective, as in the former case the bar will 
sink in the ballast, and in the latter case much time is wasted in getting 
and setting the "bait" block; while the man will allow the bar to "give" 
every time a blow is struck on the spike. A handy tool which effects a 
considerable saving of time and labor in this work is a holding-up bar, Fig. 



228 TRACK. 

157. This is a pinch-bar with an inclined sharp, chisel-edged lower end to 
fit under the tie, or to bite into its side. To one side of the bar is pivoted 
an angle shaped piece, the horizontal part of which bears on the top of the 
rail, the bar being parallel with the rail. When the holder-up bears down 
on the end of the bar (which is parallel with the rail), he presses the tie 
up and the rail down, thus holding them firmly for the spiker. A shovel 
should never be used for holding up ties. 

Bridge Bars. — Special bars are used for bridge work and two of the forms 
used on the Illinois Central Ry. are shown in Figs. 158 and 159. The for- 
mer is for sounding and moving timber. The latter is for pulling out head- 
less drift bolts, the shackle being slipped over the bolt and a bait block 
put under the heel of the bar to act is a fulcrum. 

Clawbars.- — For pulling spikes, a clawbar is generally used, ranging from 
4% ft. to 6 ft. in length, and weighing from 22 to 30 lbs. It is made in a 
variety of patterns, the body of the bar being usually about 1% ins. square 
at the ends, then 1% ins. octagonal and then of circular section tapering 
to 1-in. diameter at the top. Three forms of clawbar are shown in Figs. 
160, 161 and 162. The lower end is curved outward at an angle of about 45°, 
and has a broad chisel edge with a notch to take the neck of the spike, the 
edge being struck under the back of the spike head. The distance from 
the point of the claw to the back of the bar is about 4 ins., and a block or 
"bait" is put at the back to serve as a fulcrum. Sometimes the back of the 
bar has a curved projection or heel to avoid the use of "bait," the distance 
from point of claw to back of heel being about 5 ins. Another form of bar, 
known as the "bull-nose" bar, has the lower ejid curved outward for a 
height of 6 or 8 ins., the radius being 5 or- 6 ins. and the distance from edge 
of claw to back of bar being 4 to 6% ins. T/he "gooseneck" clawbar has the 
lower end bent backward and then forward again in a reverse curve so as 
to give a long leverage in pulling, but as the claw is then nearly flat or at 
right angles with the bar, it cannot be struck under the spike head so well 
as a claw of 45°. For this reason it is best to use both kinds if much spike 
pulling is to be done, using the straight bar to start the spikes and the 
"gooseneck" bar to pull them out. In this way two men with bars can do 
more work and injure fewer spikes than one man with a straight bar, and 
another man to Jiold "bait." The clawbar adopted by the Roadmasters' 
Association of America, Fig. 162, is 5 ft. long, weighs 30 lbs. and has a 
curved chisel point at the upper end. The claw end has a spread of 5% ins. 
from point to back of heel, 6 ins. above the point. In using these bars care 
should be taken not to bend the spikes, a matter which is very often neg- 
lected by the foreman. If the spike is so driven that it is difficult to get 
hold of the head with the clawbar, it is better to chop away the wood with 
the sharp end of the bar, than to hammer the back of the claw to force it 
onto the spike. 

Spike Pullers. — For pulling spikes in such places as on elevated railways, 
where the guard rails prevent the use of the ordinary clawbar; or at frogs 
and switches, on bridges and at stations, where these bars cannot well be 
used, a special form of bar or a spike-puller must be used. Fig. 163 shows 
a bar used on the South Side Elevated Ry., Chicago (whose track cross sec- 
tion is shown in Fig. 94), this bar having a loose hinged tongue and being 
worked parallel with the rails. The Manhattan Elevated Ry., of New York, 



TRACK TOOLS AND SUPPLIES. 



229 



uses two forms of bars, as shown in Figs. 164 and 165. The shackle bar 
was devised by some of the employees and works very satisfactorily. The 
Verona spike puller, Fig. 166, has a rigid jaw which is slipped under the 
sides of the spike head, and a vertical stem with two projections to give a 
grip for a heeled clawbar, the heel of which rests upon the rail. This 
weighs about 1 lb. The Prout spike puller consists of a heeled bar with two 
loose claws hanging in front to catch the sides of the neck of the spike, 
while a bearing piece at the back rests on the tie and forms a bearing for 
the curved heel of the bar which rests on the rail head. The Welsh spike 
and bolt puller has pivoted claws, whose rear ends form a toggle engaging 




Fig. 173. 
Weight \a{ lbs. 




Track Tools. 

with a wedge in the heel of the bar, so that as the weight comes upon the 
heel the claws are forced to grip the spike. The movable jaws enable vari- 
ous sizes of spikes or drift bolts to be pulled. 

Chisel and Punch. — Cold chisels used for cutting steel rails must be of 
good material, well made and w r ell tempered, if they are to do much work. 
If too hard, they will break in use, especially in cold weather; while if too 
soft, they soon become dull and blunt. In winter it is well to warm them 
before using, and to strike the first" few blows lightly. When only slightly 
dulled, and retaining their temper, they may be sharpened on the grind- 
stone, but otherwise they must be sent to the shop. A good chisel should 
cut three or four rails, and the work should be done carefully, so as to 
damage the rail as little as possible. It is very bad practice to notch the 
rail with a chisel and then drop it on a block to break it, but sometimes 
the head is cut with a portable saw and the work finished with the chisel. 
Two forms of chisels are shown in Figs. 167 and 168, the latter being that 
adopted by the Roadmasters' Association of America, Fig. 168. The handle 
should be about 18 ins. long, so that the man holding it will be out of the 
way of the hammer. A properly made and fitted handle should be used, 
and not any rough stick that is handy. The steel track or rail punch for 



230 TRACK. 

hand use, shown in Fig. 169, weighs about 4% lbs. The head is about 8 
ins. long, 11-16-in. square at the cutting end, which has a beveled face. 

Wrench. — The ordinary track wrench is usually a steel die forging, about 
15 to 24 ins. long, weighing 5 lbs. The handle is of 1-in. diameter, having 
one end flattened out for the jaw, and the other end shaped to a chisel edge 
or tapered to %-in. diameter to put through the holes of rails and splice 
bars to bring them together. The jaws should have four sides, to conform 
in shape to a hexagon nut, and to fit a square nut. Figs. 170 and 171 show 
an ordinary and a double-end or S-wrench. Long-handled wrenches are 
sometimes used, but with a handle more than 26 ins. long a careless man 
can apply such force as to strip the threads of the nut or bolt. 

Rail Fork and Rail Tongs. — These are used for carrying and handling 
rails. The fork, Fig. 172, resembles a long wrench, but with a slot % x 4 
ins. to receive the rail web or flange. The tongs are shown in Fig. 173, and 
are usually held by two men. 

Picks. — Ordinary picks have heads about 2 ft. 2 ins. to 2 ft. 6 ins. long, 
weighing 7 lbs., and are fitted with straight wooden handles about 3 ft. 
long. The best picks have heads of solid cast steel, which will not split 
in the eye, but those made in railway shops are usually of iron, with cast 
steel ends welded on. The best refined iron should be used. A clay pick 
is about 1 x iy 2 ins. at the eye, and one end is pointed, while the other end 
has a chisel edge iy 8 ins. wide. The patent "eyeless" pick is made of a 
steel bar, having a malleable iron socket at the middle to which the handle 
is attached by a bolt. There should be three picks to every two men in the 
gang, to allow of their being sent to the shops for repair. The tamping 
pick, used for tamping stone and slag ballast, resembles the ordinary clay 
pick, except that one end has a flat tamping head. A steel pick 25 ins. long 
weighs about Sy 2 lbs. Fig. 174 shows the form adopted by the Roadmas- 
ters' Association of America. In another form the tamping end has the 
head gradually widening to shape from the eye, instead of having the plain 
shank with tamping head. 

Tamping Puddle. — This is used for tamping gravel, cinders, sand and 
dirt ballast, and resembles the half of a tamping pick, the weight being 
about 5 lbs. The form adopted by the Roadmasters' Association of America 
is shown in Fig. 175. 

Shovels and Forks. — Shovels of various forms are used for tamping 
and ditching, and for handling gravel, cinders, snow, etc. A good shovel is 
made from one piece of crucible cast steel, No. 12 gage, properly tempered, 
and having the straps strengthened by a taper socket for the handle ex- 
tending about 2 ins. above the blade. The top should also be strengthened 
to prevent the breaking or splitting of the blade. Tamping shovels have 
blades approximately square and flat, about 10 x 2 ins. The handle is about 
30 ins. long, and the total weight of the shovel about 7 lbs. In sand and 
gravel ballast the section-men will often tamp with the handles of their 
shovels instead of with the tamping bars, thus wearing and breaking the 
handles. The Shaw combined shovel and tamping bar was invented to 
provide for this practice, and has an iron shield over the wooden handle. 
Tamping shovels with malleable iron heads on the wooden handles are 
also used occasionally. Worn shovels may have the edges sharpened and 
be used for cutting weeds. Scoops are large full shovels for handling coal, 



TRACK TOOLS AND SUPPLIES. 231 

cinders, snow, etc. For digging post holes, long-handled shovels are used, 
having straight handles 4 ft. to 4 ft. 6 ins. long. Post-hole augers may 
also be used by a fencing gang. Special forms of long-handled shovels 
are used for deep holes for telegraph poles, and various forms of ditching 
spades are also supplied where there is much work of this character. Large 
flat wooden shovels are convenient for handling snow in yards. For hand- 
ling stone or slag ballast it is well to use forks (like stable forks), having 
eight to ten tines or prongs, as this will eliminate the dirt or fine material 
which would be put into the track if shovels were used. The New York, 
New Haven & Hartford Ry. uses eight-pronged forks for handling stone 
ballast, furnishing one to each sectionman, an ordinary shovel being also 
furnished to each man for handling the finer stone and for ditching, etc. 

Scythes and Hoes. — For clearing the right-of-way, etc., scythes and spe- 
cial tools are necessary, according to the material to be dealt with. The 
railway scythe for cutting coarse grass and light weeds, is slightly heavier 
than the common grass scythe. The bramble scythe is still heavier and the 
brush scythe is shorter and stouter. The bush hook is a stout straight 
blade with a curved end, used for cutting bushes, and is fitted to a straight 
axe handle. The grub hoe is useful in cutting roots, grubbing heavy soil, 
etc., preparatory to new work, and is also handy in ditching and for re- 
moving tough grass and weeds from the side of the track. It is about 16 
ins. long, with two 314-in. cutting edges, one horizontal like an adze, the 
other vertical like an axe. The head weighs about 5 to 6 lbs., and has an 
eye to which is fitted a pick handle. Long-handled weed hoes are advisable 
where much weed cutting has to be done, as they are operated much more 
easily than shovels and save much back ache, thus enabling the work to be 
done quicker and to better advantage. This tool resembles a garden hoe, 
with a rather long blade set at about 150° from the handle. 

Track Gage. — This tool is to give the required distance between rail heads 
in track laying, and to test the accuracy of the gage on existing tracK. 
Home-made gages with bars of seasoned oak or ash are used on nearly 

l inn"* -^V l^'square-.. Vv'eiqnf, 8^ lbs. 

t___ _^^^_^ o _o_ g / „.., , ^nnr~-~i 

White Oak. 
/ "das Pipe Weight, IBJbs. 

li'iii'h'iiiiiiiiiiix- <m<iiimww^m\\\ 



Shrunk on Ends and Riveted. !_F 

L^ Gas Pipe. en«,.n**&. 

Fig. 176.— Track Gages. 

every road, and have an advantage over iron gages in that they are not 
appreciably affected by temperature and are not liable to become bent 
(and consequently inaccurate). On the whole, however, an iron gage is 
probably preferable, but it cannot be used on roads having a track circuit 
for a block signal system, as it short-circuits the current and affects the 
signals in the same way as the wheels and axles of a train. This has led 
to a more extended use of gages with wooden bars, but of better construc- 
tion than many of the old styles. In Fig. 176 are shown gages having steel 



232 TRACK. 

ends riveted to a white oak bar, and similar ends shrunk upon and riveted 
to a gas-pipe bar. To ensure rapidity and accuracy in testing the gage of 
the track, one end of the tool has a steel fork with two lugs, so that when 
both lugs are in contact with the gage or line rail the bar will be truly at 
right angles to this rail and the other lug will give the accurate position 
for the other rail. This is a similar arrangement to that of the well-known 
Huntington gage. The circular gage has at one or both ends an iron 
bracket curved to the radius of half the gage of track, so that it gives the 
correct width of gage even if the bar is not at right angles to the rails. On 
double track, a gage about 7 ft. long is used to test the gage relative to the 
center stakes. The gage invented by Mr. E. H. McHenry, Chief Engineer of 
the Northern Pacific Ry., provides for widening the gage on curves. At one 
end are pivoted five plates of %-in. steel, which are normally held up by a 
clamp. One plate is turned down for each 3° of curvature, giving a maxi- 
mum gage of 4 ft. 9%-ins for a 15° curve. On transition curves, two plates 
are turned down for each 3°. 

Track Level. — This tool is for ascertaining whether the rails are in the 
same horizontal plane in tangents, or whether the outer rail has the proper 
elevation on curves. One form of the track level is a 1% or ly 2 -m. board, 
by 2 to 2>y 2 ft. long, with a handle or hand-hole, and having a spirit level let 
into the top or side. One end is made with steps or offsets whose depth is 
equal to the elevation of outer rail for curves of different degrees, so that 
on a curve the spirit bubble is level when the bottom edge of the board is 



Fig. 177.— Track Level and Gage; Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg Ry. 

on the inner rail and the proper offset is on the outer rail. The gage of this 
style used on the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg Ry. is shown in Pig. 177. 
The board is 9 ins. deep for a length of 5y 2 ft., and then stepped off in off- 
sets y 2 -m high and 2% ins. long. This gives an elevation of 1 in. per degree 
up to and including 5°, and then %-in. per degree up to a maximum of 7 
ins. The offsets and the opposite edge of the board are shod with brass. 
The board is lightened by three openings about 5 x 12 ins., and has a spirit 
level at each end. A track level invented by Mr. McHenry, Chief Engineer 
of the Northern Pacific Ry., has at one end a steel blade moving in a verti- 
cal slot in the wooden bar. The edge of this is ground to an involute curve, 
and each face is graduated, the plate being adjusted by a thumbscrew. The 
level can be raised to give the full superelevation of 6 ins. while keeping 
the contact point of the plate constantly at the same relative position on 
the rail. The Sheffield duplex level has an arm pivoted at the center of the 
bar or board and resting against it. This has a spirit level on top, and the 
end forms a pointer moving over a scale on the side of the bar. When the 
arm is moved to set the pointer at any part of the scale, the spirit bubble 
will be level when the outer rail is raised the corresponding amount. 

An excellent form of level board, which is also at once a track gage, 
guard-rail gage and track level, is shown in Fig. 178. It is a wooden board 
1x4 ins., faced with an iron strip 3-16-in. thick extending over the bottom 



TRACK TOOLS AND SUPPLIES. 



233 



edge, gage lugs and ends, and secured by screws. The length over all is 
5 ft. 5% ins. The gage of track and guard rails is measured respectively- 
over the outside and inside of the lugs, as shown, the lugs being 2 ins. deep 
and 1% ins. to 1% ins. wide. At the middle of the board is a hand-hole, 
with a spirit level tube set in the lower seat. At one end of the board is a 
plate sliding vertically in dovetailed guides, and held at any position by a 
nut on a %-in. bolt. A graduated scale is marked on the slide, and in test- 
ing the superelevation of curves the slide is lowered to the amount of ele- 
vation required, this end of the level being then placed on the inside or low 
rail, and the outer rail then raised or lowered until the spirit level-bubble 
is in the center of the tube. By the attachment of a straight rod 3% ft. 
long, held in position at the gage, line by a semicircular arc, this tool is a 
great assistance in lining tangents. By making the iron strip in two pieces, 
separated by a space of about 2 ins. at the middle, the tool is sufficiently 
insulated to enable it to be used on roads having automatic signals operated 
by track circuits. The device was designed by Mr. J. W. Galbreath, Chief 
Engineer of the West Virginia Central & Pittsburg Ry., specially for the 
use of the track supervisors, but it was found to be so useful that it was 
made in somewhat lighter form and put in the hands of all the section 
foremen. For leveling one track with another, level boards 12 to 15 ft. long 




II 

Section 
A-B. 

LUri/Sr*,! Section C : D. 

Fig. 178.— Track Level and Gage; West Virginia & Pittsburg Ry. 

are used. The Boston & Maine Ry. gage is 14 ft. long, % x 6 ins., with strips 
% x 2 ins. along both sides of the bottom. One end rests on the rail of one 
track and the other rests on a leveling bob like a small screw-jack (6 ins. 
high when closed). A spirit level is set on top of the board, and adjusted 
until the board is level, the opposite rail being then adjusted accordingly. 

Leveling Boards. — These are used for sighting when raising or surfacing 
track or taking out sags in the grade line. In some cases, three blocks of 
the same thickness are used, placed on the rail at the point to be raised 
and at the already surfaced portion on each side. A better plan is to have 
a white board (having a black stripe a little above its center), and two 
blocks, each as high as from the bottom of the board to the top of the black 
stripe. The board is placed across the rails at a point where the track is 
at proper grade. One block is placed on the rail at the point to be raised, 
and the other the foreman places on the rail at a point already at grade. 
The track is then raised until the middle block is sighted in line with the 
top of the first block and the stripe on the board. 

Tie-Plate Gage. — The general use of steel tie-plates has led to the intro- 
duction of special tools for fitting them accurately, so as to give an even 



234 



TRACK. 



bearing on the tie and correct gage when the rails are spiked through the 
holes in the plates. The gage invented by Mr. Ware, Roadmaster of the 
Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg Ry., is shown in Fig. 179. The bar (A) is 
of 1-in. gas pipe, having at one end a fixed head (B) and at the other end a 
sliding head secured by a thumbscrew clamp, this head being moved so as 
to give the correct position for plates of different sizes, the plate being set 
against the end of head (C) and its spur (D). The operations are described 
in Chapter 19. 

Rail Benders. — These machines are now in general use, owing to the 
recognition of the necessity and advantages of doing this work accurately 



Plan. 



*€z 



j_d>* 



Elevation , 



*C 



J5=3 



Fig. 179.— Gage for Setting Tie-Plates. 

and without injury to the rail. It is very bad practice to bend rails by ham- 
mering them with sledges, or by dropping them on blocks, as such methods 
are more liable to kink the rail than to give it a uniform curve. Rails 
should never be nicked with a chisel for bending or straightening. In bend- 
ing by the use of a curving hook and track lever, the rail is laid on its side, 
with its ends resting on two ties placed across the track rails, and the track 
lever is placed on the rail with its toe engaging a hook placed under one 



i-fTr 




Fig. 180.— Rail Bender. 

of the track rails. By bearing down on the free end of the lever the rail is 
bent as desired. Rail bending machines should be used for all rails to be 
bent to curves of over 3°. The ordinary jim-crow rail bender, Fig. 180, has 
a curved frame with hooked arms to hook over the rail head or flange, and 
pressure is applied to the rail head between the arms by a screw which is 
turned by a long handled wrench or by a bar fitting into the holes of a 



TRACK TOOLS AND SUPPLIES. 235 

capstan-headed screw until the ordinate for the required curve is reached, 
when the screw is slackened, the machine shifted along the rail, and the 
operation repeated. For heavy girder or T rails, the screw should hear 
against the web and head, a filler block being placed against the web. 
These machines are of various patterns, and weigh from 150 to 200 lbs. One 
of the best forms is the roller rail bender and straightener, as shown in 
Fig. 181, having grooved rollers on the arm to fit the outside of the rail 
head, and a third roller on the bending bar to fit against the inside of the 
rail head. The rail is first bent in the usual way, by setting up the screw 
with a long wrench until the middle ordinate for the desired curve is ob- 
tained; then the inner roller is turned by a long lever or a cross-handle 
wrench, causing the machine to travel along the rail, thus giving a uniform 
curve from end to end. To straighten a rail, the machine is put on the 
outer side of the curve. The number of men required depends upon the 
weight of the rail and the degree of curvature. For heavy rails, a horse 
may be attached to a long sweep or bar used instead of the socket wrench. 
In some rail benders the power is applied by an eccentric or cam, thrown 




Fig. 181.— Roller Rail Bender. 

by a long lever working in a vertical plane at right angles to the track. 
Hydraulic rail benders resemble the jim-crow in general form, but have a 
vertical hydraulic cylinder at the back of the frame operating the ram or 
plunger, which bears against the rail head. The ram may be run in and 
out for a few inches by hand, without pumping, thus allowing the machine 
to be readily placed on the rail and the ram brought up to its work, when, 
a few strokes of the pump bend the rail to its desired curvature. The press- 
ure is then reduced and the rail slid along for another application. The ram 
is graduated to show the extent of the bend and may have a loose head 
shaped to fit the rail head. The weight is from 200 to 275 lbs., and while 
this is more than the common screw bender the machines are compact and 
readily handled. 

Angle Bar and Joint Press. — A jack or press is sometimes used to 
straighten angle bars which have become deflected or distorted, and a hy- 
draulic press is also sometimes used for forcing the splice bars into posi- 



236 



TRACK. 



tion on the rails to ensure a tight fit and uniform bearing. This latter de- 
vice is more particularly used with very heavy rails and for deep girder 
rails. 

Track Lever. — The track lever, Fig. 182, was the usual means of raising 
track until track jacks became of general application, and it it still used to 
some extent. It consists of an oak pole with an iron shoe which is put under 




Fig. 182.— Track Lever. 

the rail or tie and blocking placed under the heel, and then two or more 
men bear down on the free end. The method is clumsy and inefficient as 
compared with the use of jacks, as it requires several men, raises the 
track by jerks, and makes it difficult to adjust the amount of rise ac- 
curately. Even when the. proper rise is obtained, at least one man must 
hold the end of the lever until the ties are tamped, and he generally slacks 
up on it in spite of all care. 

Track Jack. — There are numerous varieties of track jacks, operated by 
ratchets, screws, friction clutches, hydraulic power, etc., and different 




Fig. 183.— Friction Track Jack. 

makes of these varieties may be found on most roads. A good jack must 
be able to sustain a heavy weight on the lifting bar, be positive in action, 
durable in design and capable of being relieved quickly of its load and re- 
moved almost instantly. For ordinary work they are about 24 to 30 ins. 
high, 7 x 12-in. base, with a rise of 12 to 15 ins., capacity of 8 to 15 tons, 
and weigh about 60 to 75 lbs. The lighter they are the better, as long as 



TRACK TOOLS AND SUPPLIES. 



237 



they are of sufficient strength. One of the best forms of ratchet jacks is of 
the compound lever pattern, with two pawls (one of which is always en- 
gaged) ; it can raise or lower its load half a notch at each stroke, while it can 
be instantly relieved of its load. It may lift the head with the down motion 
of the lever only, or with both up and down motion. Hydraulic jacks are 
also used, and are generally filled with 2 Darts alcohol to 3 parts water in 
winter, and 1 part alcohol to 4 parts water in summer. Water or kerosene 
should not be used, as water will cause rust and may freeze, while kerosene 
destroys the packing. 

As track jacks are too high to go under the ties they lift by means of a 
claw hung from the head of the lifting bar, the claw being close to the bot- 
tom of the jack when lowered. The jack therefore reaches above the rail 




NEW5, 



Fig. 184.— Ratchet Track Jack. 

and may be a dangerous obstruction to trains, for which reason it should 
be made to release as promptly and easily as possible. The Fisher jack, 
which is little used, fits under the rail, and acts as a toggle. A lever turns 
a horizontal right and left hand screw (parallel with the rail) which passes 
through the lower ends of the toggle arms, while the upper ends (or apex 
of the toggle) carry a bearing plate which forms the seat for the rail or tie. 
This jack has a base of about 16 x 5y 2 ins., weighs 30 lbs., has a capacity of 
15 tons and is only 7 ins. high at its lowest position. In the friction jack, 
Fig. 183, the link at the end of the working lever is coupled to a friction 
collar or ring, which grips the lifting bar. The upper ring encircling the 
bar is known as the lifting ring, and the lower one as the retaining ring. 



238 TRACK. 

The holes through them are bored at an angle, so that when horizontal they 
grip the bar, but when lowered they release it. These jacks for heavy 
ballasting, surfacing and general track repairs, have a 15-in lift, and a 
capacity of 10 tons, the jack being 35 ins. high when lowered, and weighing 
90 lbs. A smaller size of the same capacity for short and heavy lifts in 
surfacing has a 7-in. lift, is 22 ins. high, and weighs 55 lbs. For light sur- 
facing the jack has a capacity of 5 tons, a lift of 12 ins., is 31 ins. high, and 
weighs 60 lbs. The load can be lowered instantly or slowly. The ratchet 
jack, which is shown in Pig. 184, has a frame of malleable iron, with a base 
7 x 12 ins., as recommended by the Roadmasters' Association of America. 
All the other parts are of crucible steel, with the exception of the loose 
pipe handle. The rack bar (A) has a sectional area of ly 2 sq. ins., and is 
operated by the. lever (B) and pawl (D), while the top catch (C) holds the 
bar in position at the height at which it is set. The load can be let down 
one tooth at a time when required, and can be dropped instantly and with 
certainty by the lower pawl, no independent trip being required. The jack is 




Fig. 185.— Track Drill. 

21 ins. high, and has a lift of 14 ins., while its lifting capacity is 10 tons, 
and its weight 50 lbs. Hydraulic and screw jacks allow for very close ad- 
justment on exceptionally good track. 

On many roads, the jack is now used instead of the raising bar for small 
lifts, as in surfacing, etc., as well as for large lifts in raising lengths of 
track, while on other roads it is used only at frogs and switches, and for 
lifts of over 3 ins. The best practice is to raise both sides of the track 
simultaneously by the use of two jacks, and in general the claw should 
be placed under the tie and not under the rail, as in the latter case it tends 
to loosen the spikes. The jack should never be set on the inside of the rail, 
as in such position it is liable to derail a train, as was the case in the 
accident at Quincy, Mass., on the Old Colony Ry., in 1890, in whicl. 
23 persons were killed or fatally injured, and about 30 were more G.< 
less injured. The pilot of the engine caught the jack and threw it across 
the rail. If set outside the rail the man in charge is in less danger, and less 
likely to forget to release and remove the jack when a train approaches, 



TRACK TOOLS AND SUPPLIES. 



239 



while even if the jack should be in place the engine would knock it away 
from the rail. The rules of some roads require that the jack shall always 
be used on the outside of the rail, no excuse being accepted for contrary 
practice, while the New York, New Haven & Hartford Ry. goes to the ex- 
treme of not issuing jacks to the section gang, bfit having an extra gang to 
do all work requiring the use of jacks. Where much lifting is going on, 
flagmen should be sent out to warn trains to run cautiously. 

Track Drill and Punch. — Ratchet drills with automatic feed are generally 
used for drilling bolt holes in the rails, and in some of the various patterns 
several holes can be drilled at one setting of the clamp, the drill sliding 
along the frame, as in Fig. 185. The clamp should fit over the flange and 




Fig. 186.— Portable Rail Saw, 



not over the head of the rail, so as not to offer any obstruction to trains, 
and the drill carrier should slide on the frame so that the four or six holes 
of a joint can be drilled at one setting of the. frame. In some of the ratchet 
drills the tool revolves with the movement of the operating lever in each 
direction, instead of in one direction only, as in the ordinary drills. They 
usually have 4 or 6 1-in. bits. In some drills the tool is driven by gearing 
and a crank handle instead of by a reciprocating lever and clutch. Portable 
hydraulic punches are used to some extent, the jaw fitting over the rail and 
having at its back a vertical hydraulic cylinder operating the horizontal 
punch. An adjustable guide at the top of the jaw insures all holes being 
punched at the same height in the same size of rail. These machines weigh 



240 



TRACK. 



from 200 to 300 lbs. A vertical hydraulic punch for punching spike slots in 
rail flanges weighs about 90 lbs. Screw punches are sometimes used, those 
for heavy work requiring 2 or 3 men. A punch of this kind operated by 3 
men, and weighing 80 lbs. has 'been used by the Buffalo Ry. for punch- 
ing 1%-in. holes in girder Tails. 

Rail Saws. — Rails are generally cut by means of a cold chisel and ham- 
mer, and too often they are partly cut and then broken by dropping them 
on a block, resulting in a rough and irregular rail end. Portable rail saws 
clamped to the rail are now being more generally used, and do better and 
quicker work, cutting a heavy rail in from three to ten minutes. The Hig- 
ley and Bryant machines have circular saws operated by hand cranks and 
gearing, the saws being 14 to 20 ins. diameter. The former weighs 150 lbs., 
and the latter, Fig. 186, about 290 lbs. A good thin oil, such as lard oil, is 
recommended for lubricating the saw of the Bryant machine. The Smith 




Fig. 187.— Hand Car. 

machine has a frame about 3 ft. high, with a reciprocating saw blade 
worked by two levers like a fire pump or hand car. Its weight is about 120 
lbs., and soapsuds are recommended for lubricating the saw, no oil being 
used in any case on the saw. With these machines very clean cuts are 
made and very thin pieces can be cut when necessary. Their use is partic- 
ularly advisable on first-class track, for heavy rails and in fitting up frogs 
and switches. 

Hand Cars. — These are sometimes made at the railway shops, but as a 
rule it is better to purchase them from firms making a specialty of their 
manufacture. Most roads forbid their use for carrying rails, except in case 
of emergency. The cars should be as light as possible, consistent with 
strength and durability, may have wooden wheel centers, or pressed steel 
wheels, and should invariably be fitted with a strong brake gear, generally 



TRACK TOOLS AND SUPPLIES. 



241 



operated by the foot. Steel wheels are best for durability, but wood-centers 
are required on lines where a track circuit is used, to prevent the cars from 
operating signals in the same way as a train. The cars will ride more 
easily if one of the wheels (not on the driving axle) runs loose on the axle. 
Oil boxes should be frequently repacked, as the packing soon collects grit 
and sand. Roller bearings on the axles make the cars easy to propel. The 
car has a platform 6 ft. to 7 ft. 6 ins. long and 4 ft. 6 ins. wide, with a floor 
of matched planking and the ends of the sills extended to form handles. 
The wheels are ordinarily 20 to 24 ins. diameter. The weight is from 475 to 
575 lbs. The car is generally driven by a lever or walking beam pivoted at 
the middle and having a cross handle at each end, so that four men can 
work it, the spur-wheel being worked by a crank with a connecting rod 
from an arm on the walking beam. The spur-wheel gears with a pinion on 
the axle, the gearing being usually about 3% to 1. These cars will carry ten 




Fig. 188.— Track Velocipede. 

or twelve men, with tools, etc. They are sometimes operated by a sail, 
which method is particularly applicable for western roads with long tan- 
gents, as steady winds usually prevail. The hand car shown in Fig. 187, 
weighs about 550 lbs., and has 20-in. steel plate wheels on 1%-in. steel axles, 
with a 4-in. bearing roller secured to the underside of each sill. The gears 
are 2%, 3% and 4 to 1; the first is used where much power is required on 
account of steep grades, and the last where high speed is desired on level 
roads, while the second is generally employed for ordinary work. A weed- 
cutting hand car is described in Chapter 19. When not in use, the cars 
should be taken off the track and placed clear of the track. It is best not to 
leave them near road crossings, and if left there or at any distance from 
where the men are working the wheel should be secured with a chain and 
padlock. 



242 TRACK. 

Track velocipedes are light three-wheel or four-wheel hand cars, weigh- 
ing 120 to 250 lbs., which the operator propels by a hand lever, treadle or 
both. In three-wheel cars, Fig. 188, the third wheel is carried at the end 
of an arm which is hinged, so that it can be folded back against the other 
wheels for convenience of shipment in a baggage car. These cars are used 
by roadmasters, inspectors, foremen, etc., and on some roads by a man 
who rides over the track daily instead of trackwalking. The car may be 
fitted with an odometer for measuring distances. Some cars of this kind 
have been equipped with sails and worked satisfactorily, but care is required 
in handling them. Hand cars fitted with seats are used for inspection 
purposes, and some of these cars are operated by small steam engines, 
while velocipedes operated by gasoline engines are now quite extensively 
used. Some of the most recent velocipedes have frames of bicycle tubing, 
with wire-spoke wheels, and have the bicycle style of saddle, handle bar 
and driving gear. Some of these weigh only 75 to 100 lbs. 

Push Car and Rail Car. — The push car is a platform car not fitted with 
propelling gear, and is used for carrying rails, ties, gravel, earth, supplies, 
tools, etc. The car in Fig. 189, with a platform 7 x 5y 2 ft, and four 20-in. 
wheels, will weigh 450 to 500 lbs. The rail car or tracklaying car, Fig. 197, 
has no platform, but two side sills, to which the journal boxes are attached, 




Fig. 189.— Push Car. 

and three or four cross timbers faced with iron. At each end are two 
rollers to facilitate unloading rails. A rail car 8x6 ft., with sills 4x8 ins., 
wheels 16 to 20 ins. diameter, 2%-in. axles, and a carrying capacity of 10 
to 12 tons, will weigh about 1,000 to 1,350 lbs. A plank bottom may be 
nailed to the underside of the middle cross sills to form a box for tools or 
supplies. 

Flags. — The ordinary flag is not reliable as a signal when the staff is 
stuck in the ground; if the weather' is calm it hangs limp, while the wind 
may blow it parallel with the track or wrap it round the staff. This may 
be remedied by having it attached to a staff at each end, or the staff may 
be fastened horizontally to a post 4 ft. high, 8 ft. from the rail. In the 
Tallman device the flag is wound on a roller in a cylindrical case, having 
a slot for the flag. This case is hinged at one end to the staff and when 
not in use folds against it (with the flag inside), while when in use the 
case is horizontal and the flag displayed. Some roads require a flagman 
to hold the flag always in his hand, but where a flagman is not stationed, 
a flag with two staves, or with some means of keeping it displayed, should 
be used. Iron flags or targets have been used. Flags should be kept as 
clean as possible, and replaced when so torn or dirty as to be unreliable as 
signals. When not in use they should be rolled up and tied with string. 



TRACK TOOLS AND SUPPLIES. 243 

Lamps. — The ordinary lamps are of use as signals, but not of much use 
for work on the track, giving too poor a light. They should be kept well 
trimmed and filled, and placed on a shelf out of the way so as not to be 
broken in handling the tools. A few spare globes should be kept on hand. 
The oil cans (usually of 2 gallons capacity) should be set in a wooden box 
or tray filled with sand, and some oil should be kept on hand when the 
cans are sent to be refilled. Signal oil for switch lamps, which has become 
thick, may be thinned with kerosene. 

Miscellaneous. — Wheelbarrows may be of wood or iron, the former being 
more readily repaired on the section. They should be substantially built, 
with strong axles and bearings, and will require occasional oiling of the 
axle. In ditching work, a wheelbarrow with grooved wheel to run on the 
rail is sometimes used. Heavy garden or farm rakes are used for clearing 
up brush, trimming station grounds, etc., and wooden rakes may be used 
if hay is made from the grass cut en the right of way. Ordinary flat corn 
brooms are used for clearing snow from switches and frogs, cleaning ties 
after adzing for new rails, and also for sweeping out the section house. 



CHAPTER 14.— SIGNALING AND INTERLOCKING. 

The supervision and care of the signaling and interlocking equipment is 
now frequently under the charge of the roadway or maintenance depart- 
ment to a greater or less extent, and the general principles and practice 
may be appropriately considered. The details of the mechanism, apparatus 
and operations controlling the various movements of trains, however, 
would occupy far more space than is now available. The fixed signals 
governing train movements, independent of the switchstand targets, may 
be classed as route or switch signals, train-order signals and block signals. 
The first are used at turnouts, junctions, etc., to indicate for which track 
or route the switches are set, and also to indicate to an engineman 
whether the route which he v/ants is set for him. Train-order signals are 
located at stations, to indicate whether a train is required to stop for 
orders as to its movements. Block signals take the place of train orders, 
and indicate whether the block sections into which the line is divided are 
clear or occupied by other trains. Interlocking signals comprise both 
switch and block signals, and, properly, they should not be separately 
classed. In this country, however, many interlocking plants are installed 
at crossings, etc., on lines where the block system is not in force, and this 
has resulted in creating a distinction between block and interlocking sig- 
nals. In effect, the limits of the interlocking plant enclose an isolated 
block. Interlocking plants and the block system are in use to some extent 
on electric railways. 

Under the train-order system of operation, the dispatcher on the division 
issues telegraphic orders to the trains to run between certain points, stop- 
ping at specified places for further orders. He can stop the train for 
orders at any station by notifying the telegraph operator or station agent 
to display his "stop" train-order signal. Following trains are required to 



244 TRACK. 

be held a certain number of minutes apart, forming a "time interval," 
which cannot always be maintained, and is the cause of many accidents. 
The better system is that known as the block system, under which the 
line is divided into sections or blocks, the limits of which are marked by 
signals, so that the trains are periodically advised as to the safety of the 
line ahead. Its great advantages are facility and safety of operation, for 
as no two trains are normally admitted to the same block a "space interval" 
is maintained between all trains, so that collisions are impossible. With 
the "absolute" block system, no train must be admitted to a block section 
until that section is clear or empty. The "permissive" block is a modi- 
fication under which a second train may be admitted after a certain "time 
interval," a caution being given to proceed carefully, as the block is not 
clear. This is dangerous, however, and at once eliminates the great ele- 
ment of safety due to the "space interval." It has been adopted in some 
cases for freight trains only, with a view to facilitating traffic, but in some 
of these cases it has eventually been abandoned, since ample facilities 
and much greater safety can be afforded by the "absolute" block system. 
The block system is extensively adopted on both single and double track 
lines. The length of the block sections varies greatly, depending upon 
the amount of traffic, the curvature, switches, stations, passing places, etc. 

Block signals may be operated on either of two systems: (1) Manual 
(with "lock and block" modifications, (A) controlled-manual, and (B) 
auto-manual); (2) Automatic. In the manual system, a tower or cabin is 
erected at the end of each section, there being telegraph or telephone con- 
nection between adjacent towers, and the signals at each tower being 
operated by the signalman in accordance with information or instructions 
given by the next man in the rear and in advance. In the controlled- 
manual system, the signals are automatically locked in position and the 
locks are controlled from the tower in advance, so that a man cannot 
show a "clear" signal until the signal is released by the next man. In the 
auto-manual system, the "clear" signal is automatically returned to and 
locked at "stop" by the entrance of a train into the block section, and is 
not released until the train has passed out of the section. This locking is 
effected by a mechanical or electrical device termed a "slot." A com- 
bination of the train-order and block systems of operation is sometimes 
used, under which the train-order signals at stations are utilized as block 
signals, but under the direction of the dispatcher. This combination has 
also been applied to the ordinary system of blocking with intermediate 
towers and signals, but this method has very little to recommend it, the 
traffic being handled with greater facility by the series of signalmen or 
operators. In the automatic system, no towers or signalmen are required 
at the block signals, but these are operated by the trains, by means of 
electrical or mechanical connections or track instruments. A wire circuit 
or rail circuit may be used, but the latter is most generally used, and has 
the advantage that a broken rail, etc., will cause the signals to indicate 
"stop." Where a rail circuit is used, the rails of each section are con- 
nected by bond wires, and insulated joints separate the sections from one 
another. Section men must be careful not to bend or cut the wires in doing 
their work. 

Automatic signals may be operated entirely by electricity, or by a com- 



SIGNALING AND INTERLOCKING. 245 

bination of compressed air and electricity. In the latter system, the valves 
of air cylinders attached to the posts are operated by the electrical con- 
nections, the actual movement of the signal (and of the switch, in inter- 
locking plants) being affected by the air, which is carried in a line of 3 
or 4-in. pipe laid along the side of the roadbed or buried between the tracks. 
The pressure is usually 80 to 90 lbs. Overlapping or double blocks are 
sometimes used. In the former case there are two distinctive signals at- 
each block. As a train passes into a block it throws both signals to 
"stop," protecting its rear, but releases one of the signals of the section 
behind. In the latter case only one signal is used, but there are always 
two signals at "stop" behind the train, so that a following train can never 
come within a block length of the train ahead. 

The automatic system is being very extensively adopted in this country, 
even for lines with very heavy and fast traffic, and the ideal system for con- 
trolling trains on lines with heavy traffic and high speeds was suggested as 
follows by Mr. E. C. Carter, Chief Engineer of the Chicago & Northwestern 
Ry., in a report prepared for the International Railway Congress of 1900: 
"(1) Interlocking plants at all points where there are switches on the main 
tracks, the home or advance signals being electrically slotted with a track 
circuit through the succeeding block, the towers to be supplied with in- 
dicators to give information regarding trains in the adjoining blocks. 
(2) Automatic block signals placed as required to properly space trains 
moving between the interlocking plants. Such a system will admit of the 
heaviest traffic movement, with the greatest safety, with the least deten- 
tion, and at least cost for protection." 

Train-order signals are very frequently targets mounted on the platform 
shelter or on a post in front of the station, but the semaphore type is pre- 
ferable and is now very generally used. They are operated- by levers at 
the operator's table or desk, and if used as block signals will be nor- 
mally set at "stop." Switch signals are usually of the semaphore type. 
Block signals are of three types: semaphore, disk, and banner or target. 
The first is by far the most generally adopted, and is used with both the 
manual and the automatic systems. The other two are used almost ex- 
clusively for the automatic system, and the banner type is only used to 
a limited extent. Two positions are usually employed. With the sema- 
phore signal, the horizontal position of the arm means "section occupied, 
stop;" and any position below the horizontal (usually 60° to 90°) indicates 
"section clear, proceed." In some cases a third position is introduced for 
permissive blocking, the arm being inclined 60° below or above the hori- 
zontal to indicate "section occupied, proceed under control;" if the posi- 
tion is below the horizontal, the arm then hangs in a vertical position to 
indicate "section clear." It is much better, however, to have only two 
positions, and to issue a clearance card cautioning the train to proceed 
carefully, when it is imperatively necessary to send it on without waiting 
for the section to be cleared. With disk signals, the disk is enclosed in a 
"banjo" box on a post, and when it is visible at an opening in the face it 
indicates "stop," while its absence indicates "proceed." With slow-speed 
service, the only signal necessary would be one at the entrance to each 
section, but with the high speeds of every day practice it would be im- 
possible to stop the train at a signal after it came in sight. Distant signals 



246 TRACK. 

are therefore provided, set at least 2,000 ft. in advance of the main or 
"home" signal. When this signal indicates "clear," the engineman knows 
that the home signal is also at "clear" and that he has a clear track 
through the block section which he is approaching. The other position of 
the distant signal does not indicate "stop," but only "prepare to stop at 
the home signal." It indicates to the engineman that the home signal is 
at "stop," and while the latter may be moved to the "clear" position 
before he reaches it, he must get his train under control ready to stop at 
the home signal if it has not been cleared. Trains held at a home signal are 
often allowed to pull past it so that the signal will protect the rear of the 
train, in which case an "advance" signal is put about a train-length oe- 
yond the home signal, so as to indicate to the engineman when the block 
is clear. On single track, however, trains must not pass the home signal 
until it is clear. The arrangements of automatic distant signals have 
already been referred to. Signals are usually kept at the "stop" position 
except when it is necessary to give a "clear" indication to a train, but in 
some automatic signal installations, the signal returns to the "clear" posi- 
tion as soon as a train has passed out of the block. 

Semaphore signals usually have the face of the arms of home and ad- 
vance signals painted red with a white square near the end, while those 
of distant signals are painted green with a white square or V stripe, the 
end of the blade, being notched or fish-tailed. Others use white with a 
black square for the running face of home signals, and yellow with a black 
V stripe for distant signals. Still others use yellow with a black square 
or black fish-tailed stripe for the running face of all signals. The object 
of this is to have the indication of the signal given by position and not 
by color. With disk signals, a red disk for the home and a green disk 
for the distant signal is the usual practice. Signals at interlocking plants 
are almost invariably of the semaphore type, but where this type is also 
used for block signals, a distinctive form is sometimes adopted by "making 
the arms of the latter pointed, with V stripes. This is done for the reason 
that an engineman must never pass a "stop" signal at an interlocking 
plant unless he has definite and positive orders and a "clearance card" 
from the signalman. A block signal, however, may be out of order, and if 
it is not "cleared" in a few minutes, the train may proceed carefully, ex- 
pecting to find a train, broken rail, etc., in the section. Very often, the. 
station block signals are on a single post opposite the station, but it is 
much better to have each signal on its own post at the proper end of the. 
station. 

The night indications are given by colored lamps. The old plan was 
to use red for "stop," white for "clear," and green for "prepare to stop" 
on the distant signal. Owing to the confusion of white signal lights with 
street lamps and other lights in towns and cities, and to the possibility of 
a "stop" signal indicating "clear" by the breaking of the red lens, the 
most approved system now is to use the green light for clear. This, how- 
ever, has made necessary a new indication for the "prepare to stop" posi- 
tion of the distant signal, and two methods have been adopted: (1) to 
use two lenses (with one lamp), the signal showing a green light for 
"clear" and a green and red light side by side for "prepare to stop;" (2) to 
use a distinctly yellow (not white) lens. The latter is preferable, as it avoids 



SIGNALING AND INTERLOCKING. 247 

the use of a double light for one signal. The former was introduced by 
the Chicago & Northwestern Ry., and the latter by the New York, New 
Haven & Hartford Ry. In disk signals, the lamps show a light through 
an opening in the case, colored lenses inside being moved in accordance 
with the movement of the disk. A purple light is sometimes used for 
"stop" on minor signals and for the "dummy" posts indicating unsignaled 
tracks where bracket posts are used. To indicate whether the signal lamp 
is burning, a small opening is put at the back of the lamp, and shows 
white when the signal is at "clear" and purple when it is at "stop." It 
has been proposed, however, to use a purple bull's-eye only, no light being 
shown during the short time that the signal is at "clear." The lenses are 
usually 6 and 8 ins. diameter, with a 2-in. bull's-eye for the backlight. (See 
Chapter 7, "Lamps.") 

The home signal is usually 50 to 200 ft. from the point it governs, and 
the distant signal 1,500 to 2,500 or even 3,000 ft. beyond. Very long spacing, 
however, requires reliable compensators, which are few and expensive. 
Derails at crossings are 300 or 400 ft. from the crossing, or 150 to 300 
ft. from back-up derails (See Chapter 9, "Track Crossings"). In 
isolated cases, as at crossings with very light and slow traffic, 
the distant signal may be dispensed with, for economy, a sign 
being substituted to notify an engineman that he is approaching the 
crossing and must be prepared to stop at the home signal. This practice 
cannot be adopted at busy crossings with high speed trains, as it would 
not only be unsafe, but would cause serious detentions by checking every 
train. Signals should be set directly over the tracks governed (on bridges) 
or at the right-hand side (left-hand when trains keep to the left). If 
tracks are too close together for the signal to be set at the side, a bracket 
post should be set at the right of the outer track. This has a platform 
carrying posts of different heights, the highest indicating the high-speed 
route. If there are two tracks there will be two posts on the platform, 
but if the inner one is a sidetrack and not signaled, then the low post 
corresponding to this, track will have no arm and will carry a purple light 
at night. The arms point away from the track governed, and there should 
he not more than two arms on the same side of the post. When the signals 
are at stations, the two arms are very generally mounted on opposite sides 
of the top of one post in front of the operator's office. All switch signals 
should be included in the block system. If for economy or other reasons 
this is not done, then a target should be used, entirely distinctive from the 
block signals. 

The term interlocking should include the locking of the block instru- 
ments and apparatus of adjacent towers, but is commonly confined to the 
interlocking of switches and signals at junctions and crossings in such a 
way that they cannot be set for conflicting routes or to cause collisions. 
Thus in the case of a single track Y-junction (A), where two lines (B-A) 
and (C-A) unite to form one line (A-D) : If a train is running from (C) 
to (D) it cannot be given a clear signal for the junction until the signals 
have been set to stop trains approaching from (B) and (D) and the switches 
have been set for (C-A-D). Distant and home signals are used, and when 
the train has passed the former and entered the limits of interlocking, the 
signalman cannot move any signals or switches of this or conflicting routes 



248 



TRACK. 



until the train has passed beyond the limits. This locking of the home 
by the distant signal at "clear," should never be applied to block signals, 
as the signalman should have it in his power to stop a train at any time 
before it has actually reached the signal, in case of emergency. On the 
other hand, it should not be practicable to show a clear distant signal 
until the home signal is at "clear," and at interlocking plants it must be 
returned to "prepare to stop" before the home signal can indicate "stop." 
The interlocking should be so arranged that a home signal cannot be 
shown at "clear" until derails or diverging switches in conflicting routes 
are in their normal position and the switches for the required route 
are set and locked. The home signal when at "clear" should lock all 
switches and locks in the route as far as the point to which the signal gives 
permission to proceed, locking all opposing or conflicting signals and re- 
leasing the corresponding distant signal. 

It would be impossible to deal with the details of locking and interlock- 
ing apparatus in this chapter, but it may be noted that switches are usually 
locked by bolt locks, a typical arrangement of which is shown in Fig. 190. 
The head rod of the switch, or a rod extending from it beyond the rails, has 
two holes, engaging with a horizontal bolt or plunger moving parallel with 
the rail in a casting on the tie. When the switch is properly set in either 
position, the bolt is thrown and enters the hole, the movement of its 




^ Detector^,, 
WLom 
14 Clips. 



Fig. 190.— Bolt Lock for Switch. 



operating rod unlocking the lever of the signal governing the switch. If 
the switch is not properly set, the bolt cannot enter and consequently the* 
signal remains locked at "stop." When the switch is locked, the bolt 
cannot be withdrawn while a train is passing, a detector bar preventing 
the movement of the operating rod. The bar is at least 50 ft. long, so that 
one wheel of a train will always be over it. It is hinged on studs and lies 
against the outside rail head. In moving it has a longitudinal motion, 
and rises slightly above the rail head, which it cannot do as long as a wheel 
is on the rail. These bars are very extensively used in interlocking work. 

The switches, signals, locks, etc., are operated from the upper story of 
the tower by means of L or inverted T levers, the upright end working 
between sector guides in the floor. A latch handle against the lever handle 
operates a stop fitting in notches at each end of the sector. The locking 
mechanism is connected with this latch, so that when the lever is locked, 
the latch handle cannot be moved to raise the stop, and consequently an 
attempt to pull a locked lever does not put any strain on the wire or rod 



SIGNALING AND INTERLOCKING. 249 

connections. To the ends of the horizontal arms of the lever are attached 
wires, chains or rods which run down to the lower floor of the tower and 
out to the roadbed. This forms the lead-out. Signals are usually operated 
by wire, though home signals are very generally operated by lines of pipe, 
which gives a more uniform and positive indication. Distant signals in 
some cases also have pipe connections. Where wire is used, there should 
be a double wire, so connected as to give a positive pull in both directions, 
and the arm is balanced by a counter-weight to return it to the "stop" 
position in case of a wire breaking. Pipe is used exclusively for switches, 
and both wire and pipe are used for locks. The pipe is usually 1-in. gas 
pipe, with screw or plug joints, but solid rods are used where the wire has 
to be bent or curved. It is supported at intervals by anti-friction roller 
carriers, while wire is carried on small pulleys attached to stakes. Changes 
of direction are made by means of bell-cranks (or rock shafts at the lead- 
out) for pipes, while for wire a length of chain is inserted and passes 
round a grooved pulley, 6 to 8 ins. diameter. In order to allow for con- 
traction and expansion and for slack due to stretch of the wire, com- 
pensators are used to automatically adjust the length, or hand adjustments 
for wire may be used at the tower. The pipe compensator may be of the 
"lazy-jack" double bell-crank style, or a simple lever at right angles to the 
pipe line and pivoted at the middle, the pipe line being offset for the length 
of the lever. Wire compensators should give a rigid connection when the 
signal is pulled, so as to ensure that the signal will be operated. Hand 
adjusters are usually screw sleeves for wires or turnbuckles for pipe. In 
cities, the signal wires may be carried under streets, etc., in y 2 -in. or 1-in. 
pipes filled with crude oil, the pipes requiring to be refilled about twice a 
year. The foundations 'for pipe carriers, bell cranks, chain wheels, etc., 
should be of concrete, though wooden frames are more generally used. 
One lever is sometimes made to operate two or more locks, switches, etc., 
by means of a selector. This device connects the wire or pipe from the 
tower with the separate pipes or wires of the movements to be controlled. 
When the switch is set for a certain route, the selector connects the pipe 
from the cabin with the pipe leading to the signal for that switch, but 
locks all the other pipes. This practice has in some cases been carried to 
extremes, especially in enlarging small plants without enlarging the lever 
frames, with the result of overloading the levers and making the plant 
uneconomical in operation. The use of selectors is now in less favor, and 
the much better practice is to use separate levers, grouping them con- 
veniently for the signalmen. 

The signals are usually carried on wooden posts 10 x 10 ins., or on steel 
posts of tubes or built up of angles and lattice bars. Block signals are 
usually about 15 to 20 ft. above the track, but at interlocking points the 
height may be increased to 30 or 40 ft. On the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. 
Paul Ry. some of the steel bracket posts are 36 ft. high, carrying other 
posts 5 to 10 ft. high. Dwarf signals are commonly used for switching 
and reverse or back-up movements. The semaphore arm is set in a spec- 
tacle casting pivoted to the post, so made as to counterbalance the weight 
of the arm and having colored lenses, moving in front of the lamp. 

The following are extracts from the standard specifications of the 
Signal Department of the Pennsylvania Lines: 



250 TRACK. 

Specifications for Signals; Pennsylvania Lines. 

One lever may be used to throw one or more switches, locks, or detector 
bars, or one or more low-speed signals through a selector. In no case must 
one lever be used to throw (A) a switch and lock, (B) a switch and signal, 
(C) a lock and signal, (D) a home and distant signal, or (E) a high-speed 
and a low-speed signal. 

Bell crank lead-outs must be used for pipe connections wherever possible. 
Where rocker shafts are used they must be of uniform size and not less 
than 2% ins. diameter. 

Pipe lines must be used for connections to switches, detector bars, locks, 
selectors and block signals, and may be used for all signals. Pipe must be 
made of wrought iron, 1 in. inside diameter, painted inside and outside, and 
coupled with sleeves, plugs and rivets. Pipe lines must be straight when 
possible, and must be placed not less than 3 ft. from outside of rail, except 
for signals, where they may be placed on carriers clamped to the rail. They 
must be laid 2% ins. c. to c, and arranged so that the shortest line will be 
next to the rail. They must be supported on carriers placed 7 ft. apart; top 
of pipe lines must not be less than 1 in. below base of rail. Pipe carriers 
must be of cast iron, with sheaves not less than 2*4 ins. diameter. Couplings 
in pipe lines must be placed not nearer than 12 ins. to a pipe carrier when 
the lever is in the center. Sleeves for pipe couplings must be of wrought' 
iron, and not less than 2y± ins. long. Plugs for pipe couplings must be of 
wrought iron, 1 in. diameter and 6 ins. long. They must be drilled for %-in. 
rivets, spaced 4 ins. c. to c, and 1 in. from each end. Bends must not.be 
made in pipe, but in cranks, jaws or a 1%-in. iron rod placed in the pipe 
line for that purpose. They must not exceed 2% ins. at any one point. 

Bell-cranks must be of wrought iron, and mounted in a cast iron stand. 
The top of the center pin must in all cases be supported. No more tha*! 
three bell-cranks may be placed en the same center; and in no case may 
two bell-cranks be placed on the same center or foundation when one pipe 
line runs to a switch, and the other to the lock on the same switch. Bell- 
cranks for semaphore switch signals must be adjustable, so that the stroke 
of the signal rod can be varied to suit the throw of the switch. 

A compensator must be provided for every 700 ft. of pipe or fraction 
thereof, except in lines less than 100 ft. in length. They must be "lazy 
jacks" of wrought iron, and mounted on cast iron stands, but no more than 
one compensator may be placed on a stand or foundation. Crank arms 
must be 11 ins. c. to c. of pin holes. Top of crank pins must be supported. 

Facing-point locks must be used in all switches. The lock casting must 
be placed on outside of track and bolted to the tie through an iron plate 
% x 6 ins., 8 ft. long, placed on the tie and securely fastened thereto through 
the rail braces. Plungers must be 1 in. diameter and 17 ins. long from c. 
of pin hole to end, and must be of full diameter on the end. They must 
have a stroke of 8 ins., and a hole must be cut in the tie to allow full stroke 
to be made. Plungers must stand not more than 1 in. clear of lock bar 
when the switch is unlocked. Lock bars must run straight from center of 
front rods into lock castings. Holes in lock bars must not be more than 
1 1-32 ins. diameter, and not countersunk. Front rods must project beyond 
point of switch and be fitted with a special screw jaw on each end adjustable 
to 1-32 in. The connection between front rod and lock rod must be made 
by means of a jaw and lug on bottom side of front rod. 

A detector bar must be provided for each route, working in connection 
with the facing-point lock, and must also be used at crossings when required 
to insure clearance. These bars must be of wrought iron, % x 2% ins., not 
less than 45 ft. in length, and square on end. They must be placed on out- 
side of rail, and work in a plane inclined upward toward center of track, 
and top of bar must stand %-in. below top of rail when the lock lever is at 
end of stroke. Supports for detector bars must be clamped to base of rail. 
Twelve supports must be used for each bar, 4 ft. c. to c, and 6 ins. from 
each end. 

The driving piece must be placed midway between supports, and as near 



SIGNALING AND INTERLOCKING. 251 

the center of bar as practicable. Connection from pipe line to driving piece 
should be as nearly parallel to the track as possible; the crank end of con- 
necting rod must be placed so as to stand not more than 8 ins. from outside 
of rail when the lever is on its center. 

Means of adjustment must be provided for each line of pipe or wire, and 
all adjusting screws must be open. Pipe adjusting screws must be of 
wrought or malleable iron with right and left hand thread, and capable of 
giving an adjustment cf not less than 6 ins. Wire adjusting screws must 
be of wrought iron, not less than %-in. diameter, and capable of giving 
an adjustment of not less than 12 ins. Lines to switches must have stand- 
ard adjustable center connection, with iy 2 ins. more stroke than throw of 
switch, placed on center of head red. Lines to derails must be provided 
with a pipe adjusting screw placed in end of line next to derail. Lines to 
locks, detector bars and counterbalance, levers must have a screw jaw placed 
in end of line next to function operated. Wire lines to home signals must 
be provided with an adjusting screw placed in tower. W T here the home 
signal is more than 400 ft. from the tower, an additional adjusting screw 
must be provided at the signal. Where wire bolt-locks are used, additional 
adjusting screws must be placed in the signal line on each side cf the bolt 
lock. Each derail must be provided with a wire bolt-lock placed in the 
front wires to its heme and distant signal. Where not otherwise specified, 
derails will be considered as switches, and must be provided for in the same 
manner. Both locks must have an independent connection to the switch 
points. The switch and signal bars must not be less than 1% ins. deep and 
y 2 -in. wide. The notch in the signal bar must not be more than ly 2 ins. 
long, and that in the switch bar not more than 9-16-in. long. Bars must not 
be notched more than half their depth. 

Signal arms may be carried on straight posts, bracket posts, or bridges. 
High signal arms must be of ash, and low signal arms of rubber. High 
signalposts must be of white pine, set in crossed frames, and braced thereto. 
Low signal posts must be of iron. High signals, where practicable, must 
not be closer than 7 ft. to outside of rail. Low signals must not stand 
closer than 3 ft. to outside of rail. 

Ordinary posts must not be less than 7 ins. square where top center cast- 
ing is attached, and 10 ins. square at the ground line; except for home sema- 
phore switch signals, where they must be 8 ins. square at the bottom. 
Bracket posts must be made with a main pest 12 ins. square, with two 
cross pieces of 3 x 12 ins. white, oak for the bracket, and uprights 7 ins. 
square for carrying signals; all framed and braced. The bracket must not 
be less than 20 ft. above the tcp of rail. Short uprights or stubs 7 ft. long 
must be used to indicate each track that is not signaled from the bracket, 
and which intervenes between the bracket post and the farthest track 
signaled. These uprights must be not less than 7 ft. c. to c. On signal 
bridges, uprights 7 ins. square for carrying signals must be placed verti- 
cally over the right-hand rail of the track governed. Bridges must be not 
less than 21 ft. in the clear from top of rail. 

Semaphore arms on the same high signal post must be placed 7 ft. c. to 
c, and the bottom arm on any high signal post for interlocking signals 
must be net less than 25 ft. above the top of rail, and for switch signals not 
less than 18 ft. Low signal arms must not be more than 2 ft. 6 ins. above 
base of rail. On bracket posts (or bridges) the bottom arm must be not 
less than 8 ft. above top of bracket or bridge; and where passenger and 
freight tracks are signaled from the same bracket (or bridge) the arms for 
passenger tracks must stand 7 ft. higher than the corresponding arms for 
freight tracks. High signal arms that stand less than 25 ft. above the rail 
must be 4 ft. 6 ins., and arms that stand 25 ft. or more above the rail must 
be 5 ft. 6 ins. from center of castings to outer end. They must all be 7 ins. 
wide at the arm grip; the first 10 ins. wide and the second 11 ins. wide at 
the outer end. Stops for danger and safety positions must be provided in 
center castings. The outer end of arms for home signals must be square 
with center line; for distant signals outer end must be notched to a depth 
of 8 ins. on center line, and at 30° with same. Corners of all outer ends 
must be rounded to a radius of 1 in. 



252 TRACK. 

All signals must be counterweighted so that the arm will go to the hori- 
zontal position should a break occur in any connection. Block signals and 
train-order signals must be counterweighted so that the arm will go to the 
horizontal position when the lever is released. Counterweights must in- 
cline downward at 45° to center line of arm when arm is horizontal. 

Colored glass, 6% ins. diameter for high signals and 5 ins. for low signals, 
must be placed in the signal casting. Where the lamp is on the side of the 
post the colored glass must be placed in center of counterweight. Where 
the lamp is on top of the post, the colored glass must be placed in center 
of the casting at end of arm grip. Where three positions are required, a 
spectacle frame must be used. Back-light castings must carry a blue glass 
3 ins. diameter for high signals, and 2 ins. for low signals. They must 
incline downward at 45° to center line of arm when the arm is horizontal. 

All block signals must be operated by pipe; other signals may be operated 
by pipe or wire. Wire for signals must be made of steel, No. 9 gage, and 
galvanized. Where signals are wire connected, both front and back wires 
must be used, and the back wire must have 1% ins. more stroke than front 
wire. Where two or more signals are operated through a selector, one 
common back wire may be used for all. Where one back wire is used for 
two signals, it must be attached by a chain through a shackle running from 
one signal to 1 the other. Where front and back wires are used, a counter- 
balance lever must be provided for each arm, and up and down rods to all 
signals must be so connected that the arm will be pushed to the clear posi- 
tion. Wire lines must be placed not less than 3 ft. from outside of rail. 
They must be carried on iron pulleys placed not more than 21 ft. c. to c, 
the sheaves of which must be not less than 2 ins. diameter. Turns in wire 
lines must be made around wheels with ^-in. chain. Chain wheels must 
be of cast iron, not less than 6 ins. diameter, mounted in a cast iron frame, 
and not more than four in one frame. Wire eyes must be oval, not less 
than %-in. diameter. Where split links are used, the points must be well 
hammered down. They must not be used for splicing chain on wheels. 
Wire carriers must be placed on stakes, except where they can be con- 
veniently placed on pipe carrier foundations. Compensation must be 
provided for all wire lines over 600 ft. long. 

A standard lamp must be furnished for each signal. For each stub on 
bracket posts a standard lamp with 5-in. plain blue front light, and a 2-in. 
plain blue back light, must be furnished. A standard lamp with a 5-in. 
plain red front light, and 2-in. plain blue back light, must be furnished for 
the fixed bottom arm on posts where there are no diverging routes to be 
governed by the lower arms. 

All foundations must be made of white oak, dovetailed, braced and 
bolted. The joints of all foundations must be painted before being put. 
together; the assembled foundations must be painted before being put into 
the ground. All foundations, except for carriers, must be set in concrete. 
The foundations must be as follows: For pipe carriers, 2^-in. oak, 8 ins. 
wide on top, not less than 24 ins. deep; for one way, they must be 12 ins. 
long, and increase 2% ins. for each additional way. For chain wheels, 2 1 / £-in. 
oak, 10 x 24 ins. on top, not less than 3 ft. 2 ins. deep. For dwarf signals, 
2 1 / £-in. oak, 12 x 30 ins. on top, not less than 3 ft. 2 ins. deep except for new 
style, when top must be 10 x 58 ins. For bell-cranks, 4-in. oak, 10 x 24 ins. 
on top, not less than 3 ft. 2 ins. deep. For compensators, 4-in. oak, 12 x 48 
ins. on top, not less than 3 ft. 2 ins. deep. 

Stakes for wire carriers must be of oak, not less than 3x4 ins., 4 ft. long, 
with a 7-in. point. All pins must be made of steel, machine turned, and 
provided with, cotters. Connecting pins for jaws, bell-cranks, etc., must be 
not less than % in. diameter; center pins for bell-cranks must be not less 
than 1% ins. diameter. 

Home and distant signal arms must be painted yellow on the face, with a 
black band upon the. arm, 1-10 of its length in width, and located 1-3 of 
the length of the arm from the outer end, the lines of which must be 
parallel with the outer end of the arm. The back must be painted white, 
with a similar black band across the arm. 



STREET RAILWAY TRACK. 253 



CHAPTER 15.— STREET RAILWAY TRACK. 

The great development of street railways due to the introduction of 
electric traction, not only for city and suburban service, but also for long- 
distance interurban and rural service, has been attended by very consider- 
able improvements in track construction, and has opened a new field for 
engineers in the construction and maintenance of these lines. The term 
"street railway" does not properly apply to country lines, especially when 
built on their own right of way, and electric railway is not sufficiently 
distinctive. It would be much better to adopt the English term "tram- 
way," comprehending all lines of this character. On lines outside of city 
and suburban streets, the character of construction is usually very similar 
to that of an ordinary railway, although if the line follows a highway it is 
paved over like the rest of the road. This is not necessary if the line is 
laid outside of the road, or upon its own right of way. In city streets the 
track construction is usually of a special character, adapted to the style of 
street construction, and greater permanence of surface is required than 
for ordinary steam railways, as the track must maintain its conformity 
to the surface of the street and there is no opportunity for the continual 
tamping, surfacing and tightening of bolts which is done on railway track. 
For this reason a substantial and permanent foundation is a necessity. 
The same paving material should be used across the entire width of the 
street, so as to distribute the traffic, but many railways lay a very inferior 
paving between the rails and tracks. Municipal authorities might well 
undertake the supervision of track construction and paving. 

On many lines the street is simply surfaced to the subgrade for the 
paving, and has trenches cut below this for the ties, which simply rest on 
and are tamped with the natural earth. The rails are laid upon the ties, 
and the paving placed between them. This is a very poor system for city 
streets, .as under heavy traffic the track very soon becomes rough and 
uneven and is very hard riding. In all cases the excavation for the track 
should be carried below the level of the bottom of the ties. The subgrade 
should be rolled, and then covered with slag, broken stone, or gravel, well 
rolled to a finished depth of 8 to 12 ins. below the ties. The same material 
(or concrete) should be filled in between the ties and form the foundation 
for the paving. In city streets, a concrete foundation for the tracks is 
most desirable, and with such construction the use of wooden ties may 
well be dispensed with, the rails being laid directly upon the concrete. 
Both of these systems are in use, but the tendency is to eliminate all wood 
in first class construction, the rails being connected at intervals by tie 
rods or tie bars through the webs, or by light steel ties embedded in the 
concrete and serving to maintain the gage. It has been contended that 
tracks having rails laid upon the concrete would be very rough riding and 
cause increased wear of wheels, bearings and cars, but actual experience 
does not sustain this objection, and there seems to be no reason why a 
good track operated by good rolling stock should give any trouble of this 
kind. In fact, some of the most easy riding track is built in this manner, 



254 TRACK. 

and on two parts of a line where the concrete base and the wooden cross 
tie system are both in use, no difference in the wear of rails or equipment 
has been found after careful investigation. Where a well-built track proves 
to be hard riding, attention may be directed to the car springs, as these 
have an important influence upon this matter as well as upon the wear 
of rails, and in many cases too little attention is paid to the design of the 
springs. 

Where a country or suburban line is built on its own right of way or 
upon a road reservation apart from the highway proper, the ordinary 
system of track construction may be followed, using 60 to 80-lb. rails spiked 
to ties 18 to 30 ins. c. to c, laid on a suitable amount of ballast. Where the 
line is laid along a road, however, deep or girder rails are generally used, 
a 70-lb. 7-in. rail being frequently used, and connected by tie rods about 10 
ft. apart. Where such a line is in a paved street, concrete may be rammed 
between the ties to form a foundation for brick or stone paving, or the 
concrete may also be laid over the ties to the necessary height for an 
asphalt paving. Where asphalt is used, or where a macadam road has 
heavy traffic, a line of bricks or granite blocks (laid as headers) may be 
placed to form or protect the grooves for the wheel flanges. On heavy 
grades, a similar plan may be used to prevent macadam paving from being 
washed out from along the rails, one or two lines of brick being laid as 
stretchers along the outside of the rail head. With an open track, the 
ordinary style of switches and frogs may be used, but where the rails are 
embedded in paving, the. street railway type of tongue switch and grooved 
frog will be required. Many lines of this character (particularly inter- 
urban lines) are built specially for high speed, and have therefore their own 
private right of way, a width of 25 to 50 ft. being sufficient. They are 
usually single track with passing places, and ample signals and safety 
equipment should be provided, as the schedules are more variable and the 
discipline of the employees is less strict than on steam railways, so that 
there is greater liability of accidents. The block system of operation is 
sometimes established. Grade crossings of these electric lines with steam 
railways are too numerous, and should be efficiently protected, as noted 
in a previous chapter. In many cases they could and should be avoided, 
subways or viaducts being substituted. 

The grades and curves may be considerably heavier than on ordinary 
railways, but for high speed electric interurban lines it seems probable 
that the curvature is in many cases excessive, and will have to be reduced 
to allow of safe and efficient operation. This will be realized when it is 
understood that speeds of 25 to 45 miles per hour are made on such lines. 
City lines have curves of 30 to 125 ft. radius, and sometimes the curves are 
transitioned. Curves of 400 ft. radius have transition curves 60 ft. long, 
with an initial radius of 3,400 ft; 33-ft. curves have transition curves run- 
ning out to 180 and 368 ft. at the ends. Curves of 75 to 150 ft. are used on 
suburban and country lines, but 300 to 350 ft. should be the minimum where 
high speeds are to be maintained. Terminal loops of 33 ft. radius have 
the gage widened %-in., but no elevation is required as the speed is invaria- 
bly slow. On curves up to 100 ft. radius, the gage may be. widened %-in., 
but beyond that, standard gage is commonly used. The rules used for 
superelevation on steam railways do not give satisfactory results in these 



STREET RAILWAY TRACK. 255 

cases, owing to the much lighter weignt of the cars, but curves of 250 and 
300 ft. radius on high speed lines, are sometimes elevated 3y 2 to 4 ins., 
using a guard rail on the inside. In city streets, an elevation of 2 ins. can 
sometimes be. obtained on sharp curves without undue interference with 
the paving, but curves at intersections can have little or no elevation. In 
Boston, the rail is elevated for a speed of 15 miles per hour, where the 
street construction will permit of using the formula E = (G V 2 ) -f- (32.2 R). 

It must be borne in mind that the width of tread of wheels for electric 
cars is much less than that of ordinary railway wheels, so that very little 
widening of gage can be made without unduly reducing the bearing of the 
wheel upon the inner rail. On sharp curves where guard rails are required 
(sometimes all under 500 ft. radius), the gage may be widened a sufficient 
amount (according to the width of the groove) to prevent the flange of the 
wheel from cutting into the tread of the outer rail. Some double-track 
electric cars have, trucks 17 ft. 9 ins. c. to c; truck wheelbase, 4 ft. 6 ins.; 
wheels, 33 ins.; width of tread, 2*4 ins.; flanges, %-in. deep and 1 in. thick; 
axles, 4% ins. diameter. As to the grades, electric railways operate success- 
fully on grades of 8 to 12%, while 5 to 6% grades are common. On cable 
lines, grades of 15 and 18% are surmounted. 

As already noted, the rails may be laid either upon a continuous sheet 
of concrete across the street, or upon concrete stringers, the latter being 




-New Asphak— 

6 h= 

' ^ ^0ld\Asphalf Nf 1J — 20" H f-Q\d\ Asphalt 



___ 5r _ 



: ■::." 




dZConcretel, 

■ "-" ' " ■ 



Fig. 191. — Street Railway Track; Kansas City, Mo. 

specially economical in streets having either no concrete foundation, or 
one too thin to carry the track. Fig. 191 shows the arrangement employed 
by the Metropolitan Ry., of Kansas City. A trench is dug for each line 
of rails, 20 ins. wide at top and 16 ins. at the bottom, which is 6 ins. below 
the level of the rail base. Wooden blocks, 8x10x16 ins., are placed in 
the trenches, 10 ft. apart, the rails being spiked to the blocks and tempo- 
rarily spliced. The track is then adjusted to line, gage and surface, after 
which the trenches are filled with concrete, tamped well under the rails 
to give them a full bearing, and allowed to set for about six days, according 
to the weather, as it will set more quickly in warm than in cold weather. 
The concrete is composed of 1 part Portland cement (by measure), 1 part 
natural cement, 4 parts sand and 10 parts crushed stone. It is put around 
the rails before the cast-weld joints are made, in order to protect the rails 
from the effects of changes of temperature. In constructing this system 
on existing lines, sections of about 1,000 ft. of one track are. given up, porta- 
ble crossovers connecting the tracks at the ends of each section. A some- 
what similar system is employed at Buffalo, but the rails are temporarily 
laid on ties instead of blocks. r ihe 9-in. girder rails, 60 ft. long, are drilled for 
tie-rods 10 ft. apart and for one bolt at each end for temporary splicing. 



256 



TRACK. 



Oak ties, 5x7 ins., 7 ft. long, are laid 5 ft. apart, alternate ties being tamped 
with stone ballast, after which the track is surfaced, gaged and lined. The 
alternate ties are then embedded in concrete, well tamped, and a concrete 
stringer 8 x 15 ins. formed under each rail. For block paving, all the space 
between the ties and for 2 ft. outside the rails is also filled with a 6-in. bed 
of concrete, composed of 1 part Portland cement, 3 parts sand and 5 parts 
broken stone. This is allowed to set for 72 hours. The splice bars are 
then removed and the joints electrically welded. Under this system 2,500 
ft. of track could be laid in a day. On other lines, concrete stringers were 




Fig. 192.— Street Railway Track; Indianapolis, Ind. 

formed and allowed to set, and the rails then laid on steel ties on the 
stringers, the space between the stringer and rail being filled with grout- 
ing. This does not maintain as good line or surface, and only 500 ft. per day 
could be laid. T#e combination tie and stringer system, used at Indianapo- 
lis, is shown in Fig. 192. Wooden ties are laid 6 ft. apart, with brace 
plates on each tie. Between the ties is a 6-in. bed of concrete, embedding 
the rails and forming a foundation for the asphalt paving, while the depth 
is increased to form stringers 6 ins. deep under the rails. The use of brace 
plates on every tie makes it unnecessary to employ tie-rods, but in some 
cases timber is dispensed with and the rails are bolted to steel ties. Where 
wooden ties are used, as above described, they are sometimes removed 
when the concrete stringers are hard, and the trenches thus left are filled 
with concrete. 

In the construction adopted at Toronto, and shown in Fig. 193, the entire 
width of the street is given a concrete foundation 6 ins. thick, increased 




(<---- : ---- : £V" : - :: ---H ~^fip£" Tile Pipe \i~ 

Pig. 193.— Street Railway Track; Toronto, Canada. 

to 8 ins. for a width of 20 ins. under each rail, a groove 1 in. deep being 
formed in the concrete to receive the rail base, which is laid directly upon 
the concrete. Grooved girder rails are used, 6% ins. high, with a line of 
scoria paving blocks laid along the inside of each rail, the rest of the 
paving being of 414-in. vitrified brick on 1 in. of sand. Mortar is packed 
between the rail and the paving, but tile blocks are sometimes used for this 
purpose. Tie-bars % x 2 ins. are set 6 ft. apart, the threaded ends passing 



STREET RAILWAY TRACK. 257 

through the webs of the rails and being held by nuts on each side. In 
several cases old rails are used as ties. At Rochester, trenches 12 to 16 ins. 
wide are made, and the bottom covered with 4 ins. of coarse broken stone. 
A concrete foundation is then laid, 6 ins. thick, increased to 10 ins. at the 
ties, and to 17 ins. for a width of 12 to 16 ins. under- the rails. The top of 
the concrete is %-in. above the base, of the rail. The rails are of 6-in. 86-lb. 
grooved girder section, with ties of old inverted girder rails 6 ft. apart. 
On double track, every joint tie and every third tie is 16 ft. long, holding 
all the rails. 

Where wooden ties are used, they are usually of sawed pine, oak, cedar, 
chestnut or hackmatack, 6x7 ins. to 6 x 10 ins., and 7 to $y 2 ft. long, though 
a few roads use 6-ft. ties, which are not to be recommended. They are 
spaced 18 to 30 ins. c. to c, except that where they are used mainly to hold 
the rails during construction they may be 5 to 10 ft. apart. Where the 
concrete floor system is employed, the rails are often attached to light 
steel ties or 3-in. angle irons, which serve to maintain the gage and are 
embedded in the concrete, 5 to 10 ft. apart. With high rails, however, it 
is very common practice to connect them by 1-in. tie-rods (if to be em- 
bedded in concrete) or tie-bars (if to fit between courses of paving blocks), 
which pass through the webs and have nuts on each ^ide of the web. With 
wooden ties, ordinary spikes are used and steel tie-plates; combination tie- 
plates and rail braces being used on every tie or on a certain proportion of 
the ties. These are sometimes supplemented by tie-rods at the joints. The 
rods and braces are to maintain the gage and resist the lateral thrust due to 
street traffic. 

Girder rails and ordinary T* rails are now almost universally used, the 
various forms of strap, box and compound rails, and shallow rails sup- 
ported on chairs, being practically obsolete. Girder rails are used for lines 
of all classes, but more especially for streets, while T rails are used mainly 
for suburban and country lines. The girder rails have heads of the center- 
bearing, side-bearing or grooved patterns, as shown in Figs. 191, 192 and 193. 
The first of these is most objectionable and should not be allowed by the 
municipal authorities, as it makes a rough riding street surface and forms 
two extra and entirely unnecessary grooves to each track. With the side- 
bearing head there is no groove proper, but the entire width of paving be- 
tween the rails of each track is lower than that of the rest of the street. 
This makes an irregular surface, inconvenient for driving and difficult to 
keep clean. For city streets, the grooved head is the best, the rail head 
being wide enough for the widest wagon wheels and having a groove for 
the car-wheel flanges, these grooves being the only break in the contour 
of the street. The inner side of the groove is nearly vertical, but the outer 
side may be flaring or vertical. The New York rail has a groove 1% ins. 
deep and 1% ins. wide on top, while the Washington and Cincinnati rails 
have grooves about 1 1-16 ins. wide and deep. The latter gives the least 
break in the pavement, but the former enables narrow wheels to turn out 
easily and is also more easily kept clean. The dirt, snow, etc., in the groove 
offers some additional resistance to traction, but the general advantages of 
this form of rail far outweigh any minor objections on the part of the 
railway companies. When first introduce'd, following long established 
English practice, it was claimed that narrow tires would be caught and 



258 TRACK. 

that the grooves would be so clogged, up with street dirt that cars would 
not be able to run. Practical experience has shown that the use of these 
rails is entirely practicable and very advantageous. Girder rails are 6 to 
10% ins. high, and weigh from 70 to 120 lbs. per yd. 

The use of T-girder rails, resembling high and narrow railway rails, is 
now quite general, mainly for lines in the smaller towns and on country 
roads. Brick or block paving may be laid to leave a flangeway, not ex- 
ceeding iy 8 ins., the space being filled with fine concrete, covered with 
asphalt to the level of the required depth of groove. Special blocks may 
also be used, having chamfered ends to fit under the rail head and form 
the flangeway. At Minneapolis, 80-lb., 60-ft. rails of the Am. Soc. C. E. 
section are used (5 ins. high and wide), being laid on concrete stringers 
Sy 2 x 15 ins. and connected by tie-bars 10 ft. apart. The asphalt pavement 
is 2y 2 ins. thick, on a 6-in. concrete foundation, with a line of granite 
blocks inside each rail, leaving a flangeway of 1% ins. This is filled with 
concrete and asphalt, the groove being formed by the car wheels. 

The rail joints may be spliced tne same way as those of steam railways, 
but for very tall rails the splice bars are usually of channel section, wiui 
double row of bolts, and have sometimes a horizontal rib which bears 
against the web of the rail, as shown in Fig. 192. Many of the special 
joints described in a former chapter have also been adapted to street rail- 
way track. Within recent years, however, the elimination of the joints 
by welding the rails together has been very extensively practised, and in 
general with good results. As the rails are embedded in the paving, and 
only the top of the head is exposed, the contraction and expansion due to 
temperature are very much reduced, and where breaks occur they are 
more often due to faulty welding than to the contraction of the rails. On 
electric trolley lines, where the rails are used to carry the return current, 
the joints must be bonded or connected by copper wires or plates, so that 
the current will flow uninterruptedly from rail to rail and not seek an 
easier path through the earth owing to the resistance which it encounters 
in passing the joints. In practice, however, this bonding is very defective, 
the conductivity of the bonds being far less than that of the rails, with 
the result that the current escapes and travels along water and gas pipes 
and other conductors, causing electrolytic corrosion or electrolysis. It is 
generally claimed that welded joints eliminate the necessity of bonding, 
the continuous rail offering no resistance, but while this may be the case 
with new or specially well made joints it does not hold good in general. 
Careful tests made in investigations as to electrolysis show a very material 
increase in the resistance, or loss of conductivity at the weld. 

The joints may be welded electrically or by pouring melted iron around 
the rail ends. In electric welding, as now practised, steel bars about 1 x 3 x 
15 ins. are clamped to the rail webs, and three electric welds are made at 
the rail ends and the ends of the bars, heavy pressure being applied while 
the rails are heated by an electric current. In the "cast-weld" system, a 
hinged mold is clamped to the joint, and a vertical screw applies pressure 
from above to keep the rail ends from buckling vertically under the in- 
fluence of the heat. Metal heated to a white heat in a portable cupola is 
then poured into the mold, which is left for about an hour. The metal 
is usually composed of about 67% pig iron and 33% scrap, and the best 



STREET RAILWAY TRACK. 259 

results are obtained where a thin iron shim or plate is inserted at the joint. 
The rail ends must be clean and bright to ensure good work, and the joint 
should be ground or dressed to a plane surface. Breaks are classed as 
broken rails, broken joints and slipped joints, the latter being due. to im- 
perfect welding. They may be repaired by re-welding, putting on splice 
bars, or by cutting out 10 ft. of rail and putting in a new piece with two 
joints. Reinforced joints are used with 5-in. and 6-in. rails at Scranton, 
Pa. Ordinary angle bars are bolted to the rails with six bolts, and an in- 
verted piece of rail 4 ft. long is rived to the base of the rails with 18 rivets, 
four of these being of copper to act as electric bonds. A pneumatic riveter 
is used, suspended from a derrick on a construction car. As the work on 
rail joints represents some 75% of the general track maintenance, and as 
this work is done under unfavorable conditions, the desirability of elimi- 
nating joints may readily be seen. For this reason 60-ft. street rails are 
very commonly used. 

In paved streets, the switches are usually of the tongue pattern, a pivoted 
tapering tongue moving in a casting having a wide groove. The switch 
or tongue is placed on one side of the track only, a fixed point or "mate," 
like a frog point, being placed on the opposite side. Frogs and crossings 
are usually steel castings, manganese steel and other specially hard makes 
of steel being often inserted at the points of most severe wear. Passing 
sidings may be arranged in different ways: (1) The main track continued 
in a straight line, with the siding on one side; (2) Both tracks diverted 
equally from the center line; (3) The main track offset so as to overlap 
for the length of the siding. In the third case, the automatic spring 
switches are set normally for the straight line, cars in each direction hav- 
ing a facing switch always open, and trailing through a closed switch after 
passing through the siding. For turnouts, junctions, grade crossings, etc., 
very complicated special work is often required, and these parts are built 
up in a very solid and substantial way. Guard rails are required on sharp 
curves, and these may be grooved girder rails with wide grooves and 
guards of exceptional thickness. For T rails, a heavy rectangular bar may 
be used, bolted to the web of the track rail, with spacing blocks of the re- 
quired width. Special care must be taken in laying out curves to ensure 
easy riding and (on double track) to prevent any liability of cars striking 
when passing on a curve. On some very sharp curves it is impossible to 
spread the curves to prevent this interference, and cars must not attempt 
to pass each other on the curve. Transition or spiral curves are now very 
generally adopted, not only for ordinary curves on outlying parts of the 
line where cars run at high rates of speed, but also on sharp city curves, 
to eliminate the severe shock and swing caused by a car passing from the 
tangent to the curve. Where very heavy grades are encountered, a balance 
system may be used, in which a heavily loaded truck running down in a 
conduit helps to haul a car up the grade, a descending car then pulling the 
counterweight truck up again. The electrical equipment does not come 
within the scope of the. work, but some notes may be given as to the poles. 
These are usually about 30 ft. long (40 to 50 ft. crossings), set 6 ft. on the 
ground. Those at the side of the track are inclined slightly outward to re- 
sist the pull of the span wires which carry the trolley wire. A back board 
spiked against the pole below the level of the ground, and a filling of con- 



260 TRACK. 

crete or stone behind the pole, will add to its stability. Wooden poles are 
about 5 or 6 ins. diameter at the top and 10 to 11 ins. at the butt, and may- 
be of cedar if left round, or chestnut if trimmed to a square or hexagonal 
section. Iron poles may be tubular or built-up, the former being the most 
common and usually consisting of three tubes 5, 6 and 7 ins. diameter, with 
telescoped and swaged joints. 

In regard to the maintenance work, this is now very generally in the 
hands of a department organized somewhat on the same lines as that of 
a steam railway. The Union Traction Co., of Philadelphia, Pa., has a 
roadway department in charge of track, roadbed, paving, conduits for 
electric cables, bridges, and repairs to buildings. This is in charge of an 
engineer. The regular maintenance gangs are assigned monthly to a cer- 
tain district, and besides the general repair work the entire track and 
paving is gone over about once a year for surfacing, repairing joints, etc. 
Such work as oiling guard rails on curves, sanding tracks on steep grades 
and cleaning switches is done by men specially detailed for the purpose, 
each man doing the work in a certain district. The engineer reports 
monthly to the president and general manager, stating the work done and 
the supplies on hand, and giving an estimate of the work proposed for the 
next month. The Chicago City Ry. has a trackmaster in charge of the en- 
tire system, which is divided into six sections of about 40 miles, each in 
charge of a section foreman. One of the men on each section is detailed 
as a caller, and in case of emergency, accident, snowstorm, etc., the tele- 
phone operator calls up this man, who then notifies the rest of the gang 
and tells them where they are to go. 



PART II. TRACK WORK. 



CHAPTER 16.— ORGANIZATION OP THE MAINTENANCE OP WAY 

DEPARTMENT. 

One of the most important points in regard to the efficient and econom- 
ical operation of a railway or a department is the system of organization 
adopted. In the organization of railway operating service there are two 
distinct systems: (1) The division system; (2) The department system. 
Under the first of these, each division is operated practically as an inde- 
pendent line, its superintendent having control of transportation, main- 
tenance of way, and maintenance of equipment. All other officers on the 
division report to him, and he reports to the heads of the several branches 
of the service. The latter transmit all instructions to him, which he re- 
fers to the proper subordinate officers. Under the second system, the sev- 
eral branches of the service (for the line as a whole) are centered in the 
heads of certain departments, which are usually as follows: (A) The en- 
gineering department, in charge of the construction and maintenance of 
line, roadway and appurtenances; (B) The mechanical department, in 
charge of locomotives, cars, machinery, floating plant, shops, etc.; (C) 
The operating department, in charge of train service and traffic. Thus the 
division engineer reports to the chief engineer, the division master-me- 
chanic to the superintendent of motive power, and the division superin- 
tendent to the general superintendent. The first system is in many ways 
the better, as in this way all authority and responsibility for the work of 
each division are centered in one man, which arrangement conduces to the 
economy and efficiency of the service. The maintenance-of-way forces 
may be organized to be in one of three different relations to the general 
organization: (1) As a separate department; (2) As a division of the en- 
gineering department; (3) As a division of the operating department. 
The first is only practicable on very large railway systems, and of the two' 
others, the former is the more appropriate and advantageous. The bridge 
and building forces and the signal forces should be organized as divisions 
of the engineering or the maintenance department, and the signal division 
should include train-order and switch signals as well as block and inter- 
locking signals. On a very large railway having the. maintenance-of-way 
work under the engineering department it would be impossible for the 
chief engineer to attend personally to details of track work, as well as to 



262 TRACK WORK. 

all the other varied work of his department, and thus there is often an 
engineer of maintenance of way or a general roadmaster to act in the place 
of the chief engineer for all ordinary matters. On a smaller road, how- 
ever, the chief engineer may well he in direct touch with the roadmaster. 
It is well to have as little subdivision of authority as possible, but the 
extent of such subdivision will necessarily depend largely upon the mile- 
age and traffic of the road. The systems of organization in force on 
some leading railways are given below in detail, classified according to 
the three systems above noted. 

(1) Maintenance of Way as a Separate Department. 

Pennsylvania Ry. — The engineer of maintenance of way and the chief 
engineer are separate officers, reporting to the general manager and the 
second vice-president respectively. The former is one of the three "cab- 
inet officers" assisting the general manager (engineer of maintenance-of- 
way, general superintendent of transportation, and general superintendent 
of motive power). He is represented on each of the grand divisions bj 
a principal assistant engineer, who in turn is represented on each of tne 
operating divisions by an assistant engineer, to whom the supervisors re- 
port. The supervisors (who answer to roadmasters on other roads) are 
educated engineers, in charge of about 25 miles of line, and have each an 
assistant. Subordinate to them are the track foremen, whose sections are 
2y 2 miles long on double track, and four-track lines. The maintenance of 
way department has general charge of the road, including track, bridges, 
buildings, turntables, water supply, signals, etc., after the same have been 
completed for operation or use. On each division there is a master car- 
penter, who looks after general repairs to bridges, buildings, etc., and 
there are also masons to do repair work. 

Southern Pacific Ry. — There are two engineers of maintenance of way, 
one for each of the two systems into which the road is divided. Each re- 
ports to the general manager of the road, on matters relating to standard 
plans and methods, and to the manager of his own system in all other 
matters. The chief engineer has to do only with the construction of new 
lines and with important changes on existing lines. The engineer of 
maintenance of way acts as assistant to the manager, and he has imme- 
diate supervision of all matters pertaining to the maintenance or renewal 
of the roadbed, track, bridges, buildings, etc., and also has direction of all 
construction work. He prepares the pay rolls and keeps the accounts of 
the department, the accounts being rendered to the auditor at the close of 
each month. He has under him a superintendent of bridges and buildings, 
a signal engineer, an assistant engineer, and division engineers, the latter 
assisting the division superintendents in all matters pertaining to the 
maintenance of the track. On one of the two systems of the road, the sec- 
tion foremen and foremen of bridges and buildings report to the road- 
masters, who report to the division engineers. The other system has no 
division engineers, the bridge and building foremen reporting to the su- 
perintendent of bridges and buildings, and the roadmasters to the di- 
vision superintendents. The department includes track, bridges, build- 
ings, water supply, turntables, coaling stations, and all classes of signals. 



ORGANIZATION. 263 

(2) Maintenance of Way Subordinate to the Engineering Department. 

Illinois Central Ry. — The engineering department looks after construc- 
tion work and the maintenance of the entire fixed property, including 
track, bridges, buildings, turntables, water supply, interlocking and block 
signals, etc. Section men report to supervisors, who have charge of about 
100 miles of track; and these report to roadmasters, who have charge of 
divisions from 250 to 500 miles in length. The shorter division is 63 miles 
(near Chicago), and the longest is 518 miles (along the Mississippi River). 
The roadmasters report to the division superintendents, who in turn re- 
port to the two assistant general superintendents (one north and one south 
of the Ohio River). These report to the chief engineer upon all matters 
relating to the physical condition of the property and to the general super- 
intendent upon matters relating to transportation. The latter officers re- 
port to the second vice-president. The chief engineer has under him a 
signal engineer and an engineer of bridges and buildings; the latter of 
whom has under him a superintendent of bridges, a matter carpenter and 
an architect. The two former look after special construction and renewal, 
the ordinary maintenance of the bridges and buildings being in the hands 
of the roadmasters. Painters are employed as required by the roadmaster, 
master carpenter and superintendent of bridges. On main line, with single 
track and gravel ballast, an ordinary section gang consists of a foreman 
and 6 men to a section 6 miles long, one of these men usually acting as 
trackwalker. This force is reduced on the less important main lines with 
gravel ballast to a foreman and 4 men, additional men being employed 
as needed to put in extra ballast, lay new rails and do other important 
work which cannot be taken care of by the regular gang. With earth 
ballast (which is used only on unimportant branch lines) an ordinary gang 
consists of a foreman and 3 or 4 men, but such a gang is increased when 
it is necessary to do any extensive ditching, general surfacing, etc. There 
are several hundred miles of track with stone ballast, and for this the 
section gangs are composed of a foreman and 6 men to a section 6 miles 
long, additional gangs being employed for extra work in ballasting, laying 
rails, etc. The average force allowed is 1 man per mile in summer, and 
1 man per 2 miles in winter. 

Michigan Central Ry. — The chief engineer has charge of all construction, 
and of the maintenance of track, bridges, buildings, water supply, real es- 
tate, interlocking, and signals of all kinds. The division roadmasters 
report direct to the superintendent of tracks, who reports to the chief en- 
gineer. The general scheme of organization is as follows: 

Officers. Reporting to Officers. Reporting to 

Prin. Asst. Engr Chief Engineer. Foreman of Repairs Asst. Roadmasters. 

Bridge Engineer " •« Div. Foremen of Bldgs. 

Signal Engineer ...... " v and W. S Supt. Bldgs &W.S. 

Supt. of Tracks " " Masons and Bdg. Carps. .Div. F., B. & W. S. 

Supt. of Bldgs & W. S. " " Carps, and Painters 

Assistant Engineers Prin. Asst. Engr. Asst. Bridge Engrs Bridge Engineer. 

Roadmasters Supt. of Tracks. Div. Foreman of Bdgs. . 

Assistant Roadmasters. .Roadmasters. Signal Inspectors Signal Engineer. 

New York Central Ry. — The track work is under the engineering depart- 
ment, in accordance with the following section of the company's by-laws: 
"The chief engineer, under the direction and supervision of the third vice- 



264 TRACK WORK. 

president, shall have the care and charge of the roadbed and tracks, and 
all buildings and structures appertaining thereto; docks, piers, bulkheads, 
sheds and warehouses. Ordinary maintenance of the roadbed, track and 
structures shall be under the charge of the general roadmaster, in accord- 
ance with standard rules, regulations and plans prepared by the chief en- 
gineer, under his supervision and control." The third vice-president is 
the executive head of the operating department. The engineering depart- 
ment has charge of all construction and maintenance, including track, 
water supply, turntables, and switch signals. The block signals, however, 
are under the operating department, each division superintendent having 
an assistant superintendent of signals, but it would seem very much bet- 
ter to have all signals under one head, and that under the engineering 
department. The general scheme of organization is as follows: 

Chiefs. Subordinates. 

Chief Engineer. Division engineers (7). 

Division Engineers Roadmasters, supervisors of buildings and water supply, as- 
sistant engineers, supervisors of bridges. 

Roadmasters Section foreman and gangs, ballast and special gangs, pumpers. 

Engineer of Bridges Iron bridgemen, masons, pile-driver gangs, bridge painters and 

carpenters. 

Supervisor of Buildings. .Carpenters, painters, water supply and scales men. 

(3) Maintenance of Way Subordinate to the Operating Department. 

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. — All such work as new construction, 
reconstruction, changes in line, replacing bridges by permanent work; es- 
tablishing new buildings and water stations, etc., is under the authority of 
the chief engineer. The maintenance-of -way work, ballasting, repairs to 
track, timber trestles, care of bridges and buildings and maintenance of 
signals, are all under the direction of the general superintendent. The 
jurisdiction of the signal engineer includes block and interlocking signals 
and semaphore train-order signals, but does not include the switch signals 
or the old target train-order signals, which are attended to by the main- 
tenance of way forces and the bridge and building forces respectively. It 
would be better, however, to concentrate the responsibility in regard to 
signals. All switch signal and train-order lamps are under the supervision 
of an inspector who reports to the signal engineer. The track foremen 
report to the roadmasters, who report to the division superintendents, who 
in turn report to the general superintendent. On each division there is 
a general foreman of bridges and buildings, who reports to the division 
superintendent, and who has charge of the maintenance and repairs of 
trestles, building and water service. The carpenters and painters report to 
this general foreman. The roadmasters' divisions average 140 to 150 miles. 
The shortest is 106 miles, all main track; the longest is 250 miles, nearly 
all branches. 

Erie Ry. — The organization of this road is entirely on the division sys- 
tem. The chief engineer has charge of all (construction work, and of 
bridges and buildings. Indirectly, he also has charge of maintenance of 
way, as he establishes all standards relating to track and signals, and 
these cannot be changed without his consent. The engineer of mainte- 
nance-of-way has charge of all matters pertaining to maintenance of track, 
bridges, buildings, water supply, etc. All the division engineers report to 



ORGANIZATION. 265 

him on these matters, and he reports directly to the general superintend- 
ent. Plans for all new work and important structures are prepared by the 
chief engineer, who either assumes direct charge of construction, or refers 
it to the engineer of maintenance of way, and thus to the division super- 
intendents, who in turn refer it to the proper officers. On the Erie Divis- 
ion, each division superintendent has a roadmaster, who has an assistant 
engineer and a rodman under him. On the Ohio Division, the roadmaster 
and assistant engineers are combined, and have the latter title. The roaa- 
master (or assistant engineer) has under him supervisors, track foremen, 
carpenters, masons, and all the mechanics and laborers necessary for the 
maintenance of way. 

New York, New Haven & Hartford Ry. — While the maintenance of way 
is under the operating department, the engineering department is con- 
sulted on all important work. The chief engineer has under him a bridge 
engineer and two district engineers. He has supervisory authority as to 
all changes and renewals of roadway, bridges, buildings and docks. The 
roadmaster, supervisor and signal engineer of each division report to the 
division superintendent, who reports to the general superintendent. The 
supervisor has charge of bridges, turntables, and coal and water stations. 
Signal inspectors and repair men report to the signal engineer. Car- 
penters, masons and painters report to the superintendent of buildings, 
who reports directly to the general manager. The length of roadmasters' 
divisions on double track is from 50 to 75 miles, with various lengths (up 
to 50 miles) of single track in addition. The New York division includes 
55 miles of four-track, 17.25 miles of double tra,ck, and 7.66 miles of single 
track. The length of sections is 2 miles on four-track or 4 miles on double 
track. The number of men (including foremen) in the section gangs on im- 
portant lines is 9 in spring (with full force) and 5 in winter. On less 
important lines, 7 and 5 men; and on unimportant side lines, 6 and 3 men 
respectively. 

Whatever may be the system of organization of the department, the 
system of organization of the working forces is almost invariably uniform 
for all roads. The line is divided into sections, the work on each of which 
is in charge of a section foreman and section gang. The length of sections 
varies according to the number of tracks, character of construction, num- 
ber of yards and switches, and the amount of traffic. The average is aboul 
5 to 7 miles on single track, and 3 to 5 miles on double track; 3y 2 to 4 miles 
of double track being equivalent to 5 miles of single track. On four-track 
lines, the length of sections is from 2 to 3 miles. The amount of work 
does not increase directly in proportion to the number of tracks, as ditch- 
ing, clearing right of way, cutting grass, etc., average about the same in 
any case, the greater amount of clearing on a single track right of way 
compensating for the greater care usually required on double track. On 
double track, however, the men know in which direction to look for trains, 
and can therefore do their work and run their hand-car to better ad- 
vantage and with greater safety. The number of frogs and switches has a 
material influence on the amount of work, and the number of men allotted 
to the section, as noted later. Table No. 16 shows the organization and the 
distribution of labor on some leading railways: 



266 



TRACK WORK. 



TABLE NO. 16.— ORGANIZATION FOR MAINTBNANCE-OF-WAY. 



-Length, of 



Railway. 

Atch., Top. & S. Fe. 
Bait. & Ohio 



Roadmaster's 

divisions, 

-miles 



Boston & Albany. 



Boston & Maine 

Chicago & Northwestern. 



140 to 150 
40 to 65 d. t. 
65 to 130 s. t. 
50 of double track 
with at least 20 of 
single trk brnchs. 
115 of d. t. main 
line and about 115 
of s. t. branches. 



No. of men in sec- 
, tion gang. » 

Spring. Winter. 

5 to 7* 3* 

12* 2 to 8* 



80 to 100 on main] 
line, plus 60 to 80 \2y 2 to 
l_ of branches. 
Chic, Mil. & St. Paul 100 main track. 



Chic, Burl. & Quincy. 



Clev., Cin., Chic. & St. Louis 



Erie 



Illinois Central 

Lake Shore & Mich. South'n 

Michigan Central 

New York Central J 

N. Y., N. H. & Hartford. 



Northern Pacific 
Pennsylvania . . . 
Wabash 



IN. 



80 to 150 
100 to 140 

Average, 300 
100 



40 to 50 
25 to 35 
36 to 148 
50 to 125 
Y. Division, 
100 to 150 

25 
83 to 260 




^Including foremen. 

A new system of organization for track forces has been introduced on 
the Ohio River Ry. by Mr. C. E. Bryan, the Superintendent of Maintenance 
of Way and Structures. On each division there is a supervisor in charge 
of all the forces, and the sections have been changed from 7 to 8 miles, and 
the gangs reduced from a foreman and 6 men to a foreman and 3 men. 
The divisions are also divided into 30-mile sections, each with a floating 
gang consisting of a foreman, 20 men and a cook. The gang has a camp 
train of four box cars and a flat car for boarding and sleeping accommo- 
dation and supplies. The small section gangs go over their sections daily 
(the trackwalker being done away with); they inspect the track, make 
small repairs to track and fences, keep station grounds neat, etc. The 
larger gangs do such work as ballasting, renewing ties and rails, widen- 
ing banks, ditching, etc. It is contended that the daily inspection will be 
better, as it is under the eye of the foreman and repairs can be made at 
once. Under this system, the work of replacing 56-lb. with 75-lb. rails, 
re-ballasting and re-tieing was carried on the spring of 1900, without any 
increase in forces, while under the ordinary system a tracklaying force 
and a ballasting force would have been required. Rails, ties, ballast, etc., 
are distributed to the divisions, each of which is able to do all this work 
on about 8 to 10 miles per month. 

Roadmasters. 

The position and responsibility of the roadmaster vary on different 
roads. In some cases he is at the head of his department, and in others 



ORGANIZATION. 267 

he occupies a more subordinate position. He is' the direct head of the 
track work on his road or division, being the intermediary between the 
executive officers and the working forces. He should therefore be an in- 
telligent and educated man, and should cultivate a spirit of good feeling 
between himself and his men, so that they will feel he is friendly and just 
to their interests and in his dealings with them. It has been shown in the 
introductory chapter that there is now a more general recognition of the 
fact that engineering knowledge and experience are essential in track 
maintenance work, and that a roadmaster on an important road should be 
something more than a high grade of section foreman. There is at the 
present time a marked tendency toward the development of the organiza- 
tion of the roadway department upon an engineering basis. The average 
cost of labor and material for track maintenance is from $600 to $1,000 
per mile per year, which is 17 to 25% of the operating expenses and 10 to 
17% of the total expenditures. On a roadmaster's division of 100 miles, 
therefore, the annual expenditure may amount to $60,000 or $100,000. It will 
be evident, then, that the roadmaster should be a man capable of control- 
ling the expenditures wisely and economically. The title of roadmaster 
is not very significant, and superintendent of track, inspector of track, or 
engineer of maintenance of way would be much more appropriate. 

As to the question whether the roadmaster should be an engineer, or 
what is vaguely termed a ''practical man" (meaning one promoted from 
the ranks of the section foremen), a very little consideration will make it 
evident that the former is by far the best-fitted for the duties and respon- 
sibilities of the position. Besides the general work of maintaining the 
track in good condition, the roadmaster should be familiar with the prin- 
ciples of curve and switch work and. yard design, the problems connected 
with ties and tie preservation, the relation of rail sections and weights to 
wear of wheels and rails, and other matters of similar character. All this, 
of course, is part of the engineer's training, and he is also familiar with 
the instrument and mathematical work. He must, however, understand 
the limits to mathematical precision in track work, so that he will not 
figure out his turnout leads to decimal points, when a little variation may 
avoid the cutting of a rail and will make no difference in the turnout; in 
the same way he must understand the limitations which traffic conditions 
impose upon superelevation, gage on curves, etc. He must also be thor- 
oughly familiar with the practical details of track work, or his subor- 
dinates and the laborers will have little respect for him. But while he- 
must know enough of his men's work and the use of their tools to be able- 
to direct and govern them, there is no necessity of his being an expert 
with the spiking maul or the tamping bar, any more than the general 
manager need be an expert at the typewriter, or the mechanical superin- 
tendent an expert at firing an engine. The opponents of the system of 
putting the track work directly in the hands of engineers usually regard 
the engineer as being mainly a surveyor and draftsman unaccustomed to 
"practical" work or the handling of men. This is a very erroneous idea, 
however, as the engineer is a man of liberal training and generally of wide 
experience. In charge of such work as construction, reconstruction, chang- 
ing grade and alinement, bridge renewals, etc., he has to organize his 
forces, to handle and direct large bodies of men, and to provide for carry- 

10 



268 TRACK WORK. 

ing on the work with rapidity, economy and the least interference with 
traffic. 

The roadmaster who is a "practical man," a sort of first class foreman, 
is probably thoroughly competent in all track work proper, but is apt to 
be contemptuous of instrument work and mathematical calculations, be- 
cause he does not understand them or their purpose. The niceties of super- 
elevation and of easement curves are beyond him, and he does not like 
to see an engineer set stakes for his guidance. He will rely upon getting 
his switches in and making his curves easy riding by means of his eye, 
rough measurements and "trial and error." He is not competent to com- 
prehend the economic principles underlying his work, and is also liable to 
prove inefficient in the handling of men. It has been pointed out by Mr. 
B. Reece, in a paper on "Railway Track Repairs" (Transactions of the 
American Society of Civil Engineers, 1884), that the "practical" man is 
apt to rely more upon special rules and instructions and personal direc- 
tion, than upon general rules and written orders. The latter, however, 
is the better plan in directing large bodies of men, leaving the former 
practice to the subordinate officers. Besides this, the education of the 
section foreman is usually too limited to fit him for higher responsibility; 
while his lack of knowledge of operating conditions and railway economics 
makes it hard for him to understand how and when it is best to expend 
labor and money. In the past, many excellent roadmasters have graduated 
from the ranks of the section foreman, but a more special and technical 
training is required to meet the conditions of modern railway maintenance. 

Great difficulty is often experienced, however, in obtaining men who com- 
bine practical and technical training with ability to command, and the 
railways are beginning to look to the engineering colleges to supply men 
of education whom they can educate in the service. On the Illinois Cen- 
tral Ry., half of the roadmasters are engineers, and this proportion is in- 
creasing. Under a system of track apprenticeship adopted under the di- 
rection of Mr. John P. Wallace, Assistant Second Vice-President, grad- 
uates from engineering schools are given work with the section gangs for 
a year or two, and then promoted to be foremen, supervisors and ulti- 
mately roadmasters. Other roads have adopted a somewhat similar plan, 
but less systematically and on a smaller scale. It must be recognized, 
however, that the training these young men have received, while perhaps 
of little immediate value to the railway, is a good foundation for future 
development, and that therefore they should be given some encourage- 
ment and promise of promotion. Otherwise they will naturally not care 
to enter the roadway service, with small pay, hard manual labor, and no 
better prospects than those of the laborers. There is no intention of put- 
ting young men fresh from college in responsible positions in the track de- 
partment, over the heads of experienced foremen. They are put in the 
gang to learn, not to command, and to learn general practice and methods 
of work rather than to become simply expert section men. In view of 
the steady development of track work on scientific principles, and the val- 
uable class of officers obtained by the combination of scientific and prac- 
tical training, railway managements can well afford to give the necessary 
encouragement and opportunities. The time is near at hand when the 



ORGANIZATION. 269 

roadway department will be in the hands of engineers, and when it will 
be recognized that the trackmen are skilled laborers. 

In regard to the details of the work of the roadmaster, he is responsible 
for keeping everything pertaining to the roadway in repair and in proper 
condition for safe use. He is held responsible for the maintenance and 
condition of the track on the division, for the safe keeping and proper use 
of all track material and tools, for the condition of the tool houses, section 
boarding houses, tanks, pumping stations, etc., and for the proper supply 
of water to trains. He is also responsible for the condition of yards, cul- 
verts, trestles, bridges, grade crossings, cabins, platforms, turntables, 
fences, cattle stations, and all minor structures. The rules and regulations 
which govern him differ on all roads, in accordance with local conditions 
and organization, but the following general outline of his duties, which is 
compiled from the rules of a number of railways, will give a good idea of 
the scope of his work and responsibilities. Where there are division road- 
masters, or supervisors, their duties and responsibilities are practically 
the same, but on a smaller scale. Of course much of the work noted below 
has to be attended to by tne foreman, but it is all included in the road- 
master's responsibility. 

He must spend much of his time on the road, but must not neglect proper 
attention to office duties, such as the checking up of time-books, pay-rolls 
and records, the preparation of requisitions and reports, and the answering 
of letters from other departments. He is usually allowed a clerk to see 
to the correspondence and general office work. He must be frequently 
and systematically out on the track, not merely looking at it from the en- 
gine or the rear platform of a train, but walking over the sections, person- 
ally interviewing the foremen, and carefully inspecting all new work. He 
is usually required to pass over a part of his division every day, except 
when engaged in checking up time-books at the end of the month, and to 
pass over the whole of the division on foot or on a velocipede at slow 
speed at least once or twice a month, or oftener on mountainous or dan- 
gerous divisions. He should not use the section hand cars for his trips. 
He must record the dates on which he goes over the division, noting 
whether the trip was made on foot, by hand-car or by train; and must rec- 
ord all important work and its progress. He should be thoroughly posted 
as to the physical condition of the road and the daily disposition of his 
forces. 

During his trips he must look closely into details of work, and talk fre- 
quently with the foremen, calling their attention to defects or bad prac- 
tice, give them instruction and advice (but not "nagging" them), and 
being prompt to award either praise or blame. He should see that his 
orders are thoroughly understood and properly executed, particularly on 
special or important work; and should enquire of the foremen as to their 
plans for doing coming work. He should never issue orders directly to the 
men under his subordinates, as that tends to injure proper discipline and 
the respect for the foreman's authority, and he must remember that the 
foreman (and not the roadmaster) is in charge of the gang. He should, 
however, see that proper and competent men are employed. He should ac- 
company the. pay car over his division, to identify the foremen and help 
settle any disputes. 



270 TRACK WORK. 

He must see that the foremen are properly supplied with time-books, 
time-tables, blank reports, etc., and that they properly use and return 
them; and also that they make proper reports of accidents, cattle killed, 
fences burned, etc. He must frequently and closely inspect the track to 
see if it is kept in proper condition as to line and surface, accurate gage, 
alinement and superelevation and widening of gage on curves. Progs and 
switches must also be carefully examined as to condition and position. 
The accuracy of the foremen's gages and levels must be occasionally tested. 
He must see that the proper expansion shims are used in laying new rails, 
and that new ties and ballast are properly used. Also that all frogs, 
switches and fixed signals are placed in accordance with standard plans. 
The car and tool equipment, lamps, etc., must be inspected, to see that they 
are in efficient condition and properly used, and that all supplies are ac- 
counted for when requisitions are made for new material. Engineers' 
curve and distance stakes must be looked to, to see that they are not dis- 
turbed, and when they need renewing he must either set them out or re- 
port to the engineer. He must see that track signs, bridge tell-tales, mail 
cranes, etc., are in good and proper condition, and that all printed notices 
at farm crossings, etc., are properly posted. Fences, gates and gate fasten- 
ings must be looked to, and reports made of cases where farm gates are 
habitually left open, or where encroachments are made on the company's 
property. 

The roadmaster has authority over the pumping station men, and must 
see that they keep the machinery clean and in order, and that the fuel is 
neatly stored and cared for." On the failure of water supply at any station 
telegraphic notice, followed by a written report, must be sent to the 
superintendent. In winter he may also order the foremen to detail men 
to look after the stoves to prevent freezing up of the water stations. He 
must see that all buildings and their surroundings are tidy and in good 
repair, that section boarding houses are kept neat and clean and that 
proper food and accommodation are provided for the men. If this is not 
done it will not be easy to keep good men on the road, and track work will 
be expensive in consequence of being always in the hands of new men. 
He must also see that telegraph linemen, fence gangs and bridge gangs are 
afforded proper facilities and assistance in making repairs. Whenever any 
structure is being built or work is being done on the company's property 
by other than employees of the company, the facts must be reported, unless 
it is positively known that proper authority has been obtained. The road- 
master must exercise a general oversight of all work performed on the 
division by contractors, bridge carpenters, telegraph gangs, etc., in case 
anything should interfere with the safety of the track. A special inspec- 
tion of all waterways should be made before the winter or rainy season, 
any necessary repairs being then made to trestle bents or banks of streams, 
and all obstructions removed. 

Arrangements must be made for the proper execution of all new work or- 
dered, and the roadmaster will obey instructions issued in regard to such 
work, including ballasting, laying new rails, putting in switch or interlock- 
ing work, laying additional tracks, rearranging yards, reconstructing bridges, 
etc., and the execution of the work should receive close attention. The 
roadmaster has full charge of all gravel and construction trains on his 



ORGANIZATION. 271 

division, must lay out the work for them, and make all orders for running 
them. He must also see that comfortable quarters and wholesome and 
sufficient food are provided. All orders for work done by construction 
and material trains are given by him, except in cases of emergency. In- 
sufficient motive power on work trains must be at once reported, as con- 
struction trains are very expensive and require the best motive power to 
insure their economical operation. Record should be kept of time lost by 
work trains being laid out in passing sidings, etc., and a report made giving 
the reasons. 

The roadmaster should annually inspect all the ties which the sec- 
tion foreman mark as needing renewal, and from this personal examination 
prepare a requisition for ties needed in the coming year, checking the fore- 
men's counts and requisitions. This estimate must be sent in to the proper 
officer by a specified date each year. No ties must be removed without his 
approval, and those removed should not be disposed of until he has seen 
them. He must carefully examine the requisitions made by the foremen, 
and ascertain if the articles are really needed and in the quantities asked. 
Requisitions must be made in writing and sent by mail, the telegraph being 
used only in emergencies or when delay would result in loss to the com- 
pany. He must personally receive all materials contracted for, such as 
ties, ballast, wood, etc., and must strictly enforce the printed specifications 
for the same, and arrange for handling and unloading or storing. Ties 
must be properly piled so as to facilitate inspection and marking with a 
hammer or brush. Wood ricks must not be more than 60 ft. long, and 6 ft. 
high, with 5 ft. between ricks to admit of proper inspection. Each rick must 
be thoroughly marked with whitewash or lampblack so that any misappro- 
priation of wood can be checked. No material must be piled within 8 ft. of 
the rails. He must also supervise the storing and shipping of scrap, and its 
disposal at the scrap yard or pile. He must not permit old material to be 
sold or given away or otherwise disposed of by the men, and must see that 
foremen do not allow laborers to remain at the section boarding houses to 
cnop wood or do odd jobs for the boarding master. 

The roadmaster is expected to investigate and keep himself posted as to 
the wear of track material, rails, splice bars or special joints, ties, etc., 
reporting results from time to time, especially in regard to material under 
experimental trial. He should mark on a profile of the line all the new 
rails laid from time to time, giving the date, brand, and exact location with 
reference to the nearest mile post; this being in addition to the monthly 
written reports of rails laid. This enables the chief engineer to keep a 
correct account of the wear and life with reference to tonnage. All cases 
of broken rails should be carefully investigated in detail, and full reports 
made. Whenever a broken rail is found in the main track, a report should 
he made by the roadmaster after careful inevestigation (including the con- 
dition of adjacent joints, whether tight or open), and about a foot of the 
rail on each side of the break should be cut off, labeled and sent with the 
report for examination. 

The roadmaster is authorized to discharge any supervisor or division 
roadmaster, section foreman, road watchman, conductor of construction 
train, or other subordinate, for neglect of duty. He suspends him and 
makes a report in case of accident resulting from such neglect. Changes 



272 TRACK WORK. 

of foremen should always be made at the beginning of the month, ex- 
cept for good reason. In reporting the discharge of a foreman the cause 
should be stated, so that a record of the man's standing can be kept for 
future reference. A record of all foremen (and sometimes trackwalkers 
also) employed, discharged,, resigned, transferred, promoted, married, de- 
ceased or sent to hospital, must be sent in monthly. When a foreman 
leaves the service, the roadmaster must see that all tools and other com- 
pany property are properly accounted for and must examine his time-books 
to see that all accounts are correct. New foremen must be carefully in- 
structed in their duties, and must be closely questioned to ascertain if they 
correctly understand them. 

The roadmaster must see that section foremen, foremen of extra gangs 
and conductors of work trains are supplied on the first day of each month 
with the necessary blanks, such as check rolls, time-books, diaries, reports 
of work and materials, board bills, etc., and that the use of these blanks is 
explained to all new foremen. During his trips he should examine these 
blanks to see that they are being properly filled in. These returns are sent 
to him on the last day of the month, and he should examine them care- 
fully, making the mark "Voucher" opposite the names of all men on the 
check rolls to whom he has issued time vouchers. The several reports, 
check rolls, diaries, board bills and time checks, together with the road- 
masters' journal, must then be sent to the proper officer. 

While passing over his division, he should always carry a book of blank 
time vouchers, so as to be able to issue a voucher to any trackman who 
presents a properly filled time-check. He should require the man to write 
his name in the blank space provided, so that the voucher may be used as 
far as practicable to identify the holder. Receipts on standard forms or 
blanks must be taken for every issue of time cards and for instruction 
books. These receipts are to be pasted in alphabetical order in a book for 
preservation and reference. 

The roadmaster is required to keep a journal or diary, in which he must 
enter the location and the dates of beginning and ending of all work under 
his charge, such as grading and laying sidings, changes of line, laying new 
rails or ties, ballasting, experimental ties or joints, etc. He has also a 
pocket notebook, in which he records how each trip is made (whether on 
passenger or freight train, on handcar or on foot), and also any points de- 
interest for record or of use in making up his returns, such as material de- 
livered or required, the number of men employed, etc. As a check on the 
time of the section men he should note here the number of men in each 
gang as he passes. These books should be of a uniform standard size, 
supplied by the company, and sent to the superior officer each month. Mem- 
orandum books and all blanks are obtained from the office regularly or by 
requisition. He should have his watch inspected once every three months 
and should compare it with standard clocks and with the watches of the 
foremen as often as possible, seeing to it that the foremen take his time 
as correct. To the roadmaster should be made all applications for detail- 
ing men from the section gangs to assist fence gangs, telegraph repair 
gangs, or bridge gangs, or to clear station grounds and yards. 

He must be familiar with the train rules, special orders, etc., and keep 
in communication with the transportation department. Disregard of sig- 



ORGANIZATION. 273 

nals by trainmen must be promptly and invariably reported. Locomotives 
and cars with worn and flat wheels must be reported, as they are very in- 
jurious to the track. He must see that the track and roadway are in proper 
condition for the winter. In times of storm he must keep the superintendent 
fully advised of the condition of the road, and he must see to the proper dis- 
tribution and work of trackmen to help the snow gangs on their sections. 
The roadmaster must closely investigate every accident that occurs on his 
division, and make a full written report in the proper form, giving the cause 
of the accident and all information possible. He must be ready at all 
times, both day and night, to render any assistance that may be called for 
in case of accident or detention to trains. On receiving notice of a wreck 
he must proceed to it at once, take charge of the track forces not required 
in removing the wreck, and put the track in condition for the passage of 
trains, or build a temporary track around the wreck, all with the least 
possible delay. Such material as broken rails, axles, etc., which may be 
of use in determining the cause of the accident, must be preserved. When 
cars are broken up or burned for removal at a wreck, he should note the 
style of car, and the number and initials of each car thus destroyed. 

Section Foremen. 

The section foreman is the most important of the men in the working 
force, and should be a man of good judgment and firm character, so that 
he can rule his men and get on comfortably with them, while at the same 
time getting a full amount of work done, and not allowing them to shirk 
<b.r "soldier." He should be able to read and write and keep simple ac- 
counts, so as to keep the necessary records of labor and supplies, and to 
make out his requisitions for material. All reports and requisitions are 
sent to the roadmaster. For this clerical work he should have a desk and 
office in the section tool house. He is usually required to walk over his 
section every other day, or at least once a week, this depending upon the 
season, the length of the section, the condition of the track and the amount 
of traffic. He has also to make a monthly inspection of and report upon all 
culverts, trestles, bridges, tunnels, etc., on the section, and must also in- 
spect any such structures at times when they are liable to be damaged by 
floods or otherwise. He should be subject only to the orders of the road- 
master. Train dispatchers, station agents, claim agents, bridge foremen, 
tie inspectors, foremen of fence and telegraph gangs, etc., should not be 
allowed to give orders direct to the section foreman, or to call upon him 
to supply men for any purpose, except in case of emergency. He should 
on no account throw switches for trainmen. Where two or more gangs 
work together on emergency work, as in case of accident, the senior section 
foreman is in charge, subject to the direction of, or until the arrival of, 
the wrecking foreman, roadmaster, engineer or superintendent, as the case 
may be. 

As to section foremen working with their men, it may be said that with 
small gangs, up to, perhaps, five men, the foreman can very well join in 
the work and still keep a general oversight of it. With a large gang of 
eight men or more, or with extensive work in progress, he will, as a rule, 
have all he can do to see that the work is being done properly, especially 
when there are new men to be broken in. A foreman, however, who works 



274 TRACK WORK. 

regularly as one of the gang is not likely to have their respect or to get 
the best work out of them. This, of course, depends partly upon the char- 
acter of the work. Putting in switches or lining up track will require 
much watching, while in cutting grass, or in general trimming up (even 
with a large gang), the foreman can well work with the men, and at the 
same time keeping an eye on the progress of the work as a whole. It is 
his duty to direct the operations, and to see that they are carried out prop- 
erly, and to supervise the track work generally, being careful to have the 
work done thoroughly and systematically and not at scattered points on 
the section. 

Where large gangs are worked it is a good plan to permit the foreman 
to appoint an assistant foreman, who ordinarily works with the gang, bu,t 
takes charge in the absence of the foreman. In promotions, the assistant 
foreman should>be given the first chance. The foreman should have power 
to appoint and dismiss his assistant, making the necessary report of the 
circumstances, and being, of course, responsible for his ability and for all 
the work done by him, the roadmaster having nothing to do personally 
with any trackman below the grade of foreman. The assistant foreman 
should be selected not only for his technical or practical skill, but also 
for his executive ability in directing the work and handling the men. He 
may be given a slight increase in pay over that of the regular laborers. 

The foreman employs and discharges the men of his gang, and also the 
bridge and other watchmen on his section, and keeps proper records of all 
the men and their work. He must treat his men properly, without fear or 
favor, and without the use of profane or abusive language, endeavoring 
to promote harmony and good feeling among them. When the men do 
not live at a isection house, he should know their addresses, and arrange a 
system by which one man can call others in case of emergency at night. 
He should have authority to employ extra men temporarily during heavy 
snow, and should have a few extra men assigned him when any extensive 
switch work, etc., has to be done. 

It should be his aim not only to keep the section in safe running con- 
dition, but to steadily improve its condition and appearance. He has 
charge of all repairs on his section, and is responsible for the proper 
inspection and safety of the track, bridges and culverts. He must see 
that ditches are clear, and that drainage is not obstructed, that weeds 
and grass are kept cut along the right-of-way and around trestles; also 
that ties are tamped, rails properly spiked and jointed, and track in line 
and surface in good condition generally. He attends to the fences and 
telegraph lines, resetting poles when necessary; and also sees that water 
stations are in order and water barrels at trestles kept filled. He must 
also see that the gang has the proper equipment of tools and supplies, 
and that this equipment be kept in good condition, properly used, and 
properly arranged in the section house. He must have a reliable watch, 
and must daily, if possible, compare it with and regulate it by the clock 
in the telegraph office at a station or signal tower on his section, so as to 
keep standard time, and so be prepared for regular trains. He must have 
a» copy of the latest time-table, be familiar with train rules and schedules, 
and look out for signals on and messages from passing trains. Failure 
of trainmen to respect his signals or to answer them with the proper 



ORGANIZATION. 275 

whistle must be reported. In heavy rain or wind storms he should patrol 
the section with sufficient men to ensure safety to trains by setting out 
signals and torpedoes if any defect is discovered that cannot at once be 
remedied. Such defect must be at once reported by telegraph to the road- 
master and superintendent. In case of accident, he must go to the scene 
with his men, even if it is not on his section. 

The foreman is supplied with time-books, pay rolls and diaries, and car- 
ries them with him, ready for inspection by the roadmaster at any time. 
All entries must be written up in the time-book, etc., every night for the 
day just closed, and then all footed or totaled up together at the end of the 
month. The books, board bills, etc., must be properly entered up and cer- 
tified, and must be sent to the roadmaster by a night train on the last day 
of . Lie month, or by the first available train on the first day of the 
new month. On some roads he is furnished with duplicates of these re- 
ports, so that he can retain copies of the returns made to the roadmaster. 
In the check roll or time-book he enters daily the time worked by each 
man, and on the diary he records the total time made by the gang. En- 
tries of materials used in construction or repairs must be made daily and 
footed up at the end of the month. He also makes reports of material 
used and on hand, of work done, fences or other property burned, cattle 
killed by trains, and makes requisitions on the roadmaster for material 
required. The time-book entries must show not only a correct report of 
the time worked by each man, but also the kind of work upon which he 
was engaged each day. The character of the weather should also be noted. 

Should a man leave or be discharged before the end of the month, the 
foreman gives him a time-check (showing the amount of time he has 
worked) which he can present to the roadmaster, who will take it up and 
issue in its place a time-voucher, which is payable by any agent of the 
company having funds for this purpose. The foreman must require the 
man to sigi. his name on the back of the time-check if he can write, and 
the man can, if he wishes, retain this check, which can be used to identify 
him to the roadmaster or in the pay office. To secure payment to the sec- 
tion-house keeper and others furnishing board and lodging to track and 
bridge men, the foreman supplies such persons on the first of the month 
with blanks for "board due," which they are required to properly fill out 
and have signed by the men from whom the amounts are due. These 
blanks are returned to the foreman on the last day of the month, and 
from them he enters the amount due by each man in the "board" column 
of the check-roll, opposite the man's name. Different railways have dif- 
ferent styles of time-books, blanks, etc., and particulars of these will be 
found in Chapter 27. 

Trackwalkers and Watchmen. 

In addition to the regular work on the track, the section must be in- 
spected at least once a day (except Sunday) by a trackwalker. On most 
important lines this man is in addition to the regular section gang, and he 
usually starts out in the morning in the opposite direction to that taken 
by the gang, while on roads having much night traffic he must also go over 
the section in the evening. The time of starting out can usually be ar- 
ranged so that the man can go over the section shortly before the princi- 



276 TRACK WORK. 

pal trains, and can, perhaps, return by train. In the afternoon he may 
work for a few hours with the gang, and then go over the section again, 
returning by train. On double track, he may make a round trip over each 
track (one by day and one by night), and on four track lines he passes 
once over each track. In summer, and in fine settled weather, the track- 
walker can join the gang in the afternoon, but in stormy weather, or when 
there is liability of such dangers as washouts, the blowing of trees or tele- 
graph poles upon the track, etc., he should spend all his time patrolling 
the section. After a very heavy storm the trackwalker and one of the la- 
borers should go over the section and look out for any damage requiring 
immediate attention. 

On the Erie Ry., the trackwalker works under the direction of the fore- 
man. In summer he makes one trip daily over that part of the section 
which is not covered by the foreman on his way to and from work. In 
winter or in stormy weather he covers the section twice daily. When tie 
renewals are being pushed he works with the gang for the remainder of 
the day, and in the spring and autumn he spends the remainder of the day 
in tightening bolts and replacing broken spikes. At all times he gives im- 
mediate attention to any necessary light repairs of frogs, switches, etc. On 
the Illinois Central Ry. one of the section men acts as trackwalker, ex- 
cept that on some portions of the line where traffic is unusually heavy an 
extra man is employed as trackwalker. The Chicago, Milwaukee & St. 
Paul Ry., and some other railways, only employ trackwalkers at certain 
seasons of the year, when it is made necessary by reason of heavy rains or 
other special conditions. Other roads do not employ regular trackwalkers, 
but send a man over each section on a velocipede, leaving all repair work, 
etc., to the section gang. The foreman is sometimes required to act as 
trackwalker, but this interferes with his charge of the gang, except that on 
roads with light traffic he can go over the section after he has first started 
the gang at work. On branches or lines with light traffic, one oj! the labor- 
ers may act as trackwalker, making one trip and then returning to work 
with the gang. Where there are many switches or signals to be attended 
to, the lamp man may act as trackwalker, making two round trips over 
the section; the first in the morning to extinguish the lamps; the second in 
the afternoon to fill, trim and light the lamps. In such case the foreman 
or a laborer should make an extra trip in bad weather. 

The day trackwalker is ordinarily equipped with a track wrench, a light 
hammer (having one end pointed), 2 red flags, 4 torpedoes, and a few bolts, 
nuts and spikes in a bag, while sometimes he also carries a tamping pick. 
On sections with dangerous rock cuts he may also have a few sticks of 
giant powder or other convenient and safe explosive to shatter rocks that 
may have fallen upon the track. It is sometimes recommended that he 
should also carry a pair of short pieces of plain splice bars, with one hole 
jn each, so that he can bolt these to any broken rail, putting the bolt 
through the open space of the fracture. This is rarely necessary. In 
walking over the track he looks out for broken rails and burnt ties, 
raises low joints, picks up loose material and places it at the side of the 
track, tightens loose bolts and spikes or puts in new ones, examines frogs, 
switches and switchstands, and in warm weather throws stub switches 
to see that they work freely, reporting them if stiff. He must see that cars 



ORGANIZATION. 277 

on sidetracks are clear of the fouling points. He also has to look out for 
broken or defective signals, to look out for and repair fences, close farm 
gates (reporting any that are habitually left open), look out carefully for 
fire on bridges and trestles, and see that the water barrels on wooden 
structures are kept full; he must also see that culverts are clear and cattle- 
guards safe, drive stray cattle off the right of way, and in general "do 
anything and everything to protect the railway from accident." After a 
heavy storm he must be specially observant, and look out for evidences of 
washouts or of slides of banks or cuts. In winter he must also clear snow 
where it is packed about frogs, switches, guard rails and the flangeways 
of crossings. The night trackwalker is only expected to walk the section 
and see that the track, etc., is safe; he is usually provided with a lantern, 
red lamps and torpedoes. When the trackwalker finds any place unsafe 
for the passage of trains he must place a red flag (in each direction on a 
single track line) at a distance of 90 rails or 15 telegraph poles, and place 
a torpedo on the rail. The torpedo should be. on the rail on the engine- 
man's side of the track, and the* flag on the same side of the track, 3 ft. from 
the rail. Where the block system is in force, the trackwalker's beat may 
be between certain block towers, and he may be required to enter the tower 
and sign his name and the time in a record book, the signalman also sign- 
ing the record. Watchmen at special points may also be required to report 
at a block tower at stated times. 

It will be seen that the trackwalker has an important and responsible 
position, which should only be filled by an experienced and trustworthy 
man. It is sometimes assumed that his work is principally to look after 
loose bolts, 4)ut in the main the amount of trackwalking is independent of 
the work done in tightening the bolts, and while some roads do not permit 
the trackwalker to touch the bolts unless he sees something wrong, yet no 
reduction in the trackwalking would be justified, even if there were no 
bolts to tighten. Too much care can hardly be taken in guarding the track, 
and in watching it in time of storms to prevent accidents as far as possible 
and at least to prevent accidents to trains. With track of average con- 
dition, the trackwalking usually costs more on curves than on tangents, 
unless more attention is given to the maintenance work on the latter. 
Watching also costs more, as an engineman cannot see ahead on a curve, 
and in case of a storm or flood, it may be necessary to station a watchman 
in a cut on a curve, when it would not be necessary if the track were on a 
tangent. 

Any particularly dangerous spots, such as tunnels, loose rock cuts, slid- 
ing slopes of cuts or banks, rock cuts in winter, and culverts and trestles 
in time of flood, should be guarded by a watchman. This man should be 
provided with lamps, flags and torpedoes, and, if necessary, with, tools (a 
pick, shovel, ballast hammer, wheelbarrow, etc.), and some sticks of giant- 
powder to break up rocks that may fall on the track. Where watchmen 
are stationed permanently at such places, cabins similar to gatemen's 
cabins should be provided. These men must be of sufficient experience to 
appreciate the responsibility of the post and to be relied on in case of 
emergency. On some roads, including the Brie Ry., the watchmen on 
rocky divisions are supplemented by a special "rock gang," composed 
largely of quarrymen, who are experienced in climbing and in detecting 



278 TRACK WORK. 

loose or dangerous rocks, the removal of which is done by them. This 
gang is in charge of a special foreman. 

Grade-crossing watchmen or gatemen have usually nothing to do with 
the track, except to see that the flangeways are clear and that the planks 
are securely fastened to the ties. Bridge watchmen must see that water 
barrels are kept full on wooden bridges and trestles, and must follow every 
train and extinguish any hot cinders that may have fallen from the engine, 
and bX the same time look for signs of sparks from the engine which may 
have lodged in the upper part of the structure. They must keep all com- 
bustible material cleared from the vicinity of the bridge, keep abutments, 
copings and bridge seats clean, and report any bulging or sign of cracking 
of the abutments or masonry. They must also watch for any evidence of 
undermining of piling or abutments; examine the structure and report to 
the section foreman any decay or defect, slackening of nuts, loose rivets, 
etc., and must observe the structure during the passage of trains, noting 
specially if trains cross at too high a speed. Every train must be signaled 
by a white flag or lamp if all is safe. They should prevent all persons, other 
than employees, from walking over the structure. Drawbridge tenders must 
look after the locking and other gear and the signals or gates, reporting 
promptly any sign of defect in the structure or in the operating, turning 
or locking machinery. Bridge watchmen and drawbridge tenders may be 
set by the foreman to do incidental work when not engaged in their special 
duties. 

Force and Labor. 

The number of men employed upon each section depends upon the finan- 
cial condition of the company, the condition of roadbed and track, the 
season of the year, and the amount of traffic. This latter is one of the 
most important considerations. On the Illinois Central Ry., with wide 
extremes of track and traffic (700 train movements per day on the eight 
tracks of the Chicago terminal, and one local train each way per day on 
the Dolgeville branch), the number of men varies from 1.1 man per 
mile on busy double-track sections to %-man per mile on branch lines 
where the traffic is light. The maximum gang is about ten men and a fore- 
man in summer on a single track. The minimum is reached on some West- 
ern roads with light traffic, where the foreman and one or two laborers 
are required to look after 6 to 10 miles of single track for 4 to 6 months of 
the year, and under such circumstances the question of appearance of the 
track must be left out of consideration. The average, however,- as shown 
by the table already given, is 5 to 7 men on single track in summer, and 
2. to 4 men in winter. With a small gang, the section should not be too 
long, as in case of finding a broken rail, etc., there may not be time to 
flag both ways or to notify the men of the adjacent section to help make 
repairs. 

As an average, it is estimated that 1 man per mile of single track, or 1% 
men per mile of double track, with a foreman and trackwalker to each 
section, will be force enough to maintain the track in proper condition if 
the material is good. Where sidings exist it is usual to take two miles of 
important siding or three miles of unimportant siding as equivalent to 
one mile of main track. As a yule, it is not economical, though sometimes 



ORGANIZATION. 279 

necessary for financial reasons, to reduce the force below about a man to 
two miles on ordinary sections, as such a reduction leads to deterioration 
in track, with consequent injury to the rolling stock, discomfort and dan- 
ger to passengers, and eventually an inevitable heavy expenditure for 
repairs due to insufficient expenditure in maintainance. The number of 
men is increased in the spring and reduced just before winter sets in; 
hut the number should be reduced gradually, so that work in hand can be 
safely and thoroughly finished and cleared up, and not hurried over. In 
the winter, when the rails, ties and ballast are in good condition, and in a 
locality where no large force is necessary to clear snow, the number of 
men may be cut down to two or three, besides the foreman, keeping just 
enough to do watching, clearing and occasional shimming. For handling 
snow extra men must be engaged, and the foreman should have authority 
to employ such extra men on emergency. 

The number of switches and frogs on the section has a considerable 
influence on the amount of work to be done and the number of men re- 
quired, varying, of course, with the amount of traffic. The New England 
Roadmasters' Association in 1895 adopted a report to the effect that 15 
switches and frogs on an ordinary section would necessitate the employing 
of an extra man in the gang. This refers to both main track and yards 
under conditions of moderately heavy traffic, and the number of switches 
and frogs requiring an extra man would be less than 15 in the case of a 
busy yard or terminal. Where yards occur the section must be shortened 
or the force increased, but with large yards it is best to have a separate 
gang or gangs under a yard foreman, with assistant foremen if necessary. 

Many railways employ extra or "floating" gangs to do fencing, relaying 
rails, ballasting, general surfacing, ditching, tile drainage, etc. This gang 
has a work train, with complete tool equipment and living or boarding 
cars. New switch work is sometimes done by the extra gang. It is far 
better, however, to have all ordinary work on the section done by the 
regular gang, and a good foreman and gang ought to be competent to do 
all switch work, with the occasional assistance of a few extra men for 
extensive work. The extra gang aims to get its work finished as quickly 
as possible and has not so much regard to the permanence of the work as 
has the gang in permanent charge of the section. Besides this, the fre- 
quent appearance of the floating gang spoils the discipline and the self- 
reliance of the regular gang, so that the men and foreman get in the 
habit of expecting to have any little work out of the ordinary line to be 
done for them, which is an idea not conducive to good work. It is, there- 
fore, well to have as little work as possible done for the regular gangs, 
and then they will be more capable and self-reliant, while the foreman 
cannot escape the responsibility for work done or neglected by him. On 
the Ohio River Ry., however, the bulk of the work is done by floating 
gangs, under the system already described. 

About once a year the track must be surfaced, lined and gaged, have 
new ties put in, and low joints raised, etc. This work can. best be 
done in the spring, so that as soon as the frost is well out of the ground 
the gang should be filled up to the full number that the foreman can han- 
dle, say 10 to 15 men. The work can be done to best advantage by com- 
mencing at the end of the section and working back. All heavy work can 



280 TRACK WORK. 

thus be done in time for the increase of traffic in the summer, and the 
track will then be in such condition that the force may be cut down when 
farm work and harvesting begin to take the extra men away. If the heavy 
work is thus promptly disposed of, the track can be maintained during the 
summer with a force of about 1 man per mile, which is the lowest econom- 
ical average for ordinary work. In the autumn there is ditching and clear- 
ing to be done, and the track to be put in condition for the winter. When 
this is done, the force can be cut down to the winter allowance. The work 
of the sectionmen should be reduced to a routine, and nothing outside of 
their regular work required of them, without the authority of the road- 
master, through whom should come all orders to the foreman, as already 
noted. It is bad practice, and no economy, to allow the track to get in 
bad condition in summer for want of enough men to maintain it, as a 
larger force than usual must then be employed in the winter or late 
autumn, when work cannot be done to good advantage. 

There is too often a tendency to leave anything a little beyond the 
ordinary work, or any unfinished work, to be attended to on Sunday, but 
this is a most reprehensible practice, spoiling the men's temper and gen- 
erally resulting in a loose kind of work. It is also detrimental to good 
work and discipline, for the men cannot keep up a high standard of 
efficiency nor can they have high respect for foremen who insist upon Sun- 
day work. The practice should be strictly forbidden, and the foremen made 
to understand that the rule will be strictly enforced. Men need, and should 
have, a day of rest, for its physical and mental as well as moral effect, and 
if they are required to work for 13 days they will not do a fair day's work 
during each of the last 6 days. In case of emergency or accident, etc., the 
men should, of course, go to work at once, but it is entirely unnecessary to 
do ordinary work on Sunday. Such men as Charles Latimer (Chief En- 
gineer of the New York, Pennsylvania & Ohio Ry.), James Purber (General 
Manager of the Boston & Maine Ry.), and Col. W. H. Paine, were prominent 
in their advocacy of Sunday rest on railways, and Mr. Latimer stood 
at the head of American roadmasters in his day. If the roadmaster has 
properly instructed the foremen and laid out the work properly for them, 
it will be possible to get the work done on week days, except in special 
cases on busy suburban lines, terminals, or where the traffic is exceedingly 
heavy. Consequently the work should never be done on Sunday without 
good reason. It is an expensive practice to spend 6 days in preparing for 
a vlarge amount of work to be done on Sunday, with all the section gangs 
that can be conveniently got together, as the work is generally done with 
a rush, and the best work can never be done where a number of foremen 
are working on some other man's section. Besides the question of economy, 
it must be remembered that the sectionman has few opportunities of 
spending time with his family and friends, and to deprive him of these 
even on Sunday is not only unfair, but is opposed to the permanent inter- 
ests of his employers. The man (whether foreman or laborer) who is best 
to be depended upon is the man who gets fair treatment and a fair day's 
pay for a fair day's work. 

Another bad policy which is frequently found in track service is that of 
employing the lowest and cheapest grades of labor on the track. Good 
results are not to be expected from such a class of labor, and the em- 



ORGANIZATION. 281 

ployment of foreigners who cannot speak the language, but have to be 
communicated with by signs, is certainly not conducive to good work. 
Inefficient and careless men should be discharged without delay, whether 
foremen or laborers. The improvement in the grade of labor rests almost 
entirely with the railway companies, for good men are usually to be had 
at reasonable wages. It has, however, been pointed out by the author (in 
a paper on "The Relations of Track to Train Service" in "Engineering 
News," June 15, 1893) that the directors and the higher officers of the 
financial departments, very generally fail to recognize the importance of the 
track, and to realize the economy of proper maintenance. Not only are 
renewals delayed, old structures patched up, and safety equipment dis- 
pensed with, but track forces are reduced and their wages kept down. 
There is a strong sentiment of discontent among section men and fore- 
men at the lack of remuneration and encouragement; and it is hard to 
keep a permanent gang, except on roads where a more enlightened system 
is in force than that of considering any tramp or laborer as good enough 
for trackwork. The trackmen's work is little regarded; yet if these men 
relaxed their vigilance or failed in their duty, not all the skill and faith- 
fulness of the enginemen and train crews, or the elaborate equipment of 
the trains, could give a satisfactory train service or prevent accidents. A 
little inattention to a weak spot in the track, a neglected loose joint, a 
defective switch or frog, an overlooked broken rail, or spikes not properly 
redriven, and the "lightning express" goes into the ditch with more or less 
disastrous results, and involving more or less expenditure for damages, 
repairs and compensation. Trackmen who understand their work are valu- 
able, and should rank as skilled laborers, and the railways should en- 
deavor to retain their services by encouragement in pay and promotion. 
Faithfulness, intelligence and skill are required, as well as muscular ability, 
but the first three requirements can hardly be expected from the grade of 
men whom the foreman too often has to employ. Men who hold perma- 
nent positions (contingent upon merit), and have also a pension in view as 
a reward for long and faithful work, have more regard for the interests 
of their employers and are more apt to try to educate themselves in their 
work. Unskilled laborers may be employed from time to time for extra 
work; but it is as false economy to have a constantly changing gang of 
green sectionmen as it would be to follow the same practice with engine^ 
men, trainmen or machinists. Such men will use more time and material 
in doing bad work than experienced men will use in doing good work. 

On some Southern roads there is an "apprentice gang," in charge of a 
foreman, and the new men are given proper instruction in this gang, in- 
stead of having to pick up their knowledge as best they can while working 
with a regular gang. Men trained in this way are worth having, and wilL 
often make good foremen. Other roads have a system for educating their 
employees in the work of their departments. It has already been noted 
that in large gangs it is well to allow the foreman to appoint an assistant 
foreman, who will work with the gang while the foreman is present and 
take charge of it when he is absent. A system of rewards, either as pre- 
miums for work or as an increase in pay to the better and older foremen, 
is employed to advantage on several railways. Further particulars of this 
are given in another chapter. 



282 TRACK WORK. 

Men should not be employed who are under age, elderly, weak or inca- 
pacitated, or who suffer from deafness, consumption or other diseases. 
The foreman must not excuse habitual neglect of duty, but should 
promptly dismiss or suspend unfaithful employees. No man should be dis- 
charged without cause or for the purpose of making place for another, 
but all ' men should understand that they are in line of promotion, 
their advancement depending upon faithful discharge of duty and capacity 
for increased responsibility. On most roads the use of intoxicating liquors 
by the employees on duty is strictly forbidden, and this rule should be 
most rigidly enforced, while men who habitually drink too much when 
off duty should be dismissed. It may not be amiss to refer here to the 
admirable "white button" temperance movement which was originated 
among railway employees of every grade of service by Mr. L. S. Coffin. 
Smoking, while on duty, should also be prohibited. It is a good plan to 
have a rule prohibiting the offer of testimonials or presents to superiors, 
or the acceptance of such by the superiors. 

An important feature which has been introduced into the maintenance 
of way forces of some railways is what is known as the Brown system of 
discipline, as a substitute for the common and very objectionable system 
of punishing men by suspension and dismissal. The evils of the latter 
system and the demoralization which results from suspending the men 
from duty are well known, to say nothing of the hardships which it works 
for those dependent upon the men. Under the Brown system (which has 
long been used in the transportation department), when a rule is broken, 
orders are disobeyed, or any irregularity occurs which calls for discipline, 
a bulletin is prepared and issued to all the roadmasters and foremen, stating 
the offense and giving some good advice to prevent its repetition. The 
bulletin may also be posted up in stated places. No names are given, but 
the man who is at fault usually receives a marked copy, and a record is 
kept for each man. This system gives good results, and is in general satis- 
afctory to the men. The disgrace of being bulletined (even though it is a 
private reprimand) is to the average man as great as that of suspension 
or discharge. It hurts his pride quite as much, while it does not induce him 
to bluster and seek to justify himself publicly. Consequently the moral 
or disciplining effect is probably much deeper and more effectual than 
that of suspension or discharge, while it is not attended by the evil results 
to the man and to the track forces which are attended by such .suspension 
or discharge. 

Work-Train Conductors. 

The conductor of a work train is usually appointed by the roadmaster, 
subject to the approval of the division superintendent or other officer of 
the transportation department, and must obey orders from the superin- 
tendent in regard to safe movement of the train. He must see that all 
ditching, ballast and boarding cars are- in good running order, that the 
boarding cars are clean and neat, and that good, substantial food is furnished 
to the men. He must be familiar with the time-table and train rules, and 
study the rules and instructions issued to track and bridge men, and also 
familiarize himself with all kinds of work pertaining to the maintenance 
of track. Ditches must be cut according to the direction of the section 



ORGANIZATION. 283 

foreman. He must see that care is taken in unloading material, that new 
ballast is cleared to leave a proper flangeway along the rails,' and that 
skids are used in unloading rails. In distributing new rails, he must note 
in a book the initial and number of each car, and the number and lengths 
of rails on each car. 

He must notify the division roadmaster when ordered by the roadmaster 
to distribute material, such as ties, rails, ballast, etc., so that the division 
roadmaster can notify the section foreman and be with the train while 
working on his division. He makes a weekly report of work done, mate- 
rials used, delays to work, insufficient power of engines furnished, etc. 
When the train is delayed and likely to be held for some time, he must 
put the gang at work ditching, weeding, or clearing station grounds and 
yards. He must understand that his desire to get the work done and his 
train out of the way must not lead him to do hasty or careless work. The 
train should always lay over at a telegraph station at night. 

The foreman of the work-train gang should be the conductor, sharing 
responsibility with the engineman, as in regular train service, for a con- 
ductor who has no other duties outside the train is apt not to work in 
harmony with the foreman, who is interested in and held responsible for a 
fair day's work. A foreman who acts as conductor gets a good knowl- 
edge of the trains, which enables him to arrange his work to the best 
advantage (especially in the smaller items of work, which consume so 
much of the time), so that it can be done within the working limits as- 
signed. He should be an expert track foreman, and be provided with an 
assistant foreman, and also with a timekeeper, if he has a large gang. 
Further particulars are given in Chapter 22, under the heading of "Bal- 
last and Work Trains." 

Minor Track Officials. 

Master Carpenters. — These usually report to and receive orders from the 
roadmaster. They have charge of the repairs of buildings, bridges, tres- 
tles, stations, water tanks, pumping stations, etc. When making ordinary 
repairs they must see that the main tracks are unobstructed, or if it is 
necessary to obstruct these tracks they must obtain an order from the 
superintendent and must protect themselves by flag in the usual way. 

Yard Masters. — These report to and receive instructions from the divi- 
sion superintendent (and also from the trainmaster or other officer in 
charge of transportation), and they also comply with instructions from 
the station agents. They usually have to do only with the handling of 
cars, but are sometimes also in charge of the track work of the yard. 

Switch Tenders. — These report to and receive instructions from the sta- 
tion agents, while in yards they report to and are under the direction of 
the yard master or station master. 

Bridge and Building Department. 

This department is frequently connected more or less closely with the 
maintenance-of-way department, as already described. It has charge of the 
construction, maintenance and renewals of all structures, and one of the 
important occupations of its superintendent should be the study of means 
for promptly rebuilding wrecked or damaged structures, and for replacing 



284 TRACK WORK. 

trestles, wooden bridges, etc., with solid banks and culverts or new iron 
structures. Turntables, track and stock scales, ash pits, water tanks, wells, 
pumping plants, mail cranes, coal handling machinery, etc., are frequently 
in charge of this department. There is usually a general yard for lumber 
and piles, while emergency stacks of timber are kept by the master car- 
penters at points on the divisions. This is a better arrangement than hav- 
ing a large stock on each division. 

The department is generally in charge of a superintendent of bridges 
and buildings, who must inspect all the bridges once in three months, and 
all other structures under his charge once a year. He also tests and certi- 
fies as to the accuracy of all scales. He may report to the roadmaster or 
general superintendent, or to the division superintendent, the latter being 
the better plan, especially if the division superintendent is an engineer. 
Under the superintendent of bridges and buildings are the bridge foremen 
and their gangs, and sometimes the master carpenters. Further particulars 
of the work will be found in Chapter 21, under the heading of "Bridge 
Work." 

Signal Department. 

As already noted, the signal department is very often subordinate to the 
engineering or maintenance department, which is the most systematic plan 
of organization. The department is of. such comparatively recent date 
that its actual organization has not been well systematized, and there is in 
fact some difficulty in finding men of sufficient skill and training for the 
higher positions, men who can understand the principles as well as the 
mechanism. For this reason, the signal department, as well as the road- 
way department, offers a field for the graduates of engineering schools. 
The charge of and responsibility for signal apparatus of, every description 
on the road (switch targets and signals, train-order, block and interlock- 
ing signals) should be concentrated in the signal engineer, with a suitable 
staff of inspectors, repairmen, signalmen, etc., under him. The employing 
and discharging of these men, including the signalmen, should be in the 
hands of the signal engineer and not of the superintendent. In many cases 
the signalmen are mere operators, having little mechanical skill or knowl- 
edge of signal apparatus, relying on the repairmen entirely, but it would be 
better to employ men who do know something about these matters, as in 
many cases the men would detect and remedy slight defects in the ap- 
paratus which might otherwise cause considerable detention. 

The practice of the signal department in relation to the general organ- 
ization of certain railways has already been described. On each of the 
two systems of the Pennsylvania Lines, there is a signal engineer reporting 
to the general superintendent, and a supervisor of signals on each division, 
who reports to the signal engineer and also to the engineer of maintenance 
of way of his division. Levermen and lampmen report to this supervisor. 
On the Chicago & Northwestern Ry., the signal engineer has a corps of 
maintainers, battery men and lamp men in charge of about 40 blocks, or 20 
miles of double track; battery men and lamp men have about 20 blocks 
each. The maintainer must ride over his entire district twice a day, mak- 
ing any necessary repairs, etc., and reporting to the signal engineer. He 
must so arrange his work that every part .of the apparatus under his 



ORGANIZATION. 285 

charge is inspected and tested once a month. On the Cincinnati Southern 
Ry., it is considered preferable to center the responsibility, and there is a 
repairman to each 14 miles, having entire charge of all the signal equip- 
ment and apparatus. The signal engineer or inspector should make fre- 
quent trips, but not periodically, so that the signalmen and repairmen know 
that they are likely to have a visit at any time to their towers or districts. 



CHAPTER 17.— TRACKLAYING AND BALLASTING. 

Under the ordinary system of organization, the engineer who has had 
charge of the grading and masonry in construction, usually has charge 
also of the tracklaying, and sets the center and grade (or ballast) stakes. 
On roads having a maintenance department independent of the engineer- 
ing department, however, an engineer of the former department will take 
charge of tracklaying when the latter department has completed the con- 
struction to subgrade. Under either system, the engineer in charge of 
tracklaying runs in upon the completed roadbed the alinement which has 
been used in construction, and is able to run the line with much greater 
accuracy, and to rectify minor inaccuracies in the former running of 
curves. The anchor bolts for steel bridges should not be set until this 
final alinement has been made. He has a copy of the field notes locating 
the position of each intersection, P. C. and P. T., the stakes by which these 
are referenced, and notes of the curvature and length of curve. In many 
cases he finds that the curves will not fit, and the P. C. must be moved 
backward or forward until the P. T. falls on the given tangent. The line 
is monumented as soon as possible after this work. Pieces of rail about 
4- ft. long, driven down with their tops a short distance below track level, 
make convenient and satisfactory monuments; a cross being cut on the top 
for the exact point. For a double track railway, the center line stakes are 
sometimes set between tracks, and the tracklayers are provided with meas- 
uring boards with which to get the proper lateral distance for the line rail 
of each track. In some cases, the engineer prefers to run a center line be- 
tween the rails of each track or outside of the rails and close to each track. 
In general, center stakes are driven at intervals of 100 ft. on tangents and 
50 ft. on curves, or sometimes 25 ft. on transition curves. Many old track 
foremen consider that centers are required only at intervals of 300 or 400 
ft. on tangents, and that setting them oftener is unnecessary and a criti- 
cism on their ability to line track. It has already been pointed out, how- 
ever, that instrument work rather than "sighting" should be employed in 
lining first-class track. In any case, stakes should be set at intervals of at 
least 200 ft. on tangents and 50 ft. on curves, and at each end of every spiral 
or transition curve. 

Grade or ballast stakes are set generally for level of top of rail. These are 
set on both sides of the track, about 5 ft. from the center line, but their 
location should be governed by the question of avoiding disturbance by 
the dumping of the ballast. This will differ a little according to the style 
of cars and unloading of ballast; and (on double track) according to 



286 TRACK WORK. 

whether one of the two tracks is an old track where no change is to be 
made and where a grade stake for top of track can be set safely without 
fear of its being disturbed. They are set 100 ft. apart on tangents and 50 
ft. apart on curves, giving the proper elevation for curves. On curves, the 
stakes are usually set for the inner or lower rail, this rail being kept at 
grade and the superelevation put entirely in the outer rail. On roads using 
a spiral or taper approach, grade stakes are also set opposite P. C. and P. T., 
and at each change point of the taper. Large stakes or posts are sometimes 
set clear of the roadbed at these points and at the beginning and end of 
curves. No care is required in securing an exact distance from center line 
for these grade stakes. In fact they are less confusing to the tracklayers 
if not in regular line, as inexperienced men are less likely to mistake them 
for alinement stakes. A red chalk mark should be made on top of every 
grade stake where the top of it is intended to be the exact top of rail level. 
Otherwise the stake should be distinctly marked to indicate the distance 
above or below top of stake for grade. It is well not to set these stakes until 
they are needed, as if set ahead of the tracklayers they are pretty sure to 
be disturbed. At grade intersections where vertical curves are used, the 
stakes are set for the proper elevation or profile. 

Before tracklaying, the roadbed should have been properly dressed by 
the contractor to the exact subgrade, or the subgrade plus any allowance 
for settlement which has been decided upon. This is done by having dress- 
ing or trimming stakes set by the engineer for the use of a small grading 
gang furnished by the contractor after the first rough grading has been 
done. There should be no hollows or inequalities left by the grading forces 
for the tracklayers to fill or level out, as such work is troublesome for the 
track gang and causes much delay, requiring different class of tools from 
those used in a tracklaying gang. The result would be that the work 
would be to a large extent neglected. This dressing or trimming is expen- 
sive and most contractors fix their price for grading to include this work. 
If the work is not done by the contractor, it should be attended to by a 
small grading gang working ahead of the tracklayers and under the orders 
of an engineer. In some cases the roadbed is inclined on curves to approx- 
imately fit the superelevation. 

The engineer in charge of tracklaying has to see that arrangements are 
made for keeping the contractor supplied with the proper amount of mate- 
, rial, and also to see that the materials are properly used, and that the work 
is properly done. He should specially look after matters of detail, ex- 
cept, perhaps, in these now rather rare cases when a long line of track has 
to be laid with the greatest possible rapidity. As a rule, the railway com- 
pany supplies all material, and a supply train for delivering this material 
at the end of the completed line, ready for the contractor, who is in charge 
of the entire work of tracklaying (including the distribution of the material 
from the stated points of delivery), subject to the supervision of the com- 
pany's engineer. Similar arrangements are made when the company does 
the work with its own men. It is to be noted that tracklaying is a work 
which requires a clear head, or good judgment, and a faculty for handling 
large bodies of men and keeping them all at work together without driv- 
ing them or causing them to interfere with one another. This applies to 
the foremen as well as to the engineers, and it is further to be noted that 



TRACKLAYING AND BALLASTING. 287 

tracklaying trains (like work trains) should be handled by powerful en- 
gines in good condition, and not by old engines which have outlived their 
efficiency for regular service. 

In regard to the speed of the work, particulars of which are noted further 
on, it must be understood that it is rarely practicable to maintain a high 
rate of progress continuously. Uncompleted bridges or sections of grading 
are likely to stop work occasionally, so that the work of tracklaying is 
largely governed by these conditions rather than by the means of carrying 
it on as rapidly and economically as possible, irrespective, of delays, etc. 

Tracklaying by Hand. 

The material train, with a properly arranged quantity of track supplies, 
is run to the end of the completed track, and the work is usually begun by 
hauling the ties by teams and distributing them alongside the roadbed. 
The tie gang then places the ties at right angles to the track (or radially 
on curves), spaces them accurately, locates the joints by a 15-ft. pole, picks 
out the large ties for joints where this is required, and then lines up the 
ties on one side of the roadbed by means of a cord stretched between stakes 
set half a tie length from the center stakes. On curves this rope is first 
stretched as on tangents, and then curved by measuring the middle and 
quarter ordinates for the degree of curve. The ties should not be laid too 
far ahead of the rails or the joint spacing may be found to be incorrect, 
requiring rehandling of the ties under the rails, which is troublesome. 
The full number of ties should be laid at once, and not a few ties to each 
rail length, leaving the other ties to be slipped in under the rails, as the 
rails are likely to be kinked by the running of the material train over such 
a track. The ties should, if necessary, be adzed to give proper seats for 
the rails. 

Rails are then run from the train to the head of the track on a push car 
or horse car. The rail gang takes off two rails, half bolts them at the 
heel joint, sets the head ends to gage at the front end by a grooved track 
gage, and secures them by a few spikes. It is usually specified that the rails 
must be laid with the maker's brand on one side (usually outside) of the 
track. If the rails are bent or kinked in handling they should be straight- 
ened before being laid, and all rails curved in a rail-bending machine for 
curves of over 2° or 3°. Care must be taken not to let the joints run ahead, 
but to keep them truly square, or else exactly opposite the middle of the 
opposite rail, according to whether track is laid with square or broken 
joints. To maintain this even spacing, some of the inner rails must have 
pieces cut off. A good plan is to have a number of rails cut to a length of 
29 ft. 6 ins. at the mill, these short rails having their ends painted so that 
they can be readily distinguished. These rails are kept separate from the 
regular 30-ft. rails, and a certain supply of them is carried on the material 
train. The foreman of the tracklaying gang should then be provided with 
a list of the curves and the number of short rails required on each curve. 

The joint or splice gang then bolts up the rail joints, and the spiking 
gang sets the rails to gage and completes the spiking. In this latter work 
the rails on the line side of the track should be spiked first, and used as the 
gage rail, and in all cases the outer spikes should be driven in the forward 
side and the inner spikes in the rear side of the tie. About 75 to 80 men 



288 TRACK WORK. 

would be required to lay a mile of track per day by this method. Greater 
progress is expensive, unless the ties can be hauled a long distance ahead 
with teams and properly distributed. By distributing them far ahead, 
however, the joint ties are likely to require shifting when the rails reach 
them. The engineer should see that the proper widening of gage is given 
on curves (see "Gage" in Chapter 18). In bolting up the joints the speci- 
fied spacing must be strictly adhered to, and only iron spacing shims should 
be permitted. The width of such spacing will be found in the chapter on 
"Rails." During this work care should be taken to see that spikes, bolts 
and other small material are not lost or wasted. Any necessary tamping 
or filling under the ties is then done, and the ballast trains are then run 
upon the track and unloaded, and the ballast is put in place and tamped. 
Then comes the final lining, surfacing and dressing (described more fully 
in the chapter on "Maintenance Work"), the amount of care bestowed upon 
which depends upon the character of the road, but for first-class track, of 
course, all this will be carefully done. As few trains as possible should be 
run over a partly ballasted track, so as to prevent surface kinking of the 
rails, a defect which it is almost impossible to remedy subsequently. For 
this reason, the full tamping of the ballast should be carried on as each 
train load of ballast is distributed. 

At sidetracks, the switches and turnouts must be carefully laid out, and 
substantially supported on a good bed of ballast. The center stakes should 
be set for sidetracks, and the positions of head blocks indicated. The 
turnout curve may be laid out with a transit, or by means of a tape, with 
calculated offsets from the main track, as described in the chapter on 
"Switch Work." On bridges and trestles, where the ties are drift-bolted 
or otherwise secured to the stringers, the track centers may be marked 
by tacks at intervals of about 20 ft., and offsets made at the distance to 
the edge of the rail flange. A chalk line is then struck between these off- 
set points, and in tracklaying the gage rail is first laid, with its edge set 
to the chalk line, and is then securely spiked, the other rail being set in 
position by the track gage. 

A convenient arrangement is to have a gang of 55 men in charge of two 
foremen, and equipped with three rail cars, one horse and two portable 
turntables. One turntable is placed at the loading and the other at the 
unloading end of the track. An ordinary load for the rail car is six rails, 
and a full supply of ties, splice bars, bolts, nuts, washers and spikes for that 
number of rails. If the driver reaches the front before the unloading gang 
has unloaded all the material from the first car he puts the turntable in 
position ready to haul the car off when empty, but if the gang finishes un- 
loading before he arrives it runs the empty car off, ready to be hauled back. 
On returning to the loading end with the empty car, the driver puts the 
turntable on the track, and runs the car off onto a pair of ties. He then 
hitches the horse to the loaded car and goes to the front, while the loading 
gang runs the empty car back into position for loading. With such a gang 
of good men under a smart foreman a mile of track may readily be laid in 
two days. The distribution of the men is as follows: 

9 loading truck from construction train'. 4 Spacing ties and lining them with a cord. 

8 unloading truck at head of track. <> Splicing joints. 

1 with horse hauling the truck. 27 spiking (3 sets of 9 men each). 



TRACKLAYING AND BALLASTING. 289 

The cost of tracklaying and surfacing (exclusive of ballast and ballast- 
ing) varies, of course, with the locality and the character of the track, but 
on Western roads it has averaged $250 to $500 per mile. One of the low- 
est records was that of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Pe Ry., in 1888 
("Engineering News," May 25, 1889), when tracklaying at the rate of two- 
miles per day was done with a gang of 164 men, at $170 per mile for track- 
laying labor proper, and $60 per mile for surfacing, with a gang of 84 
men; the total cost per mile, including expenses for engineers, engine and 
train crews, etc., was $248. Tracklaying on the Western Division of the 
Canadian Pacific Ry. was commenced June 1, 1882, and by Dec. 1 there 
had been laid 388 miles of main track and 30 miles of side track, west of 
Brandon. The greatest length laid in one day was 4.1 miles, and on three 
occasions four miles were laid in a day. The best speed on record was 
half a mile of track laid in 35 minutes. The rate of progress was as fol- 
lows: 

Working , Miles. s 

Month. days. Total. Pr day. 

June 2ti 6S.70 2.64 

July 26 63.56 2.44 

August 27 86.86 3.22 

September 26 71.25 2.74 

The tracklaying gangs on the Canadian Pacific Ry., where fast work 
was done, were composed as shown in Table No. 17: 

TABLE NO. 17.— TRACKLAYING GANG; CANADIAN PACIFIC RY. 

Unloading rails from cars* 12 Teams hauling ties 33 

Loading rails on trucks* 12 Unloading and distributing ties 8 

Unloading and laying down rails* ... 24 Spacing ties 4 

Bolters 15 Readjusting displaced ties 2 

Spikers 32 Rail truck boys (to 6 horses) 4 

Nippers 4 

Spike peddlers and tie loaders 32 Total 182 



Month. 
October 
November . . 


Working , Miles. 

days. Total. Pr day, 
... 26 59.38 2.28 
26 38.30 1.47 


Total ... 


.... 157 388.05 


2.47 



*Eight men in each of these gangs were handling joints, bolts, etc. 

The following is a detailed description (taken from an article written by 
the author and published in "Engineering News," New York, Nov. 14, 
1895) of the train and methods of work employed in 1892-1893 in the con- 
struction of the extension of the Minneapolis, St. Paul & Sault Ste. Marie 
Ry., from Valley City, northwest across North Dakota, 263 miles, to connect 
with a branch line which the Canadian Pacific Ry. was then building 
southeast from Pasqua (on the main line) to Portal, on the United States 
boundary, 160 miles. 

The track is laid with 30-ft. rails, weighing 72 lbs. per yd., spiked to 
cross-ties 6 ins. thick, 7 to 10 ins. wide and 8 ft. long, spaced at the rate of 
2,816 to 2,992 per mile, or 16 to 17 per rail length. The rails have square 
three-tie supported joints, spliced by 40-in. angle bars with six %-in. bolts, 
spaced 6, 6%, 7, 6% and 6 ins. c. to c. The engineer did not approve, of this 
joint, and questioned the utility of any splice bar exceeding 22 to 26 ins. in 
length. On the older track, south of Valley City, the track has suspended 
joints, with joint ties 7 ins. apart between faces, and the rails spliced by 
23-in. Samson angle bars, with four bolts spaced 4%, 7 and 4y 2 ins. c. to c. 
The width at subgrade is 16 ft. The tracklaying and surfacing were done 
by the railway company. 



290 



TRACK WORK. 




TRACKLAYING AND BALLASTING. 



291 



The entire construction train was made up of 32 cars, as follows: 



8. Water car. 

9 to 16. Flat cars with rails and spikes. 
Locomotive. 
17. Telegraph material. 
18 to 32. Box cars with ties. 



1. Pioneer car. 

2. Store car. 

3. 4. Dining and sleeping cars. 

5. Kitchen car. 

6. Dining and sleeping car. 

7. Feed car. 

Cars No. 1 to 8, both inclusive, formed the boarding or work train, which 
was always kept at the head of the track. The material train, composed of 
cars Nos. 9 to 32, both inclusive, was brought up during the night from 
the last sidetrack, and stopped so that the interval between cars Nos. 8 
and 9 was about 400 ft. The tie cars, Nos. 18 to 32, were then cut off at 
the coupling between Nos. 17 and 18, and the rail and telegraph cars were 
moved up and coupled to the boarding train, making the train as described. 

Work commenced at 7 a. m., the teams then beginning to haul ties from 
the five rear cars onto the grade (which had a top width of 16 ft), where 
the tie men helped to unload, place and space them. The tie wagons are 
shown in Fig. 194, and the chutes for loading them with ties from the 
box cars are shown in Figs. 195 and 196. One hundred rails and the nec- 
essary fastenings were unloaded from both sides of cars Nos. 15 and 16, 
dropping onto the soft earth of the roadbed, and the train then moved back 




m 



End Elevation. 



Fig. 197.— Rail Car or Iron Car 
for Tracklaying. 



Plan. 

400 ft. The rails were handled by means of rail forks, Fig. 172. The 100 
rails were then loaded on two iron cars, Fig. 197, each carrying 50 rails, 
and being "trimmed" with splice bars, bolts and spikes. The iron cars 
were then hauled to the end of the track by horses. Ten men on each side 
of the leading iron car ran forward with a rail and dropped it in place, 
together with a pair of splice bars and six bolts for each joint. Immedi- 
ately the rails were dropped, one man threw a hook gage, Fig. 198, over 
them, near their outer ends, and the horse then pulled the car forward 30 
ft., one man on each side stopping and blocking the car wheels with an 
iron stop block, Fig. 199. Two more rails were then quickly run out and 
dropped, as before. At every fifth and sixth rail length, alternately, a 
200-lb. keg of spikes was thrown off, containing about 375 spikes 9-16 x 5% 
ins. These kegs were broken open by the two spike peddlers, who took 
100 lbs. of spikes in their car boxes, Fig. 197, and placed two spikes on 
each tie where it was crossed by a rail. 



292 TRACK WORK. 

The tie-wagon, Fig. 194, was a four-wheel wagon, with two V-shaped 
supports to hold the ties, the capacity being about 25 ties. The tie chute, 
Fig. 195, was a plank platform with three rollers; the inner end was at- 
tached to a transverse bar of 2-in. gas pipe, placed at any desired height 
across the car door and secured by turning the pointed screw at one end; 
the outer end was supported by an iron sling and chain from the roof of 
the car. Fig. 196 shows the method of attaching and using the chute. The 
iron car, or rail car, Fig. 197, had two longitudinal sills and four trans- 
verse sills, with planks nailed across the bottom of two of the latter to 
form a box for splice bars and bolts; the wheels were 20 ins. diameter and 
7 ins. wide on the tread, and two rollers were fitted at each end in the usual 
way; each car could carry 50 rails of 72 lbs. per yd. The hook gage, Fig. 

198, was used to hold the free ends of each pair of rails as laid, while the 
iron car was run onto these rails and stopped by the block shown in Fig. 

199. The spike peddlers' cars, Fig. 200, was a handy little device, running 
on one rail and carrying about 100 lbs. of spikes, so that the spike ped- 
dlers could distribute the spikes very rapidly. The double-deck dining and 
sleeping cars were 34 ft. long over the body with a 3-ft. platform at one 
end; the width of the body was 12 ft., out to out, and the dining room 
and sleeping room had each a clear headway of 6 ft. 3 ins.; the sleeping 
room had two rows of berths on each side. The kitchen car, Fig. 201, 
was of similar dimensions, but had only one floor. In both of these cars 
the bodies could be removed by unbolting the four corner bolts, X X, which 
secured the end floor beams to the outer sills of the car frame. 

The two "front strappers" put on the splices, adjusted the expansion 
spacing by metal shims, and fastened the two center bolts, the other strap- 
pers following and completing the joints. Four "front spikers" with a 
gage followed close on the front strappers, and spiked the track at joints, 
centers and quarters, while 12 other spikers finished the spiking. For each 
two spikers there was an assistant, called a "nipper," who held the tie up 
to the rail with a nipping bar, using a block as a fulcrum. When the rails 
on both iron cars were nearly all in place, the train was again run forward, 
and 100 rails and the necessary fastenings thrown off as before, and the 
train again run quickly back out of the way. The iron-car gang would 
"drop" 100 rails (1,500 ft. of track) in from 25 to 30 minutes. The cars were 
brought forward at about every second move of the train, or oftener if the 
nature of the ground required it. 

At about 11:30 a. m., the ties remaining in the box cars were thrown out 
on the ground, to be picked up and loaded on the wagons, while the empty 
cars, Nos. 9 to 32, both inclusive, were run rapidly back to the nearest side 
track and exchanged for loaded cars arranged as before, these being 
brought to the front in time for work at 1 p. m. An additional locomotive, 
pushing at the rear of car No. 32, was employed when the grades required 
it. Telegraph material was thrown off car No. 17 at each forward move- 
ment of the train. The poles were of cedar, 6 ins. diameter at the small 
end and 25 ft. long, set 5 ft. in the ground, and these were spaced 30 to the 
mile. The wire was stretched from a reel placed on a small hand wagon, 
pushed by men. Tents were carried on the boarding train to be set up at 
night for quarters for extra men, or to shelter the horses in cold weather. 
Detachable feed boxes were slung on the sides of the boarding cars. The 



TRACKLAYING AND BALLASTING. 293 

general foreman had control of all trains and employees working at the 
front, and in case of emergency could at any time communicate by tele- 
graph with the superintendent of construction, a few miles at the rear. 
Material tracks from 2,000 to 2,500 ft. long were laid at intervals of about 
10 miles, unless regular stations were to be provided at shorter distances. 

Surfacing gangs, who lived in boarding cars set off on temporary side 
tracks, followed the tracklayers, and surfaced the track from the shoulders 
of banks or sides of cuts, so as to make a safe roadway and prevent bend- 
ing of the rails or splices before the ballasting was done. These gangs 
usually numbered 40 to 45 men under a foreman and sub-foreman. About 
250 men were required, and they went to and from work on hand cars. 

Mr. Rich, the Chief Engineer, stated that the company had laid much 
track with several of the tracklaying devices in use in this country, and in 
swampy, very hilly, or timbered regions they were very serviceable, but 
in a dry, open country, like North Dakota, the method above described en- 
abled the work to be advanced at double the speed and at no greater cost 
per mile. The average advance was three miles per day, and on one or two 
occasions in 1893 over four miles of track were laid in 10 hours with the 
force named below, and by increasing the force without regard to strict 
economy, five or six miles might be laid in a day. 

The entire work was in charge of a superintendent of construction, 
stationed at the siding nearest to "the front," or the head of the track, 
who ordered and forwarded material and gave general instructions. He 
had a business car, a clerk (who was also a telegraph operator), and a cook. 
The telegraph line was in working order at the end of the track every 
night, the instrument and operator being located in car No. 1. The track- 
laying force was as given in Table No. 18. 

TABLE NO. 18.— TRACKLAYING FORCE; M., ST. P. & S. S. M. RY. 

La- La- 
Fore- bor- Fore- bor- 
men. ers. men. ers. 

General foreman, on horseback. 1 .. Teamsters for the wagons 1 40 

Iron car gang (who dropped rails Men unloading ties from cars (3 

and fastenings) 1 22 to each car) 15 

Strappers (who adjust and bolt Men unloading rails and fasten- 

splices) 6 ings from cars 4 

Spike peddlers (distribut. spikes) .. 2 Telegraph gang 1 8 

Tie-spacing gang 1 12 Telegraph operator '. '. .. 1 

Men lining ties (rope & stakes). .. 2 Drivers of iron-car horses 2 

Men spacing joint ties (with 30- Blacksmith 1 

ft. pole and tie pick) 2 Night watchman ..'... '.'. 1 

Men leveling grade cut by tie Cooks 2 

wagon 4 Baker (worked only at night) . . . . 1 

Spikers 16 Waiters and helpers 5 

Nippers (hold up ends ties for Storekeeper 1 

spikers with blks & nip'g brs . . 8 _ 

Tracklining gang 1 6 Total 6 161 

All baking of bread and pastry was done during the night by an extra 
force of cooks. The cooks, baker, waiters, helpers and storekeeper were 
employed by a contractor, who boarded the men for $3.50 per week, fur- 
nishing all supplies and bedding. The amount for board, was deducted 
from the wages of the men and paid to this contractor. 

Returning to the details of the train and equipment, the make-up of the 
entire train has already been described. The equipment and capacity of 
the boarding train, kept at the head of the track, was as follows: 



294 TRACK WORK: 

No. 1. Pioneer car, double deck. This contained a blacksmith shop, 10 x 
12 ft.; storeroom, 8 x 12 ft., for heavy tools, harness, etc.; office for general 
foreman, 12 x 14 ft., with three sleeping berths and telegraph office; two 
sleeping apartments on the upper floor, and a tool box under the car. In 
front of the car was a platform supported by rods from the top, carrying 
extra splice bars, bolts, and spikes, and under the platform was fastened 
an extra iron car for emergencies. 

No. 2. Store car, double deck. This had a storeroom for clothing, shoes, 
tobacco, etc., and another for provisions; sleeping berths for the cooks, a 
sleeping apartment above and a tool box underneath. 

No. 3. Dining and sleeping car, double deck. On the lower floor were 
two dining rooms, one for the foremen and guests, the other for teamsters 
and telegraph gang. Above were separate sleeping apartments for the 
teamsters and the telegraph gang, and underneath was a tool box. 

No. 4. Dining and sleeping car, double deck. On the lower floor was the 
laborers' dining room, and above was a sleeping apartment, with berths 
for 32 men. Underneath was a tool box. 

No. 5. Kitchen car. This had a kitchen and provision room, 12 x 32 ft., 
with two cooking ranges. Underneath was a water reservoir supplied by 
hose from the water car (No. 8), while pumps in the sinks delivered the 
water as needed by the cooks. This car had no upper deck. (Fig. 201.) 

No. 6. Dining and sleeping car, double deck. On the lower floor was a la- 
borers' dining room, and on the upper floor was a sleeping apartment with 
berths for 32 men. Underneath was a box for wood for fuel. 

No. 7. Feed car. An ordinary box car, 8 x 34 ft., carrying feed for the 
horses and coal and wood for the use of the cooks. 

No. 8. Water car. A flat car, having at each end a wooden tank of 2,000 
gallons capacity, the tanks being connected by a pipe. 

No. 9. An ordinary flat car, loaded with rails, bolts and spikes. 

No. 1,0. (Car No. 17). An ordinary flat car, loaded with telegraph ma- 
terial. 

In the extension of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. from Stockton, 
Cal., to Point Richmond, some rapid work was done, as noted in Table No. 
19. The rails were laid with broken joints, and there were 17 ties per rail 
on tangents, 18 on curves up to 3° and 19 on curves over 3°. The first piece 
of work was practically level; the second had a descending grade of 1%, 
with curves at intervals of % mile. 

TABLE NO. 19.— TRACKLAYING; A., T. & S. F. RY. 

Date Oct. 9-25, 1899. Feb. 20, to 

Mar. 30, 1900. 

Track laid 10.74 miles. 16.6 miles. 

Average per day 2,846 ft. 3,503 ft. 

Maximum per day 5.400 " 4,500 " 

Rails 62y 2 -lb. 75-lb. 

Number of men, average 44.6 47.9 

Number of men for maximum day's work. .. 57.0 52.5 

Foreman 1 Distrib. spikes 1 

Sub-foremen 3 Spacing ties 2 

Strappers 4 Spacing rails 2 

Iron car men 10 Back bolting 2 

Spikers 8 Tie carriers 2 

•Nippers 4 Picking up material 1 

Tie line man 1 

Lining ties 2 Total 52 

Tie plater 1 

The boarding outfit was spurred out to one side. The tracklaying 
train carried out each morning enough material for one mile of 
track, made up as follows: Pioneer car, 3 cars of ties, 2 cars 
of rails, 3 cars of ties, 2 cars of rails and the tool car. The 
train was pushed to the front, a certain amount of rails and ties unloaded, 
and the train then pulled back. The material was then loaded on iron 



TRACKLAYING AND BALLASTING. 295 

cars or push cars, the rails ahead and the ties behind. The ties were car- 
ried around the rail car and distributed, after which the rails were thrown 
in place and the rail car and tie car moved forward, this being repeated 
until the loads on the iron car were exhausted. Strappers and spikers fol- 
lowed the iron cars and partially spiked and bolted the track before the 
train came upon it. As soon as the material unloaded from the train was 
laid, the. train was again pushed forward and another lot unloaded. The 
iron cars were pulled forward by a single horse. The track was laid with 
ties which had been tie-plated in the material yard before being sent to 
the front. The tie-plates under the joints had spike holes punched to a 
different spacing from those used elsewhere under the rail, and as the 
track was laid, it was necessary for a man to attend to taking out the ordi- 
nary plates and replacing them with the joint plates. He also had to re- 
place any plates which might have shaken out during transfer to the 
front. This was the duty of the. "tie-plater." The rails were all curved 
in the yard before being forwarded to the front. The iron car "men at- 
tended to unloading the rails from the flat cars and loading them on push 
cars. They also handled the fittings, such as splices and spikes, until it 
came to distributing, when an additional man was used for distributing 
spikes. The men who handled the rear end of the rail were known among 
the track men as "heelers." They unloaded from the iron car the splices 
at the proper places. The surfacing was done by a following gang taking 
material from the corners of the bank, throwing it between the ties and 
using it for tamping. In some cases, however, material such as sand for 
surfacing purposes was hauled onto the track, there being no ballast which 
could be obtained at hand. 

Tracklaying by Machinery. 

Tracklaying machines are now very extensively used, not only on large 
railway contracts, but also on lengths of 50 to 100 miles. For long 
stretches of work and in difficult country (rugged or swampy), especially 
where teams cannot be used to distribute the ties ahead in the usual way, 
machine tracklaying is very extensively employed and permits great rapid- 
ity, with a saving in cost over the ordinary method. It is also preferable 
in laying new track, as it avoids the cutting up of the roadbed by teams 
hauling ties. The title "tracklaying machines" is rather incorrect, since 
the machine does not lay the track, the general principle of the system be- 
ing that the ties and rails are run to the front of the supply train on rollers 
or tramways laid along the cars, and are delivered to the tracklaying gang 
from a frame projecting in front of the first or pioneer car, this car or 
"machine" forming the head of the material train, which is pushed for- 
ward as fast as the track is laid, moving one or two rail lengths at a time. 
The supplies for a day's or half a day's work are carried on the material 
train and delivered right where wanted, the train being moved up 30 or 
60 ft. at a time, according to whether the rails are laid singly or in two- 
rail lengths. It is not uncommon practice to lay only half the number 
of ties to a rail length ahead of the train, leaving the rest to be put in by 
a tie gang following the train, thus somewhat reducing the close work of 
a large gang, but while a single train may perhaps not do very much dam- 
age to a half-tied track, it is, as a rule, better practice to put in the full 



296 TRACK WORK. 

number of ties before the train runs over the track. There will then be 
less liability of injuring the rail or joints by surface kinking. 

The speed depends largely upon the ability to keep the machine supplied 
with material. On the Rio Grande, Sierra Madre & Pacific Ry., in 1897, the 
work averaged 2^4 miles per day, and could have been increased to 3 miles 
if material had been supplied, but in this case teams were used in addition 
to the machine. It is possible with iron cars or rail cars to put on enough, 
men to lay more track by hand than by machine, but this is more expensive 
and it is very difficult to regulate the expansion, as one strapper will steal 
from the next one, and the rails are dropped so carelessly for long stretches 
that bolts can hardly be got in. The gaging and spiking are also done hur- 
riedly to let the train come up, and under this system, generally speaking, 
the track is "dropped down" rather than "laid." Such rapid work is now 
rarely necessary, as with the completion of the great transcontinental 
lines the time has passed when speed in laying was the main consideration. 

The Holman tracklaying machine, Fig. 202, is composed of a series of 
tramways 30 ft. long and about 20 ins. wide, fitted with heavy iron rollers, 
and these tramways are attached to the sides of ordinary flat cars, without 
any changes, being supported by adjustable iron stakes that fit into the 
pockets on the sides of the cars. The sections are connected and operate 
the full length of the train, as continuous inclined tramways. The ties and 
rails on the supply cars are thrown upon these tramways and rolled down 
to the front, where men receive and place them in position on the roadbed. 
The ties come down on one side of the train and the rails on the opposite 
side. The tie tramway ends in a chute, supported by a wire cable, which 
runs out 35 ft. in front of the train, so that the men handling the ties are 
one panel ahead of the rail men, and consequently the gangs are out of 
each other's way. As each rail comes down the chute it is seized by the 
rail men, placed on the ties and pushed back against the end of the last 
rail, the expansion spacing being arranged by the joint gang. 

The pioneer or pilot car at the head of the train is fitted with an elevated 
frame or trestle, from which the chutes forming the end of the .tramways 
are suspended, and on this frame rides a brakeman who signals the engine- 
man when to push ahead, and attends to the brakes on this car. The splice 
bars, bolts, and spikes are carried on the pilot car. A train of ten cars 
(six cars of ties, three cars of rails, and the tool car) will carry all the 
material required for a half-day's work and from half to three-quarters of 
a mile of track. From l 1 /^ to ly 2 miles of track per day can be laid with 
this machine, or even 2 miles with from 40 to 60 men, provided the railway 
company can deliver the material at the front fast enough, and in proper 
shape. This includes the full supply of ties, laying the rails in position; 
joint, quarter and center spiking; putting on the fish-plates or angle-bars, 
and putting two bolts through the same. This leaves the track in safe 
condition for the construction train to pass over, and the balance of the 
work is finished behind the train without reference to or use of the train. 
As fast as the panels or rail lengths are laid, the train moves forward 30 ft. 
at a time, carrying all material with it, leaving nothing scattered along the 
line. 

In the construction of 120 miles of the Washington County Ry. (Maine) 
in 1899, with the Holman machine, the largest amount of track laid in any 



TRACKLAYING AND BALLASTING. 



297 



one day was 10,300 ft., fully tied and spiked; this was laid in 9 hours with 
110 men. Two train loads of material were usually laid each day, the trains 
consisting of about three cars of ties and three cars of rails. The first train 
was taken out in the morning, and it was usually arranged to have the 







second train at the nearest siding at noon, when the trains were exchanged. 
The ties were distributed about two rail lengths ahead of thp. rails, and the 
full number was always laid, as it was considered that with machine work 
it was cheaper to do this than to put in only half the ties in front and to 



298 



TRACK WORK. 



lay the rest behind the machine. There were usually about 90 men in the 
gang, distributed as follows: 26 running ties out; 3 running rails 
out; 8 receiving and placing tails at the front; 6 carrying ties to the front; 
2 lining; 2 bolting up splice bars; 30 spiking; 4 lining and spacing ties, and 
6 helping, waiting on the others, etc. 

The Burlington & Missouri River Ry. has laid its own track for the last 
eight years, and its last contract for tracklaying by hand, before that 
time, was let at $300 per mile, which included loading track material and 
higher wages than these now ruling. Bothjthe Holman and Harris track- 
laying machines have been used, and the former was used on the Billings 
extension, built in 1894. According to Mr. I. S. P. Weeks, Chief Engineer, 
the speed of the Holman machine, with a force of 85 men, was V/ 2 miles 
per day, which is the most convenient speed, and the cost at such rate was 
about $100 per mile. For this rate there was a morning and an afternoon 
train, each made up of four flat cars of rails and four flat cars of ties ahead 
of the locomotive, and four box or flat cars of ties behind the engine. On 
the Billings extension the track was laid with 65-lb. rails, and 18 ties to a 
rail, or 3,168 ties per mile. The track was half-tied in front of the engine, 
the balance of the ties being put in by lifting the rails and dragging the 
ties into place endways. Curves of 1° to 16° were laid without any special 
arrangement. Mr. Weeks stated that, if it should be desirable to lay 2y 2 
miles of track per day, it could be done by working two shifts of men 
with the Holman machine, laying IVi miles each in the morning and after- 
noon. With the Harris machine, he has laid 2y 2 miles per day on a spurt, 
when ties were distributed ahead of the track. This machine has been 
used with very satisfactory results, and at about the same expense as the 
Holman for a rate of ly 2 miles per day. With the Holman machine there 
were 86 men, distributed as shown in Table No. 20: 

TABLE iNO. 20.— TRACKLAYING GANG WITH HOLMAN MACHINE; B. & M. R. RY. 

, 43 Men in Front of the Engine. » , 43 Men Behind the Engine. , 

1 foreman, 1 line man, 1 straw boss, 2 spike peddlers, 

1 heeler, 1 polernan and 2 tie unloaders, 4 bolters, 

4 spikers, marker, 2 tie placers, 1 gage carrier, 

2 nippers, 4 tje carriers, 4 tie spacers, 1 water boy, 

1 rail thrower, 2 tie spacers, 2 rail lifters, 2 spike pullers, 

1 spike peddler, 1 tram tender, 12 spikers, 4 liners. 

1 gage carrier, 1 bolt trimmer, 6 nippers, 

1 expansion driver, 2 bolters, 

2 fork men, 2 strap carriers, 
4 rail pullers, 8 tie pushers, 

1 water boy, 2 tie loaders. 

With the Harris tracklaying machine ordinary 34-ft. flat cars are used, 
with four or five bridge ties, 6x8 ins. and 11 ft. long, laid across the 
floor, at proper intervals, and bolted to place. Ordinary ties are laid be- 
tween them, and upon these is laid a track of 2 ft. gage. Fish-plates are at- 
tached to the ends of the rails by a single bolt through the end hole in rail, 
and end holes in plates, thus causing the plates on adjacent cars to project 
toward each other as far as possible. The gap in the track between cars 
is then filled by short rails, having 18 ins. of the base cut off at each end, 
to permit of dropping the web into the slots formed by the projecting 
plates attached to the ends of the fixed rails on each car. These connect- 
ing rails are cut short enough to avoid jamming when all slack in car 
couplings is closed up to the minimum. Ten pairs of the short rails will 



TRACKLAYING AND BALLASTING. 299 

equip a train of material, and they are always retained at the front, for 
use on each train while unloading. Along the middle of each car carrying 
rails are four or five iron rollers, 3% x 10 ins., attached to the cross-ties 
along the deck of the car, forming a runway for conveying rails to the 
front. The rails are loaded in two neatly made piles, one on each side of 
the car, so as to clear the rollers in the middle and the tie car. Each car 
carries the proper complement of splice bars, stored in the open spaces 
between the cross-ties, while spike and bolt kegs are loaded in the runway 
between the rail piles and are afterwards moved to the end of the car, pre- 
paratory to unloading when the train reaches the front. The cars for the 
ties have the tramway, but no rollers. 

The front, or "pioneer" car has, in addition to the rail rollers and tie 
tramway, a frame of stringers extending the tram track 15 or 20 ft. ahead 
of the car, the outer end being supported by truss rods fastened at the 
rear end of the car and passing over a gallows frame about 10 ft. high at 
the middle of the car. A stout cross beam on the ends of the stringer has 
a short timber projecting downwards and carrying a double ended roller 
about 2 ft. below the level of the car deck. This roller is about 14 ft. from 
the end of the car for laying single rails, or 22 ft. for laying two 30-ft. rails 
spliced together. Two portable "dollies" are used at intervals of 15 ft. 
ahead of the car. These are light trestle frames, about 3y 2 ft. high, each 
with a roller 4 x 18 ins. on the top. The 2-ft. gage car or tram for convey- 
ing the ties to the head of the train has a platform 5x9 ft, and is fitted 
with a double frame, so arranged that when the wheels stroke the chock 
blocks on the front end of the stringers, the top frame will slide forward 
about 3 ft. on rollers. This shifts the load forward, causing the car to tilt 
and dump the ties on the roadbed. The car then tilts back, and the men 
slip the top frame back into position while ' returning for another load. 
Owing to the length of the ties, the men on the rail cars have to move back 
onto planks laid on the ends of the 11-ft. timbers to allow the tie tram to 
pass. Another truck, with a single frame, is used to advantage in con- 
veying the ties part of the way from the tie cars to the front, the load be- 
ing transferred to the dump car at the meeting point. This plain car is 
run forward between two wooden horses (one on each side of the 2-ft. 
track), which are lower than the top of the car. The latter is then dropped 
so as to leave the ties supported on the horses. The dump car runs under 
this load of ties and automatically trips the top part of the horses, so that 
the ties drop ont.o the car. The tie trams and pioneer car are kept per- 
manently at the head of the track, the car being coupled to each material 
train as it arrives. The machine can be used on sharp curves, and from 1 
to 3 miles of track per day can be laid. For ordinary work the full num- 
ber of ties may be laid in advance, but for fast work, half the ties are put 
in behind the train. 

Material for a mile of track is loaded on 15 cars behind the pioneer 
car, as follows: Five flat cars with 72 rails each, 5 flat cars with about 
300 ties each, and 5 (sometimes 7 or 8) box cars with about 1,500 ties in all. 
The engine is at the rear and pushes the train to the head of the track. 
The pioneer car is coupled to the front car of the train, the short connect- 
ing rails are adjusted in the tie-tram track, spike and bolt kegs are taken 
from the runway and stored on the ends of the cars, and the tie-tram is 



300 TRACK WORK. 

run back and loaded. One man with a rail fork throws two rails from each 
of two of the rail cars onto the rollers, when four men pull these four rails 
forward to the pioneer car, two more men on the rear end of that car put- 
ting on the splice bars and two bolts, and putting in the expansion shims. 
The man on the rail car also throws off the splice bolts and spikes, as re- 
quired. Meanwhile, 16 to 18 ties (for two rail lengths) have been loaded 
on the tram and the rail men step aside to let it pass, as it runs forward 
to dump its load on the ground, where the tie men distribute them over 
60 ft. of roadbed. When the tram is run back, the four rails (bolted to- 
gether in pairs) are run forward over the dumping frame rollers onto the 
portable "dollies" until the rear ends are clear of the car. The rails on 
the line side are then lifted from the rollers and dropped on the ties, thrown 
back against the rails already laid, and fastened to the latter by one bojt 
through the splice bars previously bolted to them. While the gage rails 
are being laid in the same way, 4 men are spiking the line side at 3 or 4 
ties per rail (quarters and centers), and 4 more follow with gages and spike 
the gage rail. At the same time 2 men are putting expansion shims at the 
heel joints of the two-rail section and half-bolting up these joints and 2 
more are putting the splice bars on the front end of the section, 
while others are moving the dollies ahead. A flagman near the front end 
signals the engineman when to stop and start, and the train is now moved 
ahead 60 ft., bringing the front end of the pilot car about 8 ft. from the 
end of the rail, when another load of ties is dumped as before. 

Meantime, a few men in two of the box cars at the rear of the train 
drop off eight or nine ties per rail length at each move of train, while a 
man on the ground alongside sees that the ties do not go down the em- 
bankments, and also that no more or less than the proper number are 
dropped off. A few men with picks and four quick-working ratchet jacks 
follow immediately in the rear of the train, putting in the back ties, and 
those are followed by the back bolters, spikers and lining gang, who com- 
plete the work in the rear as fast as it is strung out at the front. In other 
words, track is only half-tied, half-bolted and quarter-spiked in front of 
train. Material to complete the work is distributed from the train as it 
advances, and the back gang keeps the work completed close up to the 
rear of the train. For laying track with broken joints, the ties are carried 
15 ft. further ahead, and the four rails (two lengths of two rails each) are 
run out as usual. The line rails are dropped into place. The gage rails are 
run out 15 ft. further on the rollers of the dollies, then dropped into place 
and heeled back into the angle bars of the rails already laid. This is done 
while the line spikers are spiking their first tie, so that no time is lost, as 
the gage spikers start their work as soon as the gage rail is in position. 

For quick work, two tie trams may be used when the front cars of ties 
are unloaded, the front one being the dump tram, and each load being 
transferred from one tram to the other. This plan, with a long train, is 
said to save two hours a day and to enable 2,000 ft. more track to be laid 
than with one tram. With this system of working, as above described, 
the organization of force for laying two miles of track per day on the Chi- 
cago, Kansas & Nebraska Ry., in 1887, was as follows: 

On the train: 2 bolters, 4 or 6 rail pullers, 1 man throwing rails on 
rollers and dropping off bolts and spikes, 6 men handling ties and running; 



TRACKLAYING AND BALLASTING. 301 

the tram (or 8 men with two trams) ; 13 to 17 men in all. In front of the 
train: 8 spikers, 4 nippers, 12 rail men, 2 bolters, 2 men moving the "dol- 
ly," 1 handling the tie line, 1 handling the 30-ft. pole and marking the 
ties, 1 spike peddler, and 1 water boy; 31 in all. Behind the train: 4 bolt- 
ers, 12 to 14 men with two track jacks and some picks, pulling in and spac- 
ing 'the additional ties, 16 to 20 spikers, 8 to 10 nippers, 5 liners, 2 spike 
peddlers, 1 tie marker and 1 water boy, or 49 to 57 in all. The complete 
crew would consist of 1 general foreman, 1 heeler acting as foreman of the 
front gang, 1 foreman in charge of the back spikers, 1 foreman of tie gang, 
1 sub-foreman lining track and 100 to 1] 5 laborers. The tie markers carry 
a measuring board, which they place on the line end of every tie and strike 
a chalk line across, 16 ins. from the end of the tie, to guide the spikers in 
keeping ties in line. 

With four quick bolters in front, easy-fitting bolts, and a well-trained 
front gang, a 60-ft. section was often laid in 2y 2 minutes for hours at a 
time, the train being moved up as fast as the men could handle the mate- 
rial. Owing to delays in switching and running to and from work, the force 
never worked 10 hours consecutively, but over two miles of track were usu- 
ally laid in 9 hours' steady work, and some of the records were as follows: 
1,300 feet in 30 mins., 5,600 ft. in 4 hrs. 5 mins., 11,100 ft. in 8 hrs. 30 mins., 
and 11,000 ft. in 8 hrs. 55 mins. It was estimated that over 12,000 ft. could 
be laid in 10 hours, at a cost of $240 for gang and foremen; adding to this, 
the cost of motive power and trainmen and the expense of loading cars, the 
cost was estimated to be somewhat less than $150 per mile. The half-tieing 
is, of course, a disadvantage. 

The Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Ry. constructed about 1,300 miles ol 
track with the Harris machine in 1886 and 1887, the results being satis- 
factory in point of cost, speed and quality of work. Mr. D. Sweeney, Di- 
vision Roadmaster (who was in charge of the work on the C, K. & N. Ry., ' 
above noted), has given the following detailed particulars: 

"It requires not fewer than 100 men to work this system to its full ca- 
pacity, which is a little upward of two miles per day. The front bolters 
must be sufficiently expert to splice a joint with two bolts moderately snug 
in every 2% minutes; failure on their part will delay the entire work. Rail 
pullers and tie-tram men must be lively workers, but the men on other 
parts of the work can keep up by moderate efforts. The average cost of lay- 
ing two miles of track per day by this method is about as follows: 

Av. rate. Total. Av. rate. Total. 

1 general foreman §5.00 $5.00 1 engine and train crew $20.00 $20.00 

2 assistant foremen 3.00 6.00 

109 laborers 2.00 218.00 Total for two miles $249.00 

"To this must be added a small amount per mile as royalty for use of 
the machine, and about $10 per mile for preparatory work in transferring 
material to the cars in the yard, all of which will bring the actual cost to 
about $140 per mile where work is properly handled and not subject to 
much interruption or delay. 

"The Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Ry. has also constructed about 200 
miles of track with the Holman machine, during the past few years. This 
was done in a leisurely way and in short patches that did not justify equip- 
ping cars for the Harris system. The general work of. the Holman system 
has already been described, but on the C, R. I. & P. Ry. the track was not 
full-tied ahead of the train. After 8 or 9 ties were, delivered and spread 
on a 30-ft. section of roadbed, the rails were heeled to place, one at a time, 
and spiked to four ties, the. train being then moved forward 30 ft. and the 



302 TRACK WORK. 

process repeated. The back tieing and finishing up were done in the same 
manner as with the Harris machine. The average capacity of this system 
was about one mile per day with 60 to 70 men, which is about as many as it 
will employ to advantage. The following is an approximate cost of work 
per day: 

Av. rate. Total. Av. rate. Total. 

1 general foreman $5.00 $5.00 1 engine and train crew $20.00 $20.00 

2 assistant foremen 3.00 6.00 ■ — 

70 laborers 2.00 140.00 Total for one mile $171.00 

"It will be seen here that it cost as much for train and foremen in laying 
one mile with the Holman as it does to lay two miles with the Harris. 
Still, the Holman is the more economical for short stretches, or in cases 
where tracklaying is subject to frequent delays awaiting material, or the 
completion of grading and bridges. The gang is comparatively small, has 
few places requiring specially trained men, and would be subject to little 
loss or demoralization in changing from tracklaying to surfacing, and vice 
versa. It is probably that the capacity of the. Holman machine could be 
largely increased by making slight changes in the machine and method of 
working it. But either of these machines will lay track more economically 
than it can be done with iron cars. The system does away with the heavy 
expensive team work and cutting up of the roadbed incurred in hauling 
ties ahead of the track. It also prevents leaving large piles of surplus ma- 
terial scattered behind the tracklayers to be afterwards picked up at con- 
siderable expense, or else wasted. 

"The following is an approximate estimate of force and expense in laying 
track at the rate of two miles per day by the old style iron car method: 

Av. rate. Total. . Av. rate. Total. 

1 general foreman $5.00 $5.00 1 team hauling iron cars $4.00 $4.00 

5 assistant foremen 3.00 15.00 1 engine and train crew 20.00 20.00 

160 laborers 2.00 320.00 . 

22 teams hauling ties 4.00 ( 88.00 Total for two miles $452.00 

"Of course the expense in all methods will vary in accordance with the 
rate of wages allowed to employees, and each method must have sufficient 
force to work it to its maximum capacity in order to attain the best re- 
sults." 

The special feature of steam tracklaying machines is that the material 
is run to the head of the train on tramways having rollers operated by 
steam power. The Roberts machine consists of a head or "pioneer" car 
fitted with side chutes for delivering the rails and ties on the ground ahead 
of the train, and having a stationary steam engine to operate the rollers in 
the chutes. Similar chutes or tramways extend along each side of the flat 
cars of the material train, being carried by brackets inserted from the bot- 
tom of the stake pockets. They are connected between the cars, and in the 
bottom of each chute are live rollers, the alternate rollers being driven by 
a shaft extending the whole length of the train and being fitted with uni- 
versal couplings between the cars. The vertical engine on the head or 
pioneer car drives the shafts by means of gearing, and takes its steam 
from the locomotive. The rails are sent forward on one side of the train 
and the ties on the other, the ties being delivered by the chute about 60 ft. 
ahead of the rails, while the rail chute extends about 6 ft. beyond the car. 
The driven rollers of the tie chute have corrugated surfaces, to get a good 
hold on the ties, while the alternate rollers are plain, and are set about 1 
in. lower than the others. The material train is made up with the rail cars 
in front of the locomotive and the tie cars behind. 

In laying track on the Columbia & Western line of the. Canadian Pacific 
Ry., in 1899, a Roberts machine was used. At the material yard 8 men and 



TRACKLAYING AND BALLASTING. 303 

a foreman were employed in unloading, sorting and reloading rails and 
fastenings, and in curving rails. Each car sent to the front with rails was 
numbered with a consecutive or lot number, and also marked with the 
initial station of any curved rails it carried, the first and last rail of each 
curve having the station painted on it. The cars of rails loaded for ihe 
front were trimmed with angle bars only. Spikes, bolts, tie-plates, etc., 
were loaded together in a separate car, which was used as a tool car, as 
noted below: 

The tracklaying train was made up for half a day's work as follows: 
(1) The pioneer car; (2) four cars of rails carrying 1,000 ft. of track and 
angle bars, or about 22 tons; (3) the engine; (4) eight cars of ties carrying 
250 to 270 ties each; (5) the tool car. A pushing engine was used at the 
rear when required. The angle bars and some bolts were transferred to an 
apron on the front end of the pioneer car. The tracklaying force proper 
was distributed as follows: (1) The tie-line stretcher, whose duty it was 
to keep the tie-line stretched 4 ft. from track center stakes as a guide by 
which to line up the ends of the ties; (2) eight or ten "tie buckers," who 
took the ties from the end of the tie tram or chute (which extended about 
60 ft. beyond the pioneer car and dropped them approximately at the re- 
quired spacing; (3) the tie marker, who marked ties where rails should lie 
across them, and kept the spacing "pole" moved up as required; this pole 
was a piece of band iron 30 ft. long, with a ring in the front end to pull it 
along and having copper rivets at intervals to mark the proper spacing of 
the ties; it was placed just outside of the tie line; (4) two men with "pica- 
roons" lining the ties to the tie line, and at the same time squaring and 
spacing them according to the rivets in the "pole." All this work was en- 
tirely ahead of the steel or rail gang and out of their way. 

The steel gang consisted of 8 "heelers" and 2 "strappers." The strap- 
per put a pair of angle bars on the last rail laid, and one bolt, not yet 
tightened. When the next rail came he opened the angle bar with his 
wrench to receive the rail end. The rail was "entered," the front end 
dropped and rail pushed back against the expansion shim, the bolt tight- 
ened up, and bolt struck and nut started for rail just laid. This is 
called the "slow heel" method, but is believed to be just as quick 
as and to give a better chance to regulate the expansion than the common 
method of throwing each rail back against the one laid. By the time the 
first bolt is tight the conductor signaled the engineman to move ahead, 
and the train advances a rail length. No spiking at all was done ahead 
of the train. The rails were held to gage by bridle bars, two to a rail 
length on tangents and three on sharp curves. These bridles were %-in. 
rods, flattened at the ends and turned back so that the rails were at proper 
gage when the bridle was hooked under the base of the rails. There was a 
slot through it at the inside edge of the rail, through which a spike was 
stuck. The bridle was hooked under the line rail, a spike dropped in the 
slot, and the gage rail thrown in so as to clear the turned over part of the 
bridle; the bridle being held up and the rail pushed out it hooked itself, 
and on the spike being dropped in it was secured. The bridles were put 
on by the "heelers," who generally got them on before the "strappers" 
could fix their joint. 

On the "pioneer car" there was the engineman for the stationary engine 



30* TRACK WORK. 

that ran the tram rollers, and one of the train crew to give signals to the 
locomotive engineman by means of whistle signals from the stationary 
engine. There were 3 men on the tie cars throwing ties into the trams 
or chutes with "picaroons;" 1 man on the tool car dropping off bolts and 
tie-plates, and 2 spike peddlers distributing spikes for each -tie. The back 
gang consisted of 2 men lining, spacing and squaring any misplaced ties, 
taking off the bridles, and putting the tie-plates under the rails; 1 man 
picking up bridles and sending them to the front in a long narrow box 
over the tie trams; four or six gangs of spikers (each consisting of 2 
spikers and 1 nipper), and finally two back bolters. 

This force would lay a pair of rails per minute, or sometimes a little 
better. It averaged 1,000 ft. of track per hour, and always had to lay the 
four cars of steel, besides putting up and^ taking down the tramways or 
chutes before stopping for dinner. They would do the same in the after- 
noon. The night crew did the switching at noon, making up the material 
train for the afternoon, and at night brought up the loads required for 
the next day. Ordinarily camp cars and stock of material were within 
10 miles of the front. Ample motive power was necessary, as the train 
must be able to start quickly at each move. Two medium consolidation 
locomotives proved rather slow for handling the 14 loads on a grade of 
2.2%. No cars without air brakes should be loaded for the front. The 
train equipped with the Roberts appliances would work on curves of 14°, 
but not on a temporary curve of 22° on which it was tried. With the new 
Roberts tie distributer and two gangs of heelers, the machine will lay 
twice the amount of track, and the train need never come to a full stop. 

The Roberts machine was used in 1894 on the Chicago & Eastern Illinois 
Ry. between St. Elmo and Mount Vernon, 111., laying 60-lb. rails and 2,815 
ties per mile. The average speed was two miles per day, and the highest 
was one mile in 2 hrs. 50 mins. The distribution of the force is given in 
Table No. 21: 

TABLE NO. 21.— TRACKLAYING WITH ROBERTS' MACHINE; C. & E. I. RY. 

-36 Men with the Train. > ' , 44 Men Behind the Train. - 



3 foremen, 4 men distributing splices and spikes, 

1 engineman on machine, 4 back strappers, 

4 men loading ties on trams, 16 back spikers, 

2 men loading rails on trams, 8 back nippers. 

7 men placing rails, 1 oiler, 

8 men placing ties, 5 lining track, 
4 head spikers, 6 spacing ties. 

3 head nippers, 

3 head strappers, 
1 'tie liner. 

Ballasting. 

For a new line, the ties are placed upon the subgrade, and when the rails 
have been laid, the ties are tamped with earth and the track is lined and 
surfaced to make it safe for the ballast trains to run without injury to the 
rails or joints. In some cases, however, the track is jacked and blocked 
up above the subgrade before the ballast is distributed. The setting of 
ballast stakes has already been described. The ballast should not be dis- 
tributed until the banks are properly completed and the roadbed is finished 
to the standard cross section, so that the material will not be mixed with 
the earth and clay of the roadbed. In reballasting, if the original material 



TRACKLAYING AND BALLASTING. 305 

is very old and dirty it should be removed entirely, as it prevents proper 
drainage. Old broken stone ballast may be shoveled out and then handled 
and put back with forks, thus freeing it from dirt. On roads having a 
good supply of gravel available, it will be found economical to have gravel 
trains at work to keep the track well ballasted, as this will tend to reduce 
the maintenance work in wet weather, or in winter when the frost is in the 
ground. On the other hand, it must be recognized that ballast is usually 
somewhat expensive, and should not be used for filling in sags or wasted 
down the slopes of banks. Slag, however, being usually very cheap, may 
be used for both filling and ballast. The minimum depth of ballast under 
the ties should be 8 ins., or 12 ins. for first-class track. The cost of ballast- 
ing with 6 ins. of gravel below the ties is estimated at $580 per mile of 
single track, of which $320 is for delivering the gravel and $260 for putting 
it in the track. This is based on 30 miles average haul; $15.11 per day 
for engine, train and crew, and 11 cts. per hour for labor. The cost of train 
includes engineman, fireman, flagman and conductor, the latter acting as 
foreman of the gang. 

The ballast may be loaded onto the cars by a steam shovel, or by a con- 
veyor fed by a shoveling gang. The men's scoops may be suspended from 
an overhead frame so they do not have to lift each load in taking it from 
the bank to the conveyor boot. Ballast is sometimes carried in ordinary 
gondola cars, but more generally on flat cars with low hinged sides, or 
sides of loose boards supported by short stakes in the stake pockets, while 
iron aprons between the cars serve to keep the ballast from falling on the 
rails. A car 33 ft. long and 9 ft. wide can be loaded with 10 to 12 cu. yds. 
of ballast, or 14 to 15 cu. yds. if 12 in. side boards are used. Hand shovel- 
ing is expensive work, unless for small pieces of work or where small 
quantities have to be thrown off various points, and plowing or automatic 
dumping is more economical and more commonly employed. For plow- 
ing, the cars must be without ends, and flat cars are commonly used, as 
above noted. The Wisconsin Central Ry., however, has 40-ft. cars of 32 
cu. yds. or 50 tons capacity, with sides 3 ft. high, hinged to a top rail, and 
locked by cams on a shaft running along the sill. When the sides are un- 
locked by throwing a lever at the end of the car, and the plow is drawn 
forward, the pressure opens the doors and allows the contents to escape. 

Where the ballast is to be plowed off the train, the rear car carries a 
heavily weighted wedge-shaped plow, extending the full width of the car, 
and shaped to throw the material off on one or both sides. It is usually 
guided by the side stakes of the cars. To the nose of the plow is attached 
a steel cable extending over the cars to the locomotive, and led through 
pulley blocks on chains attached to the sides of the cars if the unloading 
is to be done on a curve. The train is stopped at the place where the bal- 
last is to be unloaded, the car brakes are set, and the locomotive is then 
uncoupled, the cable attached to it, and the engine then moves slowly ahead, 
hauling the plow along the cars and plowing the material to one or both 
sides, according to whether a side or a center plow is used. The Barnhart 
plow has a front and rear guide to keep it steadily in the center of the 
car, the cable being attached by a hinged joint to the front guide. With 
loose gravel, the engine can be run at about 4 to 6 miles per hour. When 
the plow has been drawn the length of the train, the cable is unhooked and 



306 TRACK WORK. 

thrown to the side of the track for the use of the next train. In filling 
and ballasting on the four-track work of the New York, New Haven & 
Hartford Ry., when the cable had been hauled the length of the train it 
was thrown to the side of the track and its end was hitched to a stand or 
derrick resembling a mail crane. The next train, running slowly by, 
picked up the cable, placing the end on the first car, while the stand held 
it in position over the cars until laid the full length of the train. The 
cable was thus handled by one man, while in ordinary practice it takes 
several men a considerble time to place the heavy steel cable on the bal- 
last cars. 

When distributing ballast in this way, the entire train load must be 
plowed off at one place. A very convenient arrangement, however, by 
which the distribution can be regulated, is by the use of the Lidgerwood 
"rapid unloader," which consists simply of a winding engine mounted on 
a car between the engine and the first ballast car, steam being supplied 
from the locomotive or from a boiler on the car. With a train made up 
in this way all the material may be dumped in one place, or any desired 
quantity can be unloaded and distributed by the locomotive moving the 
train along while the plow is being hauled along the train. 

Various forms of dump cars are used in ballasting and filling, and it is 
especially desirable that the quantity dumped should be capable of being 
regulated. The Rodger cars are 34 or 40 ft. long, of 18 to 30 cu. yds. (or 
25 to 40 tons) capacity. The sides slope inward and form a long narrow 
hopper parallel with the track, with doors arranged to deliver the ballast 
in the middle of the track and not pour it over the rails. The hopper 
doors are opened to any desired width by a man walking along the cars, 
the quantity delivered per yard of track being governed by the speed of 
the train and the width of hopper openings. At the rear of the train is 
the plow or spreader car, which is a flat car fitted with a double mold 
board steel plow, with flanges fitted to the edges. This plow can be raised 
or lowered by a screw and rides on the rails when in use. The ballast 
delivered in a ridge between the rails is plowed down between the ties 
and out over the rails (the rails being cleared by the flangers) so that it 
lies between and outside the rails ready for tamping as soon as the 
track is raised by the jacks. The train can be run at the rate of 3 to 5 
miles per hour while delivering the ballast. Pratt cars, used on the New 
York, New Haven & Hartford Ry., are of 25 cu. yds. capacity, or 30 tons 
carrying capacity. They are 28 ft. long inside, and weigh about 25,000 lbs. 
empty. The sides are made in two parts, divided horizontally. When the 
train stops, the upper half of the side of the car is swung down, and half 
the load dumped. The train then moves on a train length and the lower 
half of the side is swung up, dumping the rest of the load. The Goodwin 
cars are built entirely of steel. Only the top part of the side is fixed (18 
ins. deep), doors inclined inward forming the lower part, and resting on 
a narrow movable bottom piece at the center of the car. Inclined aprons 
extend over the wheels. The car can be dumped by hand or by air, while 
the train is moving at 5 to 8 miles an hour. The material is deposited on 
either or both sides or between the rails. The cars have a capacity of 28 
to 30 cu. yds., or 40 to 50 tons. The Page car has three or six dumping 
boxes mounted on the car frame, which can be dumped independently or 



TRACKLAYING AND BALLASTING. 307 

simultaneously by means of levers. Small four-wheel dump cars of 4 or 5 
cu. yds. capacity are sometimes used on contract work. Many roads haul 
ballast, cinders, etc., in cars with sloping sides and removable or hinged 
doors, the material sliding out as soon as the sides are removed or released. 
As ballast trains are expensive and cause delay to regular trains, the plan 
is sometimes adopted of delivering small quantities for repair work by 
means of dump cars hauled in way freight trains, the brakemen dumping 
them at certain points, according to instructions. For distributing ballast 
in this way, the Michigan Central Ry. uses special cars of 25 to 30 cu. yds. 
capacity. The bottom slopes steeply to each side, and transverse bulk- 
heads form six pockets or compartments. Each compartment has a swing- 
ing door at the side of the car, and a swinging board half way up the 
slope, subdividing the pocket. Thus a large or small amount of ballast 
can be dumped at any point, as desired. A few of these are put together 
in a train which is stopped at the required spot (marked by stakes) and the 
trainmen release the outer doors, the amount of ballast being sufficient for 
a raise of 6 to 8 ins. in the length of the car. The train then moves on, 
and the inner doors are released, depositing the same amount of material 
adjacent to the first. 

When the ballast is distributed, the track is raised by jacks (both sides 
at once) for a distance of about 100 ft. and lined by bars. The ballast is 
then thrown into place between the rails and tamped under the ties. 
Coarse stone or slag is handled by forks instead of shovels. Two lifts are 
usually made, and the inclined parts approaching the raised portion must 
be made solid enough to prevent injury to the rails and joints by passing 
trains. The shoveling back of the ballast from the sides of t.he track and 
throwing it between the rails may be avoided by the use of dump cars de- 
positing the ballast between the rails, as with the Rodger cars above men- 
tioned. Where ballast is deposited at the side of the track for additional 
tracks, there may be at the rear of the train a spreader car, with an ad- 
justable wing which projects so as to level and spread the material for a 
width of about 12 to 15 ft. from the ballast train track, on one or both 
sides as required. These spreader cars, which have been used for level- 
ing ballast and earth work on several roads, are usually heavy flat cars 
with a heavy trussed gallows frame or side posts, from which run stay? 
to the outer end of the spreader or wing which is about 20 ft. long, built of 
plank and faced with iron. Adjustable braces are fitted between the wing 
and the sills of the car, and it can be raised and lowered or adjusted as to 
position by a chain on a winding drum or by air cylinders. With movable 
pieces or mold boards attached to the bottom of the wing, the ballast can 
be trimmed to the required cross section, and ditches can also be trimmed 
and cleaned. (See also "Ditching"). When not in use the wings are fold- 
ed against the side of the car, which can then be hauled in any freight 
train. 

In building the additional tracks for the four-tracking of the New York, 
New Haven & Hartford Ry., between New York and New Haven, a tem- 
porary track of old material was first laid on the subgrade, and the ballast 
then hauled in and the temporary track raised by jacks to the propel 
grade. After this the old track Was replaced by the material for the per- 
manent track, which was thoroughly tamped, surfaced and lined. The 






308 TRACK WORK. 

bal'iast was of broken stone, carried on low, drop sideboard cars, each 
holding 10 cu. yds., and the unloading was done by hand. Prom this first 
new track the ballast for the two adjoining tracks was then unloaded, and 
was leveled off to the bottom of the ties by means of a spreader. This con- 
sisted of a heavily loaded fiat car fitted with wings 20 ft. long, the wings 
having plate iron scrapers, adjusted by means of two ratchet jacks. On 
the bed thus prepared the new tracks were laid, and were ready for slow 
running trains as soon as the spikes were driven, there being no danger 
of bending the rails. A similar plan is often employed in building addi- 
tional tracks, and it will readily be seen how the ballast may be distributed 
and leveled for any number of parallel tracks after the first track has been 
laid. 

When gravel ballast is to be put in on a track ballasted with earth, the 
earth between the ties should be dug out and placed at the side of the 
roadbed. A train load of gravel is then dumped, giving about 15 cu. yds: 
per car length, and this is then packed down to make room for another 
load, filling it in level with the tops of the ties. The track is then raised 
by jacks, and the gravel shoveled under the ties, after which another load 
of ballast is deposited. The track is then again raised, the ties are spaced 
properly, the final tamping done, the track lined and surfaced, and the bal- 
last finally dressed to the required cross section. 



CHAPTER 18.— DRAINAGE AND DITCHING. 

The drainage of the land traversed by the railway is ah important mat- 
ter, but comes more properly under the head of construction or engineer- 
ing work than of maintenance or track work. It is not intended to con- 
sider this matter here, but rather to consider the drainage of the railway 
as constructed. There are, however, some general points which it may be 
well to briefly' mention. The necessity of providing ample waterway at all 
bridges and culverts is insisted upon in nearly every book on railway work, 
but it is not always as closely observed in practice as it should be. In the 
maintenance work, therefore, the engineer, roadmaster and section fore- 
man should have in mind what culverts or waterways are occasionally 
found to be of insufficient capacity. Until increased capacity can be ob- 
tained they must take care that the opening is free from drift and obstruc- 
tions and protected against wash, that no fencing is placed across it and 
that the sides of the stream or the slopes of the embankment, etc., are pro- 
tected from wash. This protection may be in the shape of rip-rap, brush, 
rough cribbing of trees and logs, or trees laid on the slope with the trunks 
pointing up stream, and the branches weighted down in the water. No 
fences or wires should be allowed across drainage openings, as these check 
and collect drift in times of flood. 

It is now generally recognized that as every opening on the railway is 
to a certain extent a source of danger, these openings should be reduced 
to a minimum, and therefore the common open culverts are on many 
roads being rapidly replaced by culverts of iron or vitrified clay pipe (one 






DRAINAGE AND DITCHING. 309 

or more lines of pipe according to the waterway required), stone box 
drains, or masonry arches, with a solid bank filled in over them. Such 
culverts, of proper capacity, and with ends properly protected from scour, 
are, of course, much less liable to washouts or undermining than pile 
culverts. Rectangular or box culverts of masonry should have a water- 
way not less than 2y 2 x 3 ft. The abutment walls should be at least 2 ft. 
thick (or two-thirds the height), resting on a paving of 10-in. stone, set on 
edge, the ends of this paving being protected by curbing and broken stone 
aprons. The covering should be of stone 12 in. thick, with 10 ins. of bear- 
ing on each wall. Steel plate culverts are used to a small extent. 

The method of draining the water from the track and from the land on 
each side will depe % nd upon the character of the soil and the amount of 
water to be dealt with. In some exceptionally bad cases, special treat- 
ment is necessary to prevent slides, particularly where quicksand, gumbo, 
or clay overlying rock are encountered. In Europe, heavy permanent 
works of masonry are sometimes undertaken for dealing with slides, or 
for the drainage of wet or unstable material traversed by a railway. Val- 
uable articles on this class of work will be found in "Engineering News,"' 
New York, Sept. 22, 29; Oct. 6, 13, 1877; in the "Journal of the Association 
of Engineering Societies," 1894; and in the "Annales des Ponts et Chaus- 
sees," October, 1893. 

In all cuts there should be a good ditch on each side of the roadbed, and 
the distance of the ditch from the rails should vary with the material of 
the cut, for in rock or hard material the water may be safely carried closer 
to the ballast than in wet clay or earth, when the water will seep into 
and tend to saturate the roadbed. From this it follows that cuts in soft 
material should be wider at subgrade than those in hard material, although 
in practice the cuts are often made too narrow to allow of proper ditches, 
and expense is incurred in subsequent widening or in constant mainte- 
nance and in cleaning ditches. The slopes, also, are often left too steep, 
thus preventing the construction of proper ditches, and increasing the lia- 
bility of slides in wet material, or causing a constant falling of material 
into the ditches. Some of the wet gumbo cuts on the Canadian Pacific Ry. 
have had to be cleaned out and deepened with a steam shovel and then 
two rows of piles, 8 ft. apart, driven on each side of the track. Sills laid 
under the roadbed kept the inner rows from moving, and inclined braces 
were put in between the inner and outer rows. The mud was dug out 
and coarse gravel filled in around and behind .the piling through which 
gravel the water, drained to the track ditches. On the Savannah, Florida 
& Western Ry., a clay cut, about 20 ft. deep and 300 ft. long, at a point 
that was formerly the head of a small natural drain, gave a great deal of 
trouble during wet weather by the slope on one side sloughing off and fall- 
ing in, causing the track to rise suddenly, sometimes as much as 3 ft. in 
one night. Tons of this earth were removed as it fell in, until the earth 
from that side of the cut had been removed some 70 ft. from and to a level 
with the track, still the difficulty was not overcome. Open ditches failed 
to reduce the saturation of the semi-liquid mass. A tile drain 6 ins. diam- 
eter was carefully laid parallel with the track, 4 ft. from the ties and Zy 2 
ft. below the level of the track, on the side where the sloughing occurred. 
An open ditch was dug on the opposite side of the track. In the first wet 



310 TRACK WORK. 

spell after this the track again began to rise and had to be cut down, and 
the open ditch reopened repeatedly. The tile drain was broken up by the 
movement of the earth, and parts of it found to have passed entirely under 
the track into the ditch on the opposite side. Soundings indicated that the 
soft mass extended about 30 ft. below the track, and was apparently slip- 
ping over a strata of hard clay with an inclination toward the track. A row 
of round sheet piling was driven about 8 ft. from the track and 20 ft. deep. 
It was intended to brace this piling by means of struts under the track and 
against the opposite wall of the cut, which stood immovable; but a sea- 
son of heavy rain coming on prevented the execution of this part of the 
work. It was expected that the earth would force the piles toward the 
track, and that the old difficulty would again reappear. . Such was not the 
case, however, for, notwithstanding months of heavy rains, the piling and 
track remained unmoved. 

Round or sheet piling is also sometimes necessary in the slopes or at the 
toes of cuts. In soft cuts deeply gullied by rain, cribs of old ties are some- 
times used, but are very unsightly and generally of only temporary value. 
If such cribbing is used, the pile of ties should be higher at the track end,, 
the ties sloping back to the bank, so as to afford greater resistance to dis- 
placement of the cribbing, while the edge forms a convenient platform 
from which to shovel the sliding clay into the cars until the angle of re- 
pose has been reached. It has also been found in cuts through clay with 
an overlying stratum of earth, that if the material is excavated to a vertical 
face at about the middle of where the ordinary slope would be, when the 
face sloughs off the earth will cover the clay and protect it from the 
weather. Where slides occur or are liable to occur, and it is difficult to 
keep the ditches clean, some additional means of drainage should be pro- 
vided. Wooden box drains, pole drains, or trenches filled with saplings 
may be used in wet cuts. If a slide occurs in winter or in bad weather, 
ditching it out will often keep it sliding or make it worse, and in such 
cases, as long as the material does not encroach on the track, it is often 
best to leave it and cut cross drains through the ballast to carry the water 
to the ditch on the other side of the track. If the proper width for slopes 
and ordinary ditches cannot be obtained, as in cuts through valuable prop- 
erty, masonry retaining walls may be built near the track, and the slopes 
commenced from the tops of these walls. 

One of the great troubles from heavy rainfalls, is the gullying out of the 
slopes and the breaking down of the corners of cuts and banks, for which 
reason it is a good plan to round off the top and bottom corners, as in the 
section shown in Fig. 203. Mr. D. J. Whittemore, Chief Engineer of the 
Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry., has advocated this course, together 
with the paving of ditches and the sodding of slopes. The washing of 
slopes, especially in sidehill cuts, may be checked by cutting a berme or 
surface ditch at some little distance from the top, so as to intercept the 
surface drainage. The ditch should be at least 3 ft. from the cut, with the 
earth thrown out on the side next the cut. It may be about 18 to 24 ins. 
deep, 12 in. wide at the bottom, the size varying with the amount of water 
to be dealt with. The ends should be curved out, or led into the berme ditch 
of the adjacent bank, so that the water will not wash the face of the bank. 
If the earth is very soft or porous the ditch may be lined with plank or even 



DRAINAGE AND DITCHING. 



311 



concrete. Another method is to have blind drains cut diagonally along the 
slope and filled with bundles of brush or saplings, broken stone, or semi- 
circular tile. In still other cases, trenches about 2 ft. wide and 2 ft. to 3 ft. 
deep are cut straight up the slope and filled with broken stone. The dis- 
tance between these trenches depends upon the amount of water and the 
character of the material. Where springs break through the slope, drain 
pipes may be inserted, and a gutter or an apron of stone rip-rapping laid 
from the outlet down to the track ditch. In such cases, subdrainage may 
be required. 

A sodded slope will prevent washing, and largely prevent sliding, except 
with very wet material and a continuous heavy rainfall. In England great 
care is taken with the sodding and grassing of slopes of banks and cuts. 
On the Cape Cod Division of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Ry., 
the slopes of sandy cuts and banks are protected somewhat from rain and 
wind by encouraging beach grass to grow on them, but as this will not grow 
so well on the slopes of cuts, old ties are sometimes laid on the latter. The 
roadbed of the Southern Pacific Ry. on the south side of the San Gregonio 




Half Section of Cut. 



Fig. 203. — Cutting and Embankment with Rounded Corners. 



Pass (in southeastern California) was originally composed of sand, and 
sometimes suffered during high winds. This was checked by embedding 
dry brush in the embankment, with tops and branches outward. Where 
the Siberian Railway crosses sandy plains, the roadbed is protected by rows 
of low scrub bushes, which serve both to prevent the sand from being blown 
away and to consolidate the soil by their roots. 

Banks may be drained by berme ditches not less than 3 ft. from the toe 
of the slope, and material should never be taken from the intermediate 
berme or level for filling the bank or raising sags. The bottom of the 
ditch should slope slightly away from the bank. If there are springs under- 
lying the bank, the tile drains may be laid from the springs to the side 
ditches, or the earth may be dug-out, broken stone and rock filled in, and 
rock-filled trenches made from the hole to the ditches. Special care 
should be taken with the drainage on sidehill work to keep the bank 
itself and the ground upon which it rests well drained. In some cases 
benching and extra side filling or dwarf retaining walls are re- 
quired to keep such a track in line. Trackmen should »ever be al- 
lowed to use the material from the top of the bank for ballast. The lay- 
ing and cultivation of heavy soil will do much to consolidate and hold the 
bank. 



312. TRACK WORK. 

Swampy ground requires special treatment of the roadbed, and the 
Canadian Pacific Ry. has built some sawdust banks across swamps where 
gravel would break through the surface crust. The slopes are covered 
•with earth to protect the material from fire. The Minneapolis, St. Paul & 
Sault Ste. Marie Ry. crosses a number of swamps in Wisconsin, many of 
which show soundings of 15 to 30 ft. Upon these is made a roadbed about 
2% ft. high from ditches cut at a distance of 15 to 30 ft. from the foot of the 
slopes. The material is mostly peat, which, when dried out, makes a very 
light bank. The track was laid on small poles (3 to 4 ins. diameter), three 
under each end of the ties, and only enough ballast was used to bring the 
track to a good surface. These swamps gave some trouble from the track 
crawling under the heavy consolidation engines (120,000 lbs. on the driv- 
ing wheels). In some places ties 10 and 12 ft. long were used, and angle 
bars were bolted to the middle of the rail and spiked to two ties. A 12-in. 
foundation of logs, about 6 ins. diameter, is sometimes built across swamps, 
being covered with bushes and a little ballast. Ditches are usually dis- 
pensed with in such construction. 

Subdrainage and Tile Drains. 

Subdrainage is frequently necessary where the roadbed is in damp or 
wet ground, and where trouble is caused by heaving. Tiles and broken 
stone are used for this purpose, the tile being the better. The tile drains 
are usually laid under the ditches on one or both sides of the track, and 
2y 2 to 3 ft. from the bottom of ditch to bottom of tile is generally suf- 
ficient, but in any case the tile should be below the frost line to protect the 
tile from heaving or breakage. The ends of the drains discharge into cul- 
verts or waterways. Good track cannot be maintained in wet and soft 
places without subdrainage, and there are many spots in cuts and under 
banks (especially in sidehill work) where water seeps through badly, and 
where nothing but subdrainage will afford substantial relief. In wet cuts 
the tile may be laid in diagonal lines at a depth of about 3 ft., and 6 ft. to 
20 ft. apart, or to form lateral drains leading to the side drains, while the 
slopes may be drained by tile laid in trenches and connected with the side 
drains. 

The best and cheapest material is the common red clay drain tile, without 
collars, though glazed tiles with open joints are used in some cases. The 
smooth surface of the tile gives a rapid flow for the water and consequent 
reduction of saturation of the roadbed. It should be not less than 5 ins. 
diameter, and of ample size to carry off all the water freely, as there is 
little difference in the cost of laying 5-in. or 10-in. tile. Great care should 
be taken to lay it properly, getting tight joints and uniform grade with all 
the fall the outlet will allow (the grade to be not less than 3 ins. to 100 ft. 
in any case). It should be covered with marsh grass, if possible; although 
hay or straw are better than nothing, while open joints should be covered 
with strips of sod or turf. The trench is then filled with cinders, gravel 
or other porous material, if any can be had. Otherwise stiff joint clay may 
be used, but«iot sand or loam, as they will work into the pipe. The trench, 
however, may be filled with such material. In laying in quicksand or mud 
it may be necessary to use a plank bottom or trough covering as fast as 
laid, to prevent displacement. When putting in tile on only one side of 



DRAINAGE AND DITCHING. 313 

track, it should be laid on the upper or higher side. Where a spring under- 
lies the roadbed in a cut, tile cross-drains may be laid at intervals, sloping 
slightly towards the sides and connected at each end with the tile drains 
under the ditches. The outlets of all drains should be looked after and 
kept free, especially in winter, as springs may keep water running in cold 
weather. Some loose stone should be laid up around the ends to keep out 
small animals, or wire netting answers admirable for this. Both ends of 
the drain should be kept open and free to allow circulation of air through 
the drain. The cost of laying tile will vary from 25 cts. to 60 cts. per 
rod, according to material, or even more in quicksand cuts. In general 
the drains, if of any extent, are laid by men experienced in this particular 
work, and not by the ordinary section gangs, as the former can usually 
do the work quicker and cheaper. In laying the drains, the tiles or pipes 
are kept in line during tamping by stringing them upon a pole or rod 
about the diameter of the pipe, this being left in place until a length of 
backfilling and tamping is done, when it is pulled ahead for another set of 
pipe, its heel remaining in the pipe already laid as a guide. 

Ditches. , 

The proper construction of roadbed ditches has already been referred 
to, and on all roads in districts where much rain falls, one of the 
important items of track work is that of keeping the ditches clear and 
properly graded, for well-drained earth may make a better roadbed than 
badly-drained gravel. Earth from the slopes and ballast from the roadbed 
fall into the ditches and gradually form obstructions which choke the 
waterway, while in soft material the ditches will gradually close up. In 
the spring, therefore, as soon as the frost is out of the ground, every 
section foreman must have his ditches properly cleaned and improved; 
and in the autumn he must again overhaul them, clearing out leaves and 
rubbish, and putting them in condition for winter. In doing this work, 
attention should be paid to getting even grades, proper dimensions for an 
ample waterway, and a uniform direction, cutting away stumps, boulders 
or rock edges which interfere with the course of the ditch, as twists and 
bends around small obstructions are liable to catch floating objects and 
to cause a choking of the ditch. Attention must also be paid to getting 
a good discharge from the ditch at the end of the cut, so that the water will 
not wash the adjacent bank. The ditch should be commenced at the lower 
end of its grade, so that the work will drain itself as it progresses.. 
Sections of ditches are shown in the chapter on Roadbed Cross Sections,. 
Part I. On curves it may sometimes be necessary to carry the water 
along the inside of the curve to prevent washing of the roadbed or 
ballast, and for this purpose the outside ditch is dammed at intervals and 
an open box drain of wood laid across the roadbed to carry the water to 
the inside ditch. When ditching in yards, the foreman should arrange 
with the yardmaster and do the work at a time when the sidetrack next the 
ditch can be kept clear of cars. 

Ditching is usually done by hand, the earth being shoveled into a push 
car, which is then run to the end of the cut and dumped over the bank, 
a flagman being sent out to protect the car. The earth should never be 



314 TRACK WORK. 

thrown upon the slope of the cut, or on the top of a shallow cut, as it will 
only wash or fall in again. If the earth can be loaded, hauled and dumped 
by a car, as above described, without interfering with trains, this is the 
best way to work. In many cases, however, wheelbarrows are more con- 
venient, a wheeling plank being laid on the inside of the near rail, care 
being taken that the planks are not so thick or warped as to interfere with 
the flanges of car wheels. "Wheelbarrows having grooved wheels to run 
on the rail head are sometimes used, and are claimed to be specially useful 
where the traffie is heavy and two flagmen would have to be sent out if 
a car was used. In wheelbarrow work, the foreman should put one of his 
best men in front and a second best man at the rear of the wheeling gang, 
so as to get out to the dump and back again as quickly as possible. If the 
work is extensive, a work train and extra gang may be assigned to it, the 
earth being loaded on flat cars and hauled to any convenient place for 
deposit. Whether it is best to employ trains, push cars or wheelbarrows, 
will depend upon local conditions, the length of cut, number of trains dur- 
ing working hours, extent of work to be done, number of men in the gang, 
etc. 

Ditching Machines. 

On railways running through low-lying, damp and swampy districts, 
and having the grade line but little above the normal surface of the 
country, the question of drainage is a very important one in the main- 
tenance-of-way work, and a considerable amount of money and labor must 
be expended in making and maintaining ditches in order to keep the 
roadbed and bank in proper condition. This is especially the case where 
the ballast is poor, and where the natural soil is used for ballast. A com- 
bination of the above conditions exists on a large mileage of railways in 
the Southwest, and there is consequently a- good field for the application of 
ditching machines in order to expedite the work and reduce the cost for 
labor. A handy and labor-saving device is a ditching car, which consists 
of a heavy framing mounted on a flat car and supporting two derricks at 
the side (or two derricks on each side for single track work). The derrick 
chains support the front and back bails of a ditching scoop or scraper of 
about 1 to Sy 2 cu. yds. capacity, while a chain from a horizontal bail in front 
of the scoop is fastened to the front of the car. This chain does the pulling, 
the others regulate the depth of cut, and the derrick regulates the distance 
from roadbed to ditch. There is a man at the winch of each derrick, and 
the crew consists of 8 men in all. If operated by steam or compressed air 
a smaller gang will suffice. The machine will work in dry cuts when 
they have been plowed, but it works best in wet weather, when the material 
is soft. The car should be strong and well braced, and have the spring 
hangers duplicated or reinforced, as it is subjected to severe strains. There 
should be no slack between the engine and car, so as to prevent jerking. 
Cars of this kind are used on a number of railways, and can be rigged up 
on any division, and fitted with a ditching plow, a ditching scraper, or a 
mold board for dressing ballast slopes, as noted in Chapter 17. The ma- 
chinery may be housed in, the cabin (or a separate car) being provided with 
a blacksmith's forge, tools, etc., for making repairs required in service. 

On the Intercolonial Ry. the wings of a snow plow have been fitted with 



DRAINAGE AND DITCHING. 



315 



vertically adjustable steel cutters, 13 ins. deep, 9 ft. long and %-in. thick. 
The first cut is made with the wings half open, cutting the. ballast slope. The 
second cut is made with the wings spread to their full extent, forming the 
herme at the level of the subgrade and plowing the stuff down the bank. 
Formerly, two or three furrows were plowed with a farm plow and a pair 
of horses, the sods being thrown down the bank by trackmen with forks. 
The above machine is hauled by a locomotive, and can clean 20 to 25 miles 
of track in a day, making a cut on each side 3 ft. to 9% ft. from the rail 
and to a depth of 2 ft. below the top of the rail. The crew consists of two 
men to extend or close the wings, and two men to raise and lower the 
cutters at crossings, switches, etc. Such a machine is specially valuable 
on single track roads with limited section forces, and it can be made out 
of a wing snow plow, or by attaching wings and cutters to a box or flat car. 
A very completely equipped car for heavy work of this kind has been 
designed by Mr. W. B. Doddridge, General Manager of the Missouri Pacific 




Fig. 204.— The Doddridge Ditching Machine. 



Ry. It is 46 ft. long, having plate girder side-sills connected by angle iron 
transverse bracing. The end sills are heavy steel castings, and have ex- 
tended curved ends to serve as attachments for the draft chains which 
pull the outer end of the scraper and the beam of the ditching scoop. 
At the middle of the car is a steel derrick post, 9 ft. high, seated in a frame 
below the floor and carrying a crane arm or jib having a reach of 14 ft. The 
crane can be turned through a complete circle. All operations are effected 
by compressed air stored in three cylindrical reservoirs, 2x10 ft., at a pres- 
sure of 80 lbs. per sq. in., and supplied by the air-brake pump of the loco- 
motive. Underneath the cars are also placed the operating cylinders: 12 
ins. x 14 ft. 7 ins. for the derrick hoist; 12 ins. x 9 ft. 5 ins. for swinging 
the derrick, the piston rod having a rack attachment for swinging the 
mast through a complete circle; and four cylinders, 8 ins. x 5 ft. 4y 2 ins. for 



316 TRACK WORK. 

the side guides. The pistons are cushioned by air, and the cylinders take 
air from either end. The various pipes are brought together to a switch- 
board, mounted on the car, and from which all movements are controlled 
by means of cocks. The main equipment of the car includes the following: 
(1) A solid cast steel plow, weighing 2,500 lbs., which cuts a furrow 20 ins. 
deep and 36 ins. wide; (2) A triangular shaped scraper for cutting material 
for the embankment; (3) A mold board for dressing the roadbed to the 
standard section; (4) A ditching scoop of 3 cu. yds. capacity. Pig. 204 
shows the machine at work plowing for the ditch. 

In operation, the plow is first used to cut one or two furrows as may be 
necessary, to lower the ditch to the proper depth and furnish sufficient 
dirt to fill out the embankment to the standard section. The necessary 
beams, guides, etc., are so arranged that the plow is entirely under the 
control of the man handling the air; it can be set at any distance from the 
track that is desired, raised or lowered, or swung in or out to avoid ob- 
structions too large, to plow up. The nose of the plow is braced by a heavy 
bar attached to the side sill. The scraper is then used to bring the dirt 
from the ditch up toward the track. If the ditch is in a small cut, how- 
ever, with banks not exceeding 5 or 6 ft. high, and the dirt is not required 
on the bank, the scraper can be reversed so as to remove the dirt from the 
ditch, throw it outside and form a bank of even and regular surface. The 
mold board or shoulder former is then used to dress up and finish the em- 
bankment. This board extends from the ends of the ties at an angle of 30° 
with the car body, for a distance of 14 ft. As it is braced and held rigid 
with the car, the embankment is shaved perfectly smooth and exactly to 
the form of the template bolted to the lower edge of the mold board. 
Where the scraper has brought up too much dirt, the mold board removes 
it, carrying a sufficient quantity before it to fill up the low places where not 
enough dirt has been left. The board can be readily adjusted as required, 
and can be raised easily to allow it to pass cattle guards, bridges, and road 
crossings. The track is then ready for ballasting. 

The ditching scoop or excavator is an important part of the equipment, 
when ditching in deep cuts or preparing to lower track. It is attached to 
the car in the same way as the other tools, and is worked somewhat in the 
manner of a drag scraper or the dipper of a steam shovel. The dirt is 
scooped up and the car run out on the embankment, where it is dumped. 
The whole operation is handled by air, the derrick raising and lowering 
the scoop and tipping it to dump the load. With this tool, cuts can be 
excavated to any depth desired, from the ends of the ties out to a distance 
of 14 ft. The scraper and the scoop are attached by chains to a heavy steel 
beam, pivoted to the extension of the frame below the sills, and held in 
position by chains from the side and a rod from the end sill. The mold 
board is hauled directly by a chain attached to the end sill. 

It has been found most convenient to work an entire day on one side of 
the track. When not delayed too much by passing trains there is no trou- 
ble in ditching and dressing up the embankments on one side of the track 
for a distance of iy 2 to 2 miles per day, leaving a neat, well-drained and 
well-trimmed roadbed. The force required to operate the outfit consists of 
the conductor of the work train (who acts as the foreman of the work) , two 
brakemen, one man to handle the air, and two laborers to make and change 



DRAINAGE AND DITCHING. 317 

the various chain hitches. The entire cost of such labor is $18.30 per day. 
The locomotive propelling the machine moves at a rate of about four miles 
per hour, hence it is stated that the amount of work done in a day, at a 
total cost of about $30, would cost $500 to $1,000 if done by laborers. Be- 
sides this the embankment is left perfectly true to the standard section and 
in better shape than would be possible if the work was done by hand. 



CHAPTER 19.— TRACK WORK FOR MAINTENANCE. 

The maintenance work on track includes the various kinds and details 
of work required to keep the track in safe and proper condition for traffic. 
It varies, of course, with the climatic conditions, and also varies with the 
character of the track and the amount of traffic, being specially hard under 
conditions of a light track carrying a heavy traffic. If the road has been 
carefully located and built, with easy curves, well arranged grades, and a 
good track, then the maintenance-of-way department has an excellent 
chance to maintain a practically perfect track at small expense. If, on the 
other hand, the road has been laid out and built hurriedly and carelessly, 
with a main view to cheapness, and if it has narrow cuts and banks, 
curves used recklessly and badly put in, and long steep grades used unnec- 
essarily, then there will be trouble with the trains and continual trouble to 
keep the track in reasonably fair condition. Many railways now recognize 
the principles of economics, and are building, rebuilding and maintaining 
their lines accordingly. Eventually, all important lines will use rails of am- 
ple weight and strength for the traffic, will take means to prolong the life 
of ties, and so reduce the frequency of renewals, and will purchase material 
for merit rather than price. With such a system a great reduction may be 
expected in the labor and expense of maintenance. It is not sufficiently rec- 
ognized by executive officers that the increased cost of maintenance with 
old rails and ties, worn-out fastenings and poor ballast often exceeds the 
interest on the investment for new material. Heavier and stiffer rails, 
which distribute the weight of trains over a greater length of track and 
give but slight deflection, materially reduce the work of maintenance, as 
noted under "Rails" and "Track Inspection." The cost of the work varies 
from $600 to $1,000 per mile, as already explained in Chapter 16, and the 
following table shows the distribution of labor cost for maintenance work 
on the Delaware Division of the Erie Ry. in 1894: 

Per mile. Per c't. Per mile. Per c't. 

Surfacing $151.46 37.8 Helping other deparfm'ts $45.68 11.4 

Renewing ties 45.68 11.4 Construction & new work 4.81 1.2 

Qther track repairs 90.16 22.5 

Snow and ice 14.43 3.6 Total $400.70 100.0 

Wrecks, slides, etc 48.48 12.1 

Prom 60 to 75% of the damage and wear to track is caused by the engines 
or engine mileage, and the balance by the trains, with their far greater 
number of wheels. This is due to the greater wheel loads, the closer con- 
centration of these loads, and the destructive effects resulting from bad 
counterbalancing, slipping of driving wheels, use of sand, etc., to say noth- 



318 TRACK WORK. 

ing of the wear of frogs and switches by badly worn driving wheel tires. 
The car is merely a passive rolling weight, and while flat spots in car 
wheels or the general use of very heavy car loads may aggravate the de- 
structive effect of the wheels, it is not probable that the proportion of dam- 
age due to the train would approximate that due to the engine wheels. 
Freight trains are usually more severe upon the track than are passenger 
trains, as the engines of the former are more liable to be pulling hard, 
while the cars ride harder owing to the spring rigging being more rigid 
than on passenger cars. Day cars weigh about 26 to 40 tons (or 6,500 lbs. 
per wheel) ; sleeping cars, 45 to 55 tons (7,500 to 9,333 lbs. per wheel). These 
weights are distributed over a wheelbase of 40 to 65 ft. Freight cars have 
a wheelbase of 18 to 25 ft., and weigh from 12 to 20 tons empty or 30 to 75 
tons with full load. This gives wheel loads of 3,000 to 18,500 lbs. Freight 
locomotives have axle loads of 15 to 22 tons, and impose loads of 65 to 100 
tons on a driving wheelbase of 14 to 17 fit. The total load on the length of 
track covered by this wheelbase must be taken into consideration, as well 
as the concentrated load per axle or per wheel. 

The work should be done systematically, and not at scattered points 
along the sections. Standards should be adopted and followed as closely as 
practicable, The amount of time and labor which may properly be ex- 
pended on the appearance of the track depends largely upon the financial 
conditions. Hand dressed ballast, turfed slopes, etc., can only be ex- 
pected on comparatively wealthy roads, but neatness of work should be 
seen on every road, as neatness involves no expense, but is rather condu- 
cive to economy. Mere ornamental work, such as nicely dressed but poorly 
tamped ballast, is sufficient evidence that the man in charge of it is not fit 
for his position. The maintenance of way is an endless work, the basis of 
which is surfacing, and its monotony is varied occasionally by more or less 
extensive extra work in the way of relaying track, reballasting, or build- 
ing additional tracks. It may seem trite and unnecessary to remark upon 
the necessity of good work, but how often are seen (even on leading 
roads) rail joints with bolts missing, ties misplaced, old shims left in place, 
etc., and work done to look well. It is not always possible for the road- 
master or engineer to get what he considers to be the best materials, and he 
must then do the best with what he has. Thus many a man considers tie- 
plates to be more effective than rail braces in maintaining gage on curves, 
but if his road will not supply the plates he must use the braces to the best 
advantage. He may also have bad sags in the grade line, causing trouble 
with freight train couplers, but if he is unable to get the material necessary 
for filling in he must do his best to ease off his track at the ends of the sag 
to give a more even approach. In case of any important work being under- 
taken the traffic department should be notified. 

In the general work on the section, the roadbed slopes and ditches must 
be maintained according to the standard plans, and if the original con- 
struction does not conform to these standards, then all subsequent work 
should be done with a view to attaining them. In some cases the stand- 
ard dimensions (as for ditches, etc.,) may not be sufficient under local 
conditions, and in such cases they should be exceeded so as to give the 
required capacity. All material taken out in widening cuts or ditching 
should be hauled away and used for widening banks, being shoveled clear 



MAINTENANCE. 319 

of the ties and below the level of the bottom of the ballast so as not to in- 
terfere with the drainage. The ballast must be kept free from weeds and 
in proper slope, being promptly restored to shape when broken down by 
stock or trespassers. Center and grade stakes should be tested and reset 
every three or four years, and on sharp curves and transition curves the 
center stakes should be tested once a year. The track must be maintained 
in line, gage and surface, for any deficiency in one affects the others. Be- 
sides the maintenance in detail, the condition of the division as a whole 
must be seen to. The profile and alinement should occasionally be tested, 
especially where maximum grades limit the hauling capacity, as any in- 
crease in the grades or curves, or improper compensation of grade, may 
seriously affect the train service or the economy of operation. 

One of the greatest causes of bad track, hard riding track, and damage 
to rails, is the low rail joint. When a joint has once become low it rapidly 
gets worse unless promptly attended to. If the ballast under such a joint is 
dirty or bad it should be cleared away and good ballast put in and well 
tamped. In many cases rails are badly damaged and bent by hauling over 
them "dead" locomotives (not using steam) with the side rods taken off, the 
counterbalances then having a very destructive effect on the track. Rails, 
frogs and switches are also subject to injury from engines with badly 
worn tires. All such cases of damage should be promptly reported, and 
the transportation department should adopt strict rules as to the speed at 
which "dead" engines may be hauled. When a broken rail is found it 
should be at once spiked, and, if possible, a pair of splice bars placed at the 
break and bolted or spiked. Trains should be flagged until the broken rail 
has been securely spiked and spliced or a new rail put in. An investiga- 
tion should be made and a report prepared in each case of rail fracture. 
Switches should be frequently examined, to- see that the switch rails have 
the proper throw; the switch rods adjusted to give the proper position of, 
tbe rails, connecting pins in place and secured, and slide plates greased and 
free from dirt, stones or other obstructions. Spring-rail frogs must also be 
looked after and kept free from obstructions. Particular attention must 
be paid to the telegraph lines. If found broken or on the ground, crossed 
or obstructed, they must be at once repaired in a temporary manner and 
due notice given. Should repairs be impracticable, notice must be sent at 
once to the nearest telegraph office. Where a track circuit is used in con- 
nection with the block system, etc., care must be taken that the bond wires 
at joints are not cut or broken. If any are accidentally broken, they must 
be at once repaired by the foremen, and a man sent to look to the signals 
affected. 

In tunnels and on bridges the work of maintenance is of a somewhat 
special character. Refuges should always be provided at intervals in tun- 
nels and on long trestles. If there is heavy traffic through the tunnel, the 
maintenance work is specially difficult, and the men cannot work to advan- 
tage, as they have to be continually getting off the track and seeing that 
their bars, tools, etc., are clear of the rails. Foremen should be particularly 
careful in such cases, and should display "slow" signals if they are doing 
any heavy work. Portable electric lights, oil lamps or torches, or Wells 
lights may be used, the latter being of special advantage. The work of re- 
newing ties, rails, etc., under such conditions, is not only difficult and dan- 



320 TRACK WORK. 

gerous, but expensive, and it will be economy to make a somewhat large 
expenditure upon an exceptionally heavy and substantial track, so as to re- 
duce the maintenance work. When the track is found out of line or sur- 
face at bridges and trestles, the roadmaster should make an investigation 
and notify the officers of the bridge department. Temporary repairs should 
then be made, if necessary, and "slow" signals put up until the track has 
been inspected and rectified. 

Hand cars and unloaded push cars must be lifted from one track to the 
other at switches, the switches being thrown only for loaded push cars, 
and then by the foreman, who is responsible for closing them. Hand cars 
must be run with caution, and slowly in foggy weather and through towns 
or near grade crossings. They should not be used in foggy weather unless 
the place where the men are to work is more than a mile distant. They 
must not run within 20 minutes of the time of a regular train, nor in the 
wrong direction on double track. It is best to start directly after a train 
(care being exercised as to trains following closely), and on single-track 
to then run the car at full speed to such a point as a train in the opposite 
direction may be expected. If there are curves and cuts on the line, ob- 
structing the view of the track, a man may be sent ahead as far as he can 
see the car and also see further along the line. If he signals that there is 
no train approaching, the car can be run up to him at full speed, but if he 
signals that a train is approaching there is ample time to take the car care- 
fully off the track. If the car is left near a road crossing while the men 
are at work, the wheels should be locked, but it is best not to leave it in 
such a place. Rails should not be carried on the hand car except in cases 
of emergency. 

Before disturbing the track for rail renewals, etc., in such a way as to 
make it unsafe for traffic, the foreman must put out a flag and torpedo at a 
distance of 90 rails or 18 to 24 telegraph poles, these signals being put in 
both directions on single track. Some roads require the flags to be set at 
24 poles and the torpedoes at 32 poles distance. The Louisville & Nashville 
Ry. requires a red flag and torpedo at 18 poles (2,700 ft), and a green flag at 
24 poles (3,600 ft.), the man to work near the red flag. The green flag may 
be omitted for only temporary obstructions. If trains must stop, a red 
flag and one torpedo are placed; if they are only to slacken speed, a green 
flag and two torpedoes are used. A man should be put in charge of the 
"stop" signal, being provided with tools for doing track work in its vicinity, 
but sometimes this is only done when the flag cannot be seen from the place 
where the gang is working. The man should work at some little distance 
within the flag limit, so as to be ready to attract the attention of the engine- 
man if he should fail to observe the signal. The same signals are used in 
case of any obstruction on the track, lamps replacing the flags at night. 
When one gang of trackmen, bridge men, etc., passes another, the foreman 
of the passing gang must ascertain what signals the working gang has put 
out. Except in case of emergency, no repair gang must work between an- 
other gang and the latter's flags. If it is necessary for a section gang to 
work between an extra gang and the flag of the latter, a flag should be 
placed in the middle of the track, 100 ft. beyond the section gang (between 
it and the other gang) to warn enginemen that there is a second gang at 
work. No work that will obstruct the track or interfere with the passage 



MAINTENANCE. 321 

of trains must be undertaken in foggy weather, as in times of excep- 
tionally heavy traffic. The foreman must have his gang clear of the track, 
and the track in safe condition 10 minutes before the time at which a reg- 
ular train is due, except when the train is late and the permission is given 
by telegraph or written order. He must be ready for extra trains at any 
time, and must look out for signals carried. by the trains. The principal 
train signals are as follows: 

• 
Train Signals. 

Two green flags by day are markers to indicate the rear of the train, and 
if these are not shown the indication is that some of the cars have broken 
away or the train has parted. At night, the markers are two red tail 
lamps on the rear car (showing a green light at front and side and a red 
light at the back); also a red light on the rear platform of a passenger 
train and on the cupola of a freight train caboose. 

Two green flags by day (or lights by night) on the engine indicate that 
another section of the train is following on the same schedule time. The 
engine of the last section of any train carries no such markers. Two white 
flags by day (or lights by night) indicate an extra train. 

A white light on the platform of a passenger car, roof of freight car or 
rear of tender, indicates that the train or engine is backing, the engine 
then carrying a green flag or red tail light on the bumper beam. Two green 
lights are carried on the rear of a yard engine at night, except when it has 
a headlight at each end. 

Season's Work. 

General improvements, tile drainage, reballasting, etc., can best be car- 
ried on from late spring to late autumn, but all such work should be planned 
beforehand, so that the track-may not be disturbed for reballasting just af- 
ter the section gang has completed surfacing. Work trains and floating 
gangs for ditching, ballasting, widening cuts, etc., and special gangs on 
new interlocking plants, rearrangement of yards, repairing or building 
structures, etc., may be worked at any time from the end of one winter to 
the beginning of another. For the ordinary work on the sections no set 
rules or program of procedure can be formulated, as the requirements vary 
in different sections of the country. In general, however, the year may be 
divided into four seasons, and the work done during these seasons practi- 
cally as outlined below: 

Spring. — As soon as the winter is over, all likelihood of snow past, and 
the frost coming out of the ground, the work of reducing and removing the 
shims should be commenced. The frost will, of course, remain longer in 
the roadbed in cuts than on exposed banks. Low joints must be raised, 
spikes driven, bolts tightened, cattleguards and road crossings cleared and 
repaired, ditches cleaned, fences repaired, portable snow fences taken 
down and piled, rubbish and old material cleared from the right of way, 
and the necessary lining and surfacing done to put the track in good con- 
dition previous to the more extensive work later in the season. At the 
same time sign posts and telegraph poles are straightened, fences repaired, 
and sidetracks and yards overhauled. The gang (if not already increased) 
is then increased to its maximum number, and the work of renewing ties 



322 TRACK WORK. 

is commenced, the ties having previously been distributed on the section. 
About four days a week should be devoted to this, all ties being fully 
tamped as soon as they are in place. The other two days are spent on other 
necessary work. On some roads the tie renewals are done quickly at the 
beginning of the season, while on others this work is spread out through 
the season. The former is by far the better plan. The work of thorough 
lining and surfacing preparatory for the heavy summer traffic is then com- 
menced. The lining is done* first, on account of the bad line resulting from 
the tie renewals, but the surfacing should follow very closely. The gaging 
is done at the same time. Ballasting is done after the new ties have been 
put in. 

Summer. — Surfacing and rail renewals may be done at any convenient 
time between spring and winter. The new rails are sometimes laid before 
the ties are renewed, but it is better to put the ties in first and have them 
thoroughly tamped up, especially if there are many bad ties. A general in- 
spection of spikes, bolts, nuts and nutlocks is then to be made. All worn, 
bent, broken or improperly driven spikes are removed, the holes plugged, 
and new spikes are driven. Broken or loose bolts are replaced. Switches 
and switch connections, frogs, guard rails, etc., need to be carefully in- 
spected and repaired. As fast as the regular surfacing is completed, the 
ballast should be dressed to the standard cross-section, and the toe of the 
slope lined to a "grass line" about 5 ft. 6 ins. from the rail. Tile drainage, 
correction of signs, and general work not interfering with the track itself 
can best be done during the summer. Spare time can also be spent in trim- 
ming up yard tracks, and clearing yards and station grounds. 

Autumn. — Weeds should be cut at least once a year, and the best time 
for this is just before seeding. The grass on the right of way should be 
mowed, bushes cleared and trimmed, and in cases where fires cause trou- 
ble a fire guard may be formed by plowing a harrow strip about 50 ft. on 
each side from the track. Burnt or decayed trees likely to fall near the 
track should also be removed, and the dry brush, old ties, etc., may now be 
burned. Old material should also be cleared up. About a month before 
the commencement of the winter or rainy season, a general surfacing, lin- 
ing, gaging and dressing of the track should be done, starting at the farther 
end of of the section and working steadily to the other end. The track 
itself should be put in condition at the same time, and the spikes and joints 
seen to. When this is done, ditching must be undertaken, the ditches being 
cleaned out and improved where necessary to give the necessary width 
and grade. The more thoroughly this work is done the better will the 
track be during the winter. Trenches should also be cut under switch rods 
to prevent water or snow collecting around them and freezing. The cul- 
verts and waterways must then be cleared of brush and obstructions, 
and any signs of scour or undermining looked for, while streams should 
be examined aboye and below the culverts and any obstructions removed. 
After this there is plenty of work to be done in cutting and burning weeds, 
repairing fences, repairing and erecting snow fences and stacking addi- 
tional portable snow fences where they will be needed. Track signs and 
telegraph poles have to be inspected, and cattleguards and crossings 
cleaned up. Yards and sidetracks may profitably be cleaned, drained, lev- 
eled up and repaired before the snow falls. 



MAINTENANCE. 323 

Winter. — The winter work, with reduced track forces, is largely that of 
inspecting the track and making small repairs. Such work will occupy the 
time between snow storms or in fine weather. During snow storms, the 
switches, frogs and guard-rail flangeways must be kept clear, as also all 
signal and interlocking connections. Salt is used to melt the snow, but oil 
should afterwards be supplied to all moving parts, such as slide plates, bell- 
crank levers, etc., as the salt water has a tendency to rust the iron, making 
the parts move hard. In heavy snow storms, the section men must work in 
clearing the track and help the snow gang or shovelers. During fine weather, 
rails, ties, lumber, fence material, etc., may be distributed, ready for spring 
work. Heaving of the track by frost has now to be expected, and proper 
precautions must be taken to keep the track in surface by shimming. The 
ditches should be examined as soon as any thaw sets in, and kept clear of 
ice or packed snow, so as to allow free passage for the water. 

Lining. 

The true alinement of track is essential for economy of maintenance 
and for the easy and safe running of trains. Even slight kinks in tangents 
or irregularities on curves cause an unpleasant side surging motion of the 
cars, which in aggravated cases may even lead to a derailment. All kinks 
of rails should be taken out with the rail-bending machine, and all rails for 
curves over 2° or 3° should be bent in this machine, care being taken to 
have the ends bent uniformly with the body of the rail, which is not always 
done. ' 

The foreman sets his gage on the track at each center stake, and the 
men throw the track by means of bars until the center mark on the gage 
is over the center tack in the stake. In lining track after surfacing, the 
lining bars must not be stuck in the ground at too great an angle, or they 
will raise the track in moving it, and so spoil the surface. 12 the track is 
hard to move, all the bars should be stuck firmly in the ground, so that 
none of them will slip, and then all the men should pull steadily, together 
as the foreman gives the word. "When this has been done at four or five 
stakes, the men go back and throw in the intermediate points, the foreman 
lining them in by his eye. When the road is in operation, the track cen- 
ters soon become destroyed or displaced, and the effect of the traffic is to 
cause the track to shift more or less both on tangents and curves, and 
especially at the ends of curves if transition curves are not used. If the 
foreman's eye alone is then depended upon for lining, there will gradually 
develop considerable changes from the original alinement, including modi- 
fications of curves and swings on long tangents, since no trackman's eye 
is sufficiently good to run in curves or long tangents unassisted by an in- 
strument. The varying ideas and ability of individual men will thus result 
in giving a line which is not satisfactorily true. 

In any thorough realinement of a piece of track, the transit should be 
used, and the track centers marked by tacks in stakes, as in new work, 
For double track, the foreman may have a special gage for lining the in- 
side rail of the second track from the track already lined, all measure- 
ments being made from the gage side of rail heads. Center stakes should 
be set every three or four years, and those on sharp curves tested once a 
year. Iron plugs, 24 ins. long, may be used for curve centers, while in 



324 



TRACK WORK. 



some cases permanent monuments, consisting of granite blocks or posts, 
are set at the P. C. and P. T., or around the curve, from which remeas- 
urements can be taken to check the alinment. 

For the ordinary lining work on the section, the foreman's eye is mainly 
relied on, but a careful man will assist his sight by means of a sighting 
rod or target. For short sights, as in bent rails, he should bring his eye 
close to the rail, but for longer sights he should stand up at some distance 
from the work, so as to avoid putting a swing in the track. He may sight 
by means of a rod or target fitted to a track level or gage, a graduated arc 
on the gage giving the vertical setting of the rod. The target is screwed 
into the top of the gage, with its center line directly over the gage side of 
the rail. In all work of this kind, one line of rail is taken as the "line rail," 
and all lining is done on it, the other rail being conformed to the line thus 
given in the subsequent operation of gaging. After proceeding ahead for 
some distance the foreman should turn and sight back as a check upon the 
accuracy of his work. 

Bad "swings," should be lined in by a transit.* With sights of 1 to 5 miles, 
as on long tangents, the center line may be sighted from the transit upon 




y* 



I 



Fig. 205.— Track Target for Lining Curves. 



a foresight target 36 x 18 ins., painted red and white, and placed over the 
track at a water tank, etc., at a sufficient height to clear trains. Center 
stakes and tacks may then be put at intervals of about 750 ft. (or opposite 
every fifth telegraph pole). The transit is then placed over the gage side 
of the line rail at the starting point, and a foresight taken on a rod set at 
the gage side of the rail and attached to a track gage, whose center line is 
over the center tack of one of the stakes. Intermediate sighting is then 
done on a small target on a second track gage, which is moved along about 
50 ft. at a time. A lining gang for this work would consist of about three 
men ahead of and five behind the moving target. A useful backsight tar- 
get to expedite transit work in lining curves, etc., in maintenance-of-way, 
is shown in Fig. 205. It is driven into the stake or tie just back of the 
tack marking a point, and its use saves the time otherwise lost by the 



MAINTENANCE. 325 

whole party, when a man is sent back with rod or pencil to give a back 
sight. Three men with a few of these targets can work as fast in rerun- 
ning curves and tangents, as four men without them. They give a well- 
defined sight, even at long distances, and stand so low that passing trains 
do not knock them out. A smaller and cheaper target is of %-in. iron, of 
triangular form, 2% ins. wide on top, and 4y 2 ins. high (including a %-in. 
point which is driven into the tie. 

A curve should be maintained uniformly at its proper degree from end 
to end. Continual lining and work, or neglect, very often results in sharp- 
ening a curve at various points, so that a nominal 10° curve may vary from 
5° to 15° and will consequently ride very badly. The curves should be 
tested periodically with the transit, and the foreman should also check 
them. To do this a cord is stretched tight with the ends touching the gage 
side of the head of the outer rail, and the distance from the middle of the 
cord to the rail head is carefully measured. This distance in inches divi- 
ded by the middle ordinate for a given length of chord of a 1° curve gives 
the degree of the curve tested. The middle ordinate for different chords 
(or measured strings) for a 1° curve are given in Table No. 22. With a 
62-ft. chord, each inch of middle ordinate represents 1° of curve. 

TABLE NO. 22.— MIDDLE ORDIXATES FOR CHORDS OF VARIOUS LENGTHS. 

Length of Middle ordinate Length of Middle ordinate 

chord. , for 1° , chord. , for 1° x 

30 ft %-in. 0.25 62 ft 1 in. 1.00 

44" %-in. .50 100" 2% ins. 2.625 

50 " %-in. .625 

This table also gives the necessary ordinate for bending rails to a curve 
of given degree, as described under "Bending Rails." In lining curves in 
regular section work, the foreman takes a cord 62 ft. or 100 ft. long, and 
at a part of the curve which seems to be true he measures chords along the 
gage side of the outside rail (or outside of inner rail if the rails are worn), 
and measures the middle ordinate. Having thus ascertained the middle or- 
dinate, or having obtained it from such a table as Table No. 21 or 24, if he 
knows the degree of curve, he commences at the point of curve (or point of 
circular curve if there is a transition curve) and measures chord lines from 
each middle ordinate, thus getting ordinates at intervals of 31 or 50 ft. 
These should be recorded on a slip of paper or on the rails, and when the 
entire curve has thus been checked it may be lined to give the proper uni- 
form ordinate all around. The outside rail should be taken as the line rail, 
beginning some distance back, on the tangent, if this is not the line rail on 
the adjacent tangent. This rail should be thoroughly spiked, so that it will 
remain in position for lining the gage rail. When the curve has been 
checked, the ballast should be cleared away from the ends of the ties on the 
side to which the track must be thrown in correcting the line. The lining 
should be done before the surfacing. (See also Chapter 20.) 

Gaging. 

This is done immediately after the lining, and consists practically of lin- 
ing the "gage" rail by measurements from the "line" rail by means of a 
track gage and level. The lugs or stops at one end of this gage are brought 
tightly against the latter rail, the gage rail being then moved to bear 



326 TRACK WORK. 

against the lugs at the other end. The gage rail is firmly spiked as fast as 
it is set in position, and as the line rail has already been securely spiked 
both rails are held firmly to the ties in readiness for the work of surfacing 
or raising track, which is the next operation. 

Surfacing. 

This work is almost continually required for track maintenance. A 
common and troublesome cause of bad riding track is an irregular sur- 
face, with sags, low joints, bent rails, and short depressions and humps 
in the roadbed. These defects are due to heavy loads and traffic, light rails, 
weak fastenings, poor ballast, insufficient tamping, rails out of level trans- 
versely on tangents, and generally faulty or insufficient work of mainten- 
ance. The remedy for this is surfacing, or putting the rails and track in a 
uniform plane. In the general surfacing done each year, the track should 
be raised only just enough for proper tamping, to bring up the low parts to 
a uniform surface, the track being raised out of a face only every four or 
five years. Great care is required to prevent the sectionmen from raising 
it too much. No raise must be made in tunnels or under structures with 
a headway of less than 22 ft. In stone, slag or coarse gravel, a thorough 
tamping can rarely be done without raising the track about 1 in. In sand, 
earth, cinders or poor gravel, a raise of y 2 to 1 in. may be made by tamping 
without disturbing the bed of the tie. This work should be done imme- 
diately after tie renewals in the spring, and attended to again before the 
winter. It should also be looked to immediately after the laying' of new 
rails, so as to prevent the rails from being surface bent by trains run- 
ning over them when they are not uniformly supported, as it is almost im- 
possible to take out such vertical kinks. When new rails are laid, the 
track should be raised enough to allow all ties to be tamped to give an 
even bearing. The freezing of water in the ballast or roadbed in winter 
causes "heaving," the effect of which is to raise the track irregularly. As 
the frozen ballast cannot be tamped, shimming or blocking has then to 
be resorted to in order to bring the track to surface. 

The track level and gage should be frequently used in surfacing, and no 
foreman should be allowed to work under the idea that his eye is superior 
to an instrument. The track level, however, merely indicates local de- 
fects in surface, and there is, unfortunately, no instrument in general 
use which will show the general condition of the plane of the surface. 
Certainly no eye can detect a general irregularity in this plane, in the 
same way that it can detect a general irregularity of line in the shape of 
swings, etc. The only way is to sight one rail into a uniform plane, and 
then to bring the opposite rail up to the same plane by means of the track 
level. As proper surfacing and superelevation can only be given with a 
correct spirit level, this tool should be reversed occasionally on a level 
piece of track to see that the bubble is always in the center. If not, the 
level should be sent to the shop for repairs. The best way to put track 
up to surface is to use a sighting board and blocks. The board is about 
10 or 12 ins. wide, long enough to rest across the rails; and it is painted 
black, with a white line, say 4 ins. from the bottom. This is placed on 
the rails at a point beyond the part to be raised, where the track is already 
in proper surface. The foreman has a wooden block, 4 ins. high, which he 



MAINTENANCE. 327 

places on one rail at a point three or four rail lengths on the other side of 
the part to be raised. A similar block is placed on the rail between the 
board and the first block, this second block being moved from point to 
point and the track raised at each point until the top of the block is sighted 
by the foreman in line with the first block and the stripe on the board. 
This fixes the surface of only one rail, and the other side of the track must 
then be brought up to the extent shown by the track level. The usefulness 
of this method of sighting, may, however, be extended by having the two 
blocks (or targets) each mounted on the middle of a track level, the sight- 
ing showing the longitudinal surface, and the level bubble showing the 
transverse surface. The raising is done by bars or jacks, the latter being 
preferable if the raise is sufficient to allow of their use. 

In surfacing or raising, the track should never be brought up above the 
level of grade stakes or of bridges in the expectation that the traffic will 
settle it down to the exact grades. If the raise is at all heavy, the joints 
are raised first, then the centers, and then the quarters; but if it is light, 
the joints are raised first, and then the thirds or "long quarters," which 
will bring the centers up properly. The track level is then used at all 
joints and centers, and the opposite rail brought up as required. The 
raise should extend only over such a length of track as can be tamped 
between trains, and neither side should be fully tamped until both sides 
have been brought to surface. In surfacing on curves, the inner or lower 
rail is taken as the sighting rail. The work of lowering humps or high 
places to surface is more troublesome, and it may be necessary to shift the 
ties. In this case the ballast is shoveled out between ties 1 and 2, 3 and 4, 
5 and 6, etc., and ties 1, 3, 5, etc., are shifted into the spaces thus formed. 
The beds of these ties are then leveled off as required, and the ties shifted 
back into position; ties 2, 4, 6, etc., are then knocked into the space dug 
out, and have their beds leveled off in the same way, being then put back 
into position. The ties should be well tamped, and the lowered piece of 
track tested for surface after some trains have passed over it. 

With earth or mud ballast, the section gang has to be continually at work 
surfacing, as the material will not give a uniform support under traffic, but 
some parts will go down while others remain firm. If the force is sufficient 
the track should be surfaced and tamped in the usual way; but if the sec- 
tion is long and the number of men allowed is small (which is frequently 
the case on such roads), then there is not time enough to fully tamp all 
low ties and low spots to proper surface. In such cases the tamping must be 
done partly from above by the trains, instead of merely from below by the 
tamping bar. The jacks or raising bars are put under the part to be raised, 
as far from the finished part of track as is possible without causing the rail 
to sag between the jack and the finished track. The. low track is then 
raised above the finished or desired surface by an amount varying from 
»i-in. for small lifts to iy 2 or 2 ins. for lifts of 4 to 5 ins. Earth is then 
shoveled under the ties and packed by the shovel blades, and by bars or 
shovel handles at the joints. The jacks are then removed, the track 
sighted for surface, and rectified if necessary. The track should be lined 
up before the first train passes. The train will drive the ties down to sur- 
face, and after it has passed the surface should be finally sighted, and the 
ballast then well shoveled under the ends of the ties tamped and dressed to 



328 TRACK WORK. 

shape for proper drainage. The best surface will be obtained if one man 
does all the filling, as no two men will fill in alike. The foreman is the best 
man to do the filling, as he should observe what parts of the rail require 
the most raising. In work under such circumstances it is simply a question 
of how to keep the track in reasonably good running condition, without 
regard to appearances. In all such cases, however, good men who are 
familiar with the work will devise many useful little plans for themselves, 
while new men, accustomed, perhaps, to good ballast and large gangs, will 
find it difficult to get satisfactory results under the new conditions. 

Mention may be made of the Patterson surfacing machine, which has 
been tried experimentally and is intended to do away with tamping, as this 
necessarily disturbs the old bed of the tie to some extent. A blower driven 
by hand is mounted on a frame which runs on one rail and is clamped to 
it when at work,. The machine consists of two vertical pipes, one connected 
with the blower by a hose, and the other having a hopper on the top for the 
ballast. The pipes unite in a shoe at the bottom, and to this is fitted a thin 
flat horizontal nozzle with variable width of opening. The material used 
is screened stone or gravel not exceeding %-in. in size. The ballast is 
cleared away from the ends of the ties and the track raised to surface by 
bars or jacks. The nozzle is then inserted under the end of a tie and the 
blower put in operation, driving the fine material into all the cavities and 
packing it solid. This method can be used for a raise of M-in. to ly 2 ins. In 
a test on the New York, New Haven & Hartford Ry., a gang working in the 
usual way surfaced 5 ft. per man per hour, while with the machine the aver- 
age was 8 ft. In one year, the stretch surfaced by hand required 36 hours 
labor for maintenance, while that surfaced by machine required only 2 
hours. 

Renewing Ties. 

The new ties are usually distributed by work trains at convenient times 
during the winter, so that all may be on the ground soon after the frost 
is thoroughly out of the roadbed. The distribution is done under instruc- 
tions from the roadmaster or foreman as to the places for unloading and 
the number unloaded at each place. For small lots or during a dull season, 
the ties may be distributed from local freight trains. In some cases the 
ties are not distributed along the section from the cars, but are unloaded 
in lots at certain points and thence distributed by push cars. The old ties 
to be renewed should have been previously marked conspicuously by the 
roadmaster, and only ties so marked must be removed. The work should 
be done before or immediately after new rails are laid, so as to give a good 
substantial bearing to the rails, all new ties being thoroughly tamped. Old 
joint ties may be left under new rails if they are sound and of suitable 
size, but all old ties left in the track should have open spike holes plugged. 
The work should be commenced as soon as possible after the frost has left 
the ground, as the ballast is then loose, while the men can work to better 
advantage than in the summer. Then by the time the heavy summer traffic 
begins, the new ties will have become well settled, and the track will 
have a substantial bearing, and will require but little maintenance. If 
the ties are put in late, and the season is wet, they do not get properly 
tamped, so that they may have to be shimmed in the winter; the renewal of 



MAINTENANCE. 329 

shims and fixing up of the roadbed in the spring then delays the new 
work of tie renewals. When the work is once commenced it should be 
pushed steadily along and completed as soon as possible, for continual re- 
newals of a few ties at a time all through the season prevent the track 
from being well settled and consolidated. This continual disturbance re- 
sults in an increase in maintenance expenses and train expenses. 

Gravel ballast is cut away from the ends of the ties and loosened along 
their sides. The spikes are then drawn, and the rails raised by jacks just 
enough to allow of the old tie being knocked out and a new one slipped in 
on the same bed. The ballast should not be dug out under the tie, unless 
^he new tie is of greater thickness (which it should not be), as the less the 
tie beds are disturbed the better for the maintenance of the track surface. 
This general rule may, however, be modified where only one or two ties are 
to be renewed in a rail length, but in this case a loosening of the side of 
the tie bed will usually enable the old tie to be taken out and the new one 
put in without much disturbance of the bed, and without the disturbance of 
the adjacent track which is incidental to raising by jacks. With stone, 
slag, or coarse gravel ballast, which is liable to fall onto the tie bed when 
the tie is removed, it is necessary to dig out the ballast at one side of the 
tie, and to knock the tie sideways into this trench. Some foremen prefer 
this plan with earth or common gravel, but the amount of digging required 
is liable to disturb and loosen the ballast. This plan may, however, be em- 
ployed when two adjacent ties have to be renewed. If the ties are not 
uniform, the larger ones should be selected for the joints and for curves; 
and the wider end should be placed under the outer rail on curves. The 
ties should be properly spaced, placed square across the track (or radially 
on curves), and their ends should be lined at one side of the track. It is 
rarely economical to turn old ties, except where tie-plates are to be applied, 
and then it is probably better to turn the ties than to adze out new seats on 
the old worn faces. 

If the traffic is heavy, each tie should be tamped and have the outside 
spikes driven at once. Otherwise, a number of ties may be renewed in 
succession; one man going ahead to cut the earth or gravel from the ends 
of the ties, two men pulling spikes, and two men raising the track with 
jacks. If only one jack is to be had, the rail first raised should be blocked 
up, and the jack then put under the other rail. When 20 or 30 ties have 
been thus put in, three men are sent back to do the spiking, one holding up 
the ties with a bar and two driving the spikes. The new ties should be 
tamped each day as put in, the tamping being done thoroughly with a bar 
or pick. The ballast is then filled in between the ties and dressed to proper 
shape. If the new ties are shovel-tamped, or only partially tamped with 
bars, and then left to be finished a few days later, the old ties will be dis- 
turbed, and a soft spot probably caused, especially if rain falls before the 
tamping is done. No train should be allowed to pass over untamped track, 
the foreman taking it for granted that it is safe. 

At the end of each week the ties removed should be properly piled on the 
right of way, at a convenient distance from the track if they are to be 
loaded on cars, or midway between the track and the fence if they are to 
be burned. They should not be left in the ditches or scattered about the 
right of way. Ties may be burned in small piles of 5 to 10, or in large 



330 TRACK WORK. 

piles of 50, but the former is usually the better and safer plan. The piles 
should not be near the track, as the intense heat is injurious to the paint 
and varnish of cars. Large piles should be burned in damp weather to 
reduce the danger from fire, and in all cases the burning piles should be 
watched to prevent fire from spreading to fences, fields, etc. The cost of 
renewing ties in New England is estimated at 17 to 21 cts. per tie in gravel, 
and 30 to 35 cts. in stone ballast. This includes all work from the time the 
new tie is delivered on the section until the old one is piled ready for re- 
moval or burning. The cost of piling the old ties is 1 to 2 cts. per tie. 

Adzing and Spotting Ties. 

When ties have been badly cut by the rails, the rail seat must be cut level 
with an adze, in order to form a proper bearing for the old or new rails, or 
for tie-plates. The trackmen have usually to rely upon their eyes in getting 
a level and even seat, and while practical men are very expert, yet as the 
ties are more or less covered with dirt and sand, and the men are hurried, 
the work is very often imperfectly done. If the foreman should take time 
enough to ensure the worK being well done, he is liable to be censured for 
getting so small amount of track laid. Mr. G. M. Brown, when Chief En- 
gineer of the Pere Marquette Ry., invented a machine for grooving the ties 
to the required depth, the grooves forming a gage or guide to the men in 
adzing the ties. A frame projecting in front of a flat car and supported an 
axle with 20-in. wheels, has a shaft on which are four sets of saws cutting 
four grooves about 2% ins. wide. The depth of cut can be regulated by a 
screw. The shaft is driven by an engine on the car, and the frame is raised 
by a derrick on a car in front in order to allow the saws to clear the rails at 
turnouts, etc. 

Setting Tie-Plates. 

Tie-plate gages have been described in Chapter 13 (Track Tools). In pre- 
paring to lay tie-plates on the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg Ry., many 
spikes are withdrawn, and as much adzing is done as possible before the 
rails are moved. When the traffic permits, the rest of the spikes are with- 
drawn, the rails are thrown out, spike holes plugged, and seats adzed and 
leveled. The men work in gangs of three, one to set the gage and place 
the lie-plate in position, the other two having wooden mauls weighing 16 or 
18 lbs., with ordinary spike maul handles about 36 to 38 ins. long, to drive 
the plate down so that its flanges or claws will have a firm hold in the 
wood. When a sufficient number of plates have been thus set, one of the 
gangs can be sent back to throw in the rails and spike them, the spike 
holes in the plates giving the proper gage. A lighter maul may be used, 
if its face is large enough to cover the tie-plate, but some men prefer an 
even heavier maul. If the plates have longitudinal flanges, the first blow 
at least should be struck from a position at right angles to the flanges. 

Considerable economy in track work may be ensured by placing the 
plates on new ties for renewals before the ties are put in the track. This 
can be done by the section men in bad weather or during the winter. In 
using the tool, Fig. 179, for this purpose, the adjustable head (C) is clamped 
in such a position on the bar that tie-plates of the size to be used will be 
in position for the proper gage of track when they are set with their ends 



MAINTENANCE. 331 

butting against the faces (F) and (G). When set in this way the flat blades 
of the two heads will fit on the seats for the tie-plates. The tool is then 
set on the tie to test the surface of the seats, and these are then adzed 
or dressed as required to give an even and level bearing. The tool 
is then turned over and set with the faces (F) and (G) resting on the tie, 
and one plate is put in position, being gaged and squared by fitting against 
the face (F) and the blade (B). This plate is then set by means of the 
wooden mauls, when the tool is put back in the same' position, fitting 
against the plate, and the second tie-plate is then placed and set in the 
same way. The tool is frequently used for testing the level and surface 
of the rail seats of the ties when tie-plates are not to be used. The several 
operations are effected easily and rapidly. 

Tamping. 
The only way to maintain track in good surface is to have the ties well 
and thoroughly tamped. Tamping picks are used for stone, slag, or coarse 
clean gravel; tamping bars are used for earth, cinders and ordinary gravel. 
In tamping with bars there should be an equal number of men on each 
side of the tie, standing opposite one another and striking in unison, so 
as to pack the material fairly and not drive it out at the opposite side of 
the tie. Shovel handles make fairly good substitutes for bars in light 
work, or where the extent of the work and the smallness of the gang pre- 
vent thorough hard tamping. Shovel blades, however, should never be 
used for tamping, except at the middle of the tie in loose ballast, as the 
shovel has not the force or weight necessary to pack and consolidate the 
material sufficiently for good substantial work. This may be stated very 
emphatically, though many trackmen working in gravel or earth ballast 
believe otherwise. The joint ties should be tamped first, and then the shoul- 
der ties, both somewhat harder than the others, but never tamped higher, 
as that will cause the traffic to crack the splice bars. The object of tamp- 
ing the. ties next to the joint ties with extra care is to prevent the upward 
•deflection of the joint when a wheel is over the second tie, which deflection 
often causes the splice bars to crack downwards from the top. The most 
thorough tamping should be directly under and for about 12 or 18 ins. on 
each side of the rail, and tamping from the ends will assist in getting a good 
firm bearing under the rail. Each tie should be fully and properly tamped 
oefore. the men leave it. On old track, the middle of the tie should not be 
tamped too hard, or the track will have a tendency to rock laterally, and 
the ties may be broken. When the track has once become center-bound in 
this way it is difficult to effect a remedy without disturbing the entire 
track, involving considerable work and expense. On new track, the tie 
can be tamped for its entire length. The ties at frogs, switches, crossings, 
etc., should be specially well tamped. Tamping machines have been tried. 

Raising Track. 
About once in three to five years the entire track will be required to 
De raised out of face or brought up to a new surface. At such a time (as 
well as in raising out of sags of any considerable depth) grade stakes 
should be set to give the elevation of the top of the rail. (Chapter 17). 
Ballast should then be distributed for raising the track. When in raising 

12 



332 TRACK WORK. 

track (or changing grades), where good expensive ballast is used, there- 
would be 6 ins. greater or less depth of ballast under the ties than the 
standard depth, then the roadbed should first be raised by filling (or cut 
down), so as to retain a practically uniform depth of ballast and so prevent 
the waste of ballast as filling. 

In raising, jacks should be used under each rail, and both sides of the 
track brought up and tamped simultaneously; it is bad practice to raise 
and tamp one side first, and then bring up the other side by the track 
level. The raise should not exceed 6 ins. at any one lift, the 6 ins. of bal- 
last being well tamped, and then another raise made. The jacks should 
be set about 2 ft. from the joints, so as to bring them up level and avoid 
bending the splice bars. They should never be set on the inside of the 
rails (see "Tools"). The track may be raised about %-in. or %-in. above 
grade (according to the quality of the ballast) and well tamped, on account , 
of the tendency of new track to settle. Every foreman has his own ideas 
as to the proper course to pursue in tamping a raise, but a good plan is to 
first tamp the joint and shoulder ties, then the center tie, the two quar- 
ters, and the intermediates; finishing off again at the joints. 'An incline 
or "run-off" should be made, connecting the old with the new level, this 
being long enough to allow trains to ride easily over it, and to prevent the 
bending of the rails. If the work is extensive and the section gang is as- 
sisted by a floating or work train gang, a part of the regular gang should 
follow behind the raising gang, to finish the tamping, surfacing and dress- 
ing. 

Moving Track. 

In building additional tracks or improving alinement, it may be desir- 
able or necessary to shift the existing track to another part of the road- 
bed. This may be done, in either of three ways: (1) Tearing up the track 
and relaying it on the new location; (2) Sliding the track bodily in sec- 
tions; and (3) Throwing the track with bars or by machine. Considerable 
work of this kind has been done in the four* tracking of th'e New York, New 
Haven & Hartford Ry. In one place, where the new roadbed was 6 to 9 ft. 
above the old one, the two old tracks were shifted bodily 20 or 30 ft. on 
skids to the new roadbed, the old bed being then raised by filling to cor- 
respond with the new grade. The length of this stretch of track was 8,930- 
ft, including two bridges, at which the track had to be cut. On the open 
line, the track was cut at lengths of five rails by unbolting the splices; 
planks were then spiked to the ties to keep them properly spaced, and 
each length of track was then slid laterally on six skids made of rails 
spiked to spruce stringers, 6x8 ins. The force aggregated 260 men dis- 
tributed as follows: 1 foreman and 35 men first raised the tracks ready for 
skids (using six jacks to a five-rail length), and drew all spikes from worth- 
less ties, so as to leave them behind and avoid handling useless material; 1 
foreman and 150 men then moved the lengths of track by block and tackle 
to the top of the new bank, unloaded ballast and roughly surfaced the 
track; 1 foreman and 75 men then made the connections between the 
lengths and lined and surfaced the track. A work train ran back and forth 
distributing material. The skidding and lifting by the second gang aver- 
aged about three minutes per length of track. Work was commenced at 



MAINTENANCE. 333 

7 a. m., and the track was turned over to the operating department by 5 
p. m. The second track was afterwards moved in the same way. The 
initial cuts were made where the new bank was only 2 ft. above the old 
bank, and the end pieces of track between the undisturbed track and the 
first lengths to be moved were thrown to the new alinement by lining bars. 
In some cases, owing to the curves and bridges, some of the five-rail lengths 
had to be moved longitudinally, even as much as 3 ft. For this purpose 
the skidding gang of 150 men had 75 bars; these were placed horizontally 
under the rails and held by a man at each end of each bar. The section 
of track was thus readily raised and moved forward or backward by easy 
movements. The lengths on the bridges were left until the last, the spikes 
being then drawn and the rails carried over and spiked to the floors of the 
new structures. 

Under ordinary methods, the spikes would have been drawn, rail joints 
disconnected, and ties and rails carried about 25 ft. and relaid in the new 
position, as in new tracklaying. This would involve much more delay, and 
some considerable loss and breakage of bolts and spikes, though this might 
of course be reduced by carefully planning and laying out the work, in the 
same way as was done for the "skidding" method. On the other hand, the 
skidding is likely to result in surface or line kinks in the rails, bent splices, 
and displaced spikes, making it difficult to put the track in proper condition 
for service in its new location. If the track is for only temporary use, or 
for work trains, as on parts of the work above described, the skidding 
method may be adopted to advantage. For permanent work it would be 
better in the end to build the new tracks complete in the usual way, then 
make connections with the old tracks at the ends, and abandon the old 
tracks, which can then be removed and the roadbed improved or rectified 
as required. 

It is sometimes considered that for a short move it is most economical 
to throw the track by means of lining bars. Stakes should be set for the 
new alinement, and driven so as to be below the base of rails. The length 
of rails on the new and old alinement should then be carefully measured 
with a steel tape, so that rails may be cut to fit if there is any difference. 
The new grade should be leveled and ballasted, the ballast being given 
an incline on curves, so that when the track is thrown it may be at once 
ready for traffic. If the track is to be thrown for a distance less than the 
length of a tie, then the part of the old roadbed which will be included in 
the new bed should be dug out below the ties. If the distance is greater, 
this need not be done, but the ballast should be loosened between the ties, 
where the rails are cut, there should be six men (three cutting and three 
drilling). Having first disconnected the rails and moved the spikes on the 
side opposite to that towards which the track is to be thrown, two or three 
gangs working one behind the other, should throw the track, not moving it 
more than 12 ins. at each throw, so as to avoid bending rails and splice 
bars or twisting the ties. Other gangs should follow with the lining and 
surfacing as soon as the first part of the track is in its new position, but 
before the tamping is done, two or four men with sledges should tap the 
ties to proper spacing and square with the rails. Trains should be flagged 
to pass slowly over the new track until it is thoroughly finished and in 
substantial condition. The work may be done at once, in a time of light 



334 TRACK WORK. 

traffic, or gradually (between trains) during the week; proper curve con- 
nections being maintained at each end and all trains being nagged. The 
Creese track throwing car is a heavy flat car with a stout 30-ft. pole pro- 
jecting from one corner and carrying a wheel which runs against the web 
of the opposite rail. The pole is adjusted to position by a hoisting cable 
and turnbuckles and stiffened by braces against the car. It can throw 01 
shift the track 6 to 36 ins. It has been used on the Pennsylvania Lines 
and the Baltimore & Ohio Southwestern Ry. 

Handling Rails. 

There is probably no one thing about which the average track fore- 
man complains more bitterly, or which is more often offered as an excuse 
for rough-riding track, than kinked and surface-bent rails. One of the 
causes of these defects is the way in which the rails are unloaded. Rails 
should not be dropped or thrown from the side of the car upon the road- 
bed; and if they are necessarily thus dropped, care should be taken that 
they are dropped on soft, level places, and so that they do not strike ties, 
boulders or other rails. If unloaded from the end of a car, the rail should 
not be allowed to slide off and drop upon ties. Neither should they be un- 
loaded from a moving train, except in cases Where the train moves ahead 
a rail length at a time and its motion is used to pull off the rails. 

In unloading from the side of a car, the rails may be unloaded at one 
place in a pile, by means of skids, and then distributed to the required 
points on push cars. The skids may be two rails or two oak sticks, about 
3x4 ins., 6 to 10 ft. long, faced with iron and having each a clamp at the 
upper end to fit on the side of the car. The skid may have a small pulley 
set below the face at the upper end, a rope passing around this and hav- 
ing a hook at one end to sustain a rail. Two men on the ground lower the 
rails by these ropes and also shift the skids as the train moves ahead. The 
rails may also be lowered at the side of the car by means of three brackets 
or straps hooked onto the side of the car, each bracket carrying a hori- 
zontal roller at its lower end. The length of the brackets is from 5 to 
18 ins., the shortest being at about the middle of the car and the longest 
near one end, so that the three together form an inclined roller-way along 
the side of the car. Men on the roadbed receive the end of the rail and 
lower it, not allowing the rail to drop. 

In unloading from the end of a car, the rails may be simply pushed off 
the car, or hauled off by a rope. The rope (or chain) should be 15 ft. long, 
having an L hook at one end and a claw hook at the other; the L hook is 
put through the bolt hole of a rail on the car, and the claw hook placed 
over the edge of a tie. The train then moves ahead and the rail is thus 
hauled off. Two men attend to the ropes, and there should be men to lower 
the free end of the rail. Sometimes 6 men (or 8 for long rails) are on the 
car, and with tongs slide the rail off, while 8 men on the track haul the 
projecting end outside the track until it rests on the ground, when they 
move up to the car and take hold of the other end, which they carry out 
in the same way, laying the rails either upon the ground or upon the ends 
of the ties. The men should not be permitted to drop the end of the rail, 
but there is some liability of injury to the men, owing to carelessness or 
accidental slipping causing them to- drop a rail. To prevent improper 



MAINTENANCE. 335 

handling of the rails it is a good plan to have a tail gate attached to the 
end sills, forming an inclined plane, the lower end of the gate resting upon 
the rails. With gondola cars a second shorter gate may be attached to the 
top of the end of the car, having its lower end resting upon the longer gate. 
The rails may be pushed off by forks or hauled off by ropes as the train 
moves ahead, the end of the rail having a continual bearing on the gate 
until it reaches the ties. In this way the work can proceed quickly, with- 
out danger to the men. 

In unloading by hand, with a train of 12 to 14 cars, two unloading gangs 
of S men each may be employed. At the first stop, the gangs work from 
the ends of the train, throwing two rails off each car, until they meet at 
the middle car. The train then moves ahead one train length, and the 
two gangs work from each other to the end cars. In unloading rails of 
greater length than 30 ft. a larger number of men must be employed, but 
not a greater number per ton, and no more than is generally available. 
The Norfolk & Western Ry. finds no difficulty in handling its 85-lb. rails, 
60 ft. long, only a few more men being required. Ordinary gondola or flat 
cars will usually suffice for carrying rails 30 ft. long, but flat cars should 
have 3-in. end planks to prevent the load from shifting. The Lehigh Valley 
Ry. loads its 45-ft. rails on two 30-ft. cars. The Norfolk & Western Ry. 
loads its 60-ft. rails on alternate flat cars, the ends projecting over the other 
cars, requiring 7 cars (35 ft. c. to c. of couplers) for three loads of 34 rail's 
each. 

At yards and mills a pneumatic hoist may be used to advantage. This 
consists of an inverted cylinder about 6 ins. diameter and 48 ins. stroke, 
hung from the end of a horizontal revolving crane arm or from the end 
of a derrick boom. A pipe connects the cylinder with a compressor (an air- 
brake pump being frequently, though not economically, used for this pur- 
pose), and the operations are controlled by a three-way cock on the crane 
post or derrick mast. To the end of the piston rod are attached suitable 
chains or slings. 

Renewing Rails. 

In laying new rails on a section there are two principal methods of prac- 
tice. One method is to lay the new rails along the ends of the ties, to 
fully bolt up the joints, and then to take up the old rails and throw in the 
string of new rails. The other method is to lay in one rail at a time. 
There is also a compromise method, by which the rails are bolted together 
in lengths of five or six, the intermediate joints being left open, to be 
bolted up when the rails are in the track. In either method, the details of 
the work and the distribution of the men depend largely upon the traffic, 
and vary considerably on different roads. If the track can be given up to 
the roadway department, either entirely (as on a length of one track on 
double track roads), or for a certain time by arrangement with the super- 
intendent or train dispatcher, the relaying should be done in a similar 
way to new tracklaying, the old rails being first removed and the new ones 
(distributed along the roadbed) laid in their place. 

Laying Rails in Strings. — This method is not extensively used, and main- 
ly where work is short, only small gangs available, the traffic only mod- 
erately heavy, and the work having to be done between trains. All the pre- 



336 • TRAiOK WORK. 

liminary work is done while the traffic is passing, and the rails then thrown 
in in strings as long as the intervals between trains will permit. One ob- 
jection is the difficulty of insuring uniform expansion spacing, and much 
time is apt to be lost in properly connecting up with the old rail and ad- 
justing the expansion spacing of the string of rails when in position. On 
curves, the. new rails may be laid 12 ins. from the track rails; those for the 
outside of the curve being given more and those for the inside less ex- 
pansion spacing than on tangents, at the rate of %-in. per 100 ft. length 
(that is for four joints), per degree of curve. The bolts should also be 
left somewhat slack, and the expansion spacing regulated and bolts tight- 
ened as soon as the rails are thrown into position. The joints between 
tangent and curve rails should be left open. The spacing may be main- 
tained, or preserved from change, during the work, by having all joint ties 
in proper position and driving the spikes in the slots or at the ends of the 
angle bars as, fast as each joint is reached. Usually only one line of rails 
is laid at a time, but both may be laid together if desired, one gang being 
10 to 15 rail lengths ahead of the other, so as to avoid interference. In any 
case, the second line of rails should be laid as soon as possible after the 
first. Oare should be taken to avoid bending the splice bars by hurriedly 
throwing the string of new rails into position with bars. The iron expan- 
sion shims should be left in place until the string of rails has been thrown 
into position, and should then be removed. Two men may do this work, 
one raising the point with a pinch bar to enable the other man to take 
out the shini. These shims should be L or angle-shaped straps of iron, V/ 2 
ins. wide, of proper thicknesses, and those of different thickness (for dif- 
ferent-temperatures) should be kept separate. The use of wooden shims 
should never be permitted. On the Baltimore & Ohio Ry., where this sys- 
tem is used, the iron shims are marked with the temperatures at which 
they are to be used, and the foremen are provided with thermometers. The 
shims 'are put in when the joints are bolted up on the ends of the ties, and 
are left in place until the rails are in position. With care, very accurate 
work can be done, but it is considered that better results may usually be 
obtained by laying rails singly. 

The first joint of the new string, at its connection with the old rails, 
will of course fit to place at once, a spike being driven at the heel to pre- 
vent the rails from being forced backward. Succeeding stretches, how- 
ever, will not fit so closely, owing partly to variations in expansion and 
to slight variations in length of old and new rails. For this reason it is 
sometimes necessary to move a string of rails endways. A string of 20 
to 50 rails can be moved by four to eight men, with bars placed at in- 
tervals of about six rails. They place the bars so as to get a bearing 
lagiainst the ends iof the angle bars and pull together at a signal. If a 
work engine is available, a string of rails can be moved to place by the 
use of a 15-ft. rope or chain. The foreman (if near a telegraph office) 
should arrange with the train dispatcher to perform the work at times 
when it will least interfere with the movement of trains. He should then 
lay the longest stretch that can be properly taken care of in the time avail- 
able, and have the track in shape before the next train is due. The work 
should not be done hurriedly. 

Laying Single Rails. — If the traffic is very heavy, the most satisfactory 



MAINTENANCE. 337 

method, as a rule, is to lay a rail at a time, keeping the track all finished 
up behind the gang. This method requires a larger gang, as six or eight 
men are required to lift and move single rails, while two or four men 
with bars can easily handle a string of rails. The men in the larger gang 
also work somewhat at a disadvantage by being more crowded, but there 
is the advantage that every interval between trains can be utilized. This 
is the safer plan under such conditions, although if the traffic is excep- 
tionally heavy, much time may be lost in disconnecting and connecting 
up for each move. Safety and good work, however, are of more importance 
than mere rapidity of work. A flagman (or two flagmen on single track) 
must be kept out all the time, while under the former method this is only 
required when the string of rails is being thrown in. 

On double track, however, a certain length of track may be closed to 
traffic to allow of the work being done. This method, as carried out on the 
Boston & Albany Ry., is as follows: The rails unloaded from the work 
train are strung out along the ends of the ties by section men, all being 
placed with the brand outside. Care is taken to set the joints correctly, 
and to use occasional 28-ft. rails on the inside of curves to maintain the 
proper relation of the joints. The rails are then bent for the curves, and, 
if necessary, straightened for the tangents, it being found that from 20% 
to 50% of the rails in different lots require to be straightened. The splice 
iDars, bolts, nuts and spikes are properly distributed, and the ties are 
adzed as far as possible at the rail seats. If tie-plates are used, this 
work will be greatly reduced, but if the new rails have a different width 
•of base from the old ones, necessitating the removal and replacing of the 
plates, then new seats should be adzed for the tie-plates. A large force of 
men is now employed to cover the greatest length of track that can be 
dealt with at one time, the track being closed to traffic meanwhile. From 
3 to 5 miles is a fair day's work, varying with the number of switches, but 
8 and 10 miles have been relayed in a day of 10 hours. 

With a force of 200 men, three gangs of 12 or 13 each are started pulling 
all the spikes except those on the inside of the right-hand rail. Each gang 
is subdivided into two gangs, the first having ordinary clawbais to start 
the spikes, and the second having goose-neck clawbars to pull them out. 
Then come the men who throw the old rails with crowbars, three or four 
men to each line of rails, the joints being unbroken except at long inter- 
vals. These are followed by 20 or 30 men who finish the work Gf adzing 
the rail seats, while 3 or 4 men of this gang have brooms to sweep chips 
and dirt off the ties. To remove old tie-plates and adze the rail seats 
where necessary will require about the same number of men as where no 
tie-plates are used. Then come the two setting-in gangs, 16 on each side, 
the 16 men lifting one 95-lb. rail with tongs and dropping it in place on the 
ties, while the foreman puts in iron spacing shims of the required thick- 
ness. Sometimes the rails are bolted up in pairs, in which case there are 
32 men to each line of rails. These are followed by the strappers, putting 
on the splice bars, and bolting up each joint fully and tightly. The num- 
ber of men in this gang will depend upon how well the nuts fit the bolts. 
If the nuts can be brought to a bearing on the splice bars with the fingers, 
20 men will be sufficient, but if a wrench must be used to screw the nut all 
the way on, 40 men may be necessary. After them comes the spiking gang 



338 TRACK WORK. 

of 30 men, working in groups of three, one man having a lining bar and 
the others spike mauls. The leading group works on the right-hand rail, 
forcing the rail home against the old inside spikes, and driving the new 
outside spikes. The other gangs, or "gagers," have each a track gage, and 
set and spike the left-hand rails to the proper gage. They also shift any 
ties that may have been misplaced, and tamp up or shim those which do 
not give a full bearing to the rail. The whole series of operations occu- 
pies about half an hour. A separate gang under its own foreman puts in 
the switches. The work train follows the men, its men picking up stray 
tools or supplies and seeing that the track is in safe and proper condition. 
When the work is complete, the track is again thrown open to traffic. 
After this, the section men unbolt the joints of the old rail, put the splice 
bars and bolts together, and throw the rails between the tracks ready for 
loading. The ties are also respaced as required, more or less of this work 
being always necessary, tie-plates are put on if required, and the track 
gaged and respiked. It is then surfaced and finally lined. As soon as the 
track has been laid by the relaying gangs, the rails are drilled for the bond 
wires of the signal system, and the creeper plates are put on. 

The distribution with gangs of about 40 men in replacing 56-lb. rails with 
75-lb. rails by this system on the Kansas City, Fort Scott & Memphis Ry., 
in 1895, was as follows: Handling rails, 12; pulling spikes, 15; spiking, 
4; nipping, 2; flagging, 2; the balance bolting up the joints. When the 
men handling rails caught up with the spike pullers, they went, back and 
put on the angle bars. While waiting for trains, the full bolting was done, 
old rails cut, and enough spiking done to make the break safe until the 
track was surfaced, after which the spiking was finished. Relaying rails 
•with trains passing at intervals of a few minutes is close work, which is 
done on the New York Elevated Ry. There are 20 men to a gang, and they 
can unspike and unbolt an old rail, put a new rail in, bolt it and drive 
four spikes in somewhat less than four minutes. As to relaying with long 
rails, the Norfolk & Western Ry. has found it possible to lay 1,500 to 3,000 
ft. of track per day with 60-ft. 85-lb. rails, without interruption to a heavy 
traffic. The force consisted of 10 men pulling spikes and throwing out old 
rails, 16 men putting in new rails, 4 men putting in joints, and 4 or 6 men 
spiking joints, centers and quarters. There was no appreciable difference 
in speed between the laying of 60-ft. and 30-ft. rails. The expansion spac- 
ing allowed was %-in. at 0°, decreasing %-in. for each 25° up to 100° F. 
The joint consisted of an outside angle bar and an 8-in inside fish plate 
with two holes, so that no inside spikes had to be drawn. Afterwards the 
Churchill joint was applied. 

In removing spikes and in respiking there should always be left at least 
4 spikes on the inside and 6 on the outside of each rail, and only half the 
spikes' should be removed on curves. No train should be allowed to pass 
over a track that has less spikes than this, or has not at least the two mid- 
dle bolts of each joint properly screwed up. If the new rails have the same 
width of base and head as the old ones, all the outside spikes should be 
removed, the inner spikes being loosened, so that the old rails can be lifted 
out and the new ones slipped in against the spikes.^ If there is a differ- 
ence in the rail sections, however, the outside spikes may be drawn on one 
side of the track and the inside spikes on the other side, so that the new 



MAINTENANCE. 339 

rails can be spiked to gage. Three rows of spikes may also be drawn for 
this purpose. This work may be done by a special floating gang or by 
bunching several section gangs together. Each gang then renews the rails 
on its own section, lines and full spikes the rails to gage, lines and surfaces 
the track, tightens up all bolts and finally dresses off the ballast. Where 
the new and old rails meet, care should be taken that the heads are in the 
same line, gage and level. For small differences, an iron shim under the 
lower rail may be used, but for larger differences, a special joint is re- 
quired. Where the new rails are heavier than those of sidetracks, they 
should be laid on the turnout and extending beyond the frog, so that the 
special joint will not come upon the switch ties. The rails must not be 
punched, nicked or slotted, as such marks are liable to cause fracture, 
but all holes made in the field should be drilled. Short rails are only ad- 
missible on the inside of curves (never on the outside) or as a tempo- 
rary expedient on tangents, and no rail shorter than 15 ft. should ever be 
used in main track. 

Cn curves, it is necessary to use a short rail at intervals in order to keep 
the joints from over-running, 26 and 28 ft. rails being frequently used. 
The total difference in length (in feet and decimals) of the inside and out- 
side rails of the curve may be obtained by multiplying the constant 
O.0S552 by the number of degrees in the central angle of the curve (the 
minutes being either disregarded or reduced to a decimal of a foot). This 
total must be distributed over a suitable number of rails so as to avoid the 
use of one very short rail, and also to keep the joints as even as possible. 
A 20-ft. rail may be cut into two parts, differing in length by the difference 
ascertained as above. Then by laying the longer piece at the begin- 
ning of the outside line of rail and the shorter piece at the end of the inner 
line of rail, these will give broken joints on the curve and square joints at 
the ends. Another method is to allow a difference of 1.03125 ins. in length 
per 100 ft. for each degree of curve; or, in other words, to multiply 1.03125 
ins. by the degree of curve and the number of hundreds of feet in the 
length of the curve. Methods of finding the degree of a curve in the track 
are given under "Lining." To change from even joints or tangents to 
broken joints on curves, the Northern Pacific Ry. finds the length of short 
rail on the inside by measuring from the center of the rail %-in. for each 
degree of central angle of the curve. 

It is usually required that the rails must all be laid with the maker's 
brand on the inside (sometimes the outside) of the track, to provide for 
possible defects in the rolls by which the sides of the head may be slightly 
unsymmetrical. Rails of similar section should be kept together, and this 
is specially to be observed in distributing old rails for relaying on third 
track, branch lines, etc. With old rails, this rule should not be observed 
where it will put a badly worn gage side against a uniformly worn gage 
side of an adjacent rail. Old rails for relaying should be sorted for height 
at the yards, and sent out in lots of the same height. They should be laid 
with the unworn side of the heads as the gage side. 

In connecting the new rails with the old to allow of the passage of a 
train, or in finishing up work for the day, a 15-ft. switch rail should be 
used, being firmly spiked to place and having its surface slightly above 



340 • TRACK WORK. 

that of the old rail. After the new rails are laid, the string of old rails 
which has been thrown in to the middle of the track, may be unbolted and 
taken apart at leisure, all bolts, nuts, nutlocks and splice bars being care- 
fully preserved. The old rails should not be left in the ditches, but placed 
beside the ballast or piled ready for loading onto the cars. Much of the 
work of renewing rails is done on Sundays, and many men believe this is 
necessary on account of the traffic. The work can be done, and is done, as 
well on week days, either between trains or by closing a length of track 
(on double track) to traffic. As already noted, Sunday should not be made 
an extra work day. 

Shifting Rails on Curves. 

On track having numerous sharp curves, the service of the rails may be 
considerably extended by transposing the inner and outer rails. The rails 
are disconnected to form strings of about 600 ft. in length (disconnecting 
the short rails on the inside of the curve). The strings are then thrown in 
and passed over each other. The stretches will have to be moved length- 
wise, which can be done by bearing with bars against the ends of the angle 
bars, or by pulling with a work engine. The inside spikes should be drawn 
and in relaying to gage (on account of worn heads), the inner rail may be 
set in i/i-in., and the outer one %-in., or according to the depth of wear of 
the side of the head. 

Bending Rails. 

On all curves of over 2°, the rails should be bent to the proper curve be- 
fore being laid. If they are laid straight and then merely bent by spiking, 
the curve will be irregular (especially at the rail ends), and the rails will 
have a constant tendency to straighten. Bending rails by forcing, spring- 
ing or striking with sledges should never be permitted. They should be 
curved in a proper rail-bending machine, and care taken to have the uni- 
form curve continued right to the ends of the rail, as it is often found that 
the work is done less carefully at the ends, with the result that they have 
a somewhat different curve from that of the body of the rail. Where a 
roller rail-bending machine is used, some roads pass all rails through this, 
to bend the rails for curves and to take out any kinks in rails for tan- 
gents. If no bending machine is available, the rail may be curved by rest- 
ing the ends on ties laid across the track, then placing a hook or curving 
hook under the track rail at a point opposite the middle of the rail to be 
bent. One end of a wooden lever or track lever is held by the hook, the 
lever resting on the rail and being pulled down by men holding its free end. 
Slight kinks in curved rails in the track may be detected by testing the 
curve with a cord (as described under "Lining" and "Curve Work"), and 
then taken out by extra spiking. In curving the rails the middle ordinate 
of a 30-ft. rail will be almost exactly ^-in. for each degree of curve. The 
side or quarter ordinates are always three-fourths of the middle ordinate. 
Table No. 23 gives a list of middle ordinates for different lengths of rails 
and different degrees of curvature, calculated to the nearest 1-16-in., but 
many roads use tables varying only by %-in. The middle ordinata 
(M) of a 30-ft. rail, the quarter ordinates (R) of a 30-ft. rail, and the middle 



MAINTENANCE. 



341 



ordinate (S) of a rail of any other length (T) may be obtained by the fol- 
lowing formulas: 



0.02 x Degree of Curve. 



x 0.75. 



r t i 

M x | | 

t 30 j 



TABLE NO. 23.— MIDDLE ORD1XATES FOR CURVING RAILS. 



Degree of 
Curve. 



1 
1V 2 



10. 12. 14. 



Length of rails (feet). 

16. 18. 20. 22. 24. 26. 

■2diddle ordiuates (inches). 



28. 30. 33. 























y« 


y s 
















% 


y« 


% 


y+ 


& 










% 


% 


% 


% 


V4 


y 4 


% 


% 






% 


% 


Vs 


% 


y+ 


y 4 


% 


% 


% 


b /8 






% 


% 


Vi 


y+ 


y + 


% 


% 


Ms 


y 2 


% 




y* 


% 


% 


% 


y 4 


% 


y 2 


y 2 


% 


% 


% 




% 


% 


y+ 


V4 


% 


% 


y 2 


% 


% 


% 


i 


% 


% 


y* 


y+. 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


■'/« 


i 


1% 


y 8 


y a 


y + 


V4 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


v /s 


i 


iy 4 


% 


% 


y+ 


% 


% 


¥?, 


% 


% 


% 


1 


1% 


i% 


y« 


% 


% 


% 


y> 


% 


% 


y« 


i 


1% 


iy+ 


i% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


1V8 


VA 


l B /8 


i% 


% 


y+ 


% 


% 


y, 


% 


% 


i 


iy« 


1% 


iy 2 


l'/8 


% 


y + 


% 


V?, 




% 


% 


i 


IVi 


1% 


i% 


2 


% 


% 


% 


V?. 


% 


% 


i 


i% 


i% 


1% 


i% 


2Vs 


y+ 


y+ 


% 


% 


% 


% 


i 


1V4 


i% 


1% 


i% 


2V + 


y+ 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


iy« 


1V + 


iy a 


1% 


2 


2% 


y+ 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


i% 


1% 


i% 


1% 


2y* 


2V 2 


y+ 




y, 


% 


% 


1 


iy+ 


1% 


i% 


2 


2y+ 


2% 


y+ 


% 


% 


% 


% 


1 


1V+ 


1% 


i% 


2 


2% 


2% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


%- 


iy* 


i% 


1% 


iy s 


2% 


2% 


3 


Va. 


% 


% 




i 


ly* 


i% 


1% 


2 


2y + 


2% 


3% 


% 


% 


% 


8 /+ 


i 


iy + 


i% 


1% 


2y« 


2% 


2% 


3V 4 


% 


% 


% 


% 


i 


iy + 


i% 


1% 


2y s 


2y 


2% 


3% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


1% 


i% 


i% 


2 


2y + 


2% 


3 


3% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


m 


i% 


i% 


2 


2y+ 


2% 


3 


3% 


% 


% 


% 


1 


iy+ 


i% 


i% 


2y 8 


2% 


2% 


3% 


3% 


% 


% 


% 


1 


iy+ 


i% 


i% 


2V« 


2% 


2% 


3V + 


4 


% 


% 


% 


1 


iv+ 


i% 


178 


2y 4 


2% 


3 


3% 


4% 


% 


% 


% 


1 


iy* 


i% 


1% 


2y 4 


2% 


3i/s 


Z r /% 


4*4 


% 


% 


% 


iy« 


i% 


i% 


2 


2% 


2% 


3y + 


3% 


4% 


% 


% 


% 


lVs 


i% 


i% 


2 


2% 


2 7 / 8 


m 


3% 


4% 



2y 3 

Q 

3 1 /2 

4 

4% 

5 

oy 2 

o 

6% > 

7% '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.. 

8 

sy 2 

9 

9% 

10 

10% 

11 

ny 2 

12 

i2y 2 

13 

13% 

14 

14% 

la 

15% 

1(5 

30-ft. rail: 17°,4ins.; 18°, 4%ins.; 19°, 4%ins.; 20°, 4 9 /i6 ins. 



Cutting Rails. 



Where much cutting is to be done, as in fitting switch and frog work, 
etc., a portable track saw should be used. When a rail must be cut on the 
track, the most common practice is to nick it all round with a cold chisel 
and then to lift up the end of the rail and drop the rail so that the nicked 
part will strike upon the cutting block, a tie, or a piece of rail. This is 
usually effective, but it is a barbarous and improper way to treat steel rails, 
and is more or less dangerous to the men, besides having a decided ten- 
dency to put a kink in the rail. A better plan is to mark all round the 
place to be cut with a chisel, then lay the rail along the ties, holding one 
end down with a tie and putting the cutting block underneath, 4 or 5 ft. 
back from the cut. A bar is then placed across the rail at a point ahead of 
the cut, one of the track rails being used as a fulcrum and one man bearing 
hard down upon the bar. Another man then holds the chisel in the cut 
at the bottom of the web (or lower fillet), while a third man strikes the 
chisel a sharp blow with a hammer or sledge. If the rail does not promptly 
break, the chisel may be held on the other side of the rail for a second 
blow. The rail should be carefully measured for the exact position of the 
chisel cut, and the cut should be made neatly and cleanly at the required 



342 



TRACK WORK. 



place. A rail bender may be used to break the rail by bending it at the 
chisel cut, and in any case the rail should be straightened after being cut, 
as it is likely to be kinked in the operation. The edges of the head should 
also be filed if necessary. 

Spiking. 

All main tracks should have at least four spikes in every tie, the two 
outer spikes being nearer the edge of the tie (on double track this 
should be the side first struck by the train), and the two inner spikes 
near the other edge, but none of the spikes being less than 2 ins. from the 
edge of the tie. This arrangement is designed to hold the tie square with 
the track and prevent slewing, but is a practical detail not infrequently 
neglected, the spikes being too often placed in line across the tie. Double 
spiking is sometimes required on curves where rail braces or tie-plates are 
not available; the extra spikes being required on the outside to resist the 
lateral thrust from the wheels. Spikes should not be driven until the ties 
are in position, properly spaced, and square across the track. If this is not 




A Good Spiker. A Bad Spiker. 

Fig. 206.— Spiking. 

attended to, the spikes will not hold the rail properly when shifted to 
proper position. The tie should be held up by bars while the spikes are 
being driven, but should not be lifted from its bed. Too often, however, 
one or two men hold up the tie so as to raise it while the spike is driven, 
so that the tie then hangs from the rail by the spike. 

The spiking should be done carefully, each spike being set vertically 
and driven straight down, with its shank touching the edge of the rail 
base. The spiker should bring the maul down with a long swinging 
stroke, striking squarely on the head of the spike, and keeping his hands 
well down, so that the handle of the maul will be approximately horizon- 
tal, as shown in Fig. 20B. He should in no case set the spike sloping from 
or towards him, as it reduces the hold of the spike head on the rail, 
while the head may very likely be broken by the last blow of the maul, 
and the spike will be bent by being pulled out. The spike should not be 
set a little distance from the rail and then struck on the back to drive it 



MAINTENANCE. 343 

sideways into position, as this will enlarge the hole in the tie, weakening 
the hold on the spike and forming an entrance for water and moisture 
to rot the interior of the tie. Neither should it be driven slanting to or 
from the rail, for the purpose of tightening or widening the gage, but the 
rail should be thrown to line with a bar and then properly spiked. The 
last blow on the spike should be struck lightly, so as to avoid breaking 
the head of the spike when it comes to a bearing on the rail. At joints, 
the spikes should be driven in the slots of the angle bars, except on bridges, 
where free play is usually allowed for any creeping of the track, so as to 
avoid strains on the structure or its floor system. In warm weather, the 
spike should be driven against that side of the slot furthest from the end 
of the rail, thus allowing for contraction of the rail in colder weather. 

In pulling spikes, care should be taken not to bend or break them, loosen- 
ing tight spikes by giving them a tap on the head before applying the claw- 
bar. When old spikes are drawn, the holes should be filled with wooden 
plugs (those, cut by machine being preferable) ; tar or sand may also be used. 
The new spikes may also be dipped in creosote oil, tar or resin before being 
driven, but it is doubtful if this has much effect in preserving the tie from 
decay at the spike holes. Long boat spikes should be used where thick 
shims are placed between the rail and the tie, and used also for fastening 
road crossing planks to the ties. The section men and trackwalkers keep 
continual watch of the spikes, but the Erie Ry. has a good plan of send- 
ing two men over each section, twice a year, to drive down every spike; 
they also replace all spikes which are broken, are not snug against the 
edge of the rail, or are not in proper position in the slots of the angle-bars. 

Bolting. 

Rail joints should have the bolts screwed up tight as soon as put on, 
with nutlocks or washers in place, but the bolts will usually have to be 
gone over again and tightened up with a wrench in a few weeks. The men 
should never put long handles on the wrenches in order to increase the 
leverage, as this will result in stretching or stripping the threads of the 
bolt or nut, so that the tightness and security of the joint will be impaired, 
even if the bolts are not made entirely useless. A strong, firm pull on an 
ordinary wrench is all that is required. The nuts should be slackened and 
re-tightened in the spring (before warm weather), and in the autumn (be- 
fore cold weather), so as to insure proper freedom for the expansion and 
contraction of the rails. If held too tight, the rails may shear the bolts or 
buckle the track. All broken or damaged bolts should be at once replaced, 
and each joint kept fully bolted and fitted with the proper nuts, washers or 
nutlocks. In removing bolts, while too much time should not be lost in 
trying to get off a rusty nut, care should be taken to see that the men do 
not get in the habit of saving time and trouble at the expense of damaging 
good bolts by knocking off the nuts and ends of bolts with a hammer, thus 
rendering both nut and bolt only good for scrap. If the bolts are compara- 
tively new, the nuts may be loosened by tapping and the use of oil; and 
when the nut has been taken off and the bolt removed, the nut should be 
screwed on the bolt to prevent loss, and the nut and bolt thrown into a box 
or keg, and not left lying in the ballast. 



344 TRACK WORK. 

Shimming. 

When the ballast is frozen it cannot he tamped, and if the track is heaved 
by frost, the surface is made uneven both transversely and longitudinally. 
This must be tested by a level for the former and by sighting or the use of 
a long straight-edge for the latter. Wooden plates or shims must then be 
placed between the rail and the tie, to bring the rail up to proper surface. 
The upper face of the tie should not be adzed to lower the rail, unless this 
is absolutely necessary, but the shims should be placed on the lower ties. 
Shimming is also required with ballast which is so soft after heavy rains 
that tamping is impracticable, the ballast and roadbed being so saturated 
that no other method of surfacing is effective. In some very bad cases, or 
in accidents, blocking must be used under the ties, but this should be 
avoided when possible and the foreman must see that this blocking is not 
forgotten and left in place, but that it is taken out when the shims are re- 
moved, or when the ballast has dried out sufficiently to give the track a 
proper bearing. As the frost comes out of the ground and the ground set- 
tles, thinner shims must 'be substituted for the thicker ones, to prevent sur- 
face bending of the rails. The shims should never be left in place after the 
spring, and as fast as they are removed the spike holes in the ties should 
be properly plugged. Heaving is most troublesome in earth and clay, but 
is also felt in gravel. Where much trouble is experienced from heaving, it 
will usually be found economical to apply gravel ballast liberally, as the 
spiking and shimming injure the ties and spoil the permanent surface of 
the track. 

The shims may be cut by the sectionmen, but it is better to use those 
cut by machinery, having two spike holes bored diagonally opposite one 
another. They are about 6 ins. wide, and the length should be at least 
equal to three times the width of the rail base, so as to give ample room 
for spiking and keeping the spikes clear of the angle-bars. The thickness 
is from %-in. to 2 ins. If a raise of more than 2 ins. is required, a piece 
of 1-in. to 3-in. plank should first be spiked to the tie by boat spikes, the 
plank being about 2 ft. long, or as long as the tie if both rails have to ba 
shimmed. Upon this plank should be placed shims to bring the rail to the 
required level, these being fastened by long spikes passing through shims 
and plank into the tie. With specially high shimming it is well to place 
rail braces outside the rails, especially on curves. Where tie-plates are 
used, the plates should not be taken off, but the shims placed on them, 
and if the shimming is high, a tie-plate may be placed on its top. The tie 
should be adzed to give a level seat for the shims. Spiking should be at- 
tended to as fast as the shimming is put in, and if a whole rail length is 
to be shimmed, the joint, center and quarter ties should first be shimmed 
and spiked. 

Fencing. 

In setting fences, the distance from the center line of the track may be 
measured by a tape, and the line of fence set off by a cord or chain 100 to 200 
ft. long, having tags at the post spacing. When this is stretched a small 
hole is cut at each tag as a guide to the post setters. The post holes should 
be of uniform depth, gaged by a stick. The height of the post above ground 
may be gaged by a stick having a flat piece nailed on the bottom, and hav- 



MAINTENANCE. 345 

ing also notches to hold the fence wires at the proper spacing while being 
stapled to the posts. On curves, the position of each post should be meas- 
ured from the center of the track, and a mark made or stake driven. For 
wire fencing, posts may be set and temporarily braced at intervals of 40 to 
80 rods (660 to 1,320 ft), and one wire stretched first as a guide for the 
other pests. On the inner side of a curve, the wires should be put on the 
track side of the post, or on the track and field sides of alternate posts. The 
wires are attached to a straining post and set up by a stretcher, but in the 
absence of this tool a lining bar may be used, placed diagonally, with the 
top inclined towards the anchor post, and the wire being looped around the 
bar. In summer the wires must not be drawn too tight. With board fences, 
the alternate posts may be set 16 ft. apart, and a line of boards nailed along 
them will serve as a guide for lining the intermediate posts. The boards 
should be on the farm side of the posts. The materials and labor per mile 
for a four-board fence with posts 8 ft. apart, and a five-wire fence with 
posts 16 ft. apart, are about as follows: 

Board Fence: • Wire Fence: 

660 posts. 330 posts. 

1,320 board, 1x6 ins., 16 ft. long, 10,560 26,400 ft. o: wire at 440 lbs. per strand, 

ft. B. M. 2,200 lbs. 

660 battens, 1x6 ins., 4 ft. long, 1,320 75 lbs. staples. 

ft. B. M. 27 days' labor for one man. 

250 lbs. nails. 
65 daj r s' labor for one man. 

The average labor on a six-board fence, including setting posts, is 8 to 10 
panels per man per day where the boards meet on the post, or 13 to 15 
panels where they lap on opposite sides of the post. On a four-wire fence, 
with 16-ft. panels, the average is about 15 panels. These figures vary, of 
course, with the details of the work and character of the men. The cost 
per ICO rods (1,650 ft.) for fence building and repairs, with labor at $1.50 
per day, has been estimated as follows: Five-wire fence: $6 for removing 
old fence and posts; $16.50 for putting in new posts 3 ft. to 3 ft. 6 ins. deep, 
and stringing wires. Board fence: $4.50 to $5 for removing old fence and 
posts; $32 for putting in new posts 8 ft. long (set 3 ft. deep) and putting on 
seven boards; or $42 for posts 10 ft. long (set 3 ft. 6 ins. deep), and putting 
on nine boards. The painting or daubing of advertisements on board fences 
is very objectionable, and at least one road has forbidden it, making a prac- 
tice of painting out such disfiguring marks. 

Clearing Right of Way. 

All grass, weeds and brush on the right of way should be cut at least 
once a year, and preferably twice a year. This should be done in the 
months which are most suitable, according to the latitude, but being in 
any case done before the seeding time of the plants. After the grubbing, 
cutting and mowing, the material should be raked into heaps and burned 
as soon as it is dry enough, care being taken that the fire is not allowed 
to extend to fences, trestles or adjoining land. Old ties, splice bars, tools, 
etc., found during this clearing up should be removed and properly dis- 
posed of. If the brush on the right of way is allowed to grow too long, it 
is liable to cause accidents by concealing cattle, which may stray on the 
track in front of a train, while it is also liable to catch fire in dry weather, 



346 TRACK WORK. 

such a fire being hard to check or stop. Reports of locomotives which 
throw sparks badly, and of fires started by sparks from locomotives, 
should be made by the section foreman and roadmaster. The spark ar- 
resters of locomotives should be examined frequently in hot, dry weather, 
when standing crops, weeds on the right of way, etc., are liable to catch 
fire. Where the right of way is covered with good grass, it may be mowed 
and used or sold for hay under the direction of the roadmaster. 

The grass and weeds in the ballast and along the sides of the roadbed 
have also to be cut or pulled up, and this is tiresome and unpleasant work, 
though necessary for keeping a good looking track. A long handled sharp 
hoe is better than a shovel if there is much of this work to be done. Where 
this work is only done periodically on lines not kept in the best condition 
for appearance it may be economically done by machinery, as noted under 
the head of "Ditching Machines" in Chapter 18. 

The Sheffield weed-cutting hand-car has two toothed cutter bars (like 
those of a reaping machine) projecting from a frame between the wheels. 
The position is regulated by levers, and the knives will cut close to the 
ground and to a distance of 8 ft. from the rail. They fold together and 
swing up to a vertical position at the side of the car when passing an ob- 
struction. It will work on level ground or on slopes, and when the weeds 
are not harsh it may be run by 4 or 6 men at a speed of 5 miles an hour. 
In some few cases, with earth ballast, it is considered well to let the grass 
grow, merely cutting it down so low that it will not get on the rails. Where 
the weeding is done by hand, it should be extended to a "grass line," 5 or 
6 ft. from the rail, this line being set out by *a cord and stakes, or marked 
by a cutter attached to a hand-car. A timber may be bolted across the car, 
having hinged to its projecting end a bar parallel with the track and carry- 
ing a cutter and plow handle. 

Various methods have been tried for killing the grass and weeds grow- 
ing in the ballast, but though such methods would be advantageous in 
saving time and labor, none of them have yet so combined efficiency 
and low cost of operating as to be really practicable for general work. 
Such a method would be specially advantageous for roads having many 
weeds and few section men, which is the condition of many roads in the 
south and west. Brine, gasoline or oil burners, steam jets and. electricity 
are among the means experimented with in this direction. In experiments 
with electricity on the Illinois Central Ry., a "brush," 10 ft. long and 4 ins. 
wide, was made of fine bare copper wires and suspended from the front 
of a flat car, so that it would almost touch the ground. Another car con- 
tained an engine, dynamo, transformers, etc., steam being taken from the 
locomotive. The cars were run at a speed of about 5 miles per hour, and 
two trips would be found sufficient to absolutely kill all vegetation. The 
brush was in short insulated sections, so that all the current would not 
be discharged through any one weed, etc., forming a more than usually 
good conductor. A current of 10,000 volts was found to be most satisfac- 
tory. For general work, however, the cost of this method would be pro- 
hibitive. A strong solution of brine, delivered from a sprinkling attach- 
ment on a water tank car, has been tried. It effectually killed the weeds, 
but caused a slime on the rails which led to slipping of the engine wheels 
and corrosion of the rail, and it was therefore abandoned. 



MAINTENANCE. 347 

Burning weeds with jets from burners using crude oil sprayed by steam 
or compressed air has been worked with success on several railways. On the 
Chicago Great Western Ry., with oil at 1% cts. per gallon, the cost for fuel 
and wages (3 men) was $1.07 per mile. The car is propelled at a speed of 
one to three miles an hour, according to the thickness of the weeds. The 
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. uses a steel flat car 50 ft. long, with 
side aprons over and beside the rails to protect the flame from wind. A 
shield at the front end of the car covers the burners and is about 3 ins. 
above the rails, with side aprons touching the ground. This is raised at 
bridges, crossings, etc. Two brake pumps force the oil into a tank under 
a pressure of 70 lbs. A light crude oil is used, with a consumption of about 
8 gallons per burner per mile. There are four burners and the shield 
spreads the flame to a width of about 10 ft. and a length of 15 ft. Steam 
jets from the locomotive, or a gang of men following, extinguish any ties 
set on fire. The speed is 4 miles per hour early in the season or 3 miles 
with thick coarse weeds. The cost of operation is $50 per day and 20 to 30> 
miles can be covered, making $2.50 to $1.66 per mile. 

Policing. 

This work includes the general maintenance of the roadway in neat and 
proper condition, and is to be attended to continually. Weeds must be 
kept cut, and trimmed to the grass line; ballast properly dressed and 
sloped; ditches cleaned; rubbish picked up, and spare material properly 
placed. Combustible material must be kept cleared from around bridges, 
trestles, signal posts, etc.; dirt and gravel must be removed from bridge 
seats and trestle caps, and care taken to prevent ballast from working 
over onto the bridge abutments or falling into streets below. Large loose 
stones may be neatly piled around the bases of signal posts, sign posts, 
etc., to keep vegetation from growing. All trees that are in danger of fall- 
ing on the track, or that interfere with the passage of trains or obscure 
the view, must be removed or trimmed. If they are on private land, and 
the owner objects to such work, a report must be made as to the circum- 
stances. 

All old track material, material from cars, old ties, rubbish, etc., must be 
picked up and removed from the track, all scrap being carried to the section 
tool house to be sorted and properly disposed of. All scrap iron, lumber, 
etc., must be neatly piled on platforms. New material, such as rails, ties, 
etc., must be properly piled or stacked, and no material should be thus 
piled within 8 ft. of the track. Care should be taken to have a neat and 
tidy appearance of the section, with track full spiked and bolted, switches 
clean and well oiled, cattle-guards and road crossings in good condition, 
fences in repair and wing fences at cattleguards kept whitewashed, ballast 
evenly and uniformly sloped and free from weeds, and sod line cleanly cut 
(usually 7 to 10 ft. from center of track or 12 ins. from ends of ties). Side- 
tracks in yards should also be kept free from weeds and rubbish, old paper, 
scrap, etc. Station grounds also must be kept neat. Signs must be up- 
right and in good repair. Section houses must be clean and tidy, with 
tools, track material, scrap, etc., properly sorted and placed. When such a 
system is first introduced, the foremen will probably complain that they 



S48 TRACK WORK. 

cannot do their work properly and spare time to keep the road looking 
neat, but experience has shown that it is very easy to do both if the men 
work systematically. It is much easier to keep the line and yards neat 
than to have a periodical cleaning up at long intervals. 

Every possible means consistent with general attention to track work, 
should be taken to keep people from walking on or at the side of the track, 
and from using the railway as a public path. This is specially necessary 
near cities, where the traffic is heavy. In such cases, where people habit- 
ually walk on the track, a liberal covering of coarse broken stone or slag, 
or even cinders may be laid upon the ballast between the rails and tracks 
and upon the berme at the edge of the roadway. This will soon drive off 
those persons who cannot comfortably walk on the ties. This matter is 
far too often neglected, and railways are themselves partly responsible in 
not checking the habit which the public has acquired of treating the track 
as a public way. 

Station Grounds and Buildings. 

In order to have a good reputation for the road on the part of the pubilc, 
it is very desirable that the grounds at stations should be kept clean and 
tidy and free from rubbish. On some roads this work is delegated to 
the station agent, who has his men attend to it, while on other roads it 
is part of the section gang's work. The latter is the better plan if the 
force is sufficient, and if the work is done by direction of the roadmaster, 
the station agent not being given authority to employ the section men 
for this purpose when he thinks proper. On roads having stations with 
lawns, flower beds and nice grounds, a special force is sometimes kept to 
attend to them. Many roads now employ landscape gardeners, and the 
Boston & Albany Ry. has on each of its principal divisions a gardener 
with 5 to 12 men, who grade, plant and seed the grounds, and take care of 
them. These men cut the grass with lawn mowers, and do the weeding, 
trimming of shrubbery, etc. They also attend to places where the banks 
are graded and seeded. This force is included in the roadway department. 
The Pennsylvania Ry. also employs landscape engineers and a large force of 
gardeners and spends large sums of money in making and maintaining 
attractive grounds. Such roads have a reputation for the appearance of 
the stations. The Chicago & Northwestern Ry. has on its principal division 
a florist, with enough assistants to take care of the flowers, etc. A green- 
house is provided. The station agents attend to watering the lawns, etc., 
and the roadmasters detail a man once a week to cut the grass. In addi- 
tion to this, the slopes are being sodded, thus improving their appearance 
and tending to prevent sliding and washing. All sodding, cinder edging, 
trimming of toe of ballast slopes, etc., should be done to a line. On the 
Michigan Central Ry., greenhouses and 10 acres of land for gardening are 
provided at Niles for the maintenance of station grounds on a division of 
170 miles. Many roads have adopted, the policy of making "parks" at sta- 
tions, sodding the ground and planting trees. It is specially important to 
have attractive grounds and pleasant surroundings at important stations 
and at junctions, where passengers may have to change trains or to stop 
over for connecting trains. Virginia creeper or Boston ivy make good 
creeping plants. Shrubbery is generally preferable to flowers, as the latter 



MAINTENANCE. 349 

last so short a time, and the beds look dismal when they are bare. The 
arrangement should not be too formal in design. 

In all ordinary cases., however, much may be done by foremen and station 
agents. The agent especially should see that the grounds and platforms 
are kept free from old papers and other rubbish. A plot of turf, cinder 
or gravel pathways, a flowerbed, a creeper on the building or on a pile of 
rockwork, can be had with little trouble, and have a great effect upon the 
general appearance of a station. The approaches and surroundings on- the 
town side of the station should be cared for as well as the grounds on the 
railway side. The platforms should be convenient and in good repair and 
the fences kept in repair. Much may be done in maintaining a good ap- 
pearance along the road by fitting up a car for painting by compressed air, 
as noted under "Buildings." 

The yards, spaces between tracks, etc., at stations should be neatly 
leveled and covered with ashes or gravel, and should be kept in order by 
the section men, but strict rules should be made and enforced against the 
scattering of ashes and cinders from engines (which should be dumped at 
specified points), and the sweeping of rubbish and dirt from the station or 
cars upon the track. Every station should have a can or bin for waste 
paper and rubbish, which should be emptied at intervals into a dirt car; 
similar receptacles should be provided at yards or places where cars are 
cleaned. At large terminal yards one man may be kept busy clearing up 
paper and rubbish. It is a good plan to have station inspectors to see that 
the stations, waiting rooms, closets, section boarding houses, etc., are kept 
in proper and sanitary condition, and that the grounds are properly cared 
for. Cleanliness should be enforced in every case, but the standard of ap- 
pearance will, of course, vary according to the financial condition of the 
road and the size of the force. 

Old Material. 

In all renewals, and the periodical policing of track, cleaning up of yards, 
etc., it must be borne in mind that new material must be properly used 
and cared for, and not wasted, and also that no old material should be 
simply thrown away as useless. Even if really useless for railway pur- 
poses, the material has a certain selling value, which is wrongfully lost to 
the company if the material is thrown away. These remarks apply also to 
the wreckage and scrap resulting from train accidents and the burning of 
cars. Record must be kept of the disposal of all scrap and old material. 

Old rails should not be left hidden in the grass and weeds of the right 
of way, but properly piled for shipment, as they may be used for side- 
tracks or branches, sold for scrap, or even made into " new rails" of some- 
what lighter section by heating and rerolling. Old rails may be sorted 
into three classes: (1) Rails suitable for relaying in main line, which are 
usually only the best rails from tangents; (2) Rails suitable for sidetracks; 
(3) Scrap rails, or any which will not give 20 ft. suitable for sidetrack. Old 
ties have rarely much value, but if thrown away, sold, burnt, used for crib- 
bing, etc., all unbroken spikes should first be pulled, and when ties are 
burned the ashes should be raked over for spikes. In piling old rails, the 
splice bars and bolts should all be removed, good splice bars sorted in pairs 
and broken bars kept separate. Nuts and bolts, if good, should be kept to- 



350 TRACK WORK. 

gether, but broken bolts should have the nuts removed and kept separate. 
Many spikes thrown away or put aside as scrap might be used over again 
if properly driven in the first place and properly drawn. Foremen should 
be careful to see that all track and car material, etc., is picked up regularly, 
and that their men do not get in the habit of flinging old bolts, spikes, etc., 
down the bank. In removing bolts, the nuts should be unscrewed properly, 
the bolt taken out, and the lock and nut put back on the bolt. If, however, 
the nut is so rusted or wedged on the bolt that it will not unscrew, it is 
more economical to knock off the nut with the end of the bolt in it, with a 
sledge, than to waste time in forcing the wrench. Only good discipline and 
good management of men can insure the exercise of proper judgment as to 
when to knock off nuts in this way. Care should be taken not to hit the. 
head of the rail. 

At the section tool house, the scrap should be piled and sorted (as de- 
scribed under "Policing"), nuts taken off broken bolts, etc., this work 
being done in wet or stormy weather, or when the men cannot work on 
the track. All large iron, lumber, etc., must be neatly piled on platforms; 
car scrap, links, drawbars, couplers, etc., being kept separate. Small 
scrap, such as bolts, nuts and spikes, may be kept in shallow boxes or in 
old spike and bolt kegs. Rails may be piled on the right of way at mile 
posts. Old ties may be stacked on the right of way, until permission is 
given to burn them, the ties removed being piled at the end of each day's 
work and not left in the ditch or on the roadbed. 

Under this heading it is appropriate to refer to the treatment and dis- 
posal of the material found in the general scrap pile at division points 
or main shops. The style of material delivered for the scrap pile is sig- 
nificant of the character of the men sending it, as for instance one man 
who is somewhat careless and finds it easier to use new material than 
to sort out the serviceable from the unserviceable scrap at his tool house, 
will send in many old bolts and nuts that are good for further use. In 
some cases it may be advisable to go to the expense of putting in a set 
of small rolls to bring odd sizes of iron to standard sizes for bolts, plates, 
etc.; a shear (perhaps operated by an air brake cylinder with 4-ft. lever 
and 6-in. jaw) for cutting rods, or even to build a small furnace for heat- 
ing angles, etc., to be rerolled. Of course it must be borne in mind that 
while with a single large scrap pile at one large central shop it may be 
economical to carefully sort and handle the material, and treat it as above 
noted, this may not be the case with smaller piles at division shops. In 
some cases, also, an article made from scrap may be more expensive than 
a newly purchased article. These are matters for the exercise of judgment 
and calculation in order to insure real economy. 

In most scrap piles there is a great proportion of bolts. These may be 
sorted as to their diameters and length and stored in compartments. 
Stub ends of %-in. to 1-in. bolts, about 5y 2 ins. long, may be used for 
making track bolts, a bolt heading machine at the shops being equipped 
with suitable dies. Nuts may be cleaned of rust by pickling in a weak 
solution of hydrochloric acid, and then used again, or if damaged they 
may be slightly compressed by dies in a bolt heading machine and then 
retapped. Plates and shapes may be utilized for small plate girders to 
cross culverts, etc. Lining bars, clawbars, wrenches, etc., may be success- 



MAINTENANCE. 351 

fully made from scrap steel tires, and the slide plates for switches may- 
be made from elliptic springs, the plate being heated to a cherry red and 
then put in a bulldozer, where it is sheared off and has two square holes 
punched in one operation. Old flues, which bring little as st^rap, make 
good fencing for station grounds, posts for track signs, or grates for cinder 
pits where fireboxes are cleaned out. Old fish plates or plain splice bars 
may be sheared to length and stamped to shape for rail braces. In sorting, 
care should be taken to pick out any new or practically uninjured material 
which may by accident or carelessness have got in with the scrap. When 
sorted, the stuff should be arranged so as to be easily seen and got at, but 
discrimination should be exercised so as not to store a lot of miscellaneous 
material on the chance of its being of some possible use eventually. 



CHAPTER 20.— GAGE, GRADES AND CURVES. 

Gage. 

The gage of the track is the transverse distance between the inner sides 
of the rail heads, and if these sides are sloping the measurement is usually 
taken at about half the depth of the head. The standard gage of 4 ft. 8V2 
ins. is now practically universal, but it is much to be regretted that a few 
roads are still using a gage of 4 ft. 9 ins., as wheels which are fitted for 
the best running on standard gage have undue side play for the wider gage, 
which is hard upon the track, especially at frogs and switches, and adds 
materially to the cost of maintenance. There is, however, a tendency 
toward the elimination of this abnormal gage. There is practically no gage 
wider than the standard now remaining in this country, and the proportion 
of narrow gage is so small as to need little special mention in this work. 
Reference may, however, be made to interesting articles upon the work of 
changing gage, published in "Engineering News," New York, Aug. 25, 1892, 
and Sept. 13, 1894, and in the "Journal of the Association of Engineering 
Societies," October, 1884. 

Change of Gage. 

Small lines of narrow gage are being widened gradually as they become 
absorbed by standard gage railways, and it may be useful here to describe 
the method followed on the Louisville & Nashville Ry. in widening the 3 ft. 
gage of a mineral branch 62 miles long. The subgrade was widened and 
the trestles were strengthened, and then standard gage ties replaced every 
third narrow gage tie on tangents, every other tie on curves up to 6°, 
and all ties on curves sharper than 6°. The outer spikes for the standard 
gage were driven, and seats were adzed for the rails. To set the spikes, a 
track gage or spike setter of y 2 x 2-in. iron was used. The ends of this were 
curved down beyond the rails, so that when set on the 3-ft. gage track, the 
ends rested on the tie, the ends being flattened out to ly 2 ins. wide and 1 in. 
thick for a width of ly 2 ins., this representing the rail base. A loose piece, 
%-in. wide, attached to each end of the gage by a wire, provided for the 
widening of gage on curves. The "spotters" for adzing the ties were 



352 TRACK WORK. 

wooden bars, 3x3 ins. (rounded at the middle), with blocks nailed on the 
under side as gage lugs for the 3-ft. track, while under each end a strap 
of % x ly^-m. iron was bent to form a rectangular loop, 5 ins. wide over all, 
and deep enough to touch the tie when the bar rested on the rails. The 
work of changing the rails was done by the force then on the line. The 
one train per day was stopped, but the entire work only occupied four days. 
The force consisted of 180 men, exclusive of foremen, and these were or- 
ganized into six gangs of 30 men each, while each gang was assigned to a 
division of about eleven miles, including sidings. The length of the di- 
visions depended upon the amount of curvature to be encountered. Each 
gang was in general charge of a foreman, and had another foreman to 
look after the spiking. Work was commenced at a given point and con- 
tinued until finished, the time being from two to three days. The organ- 
ization of each gang was as follows: 8 men drawing spikes, 4 men throw- 
ing rails, 12 men spiking, 1 man distributing spikes, 2 men pushing hand 
cars, 1 man carrying water, 1 man driving down spike stubs, 1 extra man. 
The equipment for each gang was as follows: 9 clawbars, 4 lining bars, 3 
gages, 13 spike mauls, 1 water barrel, 2 water buckets, 1 standard gage 
dump car, 1 narrow gage dump car, 1 standard gage hand car, 1 narrow 
gage hand car, 1 punch, 4 cleavers, 1 wrench, 2 rails 18 or 20 ft. long, and 
1 pair of splice bars and bolts, to be placed about the middle of every curve 
of over 6°, in case rails were to be cut. 

In widening the 3 ft. gage of the Columbia & Western line of the Can- 
adian Pacific Ry. in 1899, the track was entirely rebuilt during the day, 
traffic trains being run only at night. A 28-lb. third rail was laid for these 
narrow gage trains and connected up at the end of each day's work. Ma- 
terial was carried ahead on narrow gage work trains. The whole track 
was renewed out of face, thus allowing joint ties to be properly placed and 
rails to be full spiked. By this method, a gang of 40 men could remove and 
rebuild 2,500 ft. of track per day, the maximum being 3,800 ft. Rails were 
cut for standard gage switches, temporary narrow gage switches being laid 
as the work progressed. The 30° curves were laid 1-in. wide in gage, w.th an 
elevation of only 1 in. 

Grades. 

The maintenance work on grades may be increased very considerably if 
the traffic is heavy, owing to the' increase in wear of rails resulting from 
the use of sand in ascending and the application of the brakes in descend- 
ing, and also to the general displacement and disturbance of the track, 
and the creeping of rails, all of which are aggravated on steep grades. 
For these reasons, as well as the increased cost in operating train service, it 
is economy to keep the grades down as much as possible in construction, 
especially if there is a heavy traffic probable. On the Erie Ry. great ex- 
pense was incurred in order to keep the grades down to 1.14%, and many 
railways have either spent large sums in reducing grades or are operating 
at more or less disadvantage from heavy grades. On the other hand, for 
light traffic or temporary use, heavy grades may wisely be used to avoid 
the immediate construction of heavy permanent works, as in the case of 
surface lines in mountain districts to avoid tunnels on, a low grade line, 
which may be built later. Some particulars of the grades used in switch- 



GAGE, GRADES AND CURVES. 353 

backs on main lines will be found in the chapter on "Permanent Improve- 
ments." In addition to maintaining good track on the grades, care must 
be taken to maintain the grades at the uniform prescribed rate. Surfacing, 
etc., may eventually result in breaking up the grade line in such a way as 
to materially increase the actual grade in some places. For this reason, the 
engineer or roadmaster should occasionally run a line of levels over the di- 
vision, especially on heavy grades, as any such change in the grade line may 
have a serious effect in reducing the hauling capacity of the locomotives. 

Compensation of Grades. — When curves occur on heavy grades the grade 
should be so reduced that the combined train resistance due to grade and 
curve will not exceed that due to the maximum grade allowed on the tan- 
gent. This reduction is variously taken at 0.1 to 0.05% per station per de- 
gree, 0.04% being about sufficient on all curves. Thus with a maximum 
grade of 2% on tangents, and a rate of compensation of 0.04% per degree, 
the maximum grade on a curve of 6° would be 1.76%. At or near stations 
and stopping places the rate of conpensation should be nearly twice as 
great, or 0.06 to 0.08%. On the Denver & Rio Grande Ry. it is 0.03%, while 
on the Illinois Central Ry. the minimum is 0.04%. The reduced curve usually 
extends beyond the curve. The amount of elevation lost by compensating 
the grade is found by multiplying the degree of central angle of the curve 
by the rate of compensation, and this elevation divided by the length of 
grade will give the rate by which the tangent maximum must be increased 
to introduce the compensation without a final loss in elevation. The change 
in grade may commence at the nearest even station, and not necessarily at 
the P. C. or P. T. 

On the Northern Pacific Ry., a compensation of 0.03% has been found in- 
sufficient; 0.04% gives fairly good results, though with curvature frequently 
changing in direction, it is not quite sufficient for full compensation, while 
oh very long curves in one direction, the rate is somewhat in excess of re- 
quirements. This, of course, is only noticeable on long trains, and the 
condition of the cars has a good deal of influence upon it. Mr. C. S. Bihler, 
Division Engineer of the N. P. Ry., states that it appears that there is a 
certain resistance on entering and leaving a curve, which is independent 
of its length, but of course bears some, relation to the degree of curve, 
and that' curve compensation might be determined according to the formula 
given below, in which (D) designates the degree of curve, (N) the length 
of the curve in stations of 100 ft., and (A) and (B) are constants, the value 
of which would be about 0.1 for (A) and 0.03 for (B). 

D x A 

+ D B. 



N 

Virtual Grades. — Great assistance to trains in surmounting heavy grades 
may be derived by utilizing the momentum stored in the trains at high 
speeds, the virtual grade being thus easier than the actual grade. While 
this is almost universally recognized, a virtual profile has been rareiy 
adopted. In connection with the proposed reduction of grades on the On- 
tario & Quebec Division of the Canadian Pacific Ry., in 1900, the value of 
this momentum was carefully considered. The original line between Mon- 
treal and Toronto has maximum grades of 1% in both directions, which, be- 
ing uncompensated for curvature, are equivalent to about 1.12%. The gross 



354 TRACK WORK. 

westbound tonnage, including locomotives, is about 62% of the eastbound; 
and it is proposed to balance the grades to conform to the tonnage by re- 
ducing the eastbound to 0.6% compensated, without any reduction in the 
westbound grades. With such grades, the locomotive rating behind tender 
will be 1,600 tons east and 900 tons west. The latter will usually be some- 
what reduced, being composed largely of empty cars, which present a 
greater resistance per ton to moving the loaded cars. The matter has been 
discussed in Wellington's "Economic Theory of Railway Location" and 
(with reference to the Canadian Pacific Ry.) in Engineering News, Vol. 44, 
1900. 

Vertical Curves on Grades. 

The angle formed by the junction of grade lines exceeding 0.5% may be 
rounded off by vertical parabolic curves. The advantages of these in rela- 
tion to the operation of train service is discussed in Wellington's "Economic 
Theory of Railway Location," and it is pointed out that they are of greater 
importance at sags than at summits. The length recommended is 200 ft. on 
•each side of the vertex, but in present practice it varies from 300 to 800 feet 
in all. On the Northern Pacific Ry., the parabolic curves are not less than' 
50 ft. long for each change of 0.1% in rate of grade on summits, and 0.05% 
in sags. This makes the curves 200 ft. long in sags for each change of 0.1% 
in grade. The method of laying out these curves is given in Searles' "Field 
Engineering." Table No. 24, giving corrections for grade elevations in lay- 
ing out such curves, was prepared by Prof. Nagle ("Engineering News," New 



Fig. 207.— Vertical Curves for Grade Intersections. 

York, Nov. 26, 1896), and gives the vertical distance from grade line to curve 
at different points along the curve. The length of curve should be about 600 
ft. at summits, and 800 to 1,200 ft. at sags. The curve chosen is a parabola, 
because of the ease with which any correction may be found when the cor- 
rection at the vertex, or meeting point of grade lines, is known. Two prop- 
erties of the parabola are utilized: (1) that ordinates from tangent to curve 
vary as, the square of the distance from the point of tangency; and (2) that 
the curve bisects the vertical intercepted between the vertex and long chord 
joining the P. C. and P. T. In Fig. 207, H G ( = T) is the correction at dis- 
tance X from A; C D ( = M) is the correction at the vertex, and 2 L is the 
length of the curve in stations; then the property first referred to gives the 
relation: 

x 2 

T = M . 

L- 

To find M, produce A C to F to meet a vertical through B, the end of 
curve. Call the algebraic difference of grades (d), then will F B = L d, and 
since C D = y 2 C E by the second property, M = % F B, or M = y 4 Ld. 

The length of curve, 2 L, may be fixed by the circumstances of the case 



GAGE, GRADES AND CURVES. 



355 



or may be found by assuming a certain rate of change of grade per station, 
the rate of change increasing with (d). Call this rate of change (R), then 
for L in stations 

d 



2 R 



To find the correction at a point one station distant from the P. C. at A, 
insert the value of (d) and the resulting value for M in the first formula, x 
being one station; the result is 

L- R 



L- 

At two stations from A, T- = 2 R; at three stations, T 3 = 4% R; at half a 
station, T% = y s R, etc. The table gives values of T for points 50 ft. apart 
for a few values of L and d. These corrections must be added when the al- 
gebraic difference of grades is minus, and subtracted when the algebraic 
difference is plus. 



TABLE NO. 24.— CORRECTIONS FOR VERTICAL CURVES. 



Algebraic 


Rate 


dinerence 


of change 


of grades, 


per statioD 


%■ 


ft. 


0.3 


0.075 


0.4 


.1 


0.5 


.125 


0.6 


.15 


0.7 


.175 


0.8 


.20 


0.9 


.225 


1.0 


.25 


1.1 


0.1S33 


1.2 


.20 


1.3 


.2167 


1.4 


.2333 


1.5 


.25 


1.(3 


.2667 


1.7 


.2SS3 


l.S 


.3n 


19 


0.2375 


2.0 


.25 


2.1 


.262 ; 


2.2 


.275 


2.3 


.2875 


2.4 


.3 


2.5 


.3125 


2.6 


.3^5 



, Horizontal distance from vertex 

0. 50. 100. 150. 200. 250. 300 
-Vertical distance in feet 



.0.15 
. .20 
. .25 
. .30 
. .35 
. .40 
. .45 
. .50 
. .83 
. .90 
. .98 
.1.05 
.1.13 
.1.20 
.1.28 
.1.35 
.1.90 
.2.00 
.2.10 
.2.20 
.2.30 
.2.40 
.2.50 
.2.60 



0.08 0.04 0.01 



.11 

.14 
.17 

.20 
.23 
.25 
.28 
.57 
.63 
.68 
.73 
.78 
.83- 
.89 
.94 



.05 
.06 
.08 
.09 
.10 
.11 
.13 
.37 
.40 
.44 
.47 
.50 
.53 
.57 
.60 



.01 
.02 
.02 

.02 
.03 
.03 
.03 



.24 
.26 
.28 
.30 
.32 
.34 



1.46 


1.07 


.74 


1.53 


1.13 


.78 


1.61 


1.18 


.82 


1.68 


1.24 


.86 


1.76 


1.29 


.90 


1.84 


1.35 


.94 


1.91 


1.41 


.97 


1.99 


1.46 


1.02 



.21 0.09 
.23 .10 



.11 
.12 
.13 
.13 
.14 
.15 
.48 
.50 
.53 
.55 
.58 
.60 
.63 
.65 



n feet. , 

350. 400. 



27 0.12 O 



.13 
.13 
.14 
.14 
.15 
.16 
.16 



Curves. 



A large proportion of the railway mileage is composed of curves, es- 
pecially on lines where heavy curvature has been adopted through bad lo- 
cation or to reduce the cost of construction. The maintenance work is 
usually greater en curves than on tangents for the following reasons: (1) 
the tendency of the traffic to throw the track out of the line by the pressure 
of the wheels against the outer rails (in spite of superelevation of rails); 
(2), the increased wear of rails by (A) the pressure of the wheel flanges, (JB) 
the sliding of the wheels transversely, due to the fact that the axles are 
not parallel with the radius of the curve, and (C) the sliding of the wheels 
longitudinally, due to the fact that the outside wheel has to travel on a 
longer path than the inside wheel in the same time. 

The curvature is not usually reckoned by the radius (except in the case- 



356 



TRACK WORK. 



of very sharp curves at yards, etc.), but by the number of degrees of cen- 
tral angle subtended by a chord of 100 ft. The radius of a 1° curve with a 
100-ft. chord is 5,730 ft. (or more exactly, 5,729.65 ft.), and the radius on 
center line (R) or degree (D) of any curve may be obtained by the follow- 
ing formulas: 

R = 5,730 -5- D. D = 5,730 -*- R. 

Fig. 208 (diagram 204) shows the various nomenclatures used in curve 
work. The "central angle" (A) is the angle contained within the radial 
lines to the extremities of the curve, or the P. C. (point of curve) and P. T. 
{point of tangent). The "degree of curve" (B) is the portion of the central 




^Jrgnsjfm^^ IN 

*; 206. 






A Central Angle. (=C) 

B Degree of Curve. 

C Angle of Intersection. (=A) 

D Angle of Deflection. 



0-. D Tangent of Transition Curve 
Ifajierrfjf Circular Curve 




■90 (p.t.c.) 



207. 



204. A. 



Fig. 208. — Curve Diagrams. 



angle which is contained within radial lines to a chord 100 ft. long on the 
curve. The "angle of intersection" (C) is the exterior angle at the inter- 
section of the two tangents produced, and this angle is equal to the "central 
angle" (A). The "angle of deflection" (D) is the angle contained within the 
tangent produced and a 100-ft. chord on the curve. Taking X as the length 
•of curve, in feet; Y as the degree of curve; and Z as the central angle, the 
relations may be obtained by the following formulas: 



x = 100 



Y = 100 



Y X 



Y X 100 

Table No. 25 affords a handy means of ascertaining the. degree of a curve 



GAGE, GRADES AND CURVES. 



357 



in the track (see "Lining"). It is based upon that arc of the outer rail 
which is cut off by a chord tangent to the gage side of the inner rail, the 
middle ordinate being the gage of the track, as in Fig. 208 (diagram 204, A). 
The length of the arc may be measured by rail lengths on a short curve, or 
by feet on a long curve. To find the degree of the curve, stand at a joint on 
the outer rail and sight across the gage side of the inner rail to the outer 
rail. Then count the rails between these points, or measure the chord A C, 
or arc ABC, and the degree of curve will be found in the table. 

TABLE NO. 23.— CURVE FUNCTIONS. 



Degree Radius 

of of center 

-curve. line, ft. 

1 5,730 

2 2,865 

3 1,910 

4 1,433 

5 1,146 

6 955.4 

7 819.0 

8 716.8 

9 637.3 

10 573.7 

11 521.7 

12 47S.3 

13 441.7 

14 410.3 

15 3S3.1 

16 359.3 

17 338.3 

18 319.6 

19 302.9 

20 2S7.9 



No. of 


t Length of , 






30-ft. rails 


Arc 


Chord 


Cer 


itral 


in 


A B C, 


A C, 


,-- angle.— ^ 


ABC. 


ft. 


ft. 


Degs. 


Mins. 


15.5 


463.5 


403. 4 


4 


38 


11 


328.6 


328.4 


6 


34 


9 


268.1 


267.9 


8 


02 


8 


232.5 


232.2 


9 


17 


7 


20S.O 


207.7 


10 


24 


6.3 


190.0 


1S9.7 


11 


22 


5.8 


175.8 


175.5 


12 


16 


5.5 


164.8 


164.5 


13 


08 


5.2 


155.2 


154.8 


13 


54 


4.9 


147.5 


147.1 


14 


40 


4.6 


■ 140.6 


140.1 


15 


22 


4.5 


134.8 


134.3 


16 


04 


4.3 


129.5 


129.0 


16 


42 


4.1 


124.8 


124.3 


17 


20 


4.0 


120.6 


120.1 


17 


56 


3.9 


116.8 


116.3 


IS 


30 


3.8 


113.3 


'112.8 


19 


04 


3.7 


110.3 


109.8 


19 


38 


3.6 


107.4 


106.8 


20 


10 


3.5 


104.7 


104.1 


20 


4U 



In Fig. 208, diagram 205 shows how to set out a circular curve. The tan 
gent approach is first carefully lined up and a stake (B) set at the P. C. ana 
another (A) 100 ft. back on the tangent (both on center line of track). Tne 
tangent is then lined in for 100 ft. beyond the P. C. at (A), giving point (C). 
The 100-ft. tape or cord is then held by one end at (A) while its other end 
is moved inward from (C) for the distance given in Table No. 26 as the tan- 
gent deflection on a chord of 100 ft. for a curve of the required degree. 
This gives point (D) on the curve, and a stake is set at this point. The 
chord (A D) is then extended to (E), 100 ft. The tape being held at (D), its 
free end is moved inward from (E) for the distance given in the table as the 
curve deflection on a chord of 100 ft. for a curve of the required degree. 
This gives another point (F) on the curve. The curve deflection (E F), 
(G H) is always twice the tangent deflection (C D), (L K). The points (H) 
and (J) on the curve are set out in the same way from (F)'and (L). If the 
curve ends at (H), as shown, then from the point (L) the tape will be swung 
in for the distance previously used for the tangent deflection (C D) and 
this will give a point (K) on the tangent, 100 ft. from the. P. T. at 
(H). Intermediate points on the curve may be set out by measuring the 
middle ordinate for each 100-ft. chord, as given by the table, thus marking 
the points (M), (N), (6). Table No. 26 gives the tangent offset (C D, Fig. 
208, diagram 205) for a tangent (B C) and chord (B D), both 100 ft. long, 
and also the middle ordinate of a chord 100 ft. long, so 'that the table may 
be used in setting out curves by offsets or ordinates. In the former case it 



358 



TRACK WORK. 



must be remembered that the curve offsets (E F), (G H), etc., are double 
the tangent offset. 



TABLE NO. 26.— CURVE OFFSETS AND ORDINATES. 



Degree of 
i — curve — v 
Deg. Mins. 





30 


30 


30 


30 


30 


30 



Tangent 
offset, 
ft. 
. .0.873 
..1.309 
..1.745 
..2.181 
. .2.618 
..3.054 
..3.490 
..3.926 
. .4.362 
..4.798 
..5.234 
..5. 669 



Middle or- 
r- dinate,^ 



ft. 
0.218 
0.327 
0.436 
0.545 
0.654 
0.763" 
0.872 
0.982 
1.091 
1.200 
1.309 
1.418 



ms. 
2y 2 

"5% 

'8 

ioy 2 

13 
15% 



Degree of 
, — curve — y 
Deg. Mins. 
7 . 



10 
10 
11 
12 

15 

20 



Tangent 

offset, 

ft. 

6.105 

30 6.540 

6,976 

30 7.411 

7.846 

30 8.281 

8.716 

30 9.150 

9.585 

10.453 

13.053 

17.365 



Middle or- 
dinate, ->, 



ft. 
1.528 
1.637 
1.746 
1.855 
1.965 
2.074 
2.183 
2.293 
2.402 
2.620 
3.277 
4.374 



ins, 
18%- 

21 

2sy 2 . 

2614: 

29 

31V2 

39y 4 
521/2 



Sharp curves exist on many main lines, having been introduced either 
carelessly from bad location or necessarily on difficult location or in order 
to keep down the grades and reduce the cost of construction. In general, 
6° should be the maximum for main track. While there is little practical 
objection to the free use of curvature on a properly located line, many roads 
have spent large sums of money in taking out or flattening curves to im- 
prove the alinement, especially where there is heavy and fast traffic. The 
Mexican Ry. has numerous curves of 350 ft. and 325 ft. radius, and while 
building a difficult tunnel its main line traffic was handled successfully over 
reverse curves of 150 ft. radius, the traffic being light. Curves of 8° to 15° 
are used on many mountain lines. The Canadian Pacific Ry. has at one 
point along the Kicking Horse River, a long curve of 22° (nearly a semi- 
circle) ; it was laid with a superelevation of 6 or 7 ins., but much grinding 
took place, and the rails are now level, laid to a gage of 4 ft. 10 ins., with 
guard rails to both track rails, to guide the wheels and to carry the blind 
tires. The passage of traffic over this curve has been so satisfactory that a 
proposed expensive tunnel (through running clay) to take out this curve 
has not been built. Engines with a wheelbase of 14 ft. 6 ins. pass this curve 
and the maximum speed is 10 to 15 miles per hour. The train resistance due 
to curvature is in practice sometimes taken as %-lb. per degree, for each de- 
gree of curvature. 

Very sharp curves are occasionally required in yards, at Y's, and particu- 
larly for spur tracks entering storehouses, grain elevators, factory yards, 
etc. A single car can be hauled round a curve of 40 ft. radius, as in en- 
tering a warehouse, etc., where room is limited and land is valuable. 
Where trains of two or more coupled cars are run, the radius may be 90 or 
100 ft., though there may be occasional trouble from the corners of the 
cars striking each other, unless long coupling links or bars are used. It 
is not generally advisable to use four-wheel switch engines on curves of 
less than 75 ft. radius. The outer rails may be wide and flat to give a 
bearing to the wheel flanges of cars. On all such specially sharp curves 
care should be taken to have the curvature uniform and regular, the gage 
properly widened, rails braced, and guard rails properly set, and the main- 
tenance properly attended to. A curve of 79^ ft. radius at the Atlantic 
Terminal, Brooklyn, has a gage of 4 ft. 9 1 /! ins., and a superelevation of 
4 ins. Table No. 27 gives particulars of some, of the sharpest curves on 
open track and in yards. 



GAGE, GRADES AND CURVES. 



359 



TABLE NO. 27.— SHARP CURVES OX STANDARD-GAGE TR 



Railway. 
N. Y., X. H. & Hartford. 
Lehigh & Susquehanna. 



.Baltimore & Ohio. 



JErie & Wyoming Valley (1) . . . 

Virginia Central 

Virginia Central 

Prov., Warren & Bristol (2) . . 

Chesapeake & Ohio 

•Canadian Pacific (3) 

Pennsylvania 

Pitts., Ft. Wayne & Chicago.. 

Canarsie & Rockaway 

Brighton B'ch & Coney Island 

Manhattan Elevated (4) 

New York Central 

" (5) 



Chic, Mil. & St. Paul 

•C, C, C. & St. Louis 

(6).... 

(7).... 

Pitts., C, C. & St. L. (o) 

U. S. Military Ry. (1861)..., 

.Lima & Oroya 

Den. & Rio Grande (3-ft.) . . . 

Den. & Rio Grande 

Mexican National (3-ft.) (b) , 

Cent. Ry. of N. J. (10) 

Harlem Transfer(ll) 



Locality. 

Springfield, Mass 

Upper divisions 

Stony Creek 

Butler Branch 

Harpers Ferry (Md. side)... 

Harpers Ferry (Va. side).... 

Mlchester 

' Y for consol. locomotives... 

Dunmore, Pa 

Over Rockfish Gap tunnel.. 

Over Rockfish Gap tunnel.. 
. Providence, R. I 

Cincinnati 

, Kicking Horse River 

Centennial Exposition (1876) 

Pitisburg, Fa 

Brooklyn, N. Y 

Brooklyn, N. Y 

'New York city 90, 

. Grand Central Sta., N. Y. . . . 

Grand Central Sta., N. Y 

. Center St., New Ycrk 

, Minneapolis side track 

St. Louis, Mo 

Lafayette, Ind 

Cincinnati, O., yards 

Cincinnati, 0., yards 

Petersbuig, Va 

Peru 

, Main track 

Quarry tracks 

. Manzanillo 

New York yard 

New Ycrk yard 



RD-GAGE TRACK. 




Sharpest 




, curve * 


Radius, ft. 


Degs. Mins. 


410 


14 


383 


] 


3*0 


18 


310 


18 32 


400 


14 22 


300 


19 10 


375 


15 20 


130 


43 


310 


18 30 


300 


19 10 


238 


24 15 


271 to 211 


21° to 27° 


187, 210, 231 


30° 50' to 25° 


200 


22 


300 


19 10 


240 


23 30 


173 


33 15 


55 to 125 


104° to 50° 


LOO, 103y 2 , 125 


63° to 56° 


320 to 400 


Main tracks. 


75 and 80 


Yard tracks. 


50 to 60 


105° to 96° 


125 


4 7 o 


206 


28° 


240 


24° 


70 


82° 


50 and 52 


Extend'g 90° 


50 


105° 


305 


14 32 




24° and 33° 




35° and 4U° 


144.3 


40° 


147 


39° 


90 and 104 


63.6° and 55° 



(1). This is a loop of 310 ft. radius, over which consolidation, mogul and 
eight-wheel engines run without difficulty, and often at considerable speed 
up to 20 miles per hour. The gage is 4 ft. 8% ins., and the superelevation of 
•outer rail is 6 ins. The rails are 67 lbs. per yd., and there is no guard rail. 

(2). This curve is nearly semicircular, beginning at 271 ft. and gradually 
reducing to 211 ft. radius for about 90°. Double truck engines are used, 
but eight-wheel engines were enabled to run by giving the front driving- 
wheels blind tires 7 ins. wide, while a third and fourth rail were laid on the 
inside of the curve for the blind tires to run en. 

(3). This curve en the Canadian Pacific Ry. has been noted above. 

(4). The New York elevated railways have very sharp curves on right 
angle turns from one street to another. The Sixth Ave. line turns out of 
South Fifth Ave. by a circular curve of 90 ft. and 109 ft. radius for the inner 
and outer tracks (112° 13' and 104° 20') with short reverse curves of 267.2 
ft. and 304.65 ft. radius at each end extending 13° 58' at one end and 10° 29' 
at the other. At Coenties Slip, the Third Ave. line makes a double right 
angle turn by reverse curves of 125 ft. radius between tracks (or about 48°), 
and 119 ft. radius of inner track. The first curve covers 92° 45' and the 
second 119° 45'. The Northwestern Electric Elevated Ry., Chicago, has 
maximum curves of 90 ft. radius, with a superelevation of 3% ins., this 
being the maximum elevation. 

(5). Three spur tracks to the freight warehouse of the Adams Express 
•Co. on the east side of the Grand Central Station yard, New York, are of 
75 and 80 ft. radius, and are satisfactory for standard baggage cars, 50 ft. 
long. A four-wheel yard switch engine, with a four-wheel tender is used, 
adapted to these curves by lengthening the drawbar so as to separate the 
•end frames by a distance of 16 ins. The ties are 5% ins. wide, with 4-in. 
tread, and 1-in. flanges. The wheel gage is 4 ft. 5% ins. back to back of 
tires, and the track gage is 4 ft. 9 ins., or %-in. wide. The driving wheels 
are 4 ft. 4 ins. diameter, with a wheelbase of 8 ft.; and the tender wheels 
:are 2 ft. 6 ins. diameter, with a wheelbase of 7 ft. 6 ins. 

(6). Main track curve opposite station. Superelevation, 2y 2 ins. Gage wid- 



360 TRACK WORK. 

ened %-m. Guard rail space, 4 ins., 4-in. plank spiked outside inner rail to 
take blind drivers. 

(7). There are two curves of 70 ft. radius, around which cars pass easily, 
as well as a pony switching engine with a wheelbase of 7 ft. 6 ins. The 
shackle bar between the engine and tender was slightly lengthened, and the 
feed hose transferred from the sides to the center line to prevent the cor- 
ners from jamming and tearing the hose. Bar links with holes 12 ins. apart 
are used between the cars to spread them apart and keep the corners from 
striking. Two to four cars are usually handled. The gage is spead V/ 2 ins. 
on these curves. 

(8). These two sidings turn out of the street connection railway into a 
beef storehouse, and have each an angle of 90°. A four-wheel engine with 
7-ft. wheelbase has been used, but as the street rails get filled with dirt it is 
the practice to rope the cars in and out. Engines with six driving wheels 
work regularly over sidetrack curves of 80 and 100 ft. radius. 

(9). This is a terminal loop curve covering an angle of 241° 61.4'. The 
rails are 40 lbs. per yd., on ties spaced 24 ins. c. to c, with braces on every 
fifth tie. There is a guard rail on the curve, and one rail for blind drivers 
on the inside of the outer running rail. The engines are moguls with a 
driving wheelbase of 12 ft, and the trains range from four 30-ft. box cars- 
of 10 tons capacity and three 42-ft. passenger cars to 20 box cars and 5 pas- 
senger cars. There is a descending grade of 0.1% with the traffic. 

(10 and (11). These are referred to in Chapter 12. The latter has two 
concentric tracks with end curves of 90° and 104 ft. radius, surrounding an 
oval freight house; and there are similar curves connecting with the other 
yard tracks. The outer rail is elevated 2 ins., and gage widened to 4 ft. 9 
ins. 

In regard to sharp curves, an item to be considered in questions of 
widening gage on curves, guard rail space, minimum radius, etc., is the 
length of lap of the wheel flp .ges below the rail head, and this is given in 
Table No. 28, the flange depth being taken as V/ s ins. 

TABLE NO. 28.— LAP OF WHEEL FLANGES. 

Diameter of Length of Diameter of Length of 

wheel. lap. wheel. lap. 

30 to 34 ins 12 ins. 54 to 60 ins 16 ins. 

35 " 40 " 13 " 61 " 68 " 17 " 

41 " 46 " 14 " 69 " 76 " 18 " 

47 " 53 " 15 " 

Rail braces are used to support rails on curves, as described in Chapter 
6, but for curves of less than 4°, double spiking will suffice. On very sharp 
curves, iron guard rails are sometimes laid inside the inner rail to prevent 
derailment, as noted further on. The gage should be widened on sharp 
curves, as also noted further on. 

In tracklaying, as well as in location, it is often desirable to ascertain 
the divergence of a curve from its tangent, and this is given by the follow- 
ing formula, prepared by Mr. Muenscher: 

X = 0.875 W D, 

Here X is the offset, or distance of one end of a curve from a tangent 
passing trrough the other end; N is the length of the curve in chords of 
100 ft.; and D is the degree of curvature. Thus the divergence of a curve 
of 6° from its tangent in a length of 500 ft., will be as follows: 

0.S75 x5 2 xG= 131.25 ft. 

By making D equal to the difference of the degree of curvature of two 
curves of different radius, but having a common origin, X will be their di- 



GAGE, GRADES AND CURVES. 361 

vergence from each other at the end of. N stations. In tracklaying, if we 
make X = the gage of track, and D = the degree of curvature of a turnout 
tracK (or corresponding to a given number of frog), N will be the lead of 
the main track. If X is half the gage, N will be the lead of the crotch 
frog, and if X is the throw of a stub' switch, N will be the free length 
of the switch rail. The formula is sufficiently accurate for practical pur- 
poses, and is of great use in field work, with the aid of a table of actual 
tangents for a 1° curve. For example, suppose a 5° curve to the right, 8 
stations long, has been located, and its extremity falls 28 ft. too far to 
the right to throw the tangent on the best ground. Making X = 28, would 
give D = i£°, showing that a 4° 30' curve starting from the same origin 
would pass through the required spot. Suppose that in the same case the 
new curve is to commence 200 ft. back of the first one; then the required di- 
vergence from the tangent will be 0.875 x 8 J x 5 — 28 = 252. Substituting 
this value for X and making N = 5 x 2, gives D = 2.88 = 2° 53'. 

In regard to rail wear on curves, the greatest wear is on the inner side 
of the head of the outer rail, which has to guide the flanges of the wheels. 
The corner and side of the rail head gradually wear to conform to the sec- 
tion of wheel fillet and flange, and the top of the head wears so as to give 
a slope upward from the inner corner. This wear becomes greater as the 
head wears to the shape of the wheel flange. The inner rail does not 
get cut away in the same manner, as the flanges run from instead of 
towards it, but the longitudinal and lateral slipping of the inner wheels, 
the greater weight and the lateral force of the weight upon this rail wear 
the head down and deform it, often forcing the metal cut in a lip beyond' 
the original line of the side of the head. The pressure against the outer 
rail, and the weight on the inner rail, with its angular inclination, due to 
the inclination of the engine by the superelevation, tend to overturn the 
rail by forcing the outer edge of the flange into the ties and drawing the 
inner spikes. This has been usually resisted by rail braces on the outside 
of the rail, but the use of metal tie-plates has been found even more effi- 
cient, as they prevent the cutting of the wood of the tie. The work of 
maintaining the gage on curves may be considerably reduced .by the use 
of tie-plates and rail braces, or on heavy curves by the use of bridle-rods 
or tie-bars holding the base of the rails like switch rods, there being from 
two to four bars to a rail length. In European practice, tie-rods through 
the rail webs are sometimes used on extreme curves. 

Transition Curves. 
One of the great difficulties in practical track work is to maintain an 
easy riding track at the connection of tangents with curves where circular 
curves spring directly from the tangents. The cars will pass as easily and 
smoothly round a well-laid curve as along an equally well-laid tangent, 
but there is an unpleasant lurching at each end of the curve, due to the 
sudden change of direction from rectilinear to circular motion, and vice 
versa. The effect of this lurching is shown by the increased wear of the 
rails and disturbance of the track at this point, indicating that a lateral 
force is exerted which has to be resisted in guiding the train along the 
track. In very many cases an attempt is made to remedy this by some 
form of transition or easement curve to connect the tangent with the curve 



362 TRACK WORK. 

proper. Where a circular curve is laid out to start directly from a tan- 
gent, the foreman will usually ease off the ends to make an easier riding 
track. This is done by throwing the track inward by means of lining bars, 
so that the curve is practically extended 100 ft. onto the original tangent. 
The curve is therefore flattened at this point, which is an advantage in 
giving an easy change from the tangent to the true curve. It is true that 
this necessarily sharpens the curve a little beyond the located P. C, but 
there the lurching or swing is less severely felt as the car has already begun 
to change its direction. Even if this is not done, the lurching will soon 
be materially lessened by the traffic slightly shifting the track to the posi- 
tion giving it the easiest path (which is an objectionable means of obtain- 
ing a desirable end). The use of the transition curve throws the curve out 
on the tangent, or makes it longer, which is what the practical trackman 
does by rule of thumb, as above noted. The curve thus altered rides very 
much more easily, -and it is probable that there are very few curves which 
are not, intentionally or otherwise, maintained in this condition. 

Parabolic curves are sometimes used instead of circular curves, with the 
idea that they ride more easily. They are, however, of comparatively little 
effect as far as transitioning is concerned, and the same may be said of the 
plan of throwing in the whole of the curve except about 100 ft. at each end, 
connecting with the tangents. Mr. Wellington pointed out in the field 
book which he left uncompleted at his death, that if to decrease the evil 
due to the connections at curves, we connect the same tangents and tan- 
gent points by parabolic instead of by circular arcs, we shall obtain curves 
which are of a longer radius at the P. C. and P. T. than the circular arc, 
but ordinarily only slightly longer. Thus the evils of the transition are 
only slightly alleviated, and there is the disadvantage that the curve is 
correspondingly sharpened in the center. While in no case is the ameliora- 
tion of conditions as to radii considerable, a new and unfavorable effect 
is created; as the degree of a parabolic curve is constantly changing, and 
the change is very slow, the angle of the axis of the trucks to the axis of 
the car is likewise constantly changing, but with extreme slowness. Under 
these conditions the coefficient of friction' between the center plates be- 
comes a maximum, and the flange pressure and danger of the center plates 
binding and causing derailment are both materially increased. With the 
parabola, it is true, unlike the circle, it is unnecessary to have the tangents 
equal, and if unequal tangents are used, we shall at one end of the curve 
ameliorate still more the transition from tangent to curve, but at the ex- 
pense of introducing less favorable conditions at the other end. On the 
whole, the parbola is under no conditions a desirable railway curve, as 
compared with the circle, even if it were more easy instead of more difficult 
to lay out. 

The best way to lay out the curves (especially for high speed) is lo 
locate or relocate the line with circular curves having easement or transi- 
tion curves connecting the main circular curve with the tangents. The 
rail wear and the maintenance work for alinement at curves will be much 
less on a track thus located, and the trackmen soon come to realize this 
in its relation to their work. Transition curves should never be lined by 
eye alone. The transition curves are used either on all curves, or on all over 
3° or 4°, and the length may be from 50 to 300 ft., according to the degree 



GAGE, GRADES AND CURVES. 363 

of main curve and the local conditions. On old roadbeds, where no great 
change in position of track is practicable, transition curves can still be 
fitted by slightly sharpening the degree and radius of the main curve, and 
moving the middle of the curve a few inches out and the ends a few inches 
inwards. Curves thus treated are longer than simple curves, so that in 
relocation, where reverse curves separated by short tangents occur, the 
tangents will be still further shortened. Absolute reverse curves cannot be 
so relocated without increasing the curvatures to get in the necessary 
length for the transition between them, but such curves so transitioned 
are very much less objectionable than circular reverse curves of easier 
curvature and with short connecting tangents. Transition curves should 
not be used as a means of improving location, but should be confined to 
their proper purpose. In Wellington's "Economic Theory of Railway 
Location" the case is concisely stated as follows: "What is wanted is (1) to 
ease off the curve by a rapidly changing radius for a short distance at the 
ends — a transition curve; and (2) to leave the great body of the curve of 
uniform radius." With such a curve the work of the trackmen will be 
considerably reduced, and there will also be less wear of wheel flanges and 
rails, and rolling stock. The easement, or transition, may be effected 
in three ways: (1) By a compound curve, whose ends are of greater radius 
than the central arc; (2) By compounding short circular arcs of gradually 
increasing radius, until the radius of the main central arc or curve is 
reached; or (3) By a spiral curve. 

On the Pennsylvania Ry. and some other lines no form of spiral 
transitioning is used, but on curves of 4°, an easier curve is 
introduced at each end and compounded with the main curve. The Searles 
"spiral" (which is of the second class, with arcs of equal length), and the 
Holbrook spiral, are extensively used, as well as modifications of various 
"spiral" systems introduced by engineers on different roads. A majority of 
railways employ one or other of these systems in the alinement of track, 
although there are some notable exceptions, the objections usually urged by 
these latter being as follows: (1) The benefits are largely theoretical; (2) 
the practical effects are obviated by the variable velocity of the traffic; (3) 
the curves are more difficult to lay out and to maintain in alinement. The 
first objection can hardly be sustained in the face of extensive experience 
as to the practical advantages derived, and which are worth much more 
than they cost. As to the second, while it is true that the easement cannot 
be made to fit the variations of train velocity, it can be made to fit the pre- 
vailing velocity; this same objection would apply to the superelevation on 
curves; but no engineer would propose to dispense with superelevation. As 
to the third objection, the computation and field work of location are but 
little more difficult than for circular curves without easement, the extra 
trouble being mainly in the plotting. The location is easily made precise 
enough for all practical purposes, and the maintenance of alinement is no 
more difficult if the curve is properly and permanently marked and the fore- 
man is required to line by the engineer's stakes and not by his eye. The de- 
tails of plotting and location may be found in various field books and in 
works on the transition curves, and would be. out of place here. A 
proper system of transition curves has the practical advantage of greatly 
simplifying the field work of connecting, adjusting and readjusting lines, 

13 



364 TRACK WORK. 

while not adding materially to the time required in the first continuous lo- 
cation. The transition curve is discussed very fully in "Engineering 
News" of Sept. 20, 1900. 

The best transition curve is that on the. principle of the cubic parabola, 
being a short curve of varying radius, which is interpolated between the 
circular curve and its tangent in order to make the passage from the one to 
the other less abrupt. It must be such that, starting with an infinite radius 
(or D = 0) at the P. C. (A), ic will have a degree at every point in direct 
proportion to the distance from the P. C, until, at the P. C. C, where it con- 
nects with and becomes tangent to the main curve, it is of the same degree 
as that curve. Such a curve approximates closely to that of the cubic para- 
bola, and with it the curvature and superelevation commence at the same 
point, the curve commencing easily, and its degree increasing gradually 
and uniformly, and yet quickly, until at some point it attains the degree of 
the main curve, the maximum superelevation being attained at the same 
point. The main circular curve is then continued until, near its end, it is 
again run out by a transition curve of decreasing degree into the tangent. 
The centrifugal force will thus be created gradually, and be exactly bal- 
anced at every point by a gradually increasing centripetal force from the 
superelevation, if the latter is precisely adapted to the speed; or, if not, the 
aggregate will be less and gradually created. The center plates of the 
.trucks will move through the necessary angle quickly, and then remain un- 
changed until the curve is left. The conclusions presented by Mr. We 
lington in regard to this curve were as follows: 

1. — The transition curve will deflect exteriorly from the given main 
curve, because the rate of curvature becomes continuously less. 

2. — It will terminate in a tangent parallel to the given tangent, because 
the same central angle is consumed. 

3.— The offset DP (=0), Fig. 208 (diagram 207), bisects the transition 
curve A C in M. , 

4. — The transition curve A C bisects the offset O in M. 

5. — At any intermediate points, O O 1 , at equal distances from the corre- 
sponding P. T. C.'s, or from the middle point M, the offsets to the transi- 
tion curve from the tangent, or from the main curve produced, are equal. 
• 6. — The average degree of curvature between the P. T. C. at A and any 
two intermediate points, O and O 1 , varies directly as the distances to these 
points from the P. T. C. 

7. — The square offsets, O or O 1 , from the tangent or the main curve pro- 
duced, vary as the cube of the distance from the P. T. C. 

8. — Any offset, O, may be used with any curve to connect the main curve 
with the tangent, and the length of the curve only will vary, varying as the 
square root of half the length of the transition curve. 

9. — The half length (n) of the curve (A M or M C) equals the central 
angle I divided by the degree of the main curve. 

The curve should be permanently staked and marked, and the foreman 
required to maintain it precisely as laid out by the engineer. The marking 
may be by monuments of stone or pieces of old rail at the beginning, center 
and end of the transition curve, with oak stakes or old splice bars placed 
30 ft. or 50 ft. apart, and 5 ft. on each side of the center. The length of 
transition curve varies, some roads specify 30, 50, 60 or 100 ft. per degree of 



GAGE, GRADES AND CURVES. 365 

curve, while others specify a uniform length of 150 to 300 ft. and the South- 
ern Pacific Ry. makes them as long as practicable, but always maintaining 
at least 60 ft. of the central arc. The transition should be used for curves 
over 2°, the limit of different roads varying from 1° to 4°. On the Northern 
Pacific Ry., it is used for all curves of 3° and over, the rate of change per 
degree not exceeding 1° per 50 ft. chord, except on mountain grades, where 
the chord may be reduced to a minimum of 25 ft. if necessary. 

As a rule, the text-books make this too much of a mathematical ideality, 
with hair-splitting precision, so that beginners do not realize its importance 
and get to imagine that its value is purely theoretical, and not to be con- 
sidered in the field. The curve may be laid out by deflection angles or by 
offsets, but as the differences of curvature are in most cases comparatively 
small, and the transit work, if rigorously done, becomes more complex, the 
offset method is particularly suitable. In all ordinary cases, for moderate 
length and offsets, the curve is sensibly a parabola, and bisects the total 
offset. The offsets to the curve from the tangent and the circular curve 
are equal at equal distances from the extremity of the curve, and the offsets 
at the quarter points are always 1-16 of the total offset, or almost imper- 
ceptible, so that for grading purposes the curve is rarely more than half as 
long in fact as it is in theory. The track centers as well as grading centers 
may be laid out by offsets alone in all ordinary cases, with practically per- 
fect accuracy. The objection is sometimes made that the method of laying 
out the curves by offsets is but a rough approximation to the true curve. 
Such objections (like those to simple methods of laying out turnouts) are 
apt to be made on theoretical considerations and without due allowance for 
the fact that delicate and minute measurements are sometimes out of place 
and useless in track work. As a matter of fact, many miles of track centers 
have been run in by this method, and the track is practically equal to that 
on which the centers have been set directly from the transit, while the cost 
is very much less. In general, when circumstances permit, the best way 
for determining a transition curve is to assume a length, and let the offset 
at the P. C. come where it will, but in many cases this is impossible or in- 
expedient, and the practical case is that the offset F is given a fixed length, 
and a curve must be put in to fit it. The offsets should vary approximately 
as the cube of the degree of curvature of the main curve, and while dif- 
ferences in speed may properly be considered in selecting particular transi- 
tion curves, that does not prevent the law from being as stated if it is de- 
sired to use curves changing in degree by a given quantity in a given dis- 
tance. The minimum length of offset for a 2° curve, or any other transition 
curve, should be as large as can be conveniently obtained up to a foot or 
more, provided high speeds are expected. If they are not expected, or if 
there are many other much sharper curves, a 2° curve may, without sensible 
harm, be left without transition curves. In any case it is a waste of time 
to bother with offsets less than 0.1-in. (or even so small), as, within a year 
after the track is laid, it will almost certainly, under the trackmen's atten- 
tion, vary more than that, often four or five times as much. In the applica- 
tion to compound curves, the transition curve to connect two curves, D- 
and D 10 , is practically identical (as to length and offsets) with one connect- 
ing a tangent with a curve whose degree is equal to the difference between 
the degrees of two curves (D 1 — D)°. 



366 TRACK WORK. 

A system of laying out transition curves by offsets based on the cubic 
parabola, and extensively used on the Oregon Ry. & Navigation Co., was 
described in "Engineering News," June 22, 1899. The following offset 
method, which is specially adapted to work on existing track, is given by 
Mr. David Molitor, and has been used on the German government railways 
and the Illinois Central Ry. The circular curve is staked out on the ground 
in the usual manner, stakes being driven at the P. C, and on the tangent at 

L L 

distances — and — , Fig. 208 (diagram 206), and also on the curve at the 

4 2 

same distances from the P. C, the distance L being the length of transition 
curve as given in Table No. 29. Having these five stakes, offsets are meas- 
ured towards the center of the curve as given in the table, and stakes set 
at the ends of these offsets are the track centers. The position of the cir- 
cular curve between its two transition curves is given by the constant off- 
set M. The figures given in Table No. 29 are sufficient for all practical pur- 
poses. In the equation for the curve, L R is a constant, 173,800, which is 
found to give good results without excessive values for M. The length of 
transition curve is then, - 

173.800 



P 

For points between O and the P. C. the ordinate U from the tangent is 
given by formula A, and for points between the P. C. and N the offset S 
from the circular curve is given by formula B. 

X 3 X J X^ (X — L) 2 



(A) U = = . (B) S 



6LR 1,042,800 6 L R 2 R 

TABLE iNO. 29.— OFFSETS FOR STAKING OUT TRANSITION CURVES FROM 

CIRCULAR CURVES. 

, Offsets 



Degrees 

of 
-curve — v 
>egs. Mins. 
2 on . _ 


Radius, 
R, ft. 
2,864.9 


L, 

ft. 

60.7 

68.3 

7o.9 

83.4 

91 .0 

98.6 . 

106.2 

113.7 

121 3 

128.8 

136.4 

144.0 

151.7 

.159.3 

166.8 

174.4 

181.9 


L 
X = 

4 

u, 

ft. 
0.1)03 

0.004 
0.006 
0.008 
0.011 
O.014 
0.018 
0.022 
0.027 
0.032 
0.038 
0.045 
0.052 
0.060 
0.089 
0,079 
0.000 


L 

X = 

2 

T, 

ft. 
0.027 
0.038 
0.052 
0,069 
0.000 
0.115 
0.143 
0.176 
0.214 
0.257 
O.304 
0.358 
0.418 
0.484 
0.556 
0.636 
0.722 


3L 
X = 

4 

s, 

fc. 
0.051 
0.071 
0.098 
0.130 
0.176 
0.216 
0.269 
0.330 
0.401 
0.481 
0.570 
0.671 
0.783 
0.907 
1 .042 
1.191 
1.352 


X = L 

M, 

ft. 
0.054 


f ? 


15 


2,546.6 


0.076 


*> 


30 


2,292.0 


0.105 


9 


45 


.• 2,1)83.7 


0.139 


3 


00 


1,910.1 


0.181 


3 
3 


15 

30 


.......... 1,7(3 2 

1,637.3 


0.230 

0.987 


■>, 


45 . 


1,528.2 


0.352 


4 


00 

15 


1,432.7 

1.348.5 


0.428 
0.513 


I 


30 . 


1,273.6 


0.608 


4 


45 . 


I 200. (J 


0.716 




00 . 


1,146.3 


0.836 


<=> 


15 . 


1,091.7 


0.968 




30 . 


1,042.1 


1.112 


5 


45 


996.9 


1.271 


6 


00 


955.4 


1.443 



Widening Gage on Curves. 
The gage is usually widened on curves, but there is no uniformity in this 
practice. Some lines with but light curvature widen the gage even on com- 
paratively easy curves, while other lines, abounding in sharp curves, widen 
it only on sharp curves or even maintain the standard gage throughout. 
A partial explanation of this diversity of opinion is in the character of the 
locomotives employed, as the widening is to enable trucks to take a radial 



GAGE, GRADES AND CURVES. 367 

position more easily, and also to enable engines of long wheelbase to pass 
without undue wear of rails and wheel flanges, or liability to climb the rail. 
There has existed a general impression, especially among trackmen, that 
the gage must bewidened on curves but that the matter could not admit of 
and such refinement as mathematical analysis. With more enlightened 
ideas as to the problems involved in track work, however, this matter has 
been investigated, with the result that it has been shown to depend mainly 
upon- three factors: (1) the rigid and flanged wheelbase of engines; (2) 
the clearance between wheel flanges and rails; (3) the distance from center 
of four-wheel truck to front driving axle, and the side motion of the truck. 
Thus, with a short wheelbase, or the provision of extra flange clearance or 
truck side play the widening of gage required on sharp curves may be very 
much less than where opposite conditions prevail. There is a tendency in 
the motive power departments to reduce the use of blind tires, and many 
ten-wheel and consolidation engines now have all the driving wheels 
flanged, but this imposes severe conditions upon the track and is liable to 
cause considerable trouble and expense in maintenance. It is true, that a 
little extra clearance is sometimes given to the front and rear driving 
wheels. The standard width back to back of wheels is 53% ins. The 
all-flanged 12-wheel engines of the Illinois Central Ry., with a driving 
wheel base of 15 ft. 9 ins., have the front and rear drivers 53 1 / 4 ins.; two 
middle pairs, 53^ ins.; truck, 53% ins. The all-flanged consolidation en- 
gines on the Lehigh Valley Ry. have the front and rear driving wheels 53 
ins. back to back, and the others 53^ ins.; the driving wheelbase is 16 ft. 
3 ins. The present practice in gaging wheels gives % to %-in. clearance 
on tangents, and there is no necessity for widening the gage of track as 
long as this gives sufficient clearance between the wheel flange and rail to 
allow the wheel to travel round the curve in a natural position without 
binding or exerting undue pressure. The question was discussed in "En- 
gineering News" (New York), Dec. 2, 1897, and Sept. 22, 1898. Formulas 
based upon the controlling conditions were presented by a committee of the 
Roadmasters' Association of America in 1898, and are given below, being 
modified from other formulas worked out by Mr. W. H. Searles. The 
nomenclature is as follows: D = degree of curve beyond which widening 
will be necessary; A = distance from driving axle to truck pin; B = driv- 
ing wheelbase; S = side play of truck; P = play allowed by wheel flanges. 

956 / i/ 2 B S \ , D A B % B S v 

D = ( (P - %) + ) . P = ( ) + %. 

AxBV A + B/ \ 956 A + B / 

The gage at frogs and switches should be the same as on the adjoining 
track, but some roads widen the gage at these places. The Atchison, To- 
peka & Santa Fe Ry., for instance, makes the gage 4 ft. 9 ins. at all turn- 
outs, whether on curves or tangents. The widening extends through the 
switch and frog and narrows to 4 ft. 8% ins. in a distance of 30 ft. beyond 
the frog. The gage of 4 ft. 9 ins. is also used for yard tracks, from which 
many leads turn out. The widening should be effected by shifting the in- 
ner rail outward, keeping the outer rail at a uniform distance from the 
track centers throughout and using this as the line rail. On several roads 
the widening is 1-16-in. per degree of curve (or %-in. per 2°) for all curves 
of 3° and over, while, on others an arbitrary widening of %-in. on all sharp 



368 



TRACK WORK. 



curves (over 8° to 12°) is specified. The maximum widening for track of 
4 ft. 8% ins. gage is %-in. or 1 in. On the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul 
Ry., the practice was to widen the gage %-in. for 7° curves, and %-in. ad- 
ditional for each additional degree up to y 2 -in. for 10°, all curves beyond 
this being widened %-in. This was satisfactory with the old round-headed 
rail, but with the adoption of rails of the Am. Soc. C. B. section the false 
flanges of worn wheels rode on the rail head and injured it so that the rails 
soon wore out. The present limit is %-in., though this is increased by wear 
in service. On the New York Central Ry., the rule is to widen the gage 
%-in. for curves of 6 to 10°, y 2 -in. for 10 to 14°, %-in. for 14 to 18°, and 
1 in. for 18° and over. On the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry., it is %-in. 
for curves of 1 to 2° (inclusive), %-in. for 3 to 5°, %-in. for 6 to 8°, and 
%-in. for 9 to 11°. The Southern Pacific Ry. allows an additional widening 
of %-in. beyond that given in the table below, but the gage must never 
exceed 4 ft. 9% ins. On the Illinois Central Ry., the. widening is %-in. for 
5°, %-in. for 6° and V, and %-in. for 8°. Table No. 30 shows the practica 
of some other roads in this respect: 



TABLE NO. 30.— WIDENING GAGE ON CURVES. 





t 


-Widening. - 




V 




, Widening. 


\ 




Lou. & Nor. 


Ch. & 


Can. 


Ph. & 


Sou. 




Lou. & Nor. 


Ch. & 


Can. 


Ph. & 


Curve. 


Nash. Pac. 


N.W. 


Pac. 


Read. 


Pac. 


Curve. 


Nash. Pac. 


N.W. 


Pac. 


Read. 


degs. 


in. in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


degs. 


in. in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


1 . 


Vs 










11 .. 


.. v 2 y 2 


y 2 


y 2 


% 


2 . 


Vs 










12 . 


.. % y 2 


Vie 


y 2 


% 


3 . 


Vs 


Vs 




Vs 




13 . 


.. % % 


% 




% 


4 . 


... Vs Vi 


Vs 


Vs 


Vs 




14 . 


.. % % 








5 . 


... Vs Vi 


Vie 


Vs 


v± 


Vs 


15 . 


.. % % 








6 . 


... Vl V± 


Vie 


Vs 


% 


% 


16 . 


... % 








7 . 


... Vl % 


x /4 


v± 


% 


% 


17 . 


... % 








8 . 


... % % 


Vie 


v± 


% 


.% 


18 , 


..1 








9 . 


... % % 


% 


% 


y 2 




19 . 


. 1 








10 . 


... y 2 % 


Vie 


% 


Vi 




20 . 


. .1 









Superelevation on Curves. 

On tangents, it is important that the heads of both rails should be kept 
at the same level, or in the same horizontal plane, so as to insure easy and 
steady riding of the cars. On a curve, however, the centrifugal force causes 
the train to tend to travel in a straight line, thus throwing a severe and 
dangerous pressure of the wheel flanges against the outer rails. To reduce 
this, the outer rail is elevated above the lower one, thus developing a cen- 
tripetal force which causes the train to tend to run towards the center of 
the curve. The amount of this superelevation depends upon the degree 
of the curve and the speed of trains. The centripetal force may be made 
theoretically to exactly' balance the centrifugal force, but in practice it is 
difficult to get universally satisfactory results since the important factor of 
speed is so varying. Fast and slow trains travel over the same tracks, so 
that it is impossible to exactly adjust the actual elevation to theoretical 
conditions, but a mean, or compromise, elevation must be adopted, taking 
into consideration the proportion of fast and slow trains. 

The centrifugal force (C) of a moving train is calculated by the follow- 
in formula: 

Weight of train (tons) x square of velocity (feet per second) 

C = . 

32.2 x radius of curve (feet) 

The superelevation (B) to counteract this lateral force, is sometimes 

taken as 1-10 of the square root of the degree of the. curve, giving the ele- 



GAGE, GRADES AND CURVES. 369 

vation in decimals of a foot. It is more usually calculated, however, by 
one of the following formulas: 

Gage (or distance c. to c. of rails) in ins. x sq. of velocity in ft. per second 



E = 



E 



32.2 x radius of curve, in feet. 
Square of velocity, in miles per hour x distance c. to c. of rails, in ft. 



1.25 x radius of curve, in feet 
Chord 2 



Radius x S 

The location in regard to grades, train service, etc., has also an im- 
portant relation to the required amount of superelevation. Good judgment 
must be exercised in giving the elevation according to the location and de- 
gree of the curve, the speed, and other local conditions affecting the traffic. 
In fact the proper elevation for each curve should be made the subject of 
investigation. Thus, a 6° curve at the top of a grade should have less ele- 
vation than a 6° curve on level track or at the foot of a grade. On double 
track, also, the track on which trains ascend should have less elevation 
than that on which they descend, as the former will have a lower speed. 
If the rule of the road or the practice of the enginemen .is to reduce the 
speed on certain sharp curves, then such curves will require a proportion- 
ately less elevation than easier curves on which trains are run at normal 
speed. On sharp curves near stations or crossings, etc., where trains always 
stop, but little elevation is required, as the speed is slow. The same ap- 
plies to similar curves near the summit of grades. It is not uncommon, 
however, to find excessive elevation at such locations, calculated for much 
higher speeds than can be obtained in service. On single track, a curve in 
a sag of grades may have the elevation increased to provide for trains mak- 
ing a run at the grade. 

Some roads specify but one fixed rate of elevation or one fixed rule, leav- 
ing the roadmasters and foremen to vary their practice according to their 
judgment. Other roads adopt varying rates to suit varying speeds on dif- 
ferent parts of their lines. The Southern Pacific Ry. gives the trackmen 
two elevation tables; one of these is for main lines (except mountain di- 
visions with grades of over 1.8%), and is calculated for a speed of 36 miles 
per hour; the other is for mountain divisions with grades of over 1.8% and 
for branch lines, and is calculated for 25 miles per hour. The Northern 
Pacific Ry. specifies that on mountain grades the elevation must not exceed 
that for 25 miles per hour. The Baltimore & Ohio Ry. gives two rules; one 
applies to single track wuth trains in both directions; the other applies to 
double track on descending and light ascending grades. The Philadelphia 
& Reading Ry. specifies that the elevation must be equal to the middle 
ordinate of a chord whose length is equal to the distance run per second 
by the fastest train, the maximum being 8 ins. On the Chicago, Milwaukee 
& St. Paul Ry., the elevation is ordinarily 1 in. per degree up to 4°, 4% ins. 
for 5°, and 5 ins. for 6° and upward. Where a greater elevation would be 
required, the trains must reduce speed. On the high speed lines, however, 
as between Chicago and Milwaukee, 2° curves have 4 ins. elevation, and 
ride very easily at 60 to 65 miles an hour. On the Atchison, Topeka & Santa 
Fe Ry., the rule is to"elevate the. rail %-in. per degree up to 5*4 ins., which 
is the maximum. Special rules are in force where there are many fast 



370 



TRiACK WORK. 



trains and few slow trains; these run as high as 1 in. per degree in some 
eases. The New York Central Ry. gives the following elevations, the maxi- 
mum being 6y 2 ins.: main passenger tracks, curves under 1°, twice the mid- 
dle ordinate of a 6-2-ft. string; 1° and over, middle ordinate + ly 2 ins.; main 
freight tracks, % of middle ordinate; combination tracks, middle ordinate; 
sidetracks, no elevation. The switchback line carrying the Great Northern 
Ry. over the Cascade Range has curves of 10° and 12°, with a supereleva- 
tion of 5 ins., and a widening of %-in. There is one 13° curve, which is 
widened 1 in. The grades are Zy 2 and 4%, compensated 0.04% per degree 
of curve. No transition curves are introduced. The track is laid with 80-lb. 
rails, with 16 ties to a rail length, 6 spikes in each tie and 6 rail braces to 
each rail. 

The practice as to superelevation on different railways varies very con- 
siderably. For instance, on the Louisville & Nashville Ry. it begins with 
%-in. for 15 miles per hour on a 1° curve, and runs to a maximum of 7 ins. 
on 8° curves. The Northern Pacific Ry., on the other hand, begins with 
%-in. for 15 miles per hour on a 1° curve, and runs to a maximum of 3 ins. 
at that speed, for a 20° curve. Its table gives the elevations for curves of 
1° to 20° for nine rates of speed. On most railways, there is a standard 
table of superelevations for different curves and speeds, and such elevation 
is used as is required by the special conditions at individual curves, for (as 
already noted) practical considerations of traffic and location, maximum 
safe elevation, and reduction of speed due to curve resistance, generally 
necessitate some modification of the theoretical elevation. The tables serve 
only as guides, therefore, and must not be followed blindly. The elevation 
is usually calculated for passenger train speeds, so as to ensure easy riding, 
unless that elevation will be such as to interfere with slow freight trains. 
The practice on different roads is shown in Table No. 31, but that of the 
Northern Pacific Ry. is not given in full, the elevations being worked out 
for nine rates of speed: 



TABLE NO. 31. 
N.Y..N. Southern 



-SUPERELEVATION ON CURVES. 



Degs. 

y 2 ... 
l . .. 

iy 2 ... 

2 

2%;:: 

3 . . 


H. ( 

40 

...2 

..2% 
..2% 
. • • 3% 


fcH. 

50 

1 

1% 

2% 

2% 

3V 4 

3% 

4 

41/2 

5% 

6% 

7" 
7% 


Pac 

A 1 

.% 
1 

1% 
2 

2:% 

3 

3% 

4 

4.% 

5 

5% 

G 


Ific. 
B 2 


, — 111. Central. — , , Louis. & Nash.— 

Speed, miles per hour. 
30 40 50 60 15 25 35 45 55 
Elevation in inches. 


65 


r-Nor. Pacific.—, 
15 30 50 


% 
1% 
V/2 
1% 

2% 

2% 

3 

3% 

3% 

4% 

4% 

4% 

5 


y 2 


1 


iy 2 


2 % 


1 1% 1% 


1% 


2 


% 


7l6 


1% 


1 


2 
2% 


2% 


3% 1% 


1% 2y 8 2% 


2% 


2% 


7l6 


lVie 


3Vi« 


4% 


5% 2% 


2% 3% 3% 


3% 


3% 


Vic 


1% 


4 l Vift 


3y 2 ... 

4 ... 
4y 2 . . . 

5 . . . 
5%. . . 

6 . . . 


..3% 
..4 

• -5% 




2 


3% 


5% 


e.y 2 31/2 


3% 4 4y A 


4y 2 


4% 


Vie 


2% 


6% 


2y 3 


4y 2 


6% 


.. 43/ 8 


4% 4% 5% 


5% 


5% 


% 


3 




3 


51/4 




• • 5% 


5y 2 5% e 


6M 


6V2 


% 


3Vl6 




6y 2 ... 

7 .., 
8 


7% 




3y 2 

4 

4% 

5 

5% 

6 


6 




.. 6% 
.. 7 


6% 6% 7 






lVie 
IV16 

1'V'lG 
1% 


4V S 
4"Ao 
5V™ 
5 15 Ae 




9 












10 . 
















11 
















12 . 














1% 

2Vic 

2% 

2*Vk 


7% 

1 . . . . 




15 .., 

18 ... 
20 

















iNiote.— Southern Pacific Ry. : (A 1 ) For main lines, excepting mountain divisions hav- 
ing grades over 1.8%; (B-) For mountain divisions having grades over 1.8%, also for 
branch lines; maximum elevation, 6 ins. 



GAGE, GRADES AND CURVES. 371 

It is, of course, useless to carry out the tables to very high, figures, for 
the elevation cannot be carried beyond certain limits, while on very sharp 
curves trains are usually required to reduce speed for considerations of 
safety, so that a less elevation may then be introduced. The maximum 
allowed should be 6 or 7 ins., though on some roads it is carried as high as 
9 ins. The maximum should, however, rarely be used, except on tracks used 
extensively by passenger trains at high speed, as it is too high for heavy 
freight trains moving at a moderate speed. If a road has many very sharp 
curves and operates a high speed traffic, it may be economy to change the 
alinement, as has been done on many lines within recent years. This point 
is fully discussed in Wellington's "Economic Theory of Railway Location" 
(Chapters VIII, XVIII and XIX). If the elevation is too high for slow 
speeds the weight on the outer rail is reduced, which makes it easier for the 
wheel flange to mount the rail, and also introduces the liability of getting 
heavy slow trains stalled on the curve, owing to the severe flange pressure 
and weight on the inner rail, especially if the grade is not compensated 
for curvature. There is also a tendency of the ties to shift inwards in the 
ballast when inclined at a steep angle, which adds to the difficulty of 
maintaining good line under such conditions. In determining the elevation 
for a mixed traffic of various speeds, it is best to give greater consideration 
to the fast than to the slow trains, unless the latter are very numerous 
and very heavy. Whatever amount of elevation is decided upon, this 
amount should be maintained uniformly around the curve, as irregularity 
in this respect seriously affects the riding of the cars, and may introduce an 
element of danger. For this ■ reason, among others, foremen should fre- 
quently test the elevations of their curves. 

Sometimes the degree of curve and the proper elevation are marked on 
a stake driven at each end of the curve (or at the beginning of the curve 
on double track), or stakes may be set to the required elevation, that is, 
at the beginning of the curves and the maximum elevation at the point 
where this maximum is reached. The methods of obtaining the proper 
elevation are described under "Track Tools" and "Surfacing." Where the 
degree of curve is not known, the elevation may be ascertained by taking 
a string of given length, holding the ends to the gage line of the rail, and 
measuring the ordinate from the center knot to the rail, which will be the 
required amount. In using the string, measurements should be taken at 
different points, so that any specially sharp or flat places in the curve 
(which should be corrected when discovered) do not mislead in setting the 
elevation. The length of string may be obtained by multiplying the speed 
in miles per hour by 1.587. The Southern Pacific Ry. specifies the middle, 
ordinate of a string 64 ft. long on main track (based on 36 miles per hour), 
and 44 ft. long on branch lines (based on 25 miles per hour). The Northern 
Pacific Ry. specifies lengths as follows: 

Miles String, Miles String, Miles. String, 

per hr. ft. per hr. ft. per hr. ft. 

20 31.74 35 55.55 45 71.42 

25 39.68 40 63.48 60 79.35 

30 47.61 

As the superelevation cannot be attained abruptly, it must be carried a 
certain distance beyond the curve. If the superelevation does not begin 
until the P. C. is reached, the centrifugal force, there suddenly generated 



372 TRACK WORK. 

is entirely unbalanced, with the result of giving a dangerous and destruct- 
ive lurch to the car and a disagreeable lurch to the body of the passenger. 
If the superelevation is equally divided between certain distances on each 
side of the P. C. an unbalanced centripetal force is first created, to which 
the car and passengers adjust themselves, and this at the P. C. is instantly 
changed into an equally great centrifugal force, with results again disa- 
greeable to the passenger, and productive of almost as much wear and tear, 
since the sudden twist of the truck remains unaltered, and the sudden re- 
versal of strain from — y 2 to + y 2 of the centrifugal force has but slightly less 
injurious effect than the sudden application of the whole centrifugal force 
where none previously existed. The best and most common practice is to 
maintain the elevation uniformly over the whole length of the curve, from 
P. C. to P. T., and then to run it out on the tangent at the rate of 50 ft. in 
length for each degree of curvature, or y 2 -in. reduction of elevation in each 
rail length, or 1 in. in 40 ft. Some roads, however, maintain a uniform run- 
off, as on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry., where the length is 120 ft., 
but this gives too steep a grade on sharp curves. When one rail is thus 
elevated on the tangent, the wheels will tend to run towards the high rail, 
and they are thus put in the best position for taking the. curve. On the 
New York Central Ry., the run-off is made ^-in. per 30 ft. for elevations 
up to 3 ins., and not exceeding 360 ft. for greater elevations. Where ease- 
ment curves are used, the run-off coincides with them. Compound curves 
have the elevation distributed half on each section. 

These remarks apply to circular curves, but where transition curves are 
used the run-out should coincide with the transition curve, so that the ele- 
vauon conforms to the radius at every point, thus getting the best results 
in every way, as already noted. For such curves, a diagram of the eleva- 
tion should be given to the foreman. On compound curves, the sharper 
curve should have the full elevation on its entire length, running out on 
the flatter curve to the elevation of the latter. On reverse curves, or curve3 
with very short tangents between them, the elevation must be made grad- 
ually on the curves, commencing at the point of reverse or at the middle of 
the short tangent. The high rail should be the line rail, and this rail is 
usually raised to the required elevation, although on some roads the inner 
and outer rail are respectively lowered and raised by half the amount of 
superelevation, for the purpose of maintaining the center of gravity of the 
train uniform* on curve and tangent. 

Where curves occur on bridges and trestles, special methods are re- 
quired for putting in the superelevation. On the New York Elevated Ry. 
the outer rail is raised by blocks 3y 2 ins. thick for all curves, which is 
found to be approximately correct. A greater elevation was at first used 
on curves of 90 ft. and 125 ft. radius, but this was reduced to 3% ins. when 
the rails were relaid. The higher speed on the easier curves compensates 
to some extent for the uniform superelevation, while the use of only one 
thickness of block enables these blocks to be cut and stored for seasoning. 
The superelevation is run out from the P. C. and P. T. on the tangent for 
a distance of 30 ft. on 90-ft. curves to 50 ft. for 350-ft. curves. Different 
methods of giving the elevation are noted below: 

(1) Shimming on Ties. — A long shim carrying the outer rail and guard 



GAGE, GRADES AND CURVES. 373 

rail is spiked to the tie, but with any considerable elevation the rails get 
badly worn, as they are vertical, and the heads are not in the same plane. 

(2) Taper Ties. — For moderate curves where the ties are carried by 
stringers, the ties may be cut to a taper, the minimum thickness under the 
rail being 5 ins. With plate girders where the ties have to be cut out for 
the cover plates, they would be very weak on the thinner end, while a 14-ft. 
tie on a 6° curve would have to be 14 ins. thick at the larger end. Such 
ties are expensive, and must be kept in stock, each curve requiring ties of 
different thickness. As a matter of fact, comparatively few mills can saw 
ties to tapered dimensions. 

(3) Blocking under Ties. — The most general practice is to use ordinary 
ties and block them up to the required elevation by blocks on the stringers. 

(4) Cushion Ties. — These are made the full width and length of the ordi- 
nary ties and are laid upon them. They taper from a thickness of 3 ins. 
at the small end. They tend to cause decay of the tie and cushion tie by 
holding water between them, and, being thin, are liable to warp and split. 

(5) Cushion Caps. — On trestles, tapered caps may be bolted to the main 
caps, boxed out 1 in. to 2 ins. for the stringers, but the boxing holds water, 
and water also gets between the cap and the cushion. 

(6) Corbels. — If the trestle is built with corbels, those on the outer side 
of the curve may be higher or thicker than the others, so as to raise the 
stringers. 

(7) Inclined Trestle. — The mudsills may be inclined to the proper degree 
of elevation, so that the framing of the bents will not be affected, or the 
outer posts may be of increased length, keeping the mudsills level. The 
main objection is, that with slow trains, the weight on the inner rail would 
tend to throw most of the weight on the inner posts, so that only the sway 
bracing would resist the racking of the bent, which, with considerable 
elevation and a high trestle, would be very great. This might be prevented 
by increasing the batter of the inner posts, but such special construction 
of bents is undesirable. With a pile trestle, the piles may be cut off at the 
proper height for framing the caps at the required elevation. 

(8) Deck Plate Girders.— The outside girder may be raised by blocking 
thus giving the proper inclination to the ties, but with trains slower than 
the speed for which the elevation is calculated, the load would not pass 
through the axis of the bridge, and would subject the girder to strains 
not provided for in the construction. A longitudinal timber may be bolted 
to the top chord of the outer girder, or blocks with inclined top faces may 
be placed on one or both chords, the latter being the better plan. In rare 
cases the outer girder is made higher, but this is not an advisable plan, 
apart from the extra trouble in manufacture for each structure. With truss 
bridges, however, the outer floor stringer may well be raised, there being 
no long cover plates, so that the ties are boxed out uniformly. 

(9) Solid Floors. — The elevation may be made in the rail bearings if the 
floor is unballasted, or by inclining the ties in the ballast, if the ordinary 
roadbed is carried across the bridge. 

Guard Rails on Curves. 
One other point to which reference, may be made is the use of guard rafs 
on curves. This is more common on the sharp curves of yard tracks than 



374 TRACK WORK. 

on main track, and the practice is very diverse. They are used on all curves 
sharper than 10° or 12° on some roads, and 20° to 25° on others. The 
width of flangeway ranges from 1% ins. plus the amount of widening 
of gage on the curve, to 2% and 3 ins., and even 5 ins. In some cases it is 
considered that on all curves sharper than 12° or 15°, an iron guard rail 
should be laid inside the inner rail to prevent derailment, being so placed 
as to come into action only as the flange begins to tend to mount the outer 
rail. This requires a spacing of 3% to 4 ins. For guard rails at frogs and 
crossings, the flangeway is usually 1% ins., but this would be bad practice 
on ordinary curves, as it would relieve, the flange from action and throw 
all the normal guiding upon the guard rail. It is only admissible to thus 
throw a guard rail into constant action on extremely sharp curves, such as 
the 90-ft. curves of the New York elevated railways, where the. guard rails 
are kept well lubricated. On these lines, the flangeway is 2^4 ins. at check 
rails on curves, and 2 ins. at frogs. On very sharp curves, a guard rail 
is sometimes laid on the inside of the outer rail (leaving 1% ins. flangeway) 
and another one outside of the inner rail, and as close to it as possible. 
The. object of these rails is to help support the blind or flangeless driving 
wheels of engines when they have a dangerously narrow bearing on the 
track rails on these curves. 



CHAPTER 21.— TRACK INSPECTION AND THE PREMIUM SYSTEM. 

The track is usually inspected daily by the trackwalkers, or by a man 
sent over the section on a velocipede, and the section foremen and super- 
visors have to make frequent examinations, not only in detail, but of the 
general condition of the track and roadway. This examination should be 
made on foot or from a handcar, but also occasionally from the engine or 
the rear car of a train, these latter methods giving a broader general view 
of the work and enabling the foreman to test the riding qualities of his 
track. The roadmasters and engineers should also make general inspec- 
tions of the divisions under their charge. 

On most roads of importance, especially where the premium system is in 
force, a general inspection of both the track and the entire property 
is made once a year by the superior officers, record being kept of the con- 
dition of each section, station, etc., year by year. This inspection is usually 
made in the autumn. A private car with large end platform and windows 
may be used, or a special car having the floor sloping up from the end 
and fitted with seats, while the end is either open or fitted with glass win- 
dows extending to the floor. The car is pushed ahead of an engine at the 
rate of 10 to 15 miles per hour, stopping at the end of each section, and 
the officials' mark, on cards provided for the purpose, their rating of the 
condition of each section. The division roadmasters, section foremen, etc., 
do not mark their own divisions and sections. The markings of the cards, 
are then figured up and prizes awarded according to the averages. In 
some cases the marking or judging is done by the roadmasters, engineers, 
division superintendents, etc., and where this practice prevails, the section 
foremen should be taken over the road after the awards have been made, 



TRACK INSPECTION. 575 

so that they can see each other's sections. On the Boston & Albany Ry. 
there are five prizes for division roadmasters and five (of $50 each) for 
section foremen, awarded on the following points: 1, alinement and sur- 
face; 2, joints and spiking; 3, switches and frogs; 4, ballast and ties; 5, 
ditches and general neatness and cleanliness of roadway. The highest 
rating under each head is 10, which would mean perfection, and the in- 
spectors mark according to their opinions. Some roads adopt the method 
of making the section foremen the judges, each foreman marking on every 
section but his own, considering this better than to appoint judges from 
among the roadmasters and division superintendents. The annual inspec- 
tion is thus made to powerfully educate and arouse the spirit of the fore- 
men, and induces a sharp rivalry. Each man becomes more critical of his 
own division, and in passing over the divisions he notes certain good and 
bad points, so that the system tends to make the general practice bet- 
ter and more uniform. It pays to take the foremen over the road to- 
gether once a year, even if no prizes are given, as it gives them more in- 
terest in and knowledge of their work, while an incentive to good work, 
in the shape of a prize, is a good thing. It is well also, to have a "Premium 
Section," sign board erected on the section tool house or elsewhere on the 
section, as the laborers themselves then feel that they are getting some 
recognition and will work hard to prevent any other section from winning 
away the premium sign. They will naturally take more pride in their 
work if it is thus publicly recognized, and the best plans for the premium 
system are those which make the men participators in the prizes. 

On the Pennsylvania Ry., the time, for the inspection of the main line is 
selected by the general manager, governed somewhat by the time the board 
of directors makes its tour over the lines. It is usually about the middle of 
October, this time being fixed so as not to have the supervisors and others 
away from their divisions at the last of the month. The inspection parties 
are of two classes: 1, The "Limited," in which those officiating comprise 
officials above the rank of supervisor; 2, the "Unlimited" or "General" 
in which officials down to and including assistant supervisors participate. 
The inspection car resembles a large caboose, 36 ft. long. The front end is 
open, and the floor slopes up by steps from this end to about the middle 
of the car, so that all the occupants may have a good view of the track. 
This part of the car is fitted with ordinary car seats, giving accommodations 
for 28 persons. 

It is customary on the Monday of inspection week for the party com- 
prising the "limited" inspection to leave Philadelphia, running special 
west, arriving at Pittsburg in the evening. This party is made up of the 
general manager, engineer of maintenance of way, general superintendents, 
superintendents of the divisions over which the inspection is made, princi- 
pal assistant engineers and assistant engineers of the main line divisions be- 
tween Jersey City and Pittsburg. The "general" inspection party is made 
up of all the participants in the inspection, who meet at Pittsburg prepared 
to move eastward on Tuesday morning. The movement of the inspection 
train is as follows: Tuesday over Pittsburg Division, Wednesday over Mid- 
dle Division, Thursday over Philadelphia Division, Friday over New York 
Division. The inspection party is carried usually in separate trains, the 
first train carrying the general manager and his party; the secorid train 



376 TRACK WORK. 

carrying the principal assistant engineer and assistant engineers of all the 
divisions; the third train all the supervisors; fourth train all the assistant 
supervisors. These are followed by the track indicator car in charge of the 
motive power department. The use of this car is not considered as part of 
the inspection of the road, and has no connection with the annual inspec- 
tion for prizes. The various branch road inspections are arranged for by 
the 'division superintendents and usually follow the main line inspection. 
These are not held regularly, and not on all of the divisions. 

The inspection is done by four committees: (1) Line and surface; (2) 
joints and tie spacing, (3) ballast, switches and sidings, (4) ditches, road 
crossings, station grounds and policing. The marking is from 1 to 10, and 
zero is used where there are no ditches, sidings, crossings, etc. In award- 
ing prizes, committees are appointed on each main line division and so 
arranged that no officer of the division that is being inspected is a mem- 
ber of any committee on award for that division. The prizes awarded 
after the annual main line track inspection are as follows, all being for 
the entire line between Pittsburg and Jersey City: First Supervisor's 
Prize, $100; for main line supervisor (exclusive of yard supervisors) having 
best line and surface. Second Supervisor's Prize, $50; for main line super- 
visor (exclusive of yard supervisors) having "second best" line and surface. 
Yard Supervisor's Prize, $100; for main line yard supervisor having best 
line and surface on yard. Foreman's Prize, $75; for main line foreman (ex- 
clusive of yard subdivisions) having best line and surface. The premium 
section is not marked by any sign. 

The Wabash Ry. has a complete system of track inspection, and gives 
enough prizes to make the men take particular interest in their work. Be- 
low are given the rules for the annual inspection, which is made in Novem- 
ber, being conducted by the general superintendent, accompanied by officers 
of the transportation, roadway and bridge and building departments, and 
the superintendent. The train usually consists of a baggage car (used for 
meals), one or two private cars and a sleeping car. 

Track Inspection Rules; Wabash Ry. 

The annual inspection shall determine the condition of each section and 
division of main track and sidings, in the following particulars: (1) Line 
and surface; (2) level; (3) joints, ties and switches in main track; (4) 
drainage; (5) policing; (6) sidings (meaning all tracks outside the main 
track, and these must be inspected, marked and kept separately from mark- 
ings on main track). These conditions shall be determined by a system of 
marking, for every mile of road: 10 shall indicate perfection; 5 shall indi- 
cate a condition unsafe for a speed of 25 miles per hour, and the worst; 
possible condition; intermediate numbers being used to indicate intermedi- 
ate conditions. 

The annual report shall show the total expense for labor for the year on 
each mile of main track, and each mile of sidetrack, the rating being 
determined as hereinafter set forth. The yard sections shall be classified 
together for the first and second premiums, the same as the districts. 

The final rating of each section, for classification, shall be made as fol- 
lows: The conditions noted under the markings Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, shall 
be reduced to an average rating, which, in a column of the report shall rep- 
resent the general average for conditions noted on main track. The gen- 
eral average of conditions under marking No. 6, in its column, will indi- 
cate the" general average of conditions noted on all sidings. 



TRACK INSPECTION. 377 

Sections having ircn rail shall be allowed one point over steel rail; sec- 
tions having steel rail in service eight years and upwards, half a point, pro- 
vided this difference does not increase the result above 10. This point will 
be added to final average, and will not be noted by the inspectors. The 
sections on each division roadmaster's territory showing the highest gen- 
eral average shall be rewarded by a premium of $35 to the section fore- 
man, and the second highest average by $25. 

(1). Line. — True line means straight liEe on tangents, and uniform curva- 
ture en curves, as far as the eye can detect. When these requirements are 
fulfilled the condition must be represented by 10. 

Continuous and very apparent deviations from the true alinement over 
the entire length of one mile, which would limit the maximum speed for 
the safe passage of trains to 25 miles per hour, must be represented by 5. 

A condition of alinement which would be difficult for a train to pass, 
should be recorded as 0. 

Conditions intermediate between those described above shall be indicated 
in the proper ratio representing these conditions. 

Surface. — True surface means a uniform grade line between changes of 
grade, and the conditions must be noted as in regard to Line. 

(2). Level. — The inspector must watch the level index, and must note un- 
usual oscillations of the car due to unlevel track on tangents, want of uni- 
formity of elevation on curves, or unequal gage. 

If the inspector can detect no vibration or oscillation of the car due '.o 
unlevel track, on tangents, and want of uniformity on elevation of curves, 
he will record the condition as 10, and intermediate conditions must be re- 
corded as already noted. 

(3). Joints, Ties and Switches. — A perfect joint is one that is fully bolted 
and tight. Ties must be properly spaced, as per standard plan, and fully 
spiked with four spikes in each tie. Ends of ties, one side must be parallel 
with rail. Switches must be placed exactly as shown in standard speci- 
fications. When these are fulfilled the condition must be represented by 
10, and intermediate conditions recorded as already noted. 

(4). Drainage. — The ditches shall be uniform, free from obstruction, and 
with sufficient incline to afford proper drainage. Ballast shall be uniform 
and equally distributed. Any condition less than described in the forego- 
ing will be represented by such fraction of 10 as it bears to the required 
condition 

(5). Policing. — This shall consist of the following items, and a perfect 
condition in all these respects shall be represented by a marking of 10: 

A. Cross-ties and iron must be piled according to the general rules. 

B. Grass, bushes and weeds should be kept cut close to the ground 
within limits of right of way, and not allowed to grow closer than within 
6 ft. cf the rails. Stumps and logs should be cleared from within limits 
of right cf way. 

C. Road crossings must be in accordance with standard plans, and must 
be clear and safe for the passage of animals and vehicles. 

D. Signs must be placed in position as required in standard clearance 
diagram. 

E. Cress and line fences shall be kept in repair after being constructed 
by fence gang. They shall be of standard plans. Cross fences and cattle 
guards shall be clear of all grass and weeds, and shall be whitewashed. 

Any conditions less than prescribed in foregoing subdivisions will be rep- 
resented by such fraction cf 10 as it bears to the required condition. 

Expense. — The section which is maintained at the least expense shall re- 
ceive 10 points. The amount of expense on each section to be determined 
as follows: From the aggregate expense of the year shall be deducted the 
cost of extra work, such as placing ties, rails, ballast, and ditching, for 
which credit will be made as follows: Ties in rock ballast credited at 20 
•cts. per tie; ties on gravel, cinder or earth ballast, 8 cts. per tie; rock bal- 
last credited at $2.50 per car, other ballast at $1 per car; rail laid credited 
at $1.50 per 100 ft.; ditching, at $1 per 100 ft. After this deduction is made 
the section showing the least expense will be marked 100, which, divided by 



378 



TRACK iWORK. 



10, will give the rating of that section. For each additional $10 of expense 
ever the lowest section for all other sections, deduct one point from 100 
points, the remainder, after being divided by 10, shall be the rating of that 
section regarding expenses on the general report, and shall be recorded 1 
as une average expense of all miles on that section. 

The inspection committee shall consist of six or more persons, or shall be 
arranged as shown on the accompanying form. (The form or card is 9% 
ins. long, and 6 ins. high, with ten lines under the heading.) The general 
superintendent will assign duties to inspectors on the day of the inspec- 
tion. The placing of different members of general committee on the several 
sub-committees will be performed by the officer in charge of inspection. 
Each member of these committees will be furnished with a form showing 
the conditions which he must note, upon which he must indicate the rating 
of each mile. 

The officer in charge of inspection shall take up all forms when rating 
has been placed thereon, and make a general report to the general super- 
intendent, showing the rating of all sections as hereinbefore described, 





d 
o 

'-£ 

02 


Miles. 


Committee No. 1, 


Commit- 
tee No. 2, 
2 persons. 


Committee No. 3, 
2 Persons. 


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Joints and 

Ties 
Switches in 
Main Track. 






5 


Drain- 
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Policing. 


Remarks. 




Line. 


Sur- 
face. 


Sid- 
ings. 


^"Fences 

i 


Eating 






1 


2 


3 


4 


5 6 


6 


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Foreman. 

Form of Inspection Marking Card; Wabash Ry. 



.Inspector. 



showing the names of all persons entitled to a premium. The general super- 
intendent will then cause the awards to be made, and have signs placed on 
sections to which premiums have been awarded, which will indicate the 
standing of that section on each subdivision. 

The form of the report is shown herewith, being printed on sheets about 
12 ins. wide and 24 ins. high. The line of the first prize is printed in heavy- 
faced type, and that of the second prize in italics. 

On the Hocking Valley Ry., a circular is issued by the engineer of main- 
tenance of way, to the supervisors and section foremen, giving the results 
of the inspection and announcing the award. The statement issued in De- 
cember, 1899, is given below, omitting the list of awards, three to each 
supervisor's district: 

"The ninth annual inspection shows an average betterment in general 
condition of track of 0.49% over last year, the rating having advanced from 
83.37 to 83.86%. There was more marked improvement in ballast and 



TRACK INSPECTION. 



379 



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ditches than in alinement and surface. 
Attention should be directed to more care- 
ful spiking and gaging, which are so es- 
sential to a perfect line." 

The marking card used on the Southern 
Pacific Ry. has a vertical column for each 
section, and at the side of the card are 
printed the points to be marked, with the 
highest rating (meaning perfection) in 
each case, as follows: Alinement, 12; sur- 
face, 12; drainage, 12; switches and frogs,. 
10; houses and grounds, 10; spiking, 7; 
ties, line and spacing, 7; ballast, 7; 
sidings, 5; material, 5;. grass and weeds,. 
5; road crossings, and run-off s, 3; fencing,. 
3; right of way, 2; summary, 100. No frac- 
tions or decimals are used in marking. 
The tabular statement of the inspection 
shows the marking for each of these items- 
on each section, with names of foremen,, 
roadmaster, etc. The inspection party 
consists of all the officers who have 
jurisdiction over and connection with the 
maintenance of way department. No spe- 
cial committees are appointed to mark 
upon certain features of the track; and 
every person scoring is supposed to give 
on the score card his views in regard to 
the condition of all the items above no^ed. 
The prizes awarded are a gold medal for 
the. roadmaster having the best division, 
and silver medals for the foreman having 
the best section, the foreman having the 
best section-house, and the pumper having 
the best pump-house at the time of in- 
spection. 

Under the system instituted some years 
ago by the Savannah, Florida & Western 
Ry., inspections were male annually by 
the higher officers and the engineers, and 
quarterly by the officers of the roadway 
department. Every mile was marked rep- 
arately for the following items*. (1) line; 
(2) surface; (3) level; (4) frogs and 
switches; (5) drainage; (6) policing. The 
maximum in each case was 10. A commit- 
tee of two was appointed to inspect and 
mark each mile for each one of these 
items. This was considered to give 
a fairer comparison than when every 
detail is marked by every inspecting 



580 



TRACK WORK. 



officer, and when every division or section was judged as a whole, as no 
man, however energetic and conscientious, can watch mile after mile of 
track under various conditions, and then give any very reliable opinion as 
to the condition of several items. By the results of the annual inspection 
there were awarded five premiums: $100 to the supervisor of the best divi- 
sion; $50 to those of the two next best divisions; and $40 and $20 to the 
best and second best sections on each division. The section foremen were 
also classified as first, second or third class, according as the markings for 
their sections are over 8, over 6, or under 6. At the quarterly inspection, 
prizes were awarded on each division: $15 to the foreman showing the most 
improvement; $10 to the foreman having the smallest labor account without 
deterioration in the condition of his section (but if the section had pre- 
viously had a low mark some improvement in condition was required to 
obtain this award) ; $10 to the foreman making the best progress in bring- 
ing the roadbed and track up to the standard condition, and $10 for the 
foreman having the least expense for tools per man. 

Where the railway company does not offer premiums, this is sometimes 
done by the roadmaster in order to encourage his men to get and main- 



Sufface of Rails and Joints . 




Fig. 209.— Track Diagram of Dynagraph Car; Good 80-lb. Rails. 



tain good track. In one case of this kind a premium of $250 was awarded 
to the best section, of which $150 went to the foreman and the balance was 
divided among the laborers in proportion to the number of days worked 
by each man during the year. The condition of track and tools, amount 
expended, number of passes issued, and all matters pertaining to the work 
should be taken into Consideration. All awards of this kind should be made 
on the principle that the greatest benefits should go to the men who secure 
the best results per dollar of expenditure, and not merely to those who have 
the best track, without taking the expense into consideration. 

There is also in force a system of "mechanical inspection" by the use of 
dynagraph cars. These cars have track connections which follow every 
irregularity in line, surface and gage, low joints, superelevation of curves, 
deflection of rails, etc., recording these in diagrams on a roll of paper, and 
sometimes marking bad spots with a jet of paint on the rail. The car of the 
Illinois Central Ry. resembles a large freight caboose. Between the trucks 
is a frame carrying two independent 20-in. wheels which are held in con- 
tact with the rails by springs, so as to follow the surface exactly. Their 



TRACK INSPECTION. 



381 



axles are connected with a cylinder by which all lateral movements of the 
wheels due to variations in gage are recorded. Similar cylinders receive 
the vertical undulations of each wheel, which are transmitted by oil pipes 
to recording cylinders in the car, whose piston rods carry the marking pens. 
In service, the body is blocked on the trucks, so as to have no motion rela- 
tive to the wheels, the transverse frame is lowered to bring the 20-in. wheels 



Surface of Rails and Joinfs. 





Fig. 210.— Track Diagram of Dynagraph Car; Old 80-lb. Rails. 

on the rails, and the car is operated at about 5 to 15 miles per hour. The 
Pennsylvania Ry. car is carried on only four wheels, and has a pair 
of small deeply flanged wheels, which are connected with the mechanism of 
the recording apparatus in the car. A useful device for smaller roads is a 

simple apparatus which can be attached 
to a hand car or superintendent's car, and 
will indicate or record the line and sur- 
face and general condition of the track. 
Mr. D. J. Whittemore, Chief Engineer of 
the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry., 
has devised an instrument termed the 
equilibristat, which can be mounted in this 
way, and will show the difference in ele- 
vation of the rails by the difference in 
height of the liquid in the legs of a U- 
shaped tube set transversely to the track. 
The Chicago Great Western Ry. has a 
track indicator mounted in a chair car 
and used for indicating rough spots in the 
track. The results are good when the car 
is handled at a uniform speed, but are not 
very reliable with very fast running or 
very slow running on curves. The dyna- 
graph car, or recording car, has been ap- 
plied to street railway service, and one of these is in use on the Chicago 
City Ry. 

The most complete systematic inspections and records are those made with 
i.he dynagraph car designed and operated by Mr. P. H. Dudley, who makes 




Fig. 211.— Track Diagram of Dym 
graph Car; 65-lb. Rails. 



382 



TRACK WORK. 



occasional or periodical inspections of numerous roads, and then submits 
reports based upon the autographic records. The advantages of such in- 
spection for ascertaining the general condition of track and its compara- 
tive condition (by comparing diagrams taken at different times) can hardly 
be overestimated, and this work has aided very materially in bringing the- 
tracks of the New York Central Ry. and Boston & Albany Ry. to the high 
degree of perfection for which they are noted. The diagrams show the re- 
sults obtained by new rails and other improvements, the relative economy 
of which can be thus determined. The work required on the several sec- 
tions can be seen at once, while the section foremen have their attention 
called to low joints, low spots, etc., the machine marking deflections even 
Vs or i/i-in. below the normal surface. The foremen will not be governed 
entirely by this in surfacing, but will know that every paint mark means a 
weak spot, and that even if the rail appears to be in surface, the ties may 
be loose and working up and down in the ballast, or the spikes may be 
loose, and allow the rail to stand free from the tie, which defects they could; 
not detect by sighting for surface. The car has wheel loads of 6,500 lbs. and 



Condition of Track.- Plain Line, 1695. -Broken Line, 1894- . 




Fig. 212.— Diagram of Comparative Condition of Track of Boston & Albany Ry. ; 1894-95. 

a special six wheel truck of 11-ft. wheelbase. It is run at a speed of about 
30 miles per hour, and each rail records autographically (as a continuous 
diagram) its condition as to surface, due to the steel, ties, ballast, road- 
bed and labor. The various undulations are mechanically summed up by 
the apparatus. Three examples of the Dudley dynagraph diagrams (to a 
reduced scale) are shown herewith. Pig. 209 is from track laid with 80-lb. 
rails, 5% ins. high, having three-tie joints; this track is in excellent condi- 
tion. Fig. 210 is from track laid with older 80-lb. rails, 5 ins. high, also 
with three-tie joints; these rails were not straightened properly at the mill 
and had a wavy surface. Fig. 211 is from track laid with 65-lb. rails, 4y 2 
ins. high, with suspended joints; the surface irregularities are very marked. 
Fig. 212 is a portion of the complete maintenance of way diagram plotted 
from the records of the detailed diagram. This diagram is for a portion of 
the Boston & Albany Ry., and compares the condition of the track as 
shown by the dynagraph car inspections in 1894 and 1895. The following 
explanation is taken from a statement accompanying the diagram. 



TRACK INSPECTION. 383 

The spaces between tne vertical lines represent miles of road. The line 
marked "Condition of Track" for each inspection represents the average 
sum of all the various undulations of the rails per mile, as mechanically 
summed up by the inspection apparatus. To plot the sum of the undula- 
tions on the diagrams, the number of inches per mile is divided by 176 (the 
number of 30-ft. rails per mile), which gives the average undulations per 
rail per mile to 0.01 in. Each horizontal line on the diagrams represents 
•0.01 in, therefore, as many lines above the base are taken as the average 
hundredths of an inch of undulation per mile. The results for each track 
are relative to the base line, yet are comparative one mile with another. 
The average condition of each mile is indicated from the horizontal line 
crossed or touched by the "Condition of Track" line in the center of the 
space for the mile. 

The line marked "Age of Steel" for each mile gives the length of service, 
each horizontal line representing one year. The line marked "Percentage 
of Tangent and Curve" shows the approximate alinement of both tracks per 
mile. The percentage of tangent is marked en the left side of the space for 
the mile, and that of the curvature on the right side. Each horizontal line 
represents 10% for the mile. The line marked "Profile" shows the grades 
•of the road, and is common to both tracks, though ascending grades on one 
track are descending upon the other, and vice versa. Each horizontal line 
represents 10 ft. of elevation, and refers to the Base Line for track No. 2 in 
all cases. * 

The line marked "Gage of Track" reads downward from the Base, or 
70th line, and shows the amount the track is wide gage, each horizontal 
line representing 1-10-in. Nearly every mile now shows a perfect gige. 
For the line marked "Side Irregularities of Rails," above the 70th line, each 
horizontal line represents 1-10-in. This line reads from the highest point 
in the center of the space for the mile. These lines are about the best re- 
sults which can be obtained. 

At the end of 1895, 75% of the line was laid with 95-lb. rails, and the 
track, as well as the diagrams, showed a standard as remarkable as it was 
gratifying. The full calculated value for heavy and smooth rails shown 
in 1883, had not only been obtained, but the results were uniform for each 
division, irrespective of the grades and curves. Such a "Condition of Track" 
had not been generally believed possible of attainment either here rr 
abroad, and it is evident that similar results could not be produced on either 
light or heavy round-headed rails. Slipping of the locomotives on the as- 
cending grades had been much reduced. In ten years the undulations of 
the track had been reduced to one-third of their former amount, even under 
an increase of double the freight-car wheel loads. 

It requires smooth stiff rails, as well as skilled labor, to make a good 
track. Each year, as the skill of the trackmen increased, it became evident 
that the condition of the track depended as much upon the condition of the 
steel as upon the trackman; and to further improve the tracks it was not 
only necessary to introduce heavier and stiffer rails, but to have them fin- 
ished smoother at the mills, and, in fact, to manufacture them under condi- 
tions which did not prevail before the 95-lb. rails were undertaken in 1890 
and 1891. The beneficial results of the work, in raising the standard of sur- 
facing the track and the manufacture of the rails, are clearly defined on the 
diagram. 



384 TRACK WORK. 



CHAPTER 22.— SWITCH WORK AND TURNOUTS. 

To divert a train from one track to another a turnout is used, which is 
essentially a curve connecting the diverging tracks. This curve, however, 
is built up of (1) a switch to direct the train onto one or other of the tracks 
as desired, (2) a frog to allow wheel flanges to pass the intersection of the 
rails, and (3) lead rails connecting the frog and switch. A crossover con- 
sists of two turnouts and a short piece of diagonal track, forming a con- 
nection between two parallel tracks. A ladder track is diagonal to a series 
of parallel tracks which are connected with it by turnouts. In all these ar- 
rangements, the turnout is the important feature. The lead is that part of 
the main track rail from the point of switch to the point of frog. The turn- 
out curve (or lead curve) is the turnout rail between the same points. For 
calculating the length of lead, the turnout curve may be assumed to ex- 
tend from point of switch to point of frog, giving what is termed the "the- 
oretical" lead. This is too long for ordinary main track frogs (over No. 7) 
and flattens the curve at the switch. The reason for this is that the switch 
rail, being of considerable width, and being necessarily set to allow suffi- 
cient flangeway space at the heel, cannot be placed in the theoretical line of 
the curve, but lies several inches within it at the heel. The more general 
practice, therefore, is to assume that the turnout curve extends from the 
heel of the switch to the point of frog. This gives what is termed the 
"short lead." Below are given simple formulas for calculating the lead, in 
which the nomenclature is as follows: G = gage of track; N == number of 
frog; T = throw of switch; L = length of switch rail; P = length of frog 
from point of toe. Of the following formulas, the third is a practical one 
easily remembered, and its results check very closely with those of more 
elaborate formulas: 

(1) Theoretical lead = G x 2 x N. 

(2) Short lead = 2 N (G — V G T) + L. 

(3) Short lead = 6 N + (L + F). 

Progs of the same number but of different lengths will have slightly dif- 
ferent curves; as will also split and stub switches with the same frogs. The 
length of lead is practically the same for turnouts from curved track as for 
those from tangents, and it is of no effect to increase the lead, with the idea 
of reducing the curvature of the turnout, unless a higher frog number corre- 
sponding to the longer lead is used. The curvature of the turnout curve, varies 
on curves: (1) when the turnout is from the inside of a curve, its degree of 
curvature will be the sum of the degrees of the turnout curve and the main 
track curve; (2) when the turnout is from the outside of a curve, its degree 
of curvature will be the difference between the degrees of the two curves. 
Thus with a No. 10 frog, the curvature of a turnout curve from a tangent 
will be 6%; from the inside of a 3° curve, it will be 6° + 3° =9°; from the 
outside of a 3° curve, it will be 6° — 3° = 3°. Where the turnout is on the 
inside of a main track curve, the frog number should be as high as possible, 
to keep the degree of curve as small as possible. 

The switch rail cannot be planed to a knife edge at the point, but is usu- 



SWITCH WORK AND TURNOUTS. 



385 



ally about %-in. thick at the end, this actual point being some inches back 
from the theoretical point. At the latter point, the stock rail should be bent 
carefully with a rail bender, forming a sharp kink which approaches as 
nearly as possible to the switch angle, care being taken not to simply make 
a curve. Trackmen are apt to set the switch rail too near the bend, but the 
point should be 12 to 18 ins. from it. If the length of the switch rail is di- 
vided by the difference between the width of its point and the dis- 
tance between gage lines at the heel, the result will be the "switch num- 
ber," a function which Mr. W. B. Lee has used in the formulas for short 
leads given below. The distance between the actual and theoretical points is 
equal to the width of the former multiplied by the switch number. For 
any given switch and frog there is only one radius for the arc of a circle 
which will connect the heel of switch and toe of frog and be tangent at 
those points, and it is also the maximum. This will be seen from Fig. 213; 
for if the switch is moved toward the frog, it shortens the tangent distance 
(T) next the switch, and if it is moved away from the frog it shortens the 
tangent distance (U) next the frog. To compute the curved and straight 
leads (A) and (B) and the radius (R) by exact methods requires the use 




^ Actual Point Frog=z"V/ide 



"H 



Fig. 213.— Diagram of turnout. 

of trigonometrical functions and preferably a table of logarithms, and these 
methods are generally used for very exact work. Mr. Lee, however, has 
developed the following arithmetical formulas which give closely accurate 



results. With a No. 14 frog, the error is 
while the error decreases until for a No. 
ins., respectively. 

O 
x = — . 

s 

D = G — (S + M), 

X N 



1 in. in lead and 6 ins. in radius, 
10 frog it is only 1-16-in. and 1%' 

F 

N = , 

M 

B = V~A-^^"D 2 ", 



2D 



X N 



R = A 



X + N 

The nomenclature for these formulas, 
follows: (A) = Length of turnout curve; 



X — N 

and indicated on the diagram is as 
(B) = Length of straight rail; (C) 



(1) 


Angle K 


= C — J. 


(5) 


(2) 


Angle E 


= c — y 2 K. 


(6) 


(3) 


Lead 


= L + B + P. 


(7) 


(4) 


Closure 


= Arc H. 


(8) 



386 TRACK WORK. 

= Frog angle; (D) = Perpendicular distance from heel of switch to toe of 
frog; (E) = Angle of chord (A) with (B); (P) = Length of turnout side of 
frog from theoretical point to toe; (G) = Gage of track; (H) = Closure of 
arc; (J) = Switch angle; (K) = Intersection angle; (L) = Length of switch 
rail; (M) = Spread of frog at toe (between gage lines) ; (N) = Frog num- 
ber; (O) = Distance from heel of switch to theoretical point; (P) = Length 
of straight wing of frog; (R) = Radius of turnout curve; (S) = Spread of 
switch; (T) =* Tangent from switch; (U) = Tangent from frog; (X) = 
Switch number. The diagram, Fig. 213, shows a switch with a 15-ft. rail, 
•5y 2 ins. spread at the heel, and a switch angle of 1° 40'. Some other formulas 
-relating to this diagram are given below: 

Distance M = F x sine C. 
Distance A = D -f- sine E. 
Distance B = D -e- tan E. 
Radius = % A -=- sine % K. 

The Hocking Valley gives the following rules : 

(1) To find the distance (K) from origin of curve to point of frog. — Multi- 
ply twice the gage by the frog number. 

(2) To find the radius of turnout curve. — Square the distance K and di- 
vide it by twice the gage. 

(3) To find length of switch rail. — Square the radius; then square the 
radius minus the throw of switch; subtract the latter from the former and 
extract the square root. 

(4) To find the distance between the frog points of a crossover, (meas- 
ured parallel to the tracks) when the tracks are straight and parallel. — 
Subtract twice the gage from the distance c. to c. of tracks, and multiply 
the remainder by the frog number. Thus for No. 8 frogs and a distance of 
13 ft. c. to c. of tracks it will be: 

(13 ft. — 9 'ft. 5 ins) x 8 = 28 ft. 8 ins. . 
Table No. 32 gives the principal elements of certain turnouts of the Le- 
high Valley Ry. The spread of the switch at the heel is uniformly 6 ins. 
Spring-rail frogs Nos. 8, 10, 12 and 15 are used, but the figures given apply 
to both spring-rail and rigid frogs. For 21-ft. switch rails, the turnouts 
would be increased as follows: 





No. 10 frog. 






. . .Lead 


84.57 ft.; 


radius, 717.49 ft. 




No. 12 frog 






" 


94.88 " ; 


1,052.87 


" 




No. 15 frog 






. . . " 


109.03 " ; 


1,699.53 






TABLE NO. 32.— TURNOUTS AND 


LEADS 


: LEHIGH VALLEY RY. 








TJt___. 






Length 












r rog 














Heel to Point to 


Heel 


Toe 


of switch 


, Turnout. — — , 




r— Angle— ^ 


point. ^toe— , 


spread, 


spread, 


rail, 


Lead, Radius, /—Curve—, 


STo. 


degs 


mins. 


ft. ins. ft. ins. 


ins. 


ins. 


ft. 


ft. ft. degs. mins. 


4 


14 


22 


4 6 3 


131/2 


9 


10 


35.95 114.98 




5 


11 


29 


5 4 3 2 


12 13 /i 6 


7 19 /32 


10 


41.81 189.63 




6 


9 


33 


6 3 3 9 


i2y 2 


7y 2 


15 


54.50 265.53 


21 42 


7 


8 


11 


8 4 


13% 


« 13 /l6 


15 


59.84 361.52 


15 54 


8 


7 


10 


9 5 


i3y 3 


7y 2 


15 


64.90 473.79 


12 07 


10 


5 


44 


9 6 5 6 


11^/32 


6 19 / 32 


15 


74.51 759.16 


7 33 


12 


4 


46 


11 6 6 6 


iiy 2 


tsy 2 


15 


83.53 1146.01 


5 00 


15 


3 


49 


14 6 7 6 


11% 


6 


15 


95.72 1959.59 


2 55% 



For ordinary work and simple turnouts, the actual length of lead is a 
matter of minor importance, and may be varied several inches, or even feet, 
to avoid cutting rails or for other reasons of practical convenience. The 
reason for this is that the rails, being of measurable width, cannot in any 
case be laid to exactly follow the theoretical lines or center lines, so that a 

/ 



SWITCH WORK AND TURNOUTS. 



387 



little variation more or less in either direction makes practically no differ- 
ence in the turnout. For complicated yard work, junctions, etc., very much 
closer calculation and measurement are required, as any variation in one 
part will affect the entire layout. The same is true of street railway work, 
much of which is built up at the shops like machine work, and sent out so 
that it can he erected and riveted or bolted up in the field in the same way 
as bridge work is erected. In laying out yards, shop tracks, terminal con- 
nections and complicated work, it is best to plot the plan on a large scale, 
and then take off the leads, etc., from the drawing. 

The following method was adopted in planning and ordering the mate- 
rial for ties, frogs, switches, etc., and in setting out the work for the track 
men, at the Southern terminal station in Boston, where the tracks are 
unusually complex. The 8 straight main tracks develop into 28 house 
tracks. At the throat of the yard these 8 tracks are crossed in both direc- 
tions by double tracks intersecting each other and having double slip 
switches at all crossings of the 8 tracks, as described in Chapter 12. A 
plan was drawn to a scale of %-in. to 1 ft., upon which was a center 
base line, with 100-ft. stations, points at right angles to this base line being 



5i"inl3' .P 




Fig. 214.— Switch Work Diagrams 



designated as so much east or west of certain base line stations. This plan- 
was developed to show each tie and its length, each special timber support 
for any part of the interlocking apparatus, each switch, frog, guard rail, etc., 
the station and distance east or west for each switch point, frog point apex 
and point of curve for each piece of curved track, its radius, signal posts, 
and signal bridge supports, as well as all grades. All of the calculations for 
this work were made and checked in the office so that the setting out or 
staking was such a simple matter that no blunders were made and no other 
method used in the field than a careful reproduction with the transit and 
tape of just what was on the plan, using ordinary stakes for line. Later on, 
when the tracks were raised to grade upon the ballast, grade stakes were 
set. From this plan all ties and special timbers were ordered, it having 
been carefully examined for the latter purpose by the signal company. The 
entire plan was about 24 x 7 ft., divided into several sheets, and was upon 
tracing cloth for purpose of blue printing. 

In Fig. 214, the three lower diagrams (213, 214 and 215) represent the ele- 
ments of turnouts: K C is the lead, or tangent distance from headblock to 



388 TRACK WORK. 

frog point; D C E is the frog angle, and is the crotch frog, which is 7-10 
of the frog angle D' C E. It will be seen that the turnout rails should con- 
form to a curve tangent to the main and turnout tracks. If the turnout 
leaves a straight main track, the frog angle D C E will equal the inter- 
section angle C P M, and the central angle B A C. The turnout curve must 
be one fitting the tangents Q P and P C. When the main track is curved, 
and the turnout curves in the opposite direction, the frog angle D C E will 
foe equal to the sum of the central angles ABC and B A C (= P C B). 
When the main and turnout curves are in the same direction, the frog angle 
D C E will be equal to the difference between the central angles C H G and 
C A G ( = A C H). The latter arrangement should be avoided wherever 
practicable, as it sharpens the frog angle, which is always undesirable. 
With a split switch, the lead K C is from the point of the turnout. With a 
stub switch, the lead (called also stub lead) is from the headblock, differing 
from the point lead by the length of the moving rail. As a matter of fact, 
however, the split switch rail cannot be so thrown as to conform to the 
theoretical curve if made 15 ft. long, with the splice joint as the hinge. The 
switch rail is usually taken as a straight line, so that as in Pig. 214 (dia- 
gram 216) the intersection angle, R S P, will not be the same as the frog 
angle, but will be the frog angle minus the switch angle. In other words, 
the curve must fit the tangents R S and S C, instead of the tangents Q P 
and P C. 

The field work and details of turnouts and switch work will be found in 
many field books and in Lovell's "Practical Switch Work" and Torrey's 
"Switch Layouts," and are not intended to be dealt with in this book in 
any detail. The laying out of switch work is often regarded by engineers 
and practical trackmen as a very complicated and difficult operation, in- 
volving intricate mathematical work. This idea is due largely to the num- 
ber of formulas and calculations which have been devised by different men. 
In practical work, however, there is little to choose between them, and a 
good turnout may be laid out by almost any of the innumerable formulas 
and tables, for the reason that (within quite wide limits) it makes no par- 
ticular difference what is the actual length of the turnout lead. In this con- 
nection is quoted the following simple and concise statement on "The Art 
and Mystery of Laying Out Turnout Curves," written by the late Mr. Wel- 
lington some years ago: 

The theoretical lead = twice. No. of frog x gage = 9.42 x No. of frog, for 
standard gage. This assumes the curve to be a simple circular arc, which 
is not essential for a good curve, nor does it give the best, and considers 
the curve to extend back to the heel of the switch rail of a stub switch. 
The lead is always the same, whether the turnout be from a tangent or a 
curve. A difference of not exceeding 10% in length of lead, especially if the 
lead be made longer than above, has no appreciable injurious effect on the 
character of the turnout curve or on its radius. This is best seen by call- 
ing the turnout curve a parabola, and remembering that whether the tan- 
gents of a parabola be equal, or one 20% longer than the other, will not 
affect the excellence of the curve, nor, materially, the sharpest radius. 
Whether the curve be called a circle or a parabola will not alter its position 
on the ground by more than a hair's-breadth. 

To lay out the turnout curve, the frog being in place, and length of lead 
given, not differing more than 10% from the theoretical lead. Practically, 
the best transit for running in the curve, and the only one much used for 



SWITCH WORK AND TURNOUTS. 38:J 

fixing points en it, is an experienced eye. On all kinds of turnout curves, 
whether from straight or curved main track: 

Offset from gage side of main rail to gage side of lead rail at middle point 
of lead = !/4 gage, or 14 ins.; offset at y± point of lead = 1-16 gage, or Z]/ 2 
ins.; offset at z/ A point of lead = 9-16 gage, or 31% ins. 

Stub Switches. — Main frog to crotch frog = 0.3 of the theoretical lead; 
length of switch rail = 0.3 of lead and as much longer as convenient; main 
frog to headblock = 0.7 of lead. Position of crotch-frog not essentially 
affected by 10% increase of lead, but somewhat farther from main frog 
(some 3%). The back end of switch-rail should be spiked fast for a por- 
tion of its length and it will spring into a circular arc. Calling the switch- 
rail straight, and starting the lead from it as from a tangent, compounds 
the curve at the head block and makes the switch-rail a tangent to a new 
arc. Its practical effect is to lengthen the lead by 6 to 10%, which gives a 
better curve, not because the assumption on which it rests (that the switch- 
rail remains straight) is true to fact, for it is not, but because it eases the 
radius of the first half of the curve. Shortening the lead 10% requires 
an equal distance near the frog to be tangent to it, and shortens the turn- 
out radius and proper length of switch-rail 20%. 

Split Switches. — The gage side of the split rail is straight; therefore it 
can only be considered, when in place, as a tangent to the true turnout 
curve. The point at which the theoretical turnout curve attains an offset 
of the width of a rail head (say 2 1 / 4 ins.) from the main line is 0.8 of the 
theoretical lead from the frog. Hence to obtain the same turnout curve 
with a split switch as with a stub switch, the lead should be (0.8 x 9.42 x N) 
or 7.54xN + the length of the plain portion of the head of the point rail. 
Split switch leads, in other words, other things being equal, should be a lit- 
tle shorter than stub switch leads. But as all turnout curves are improved 
by being a little longer than a simple circular arc requires, a lead fixed 
by the rule of 9.4 x N is good practice for split switches. * 

Radius. — By the principle of proportional triangles it will be seen that 
the radius = Lead x No. of frog = (No. of frog) 2 x gage. This only holds on 
turnouts from tangents. 

frcg angle 57° 2Xg 606 

Degree of turnout curve 



lead in stations of 100 ft. N 100 N 2 

or, in round numbers: 600 -:- square of the number of the frog. If the turn- 
out be from a curved main track, add to the degree thus obtained the degree 
of the main curve, if the turnout is to the inside of the curve; and sub- 
tract it, if to the outside. 

As the frog is straight, it forms a kink or short tangent in the turnout 
curve. In early practice, trackmen would sometimes spring the wing rail 
of the frog to conform approximately to the curve, but with modern heavy 
frogs this is practically impossible, and some roads forbid any attempt at 
such fittings. It was done by setting the main wing in line with the straight 
main rail, and bending the end of the other wing by spiking so as to fit the 
turnout curve. Most men, however, would naturally put in a frog without 
alteration and fit the curve to it. The kink is of little importance at low 
speeds, but it has been suggested that it might be well to curve the frogs 
for crossovers of four track roads through which trains run at relatively 
high speeds. The frog being a tangent, this tangent should be continued 
beyond the heel of frog for about 12 ft. for a No. 6 frog to 80 ft. for a No. 
15 frog, in order to make an easy riding turnout. This length is the same 
as the length of tangent in a crossover. In locating sidings, the point of 
curve back of the frog is assumed at the frog point, and the line is started 
from the frog and not from the point of switch. If the main line should be 
a curve in the same direction as the turnout, the frog is then a short tan- 



390 TRACK WORK. 

gent between two curves, on one of which it is impracticable to give eleva- 
tion for curvature, and therefore slow speed is necessary. If the location of 
the frog point is fixed first, and the frog angle is turned from the main line 
or from a tangent to the main line at that point, the turnout can be run as 
easily as any other curve. A table of leads* and turnout curves for straight 
track can be constructed, considering the frog (from heel to toe) as one tan- 
gent, and the switch rail (or main line rail for stub switches) as another, 
and calculating the circular curve required to connect them. Then calcu- 
late the offset between the main line and the turnout curve at a point half 
way between the frog point and heel of switch rail (or headblock for stub 
switches). This offset will be the same for the same frog, whether the 
turnout be on either side of the tangent, spiral, or simple or compound cir- 
cular curve. It should be used in staking out the lead, as it saves the trou- 
ble of determining the degree of the turnout curve in the last three cases. 

It is usual to issue tables, and diagrams of turnouts, showing leads, etc., 
and Table No. 33 has been compiled by the author from the standard dia- 
grams of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Ry. The reference letters 
are given on Fig. 215. The switch rails are all 15 ft. long, except for turn- 
outs with No. 15 frogs, where they are 24 ft. long, 14 ft. being straight and 
10 ft. on the turnout curve. All the switches have a throw of 3% ins. The 
rigid frogs have a spread of 5 ins. at the toe (G), and 10 ins. at the heel (H), 



K T 5K-D-X 

' Fig. 215.— Diagram for Turnout Measurements. 

while the spring rail frogs have a spread (G) of 9% ins. "With 100-lb. rails 
the spread at the heel of the switch is greater than with 74-lb. rails. All 
ties are 7x9 ins. The guard rails are 15 ft. long, being straight for 9 ft. 
with a flangeway of 1% ins.; each end is flared to give a flangeway of 2^/2 
ins. at 18 ins. from the end of the straight portion, and 4% ins. at the end of 
the rail. . A guard-rail clamp is placed at each end of the straight portion. 
(See Chapter 7.) 

The method of putting in turnouts by offsets from the main rail to the 
lead rail is sometimes followed, and this is shown by Table No. 34, the let- 
ters in which refer to Fig. 215. The distances given are measured from the 
gage side of the rail head. These figures may be used on curved as well as 
straight track, provided the curve is a regular one. If the frog is on the 
inside of the curve, add the degree of the main curve to the degree of the 
turnout curve to obtain the curve of the lead. If the frog is on the outside 
of the curve, subtract the degree of the main curve from the degree of the 
turnout curve to obtain the curve of the lead, or vice versa. If the turnout 
is from the inside of a very sharp curve, it is better to use a frog of as small 
angle as possible, to reduce the curvature in the lead to a minimum. If the 
turnout is from the outside of a very sharp curve, it is well to put in a frog 
of such number that the lead will either be straight or curve slightly in the 



SWITCH WORK AND TURNOUTS. 



391 



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392 



TRACK WORK. 



opposite direction from the main curve. The main track should be set to 
true line before the frog is put in. The measurements are calculated from 
the theoretical point of frog, but are changed so as to be read correctly from 
the actual point. 

TABLE NO. 34.— LAYING OUT TURNOUTS BY OFFSETS. 



Frog 

Frog, number 

Frog angie A 

Clearance of heel of switch, ....F 

Length of switch rail D 

Point of switch to point of frog. .B 
Heel of switch to frog point*... T 

Lead curve 

Offset from main rail to lead.... J 

" " " ....L 

" " " ....N 

" " " ....P 

" " " ....R 

Distance, frcg point to offset.... K 

" " ...KM 

" KMO 

" " KMOQ 

" "KMOQS 



Rigid. 

6 
9° 82' 

5V 2 ins. 

15 ft. 

56 ft. 43,4 ins. 

41 " 4% " 

20° 26' 

5 l / 2 ins. 

1 ft. 7% ins. 

3 " 4% " 



4 


' 3 


3 ' 


' 


11 ' 


' 4% 


26 ' 


■ m 



41 " 4% 



Spring. 


Spring. 


Spring. 


8 


10 


12 


7° 10' 


5° 44' 


4° 47' 


5% ins. 


5% ins. 


S 1 /^ ins. 


15 ft. 


15 ft. 


15 ft. 


65 ft. 6% ins. 


76 ft. 8Vo ins. 86 ft. 9 ins. 


50 " 6% " 


61 " 8% ' 


' 71 " 9 " 


12° 38' 


7° 20' 


4° 43' 


10% ins. 


8% ins. 


7 ins. 


2 ft. 4% ins 


1 ft. 7 ins. 1 ft. 10 ins 


3 " ey 2 " 


2 " 9i/ s ' 


' 2 " 1014" 




3 " 1% ' 


' 3 " 8 " 


4 " 3 


4 " 3 


' 4 " 3 " 


7 " 6 


7 " 6 


' 7 " 6 " 


20 " 6 


16 " 8% « 


' 23 " 9 " 


35 " 6 


31 " 8% ' 


' 39" 9 " 




46 " 8% ' 


' 55 " 9 " 


50 " 6 


61 " 8% « 


' 71 " 9 " 



*Measured along the rail. 



To set out the turnout curve, stretch a cord from the theoretical point of 
frog (as measured from K. Fig. 214, diagram 215, and marked on rail), to 
the point of curve Q C or R C, allowing for proper spread of switch rail heel. 
Divide this distance into four parts, and (for standard gage) set off a mid- 
dle ordinate of 1,177 ft. and two side ordinates of 0.883 ft. From each of these 




l? 1 * £3 II ||£ 



^ ■MlliJ iaili 



Fig. 216.— Method of Putting in a Split Switch without 
Cutting Rails; Southern Pacific Ry. 

points, and from the frog point and point of turnout, measure half the gage, 
which will give five points on the center line of the turnout curve. Each 
side ordinate is % of the middle ordinate. At the middle point of the lead 
the offset from main rail to turnout rail (gage to gage) is always % the 
gage, and at the quarter points it is 1-16 and 2-16 the gage, whatever may be 
the frog number, length or lead, or whether the turnout is from a tangent 
or curve. The degree of the turnout curve is 600 divided by the square of 
the frog number (approximately) when the turnout is from a tangent, and 
this, plus or minus the degree of main curve gives the degree when the 
turnout is from the inside or outside of a main line curve. The middle or- 
dinate for bending 30 ft. rails is 12 ~- square of frog number more (or less) 
than the main curve ordinate, and for other rail lengths, it is in propor- 
tion to the square of the respective lengths. If the degree (D) of turnout 
curve is known, the middle ordinate of a 30-ft. rail is 0.02 D. 

When putting in an ordinary turnout, the exact point of commencement is 
rarely arbitrarily fixed, but may be so located that the heel or toe of the 
frog can be attached at a rail joint, thus preventing one cutting of the rail. 
Fig. 216 shows the arrangement adopted by the Southern Pacific Ry. to pre- 



SWITCH WORK AND TURNOUTS. 393 

vent cutting the rail. Main line rails should never be cut for temporary- 
sidings. From the point selected, measure along the main or straight rail the 
distance from toe (or heel) of switch to the theoretical frog point, and mark 
the rail with chalk. Then from this mark measure the distance to the head- 
block or heel of switch as given by the table. From the headblock the dis- 
tance c. to c. of ties is marked on the rail flange to facilitate laying. The 
fact that close accuracy or fine work is not necessary in practical work is 
recognized on many roads, and the switch diagrams of the Atchison, Topeka 
& Santa Fe Ry. bear the note that the location of any frog may be varied a 
foot or two when such change will avoid the cutting of a rail. On this road, 
stakes for turnouts are always set by the engineering department, which is 
certainly the best practice. 

The rails for the main rail opposite the frog should be put in first, and 
the switch ties then laid. The frog is then put in place, the switch rails 
laid and connected up, and the bent rails then laid. The track is then 
spiked, the turnout rail being spiked snugly to gage at its bend, but not 
spiked beyond the bend. Then line up the main track, spread the bent rail 
at the heel of the switch the calculated distance, and line this rail straight 
from the end to the bend already spiked. The practice of the Boston & 
Albany Ry. in setting up split switches is as follows: Place the unbroken 
or main track rail in position, carefully lining it, and spiking as much of it 
as will not interfere with the switch. Then place the switch in position, 
and tamp the switch ties and headblock so that they will not shift or settle. 
Set the point of the switch hard against the main track rail, as if set for the 
sidetrack, tacking the point and spiking the heel. Erect the gate for this 
position of the switch, attach the rod, spike the gate to the headblock, and 
spike the brace plates against the main track rail. Remove the spike from 
the point and throw the switch by operating the gate. Lay the turnout rail 
against the point of the switch while in this position and test the gage at 
the heel. Then spike the brace plates against the turnout rail, and the 
switch is complete. In the latter forms of the Ramapo switch, however, an 
adjustable arm is placed on the lower end of the crankshaft in the gate, by 
means of which the throw of the switch points can be regulated as desired. 
When using this gate, the operations are as described above, except that in- 
stead of laying the turnout rail to suit the switch, it is set to gage, and the 
throw of the switch is adjusted. 

Single switches or turnouts may be put in by measurements only, but for 
anything more than this, the transit should be used, setting stakes for 
points of switches and frogs, and for the reverse and tangent points. Where 
a number of parallel tracks are to be put in, it is customary to stake out 
the first one, and put in the others by measurement from this. It is 
always best, however, to set out main line turnouts and turnouts from 
curves, at least, with the transit. When putting in turnouts with short- 
ened leads, it is only necessary to be careful to place the frog point oppo- 
site the stake, letting the switch point come where it may. This in no way 
disturbs the alinement behind the frog. The short leads may be shortened 
to economize in cutting the closure rails to fill in between the switch and 
frog. For instance, a turnout with a No. 8 frog may be laid with a 15-ft. 
switch rail, a 30-ft. rail, and 15-ft. piece, which with a 15-ft. frog gives a 
lead of 67 ft. This has been found to work well and to be economical, as 



594 TRACK WORK. 

the two pieces 15 ft. 1 in. and 14 ft. 11 ins. long are made from a 30-ft. rail. 
By putting the shorter piece on the straight lead and the longer piece on the 
curve, the switch points are kept square across the track.. Many roads spec- 
ify that with spring-rail frogs, the turnout wing rail must be 2 ins. longer 
than the main line rail (measured from the point), in order to bring the 
switch points square to the track with the same length of closure rails on 
both straight and curved leads. In a No. 9 spring rail frog 15 ft. long, the 
closures will be 50 ft. and 49 ft. 9% ins. By making the turnout wing on 
spring rail frog, 2% ins. longer than the main line wing, the closure rails 
can be made the same length. This may be important, as for a No. 10 frog, 
where two 30 ft. rails sometimes form each closure. 

On the Michigan Central Ry., no attempt is made to get the middle ordi- 
nate for a lead which is not a simple curve, but the tables showing graph- 
ically the standards for putting in switches are based upon the assumption 
that the proper lead consists of a simple curve uniting the switch rail (or 
the switch points) with the tangent of the frog leg, and ordinates are given 
for spiking such leads. Of course the presence of streets and obstructions 
makes it occasionally necessary or desirable to vary these leads to a greater 
or less extent. Unless such emergency exists, however, the standard is 
used, and the foreman's eye has to take care of the particular departure 
from this standard which he may have to make. 

In three-throw switches, Fig. 53, the distance from the crotch frog to the 
, , main frog is 0.3 x theoretical lead; 

%v:?f*'>~& / z Y ^g' 5 -^y^^T' — or approximately 3 x frog number. 

In putting in the crotch frog of a 
three-throw switch, when both of 
the side frogs are of the same num- 
ber, put in one lead first and line 
it up properly. Then take the track 
gage and move it along the track 
until the center point is over the 
center of the lead rail, which will 

k~///£r* »,^.&58^ ^ "^ „ be the place for the point of the 

i ]b°ooC£Jr ^C\ \ 1 \ I Pi crotch frog. Examples of the lay- 

-%<95o / ^-i2i6'^-i£ i(>'^ /4 '° out of yard entrances (taken from 

\~ /5°C tf°C l5 " c diagrams issued by the Atchison, 

Fig. 217.— Diagram of Yard Entrances; Topeka & Santa Fe Ry.) are shown 

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Pe Ry. . *L. 

in Fig. 217. 

Crossovers. — A crossover is a diagonal track connecting two parallel 
tracks, and consists of two turnouts which are usually connected by a 
short tangent, although where space is limited and the crossover is to 
be used only at slow speeds it may have the turnout curves united as re- 
versed curves, intersecting at a line connecting the centers of the curves. 
Wherever possible, the crossover should be laid out with trailing switches 
so as to offer no danger to direct main track movements, being used only 
by backward movements. The length of the crossover will depend upon the 
frog number and the distance between tracks (measured between the gage 
sides of the rail heads). For crossovers between parallel tracks, the dis- 
tance between the frog points (measured parallel with the rail) is the dis- 
tance c. to c. of tracks, minus twice the gage, and multiplied by the frog 




iTtiJCl5 0i>Cl5°00C I5 0PC 



SWITCH WORK AND TURNOUTS. 395 

number. The rule of the Columbus, Hocking Valley & Toledo Ry. for as- 
certaining this has been given above. In Fig. 214 (diagram 212) : A = dis- 
tance between frog points (measured along the main track), B = distance 
between gage sides of inner rails of the two adjacent tracks, C = gage of 
track, D = frog number. Then: A = (B — C) x D. 

For a turnout with frogs of different numbers, D and D'; first find the dis- 
tance A for D and for D' by the above formula. Then half the sum of these 
two distances will give the distance A for the required combination. The 
diagonal distance D D between frog points is obtained by the following 
formula: 

Table No. 35 gives the distance between actual points of frogs, measured 
along the rails of parallel tracks, and also the lengths over the switches: 

TABLE XO. 33.— CROSSOVERS. 

, : — Distance over switches. ^ 

' Dis- Tracks 12-ft. Tracks 13-ft. 

tancec. Distance between frog points , c. to c. , , c. to c , 

toe. of , ' , 15-ft. 21-ft. 15-ft. 21-ft. 

tracks, ,— No. 7— » r-No.T 1 ^-, r- No. 9-^ Frog switch, switch, switch, switch, 

ft. ins. ft. ins. ft. ins. ft. ins. No. ft. ft. ft. ft. 

12 6 20 5% 21 10 26 7% 6 123.96 129.90 

13 23 11 23 6Y2 31 1% 7 137.71 '144.26 

15 37 9 7 / 8 40 43/ 8 i 49 0%' 8 150.05 158.00 

IS 58 8^4 62 7% 75 11 10 174.52 194.60 184.48 204.60 

12 197.85 220.58 209.84 232.53 
15 245.00 271.62 

Ladder Tracks. — These are diagonal tracks from which a series of par- 
allel body tracks diverge. The angle between the ladder and body tracks 
conforms to that of the first frog, and all the frogs should be of the same 
number. Putting in a ladder track at an angle with the body tracks greater 
than that of the frog angle, will necessitate varying the distance c. to c. of 
tracks, and requires special formulas for calculating this distance. For 
ordinary work, the same frogs should be used throughout and the body 
tracks should be lined in with a transit. Another method is to obtain from 
a table the perpendicular distance from the gage side of the main track rail 
to the ladder rail at certain distances along the former. This of course 
will vary with the frog number, and will give points in the ladder rail. The 
distance between the frog points is calculated by dividing the distance c. to 
c. of tracks by the sine of the frog angle. This distance should be meas- 
ured along the ladder rail, making allowance for the actual or blunt point 
in the first frog, and then measuring the distances, which will give the posi- 
tions of the actual points. Stakes may then be set for the points of frogs 
and switches, using the theoretical leads. The frog point is placed oppo- 
site its stake and the point of switch allowed to fall where the shortened 
lead brings it. A string stretched across the ladder rail parallel with the 
main rail at a distance equal to the specified distance c. to c. of tracks, will 
also mark the position of the frog. Stakes should be set to give the line 
of one of the body tracks, the others being put in by measurements made 
by the foreman. 

On the Michigan Central Ry., the standard practice is to use a No. 11 frog 
in the main track for all yard leads whenever practicable, and the ladder 
track layout is made on this basis. In this layout, the angle of ladder 

14 



396 



TRACK WORK. 



track is 9° 1'; tracks 13 ft. c. to c. and switches 83 ft. apart. The 83 ft. is 
made up as follows: Lead, 72.43 ft; frog length beyond point, 8 ft; straight 
track to bend in stock rail, 1.95 ft; bend to switch point, 0.68 ft. In staking 
out the work, the point of intersection of the center lines of main and lad- 
der tracks is first decided upon, and the location of the No. 11 frog is a very 
simple matter. Having located this and the P. C. and P. T. of the turnout 
curve, the transit is set over the point of intersection, the angle of the ladder 
track turned off, and stakes set along the center line for the headblock, 
point of frog and point of curve, according to the standard plan. The head- 
blocks are 83 ft. apart. The transit is then placed on the center line of the 
first body track, opposite the frog point, the angle of ladder is turned off, 
and stakes for the frog points of the other tracks (83 ft. apart). It is 
then set on the center line of the track at the point of curve, the angle 
again turned off and stakes set for P. C. of each track. Finally it is set on 
the center line of the point of tangent, the angle again turned off, and 
stakes set (83 ft. apart) for P. T. of each track. The foreman in charge of 
the work then lays out the switches according to standard offset measure- 
ments. 

Crossings. — The calculations for crossing frogs at track intersections are 
apt to be somewhat complicated. The crossings should always be put in 




Case I. 



Case 2. 



Case 3. 



Fig. 218. — Track Crossings at Grade on Curves. 



under the direction of an engineer, stakes being set to mark the center 
lines, of the two tracks, and nothing being left to the trackmen to do in 
the matter of making measurements. Whenever it is necessary to do any 
lining at crossings, it should always be done with reference to stakes set 
by the engineers. The degree of curve should be verified by measuring the 
tangent offset, and by taking supplementary angles checked by measure- 
ments with a chain or steel tape. It is impossible to make a satisfactory 
plan of a curved crossing" by taking measurements of the diagonal and of 
ordinates to the curve. The only proper way is to run out the curve and 
get the proper angle of intersection, calculate the angles and distances and 
check these from a large scale drawing. The angle of crossing will be equal 
to the angle between the radii to the common point. The practice on the 
Michigan Central Ry. is to take the angle of a crossing frog in the track 



SWITCH WORK AND TURNOUTS. 397 

with a transit, and then confirm the observed angle by tape measurements. 
The point is found at which the gage lines of the frog meet, and then a mark 
is made on the gage side of each rail forming the frog at a distance of 3 ft. 
from the intersection of the gage lines, measured toward the heel of the 
frog. The distance between these marks is measured and divided by 6, 
which gives the line of half the angle of the frog. This angle is of course 
the angle of the crossing if both tracks are straight lines. If the crossing 
is formed by one straight and one curved track, or by two curved tracks, 
the intersection of gage lines at each of \he four corners of the diamond is 
found, also the angle of each frog in the manner stated above. All the con- 
necting distances between the intersections of gage lines are measured, to 
confirm the calculations, which are anything but simple. As this is a detail 
of track work not generally treated of outside of railway offices, some par- 
ticulars are given below and further discussion will be found in "Engineer- 
ing News," April 21, June 16, July 23 and Sept. 29, 1898. The following three 
diagrams (Fig. 218) and sets of calculations are given, which represent the 
practice on the Michigan Central Ry. 

Case 1. — Crossing of Curved Track and Straight Track. — Calculation of 
the Frog Angles and Chord Lengths: 

Observe the central angle NHT. 
D, R = radius central curve. 

R' = R + y 2 gage. 

R" = R — y 2 gage. 
Let F, F', F", F'" = frog angles at S. B, C and E. 

Y2 gage 

XHT = KDG. DH = HI = . AD = R + DH. AI = R — HI. 

cos KDG , 



CDA = 90° — KDG. EIA = 180° — CDA. 

sin KCA : AD = sin "CDA : R' .'. sin KCA = 

sin KBA : AD = sin CDA : R" .-. sin KBA = 

sin TEA : AI = sin EIA = R' . • . sin IEA = 

sin ISA : AI = sin MA = R" . • . sin ISA" = 



AD x sin CDA 





R' 




AD 


x sin 


CDA 




R" 




AI x sin 


EIA. 




R' 




AI 


x sin 


EIA 



R" 



DO — ISA =• F. 90 — fEA = F'". KBA — 90 = F\ KCA — 90 = F". 
To find chord lengths: WBS = F' + y 2 (F — F'). G~EC = F'" — % (F'" — F") 
CBP = F' + % (F" — F'). "BPC = 90° + y 2 (F" — F'). 
ESR = F + % (F'" — F). "SRE~ = 90° + % (F'" — F). 



BS = . CE = 



sin WBS sin OEC 

sin BPC x g 



sin CBP : gage = sin BPC : BC .-. BC = 
sin ESR" : gage = sin SREf : SE . • . SE = 



sin CBP 
sin SRE x g 



sin ESR 
To check, compute side BE from the triangle BSE and CBE. 



398 TRACK WORK. 

Case 2. — Crossing of Two Curved Tracks. — Calculation for the Frog An- 
gles and Chord Lengths: 

Observe the central angle NOP, cr any frog angle, as HCK. 

AB = Distance between the centers of the two curves. 
R — Longer radius of center line,, 
r = Shorter radius of center line. 

R' = R + %g, R"_== R — ,%g, r' = r + %g, r" = r — %g. 
1. If central angle is known, AOB = NOP. In triangle AOB 

r . sin AOB r . sin AOB 

tan ABO = , and side AB 



R — r cos ACte" sin ABO 

2. If a frog angle is observed, as HCK, find AB in like manner from triangle ABC. 

3. All the sides of the triangles AGB, AEB, AFB, and ADB, being known, compute 
all the angles of each triangle. The angles at C, E, D and F, thus found, will be the 
Frog Angles required. 

4. to find the chord-length CD, produce BD to G; KCD = y 2 CAD = y 2 (CAF — 

dabT, hcg =* y 2 "cbg = y 2 (abd — abc) ; "u"Ud = hck ± ~kcd ± hcg, cgd = 90° 

sin CGD . g 

± hbG GD = gage. .-. from triangle CGD; CD = . Similarly chords 

sin GCD 

CE, BF and FD may be found. 

5. Compute value of CF from triangles ECF and DCF to check the work. 

Case 3. — Crossing of Two Curved Tracks. — Calculation for the Chord 
Lengths when the Frog Angles are all known: 

KCD = y 2 "(CAB — DAB), SFD~^ % (ABF — ABD), 

HCG = y 2 (ABIT— ABC), LFM = y 2 (DAB — FAB), 

GCD = HCK ± KCD ± HCG, MFD = LFS £ LFiv I ± SFjj, 

CGD = i)0° i HGC, FMD = 90° £ uvxL, 



g . sin CGD g . sin FMO 

GD = gage; CD = . DM = gage; DF = — 

sin GCD • sin MFD 



XFE = V2JMSB — FAB), HCE = y 2 (AB E — ABC), 

SFT = % "(FBA — BBA), ~KCJ = V 2 ( CAB — EAB),_ 

EFT = LFT"i LFE ± SFf; JOE = HCK ± KCJ ± HCE, 

ETF~= 90° ± SFT, CJE = 90° £ KCJ, 

g . sinTDTF g . sin CJE 

ET = gage; EF = . EJ ==■ gage; CE = « . 

sin EFT • sin JCE 

Moving Switches by an Engine. — It is sometimes necessary to move a 
system of switches, or a ladder in a yard, to accommodate some other im- 
provements. If the distance is not too long for a wrecking rope, or combi- 
nation of short ropes, an engine can pull one turnout at a time readily, and 
this plan has been followed on the Lehigh Valley Ry. First remove the 
track intervening between the old and new locations, excavate the ballast 
to the bottom of the ties, cut the track loose between the turnouts, and put 
1-in. boards under the ends of the switch timbers, lapping them in the 
direction the switch is going to be pulled. Fasten each end of a chain 
around the rails and sill on each side of the switch, preferably behind a 
joint, and hook the engine rope to the middle of this chain, so as to prevent 
the strain from being greater on one side than the other, and thus twisting 
the switch timbers. The engine will then pull the turnout to its required 
position. Put in the connecting rails and splice up the track. The engine 
now moves ahead, prepared to pull each consecutive turnout in like manner. 
A ladder has been moved in this manner in one day, which could not have 
been done by hand with the same force of men in ten days. 



SWITCH WORK AND TURNOUTS. 399 

Instructions for Switch Work. — As already noted, it is the general prac- 
tice to issue tables and instructions as to details of switch work, and below 
are given the instructions issued by the engineering department of the Chi- 
cago & Northwestern Ry. governing the putting in and the maintenance of 
split switches, spring rail frogs and movable point frogs: 

Rules for Maintenance of Switches and Frogs; C. & N. W. Ry. 

In putting in spring rail frogs there should be a full allowance cf 3-16-in. 
clearance left at each end cf the frog to the adjoining rails. For a dis- 
tance of four rail lengths back from the heel cf the frog the angle bars 
should be fully spiked in the slots to prevent, as far as possible, the crowd- 
ing forward of the main track rails. The anchor block at the spring rail 
end of the frog should be in every case put in and fully bolted. After the 
frog is in and oiled up, the spring rail should be tested to see that it moves 
back to its proper place, and that the side lugs are clear of the caps on the 
slide plates. In the subsequent care of the frog these lugs should be kept 
clear cf the caps, and the frog kept clean and oiled the same as. a split 
switch. 

The spring rail frogs, movable point frogs and split switches should be 
regularly inspected by the rcadmaster to see that all belts are kept up 
tight and cotters in place where provision is made for them. Particular 
attention should be paid to the surface cf the ties so that the movable rails 
have an even and uniform bearing on all of the slide plates. A very com- 
mon, and also dangerous, condition is that in which the ties at or near the 
joint fastening become lower than those adjoining them, so that the bent 
portion of the spring rail of spring rail frogs, and points of movable point 
fregs and split switches will rise as the wheels pass off from the movable 
rail at this joint. The middle cf the moving rail resting en the high ties, 
and the point end being depressed to a hollow bearing on the low ties un- 
der them, causes the free end to play up and down. 

For spring rail frogskin the main track side, a 15-ft. guard rail should be« 
used, which should be placed 1% ins. from the gage of the main track rail, 
the gage of main track being 4 ft. 8y 2 ins. This guard rail should be 
placed so that wheels moving toward the point cf the frog will be guided 
from a point 8 ft. in advance cf the point cf the frog. This will put two- 
thirds of the guard rail in advance of the point of the frog, and one-third 
back cf it. The guard rail should have not less than four rail braces fully 
spiked down to support it. 

On all split switches there should be a wooden block bedded between the 
ties under the switch connection rod, clearing the latter by not more than 
%-in., and placed 1 ft. from the switchstand, so that if the nut should come 
off from the lower end of the switchstand stem, the connecting rod cannot 
drop* off from the crank and leave the point loose and free. Where prac- 
ticable, a better device than this would be to have a bent wrought strap 
which would be spiked down on the ties and passed under the connecting 
rod. 

Great care should be exercised to see that the gage is maintained true 
at split switches and at movable point frogs, and that points are kept free 
from snow and ice and fit snugly against the main rails in either the posi- 
tion for the main track or for the siding. 



400 TRACK WORK. 



CHAPTER 23.— BRIDGE WORK AND TELEGRAPH WORK. 

Bridge Work. 

The maintenance and repair of bridges and trestles is, on large roads, 
usually in charge of a subordinate department, as noted in Chapter 16, but 
it is a matter with which the maintenance of way department is intimately 
connected. The superintendent of bridges and buildings makes periodical 
inspections, and receives the reports of more frequent inspections made by 
the inspectors and bridge foremen who are assigned to certain districts. 
The roadmaster and other track officials also have certain responsibilities 
as to the bridges. Old structures must be watched and inspected frequently 
by the men in direct charge, who are not relieved of any responsibility by 
official 1 inspections. Files of bridge records are usually kept at headquart- 
ers describing the character, dimensions, waterway, date of construction, 
etc., of each individual structure, and similar records are kept by the divi- 
sion officers. In addition to the periodical reports, which are usually made 
on special blank forms, special reports should be made upon every piece of 
renewal or reconstruction as soon as completed. 

On the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry., a bridge inspector is appointed 
by and reports to the general foreman of bridges and buildings on each 
operating division; he is an experienced bridge carpenter, selected with re- 
gard to his fitness for the work. It is his duty to examine all bridges, tres- 
tles, culverts, cattleguards, stock yards and buildings, taking the main line 
first and the branches in the order of their importance. He. begins about the 
first of each month, and completes his inspection about the end of the month 
making a daily report by mail and sending in his notebook every week 
to the general foreman, who examines and signs it, and passes it to the res- 
ident engineer to be examined and filed. Besides this, an inspection is made 
in April by the general foreman, roadmaster, resident engineer and bridge 
inspector, and another in October by the same officers accompanied by the 
the superintendent, at which time all important repairs and renewals for 
the coming year are considered and determined upon, and a complete re- 
port on the same made to the general superintendent. On this road, also, 
all erection is done by three permanent bridge gangs, composed of the best 
class of men, and the work is found to cost less than if done by contract. 

On the Southern Pacific Ry. the bridge superintendents inspect all truss 
bridges at least twice a year, while every opening must be inspected and 
reported upon quarterly by a foreman. This latter report must specify, by 
number, all structures that require renewal within the next quarter, trestles 
and truss bridges being kept separate. On the Illinois Central Ry., the as- 
sistant supervisors of bridges make complete examinations once in three 
months, and the bridge foremen every month. On the Northern Pacific Ry., 
the supervisors, of bridges make an inspection in January of all truss 
bridges and large trestles, while in September they, with the division en- 
gineers, make an inspection of all bridges, culverts, waterways, etc. This 
latter inspection is made with special reference to estimating the cost of re- 
newals and repairs required during the ensuing year. On the New York 



BRIDGE AND TELEGRAPH WORK. 401 

Central Ry., the supervisor of bridges makes a personal examination of 
every structure during the last three months of the year, and reports 
through the division engineer to the chief engineer. He also makes three, 
quarterly reports upon examinations made by himself or his inspector. 

On the Erie. Ry., the bridge inspectors report monthly to the roadmasters, 
and the latter report quarterly to the superintendents. The roadmaster's 
report is in sheet form, 28 x 20 ins.,, with columns for remarks by the road- 
master, division superintendent and engineer of maintenance of way, a 
column for "action under train," and 12 columns for general conditions of 
(1) masonry, (2) bed plates, (3) rollers and frames, (4) pedestals, (5) main 
trusses or girders, (6) lateral system, (7) metal floor system, (8) wooden 
floor system, (9) rivets, (10) hangers, (11) castings, (12) paint. A smaller 
form is used by the inspector in making his reports to his roadmaster or 
division engineer. The quarterly reports go from the division officers to 
the engineer of maintenance of way, thence to the general superintendent 
and the chief engineer, who refers them to the bridge engineer. On the 
larger divisions, there are bridge inspectors constantly on the line, and if 
need be they make special reports. On the divisions where the traffic is 
lighter, the master carpenters make, these reports. If a defect develops which 
the division employees are not well prepared to cope with, they call upon the 
bridge department for help, which it is well prepared to give, as the Erie 
Ry. erects all its own bridges, and has two or more gangs of competent 
bridge men constantly at work. This possible use to which a well-equipped 
and intelligent gang of bridge men can be put is one of the reasons why 
it is desirable for a railway company to handle its own metal work. 

Every drawing of the bridge company is approved by the bridge depart- 
ment in its pencil form, and the mill order is then made, from it by the 
bridge company, which then makes tracings at its leisure. The mill in- 
spection is let to an inspection firm, which receives from the bridge com- 
pany (direct) copies of all mill orders. When the metal commences to 
arrive at the shops, the tracings have been made and approved and prints 
are then placed in the hands of the railway's shop inspectors. These prints 
are sent to the bridge engineer the day the metal is shipped from the bridge 
works, and are then placed in the. hands of the erector. Thus the same 
set of plans follows the work from the time the templates are commenced 
until the metal is erected, and the erector has the benefit of any remarks 
the shop inspector may have made upon them. 

All test reports are checked and filed carefully in the bridge department 
against their respective bridges; and tissue copies of shop invoices are filed 
at once in the. department, the hard copies being sent to the field for check 
and return. Upon their return from the erector, they are filed in place of 
the tissues; and all plans relating to the structure (masonry, profiles, metal, 
etc.) are. filed under one cover, which is of tough brown paper the size of 
the sliding shelf drawers. Thus they cannot slip about in the drawers, in 
which they are all laid flat. ■ The plans of falseworks are bound in sets for 
the divisions of the railway. 

The inspector should keep a uniform record of his inspections, entering 
the date, bridge number, general condition, and details of any defects that 
require attention. This book may be a copy of the bridge and trestle record, 
with a blank page for notes. He signs the book at the end of the trip and 



402 TRACK WORK. 

sends it to the superintendent or to the bridge foreman. In the latter case 
the foreman takes note of the repairs required, etc., and then forwards the 
book to the roadmaster or superintendent, who has it filed or copied into 
the permanent bridge record .books. The inspector's record should be so 
complete, clear, and systematic that when the bridge gang starts out its 
foreman has full details and can arrange to finish up all work at one place 
at a time, thus avoiding waste of time in traveling to and fro, except, of 
course, that any emergency work should be attended to first. Every open- 
ing, however small, should be given a number for ease of reference and 
location. Most roads issue special instructions as to bridge inspection, and 
have blank forms for reports and records. 

The inspector usually travels on a hand car, and is accompanied by the 
bridge foreman of the division and four bridge men who run the car, assist 
the inspector, and make any minor repairs that are likely to be overlooked 
later or which require prompt attention. It is sometimes considered best 
to have two inspectors work together, the reports representing their joint 
opinions or judgment. The tools include a brace and bits; two or three y 2 - 
in. crank augers, 4y 2 ft. long, to be used in boring timbers; and two %-in. 
octagon steel bars 4 to 5 ft. long, for sounding timbers. One bar has a ball 
head 3y 2 ins. diameter for .sounding timbers and piles, and the other end is 
diamond pointed. The other bar has one end like a pinch bar and the other 
either diamond pointed or flattened to make a-scraper'for removing sap rot, 
etc. The diamond point is used for sounding rotten portions. In sounding 
with the ball head, solid timber will give a firm ring, while rotten wood will 
give a muffled sound. In boring timber to ascertain its condition, the holes 
should always be bored from the bottom of the timber, or in an upward in- 
clined direction, so that water will not lodge in them. For iron work, there 
are required light hammers for testing rivets and light cold chisels for re- 
moving rust scale. In testing rivets, the rivet head should be struck a smart 
light blow sideways, the inspector holding his fingers on the same head and 
plate at the opposite side from which the blow is struck. Loose rivecs 
should be marked with paint at once. There should be on the hand car a 
50-ft. tape, 2-ft. rule, plumb-bob and line, monkey wrench, small broom for 
cleaning dirt from corners, etc. Also paint pots, brushes and stencils for 
renewing bridge numbers, unless this work is done at other times by the 
foremen and bridge gang. The inspector should watch every large struc- 
ture during the passage of a fast train, noting any undue deflection, sway- 
ing or vibration, or any significant movement or sound, and it may be 
necessary at times to test the deflection under load. The track should be 
in good line and surface on the bridge and approaches*, and well bedded on 
the latter, so as to avoid heavy shocks from trains running onto the bridge 
'at high speed. 

Trestles.- — These have usually an average life of 7 to 10 years, the piles 
being the first part to decay in pile trestles. Where the amount of trestle 
work or timber structures is comparatively small, the bridge foreman may 
attend to the inspection, but it is usually best to have as inspector over the 
foreman a skilled bridge man, familiar with strains, designs, shop work, 
field work, timber framing etc. On roads where there are many trestles, 
especially where damp and marshy conditions tend to induce decay, con- 
stant inspection and frequent repair must be made to keep the road in safe 



BRIDGE AND TELEGRAPH WORK. 403 

condition. In addition to the more, or less frequent examinations, there 
should be an annual or semi-annual inspection in which the alinement and 
settling are noted, also vertical positions of bents, conditions of all piles 
(especially at the water line), timbers, foundations, joints, tenons, braces, 
corbels, etc., especially where they cross or are framed, the timbers being 
bored when necessary to ascertain the condition. A written report should 
then be made as to each bridge, accompanied by a record of the principal 
members, special marks indicating whether they will require renewal in 
3, 6, 9 or 12 months, or are safe for more than a year. On large trestles the 
bents may be numbered. Mudsills are sometimes laid in open trenches, 
sheathed with planking, but if buried, the mudsills, feet of posts, etc., should 
have the earth cleared away for a depth of 18 to 20 ins., so that they may be 
inspected for dry rot; all sap rot should be scraped away to see how much 
good timber is left. Boring holes in suspicious looking places, especially 
near the bridge seats and caps, and at the ends of stringers, and braces, 
will reveal the condition of the timber. The alinement, level or settlement 
should be observed, as also whether the bents are plumb, and if the ends 
are firmly supported by the banks. The sway bracing should be well bolted 
or spiked. The floor system should be examined as to its condition and to 
see if the stringers have full bearing on the caps and the caps on the piles; 
also that the full number of bolts, nuts and washers are in position. Bar- 
rels filled with water with a floating lid and a fire bucket to each barrel, 
should be kept on wooden structures of any length. 

Wooden Bridges. — In inspecting truss bridges it should be seen that the 
trusses have the proper camber, and are vertical, that the chord bolts are 
suug and the lateral rods properly adjusted. Then the truss rods should 
be adjusted until the counterbraces have a firm bearing on the angle blocks, 
and all the rods have the same tension. The timbers, seats, and joints 
should be carefully examined for cracks, splits or rot. Whenever splices 
exist in bottom chords, and principally in long span bridges, where they 
generally occur in every panel, it is important to examine them thoroughly, 
and to note if they are pulling apart, which would indicate a weakness 
or a defective clamp. The braces and counterbraces should always have a 
square and even bearing upon the angle blocks, and the sliding from their 
true position would be sure evidence that the bridge needs immediate ad- 
justment. Such adjustment should never be done by the foreman, but only 
under the supervision of the bridge inspector. The truss rods, etc., should 
not be left loose, and should not be tightened while a load is on the bridge. 
Wooden bridges should be whitewashed inside and outside twice a year. It 
is well to replace timber stringers of short spans with short plate girders or 
a solid floor of old rails, reducing the work of the bridge men and the dan- 
ger from fire, besides making the track more uniform. 

Steel Bridges. — The bed plates should be perfectly level and clean; the 
rollers clean and free to move, and their axes should always be kept at a 
right angle to the line of the bridge. The pedestals should be free from all 
cracks and flaws, and have a uniform bearing upon all the rollers or upon 
the bed plate at the fixed end. In the trusses, all the tension members must 
T)e closely examined, also the rods and bottom chords, especially where they 
are composed of more than one member. All the members in any one 
panel should have an equal strain, and when they have not, so that one 



404 TRACK WORK. 

member is slack and the other tight, the case should be reported at once. 
The compression members, such as the posts and top chords, should be 
straight, without a bend or bulge, and all the joints should bear closely 
against each other. The laterals and counter rods should be tested by- 
shaking them, and they ought never to be allowed to hang loose, but they 
must not be adjusted with a load upon the bridge, and must be tightened 
only just enough to get a good bearing, so as not to put heavy strains upon 
them. 

All hangers, by which floor beams or stringers are suspended, must con- 
stantly receive close attention. Their bearing around the pins should al- 
ways be equal and uniform over half the circumference of the latter. If 
the hangers are made of round or square iron they must be examined with 
great care in the semicircle where they are bent around the pins, and where 
flaws or fractures are most likely to occur. It is of the utmost importance 
that the nuts on the end of such hangers supporting the whole floor of the 
bridge should never be permitted to become loose. They should have the 
threads checked to prevent loosening, and a white streak painted across 
the face of the nut and its bearing will make it easy to detect at once any 
motion in the nut. This plan may also be applied to bridge pins, and these 
pins should be examined for signs of rust, wear or bending. The places 
where stringers are riveted or otherwise fastened to the floor beams, and 
which are generally not easy of access for inspection, on account of the 
wooden floor over them, must be thoroughly examined, as here the rivets 
are most likely to get loose, and the webs and flanges of the beams and 
stringers are more liable to fail from shearing or crushing than anywhere 
else. The lateral systems and sway bracing must also be inspected. All 
the rods should be tight but not overstrained, as the struts are liable to be 
crippled if too much power is used in adjusting the tension members. 

Cast-iron parts of all bridges, more particularly in top chords or joint 
boxes, must be closely examined, and any cracks or breaks at once re- 
ported. A i/i-in. hole drilled at the end of a crack will frequently stop it. 
Riveted work should frequently be sounded with a hammer to detect 
loose rivets; and if they cannot be tightened at once they must be marked, 
and their number and location reported on the monthly report. Bridges in 
cities near salt water, or over railway tracks, should be. very carefully in- 
spected for signs of corrosion. Painted work must be examined for indica- 
tions of rust underneath. No water must be allowed to collect in the in- 
terior of any cast or wrought iron parts; drain holes must be provided and 
kept open, or the places filled. The wooden floor system must be examined, 
especially the condition of ties or timbers resting on beams or shelf angles. 
In addition to the inspection of the superstructures, the masonry of abut- 
ments and piers should be examined for signs of settlement, bulging or 
tilting; foundations looked to, and soundings taken to ascertain if there 
are signs of scour around piling, piers, or abutments. Pedestal stones 
should be examined for signs of cracking or crushing, and it should be 
noted if the masonry requires pointing. It should also be observed if the 
bridge watchmen and section men keep the bridge seats clean, keep the 
ballast back from the abutments, and keep grass and rubbish cleared away 
from wooden structures. 

Old timber taken out in repairs and renewals is not necessarily waste or 



BRIDGE AND TELEGRAPH WORK. 405 

useless timber, but may be made available in other repair work, and all 
timber and ironwork should be carefully piled for examination as to its 
availability and value. In making renewals with creosoted timber, all parts 
cut for framing, etc., must be saturated with creosoted oil by repeated ap- 
plications, and then well daubed with hot pitch, this being done as soon as 
the stick is cut. Every gang using such timber should have a supply of oil 
and pitch and a 10-gallon pot for heating it. As a rule it is best to have 
one main yard for timber and piles and to keep only emergency stocks of 
timber on the divisions. In bridge repair or renewals on double track the 
tracks may be gantletted along the middle of the structure, thus giving 
more room for working on the trusses. To prevent accidents, fixed danger 
signals should be placed at each end of the gantletted track, and no train 
be allowed to pass over the gantlet unless the pilotman assigned to that 
duty is on the engine. 

Rules for painting were given by Mr. W. G. Berg in his excellent paper 
on "Painting Iron Railway Bridges," in "Engineering News," New York, 
June 6, 1895. Railway companies should, as far as possible, undertake the 
purchase of the raw supplies and the mixing of the paint (by hand or ma- 
chine), thus being able to insure that the best pigments and oil are used. 
This is not possible if ready-mixed paints are used. All painting in the 
field should be done by the railway employees, and not by contract. For 
new work, use a priming coat of pure, finely ground, dry red lead, toned 
down with lampblack, and mixed with pure, raw linseed oil, adding as little 
drier as possible. The finishing coats to be any suitable paint, preferably 
dark colored, providing the quality of the pigment is not injurious and the 
linseed oil is pure. If a cheap paint is required, use oxide of iron paint, 
bought in powder form and toned down with lampblack, in preference to 
using cheap ready-mixed paints. For repainting old work, first remove 
all dirt, grease, rust and old scaling or soft paint; if the work is in bad con- 
dition, use a red lead primer coat, followed by finishing coats as above; if 
it is in fair condition, touch up the bare spots with a preliminary extra 
coat, and then apply the finishing coat. Paint should not be applied when 
the iron is wet or the weather cold. The Northern Pacific Ry. uses the fol- 
lowing: 1st coat, 20 lbs. pure lead to 1 gallon pure boiled linseed- oil and 
1-3 pint pure turpentine; 2nd coat, 25 lbs. lead, 1 gallon oil, *4 pint turpen- 
tine and not over 12 ounces of lampblack; 3rd coat, 15 lbs dry pigment to 1 
gallon of oil. Mr. A. J. Swift, late Chief Engineer of the Delaware & Hud- 
son Ry., deduced a rule for painting iron structures, giving %-gallon of 
paint per ton of iron for the first coat, and %-gallon for the second coat. 

Telegraph Work. 
As a rule the telegraph line of a railway is built by the telegraph company 
in whose district the railway lies, under contract with the railway com- 
pany, but the supervision and maintenance are done by the railway, its 
men acting under standard instructions issued by the telegraph company. 
On the Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha Ry., the system is divided 
into eight divisions averaging about 200 miles of pole line. Each division 
is in exclusive charge of a foreman who is held responsible for taking out 
all trouble and making repairs. These foremen have other duties, such as 
taking care of telephones, train-order signals, electric bells and in some 



406 TRACK WORK. 

cases electric light plants and Hall automatic signals. Reconstruction has 
been done by foremen especially appointed for that work, but recently the 
plan has been introduced of having the division foremen organize crews 
and do the work on their respective divisions. The latter appears at first 
to be the more economical, but the experience is that the former plan is the 
most practicable and satisfactory, and probably most economical. When the 
different foremen hire separate crews, it takes considerable time to get the 
men working together to best advantage, and by that time work is gen- 
erally about completed. On the other hand, a general foreman can have 
a well organized crew that can work expeditiously all through the season. 
A single crew also minimizes the amount of clerical work, which in case 
of a great number of crews is considerable. The telegraph construction 
or repair gang should be sent out early in the spring, say in March, when 
plenty of good men can be obtained. They may be carried in a special 
work train, with boarding and tool cars. In locating the line, care should ba 
taken to avoid sharp curves and sharp changes of grade where possible, 
and also to locate it so that snow slides, falls of rock, etc., will not be likely 
to interfere with it. If poles have to be set in frozen ground, an iron jet 
pipe connected with the engine by hose may be used. In cases where heavy 
storms prevail from one direction the line should be built on the windward 
or "opposite" side of the track, so that if the poles are blown down they 
will fall away from instead of upon the track, as there is great danger to 
trains from telegraph poles falling or being blown down upon the track, 
and this is especially the case where tall poles carrying many wires are 
used. Failure to observe this has caused much trouble. The poles should 
be thoroughly inspected, and periodically tested by boring (and the con- 
dition noted in each case, every pole being numbered); they should also 
be well braced and guyed when showing signs of weakness, and should 
be reset when loose or renewed when decayed. The section foremen should 
know which is the division wire, and repair that first when the wires are 
down. Wires that are down should be strung on the fence or got out of the 
way of the track, and prompt report made to the superintendent, so that 
the linemen or repair gang may be notified at once. The section foremen 
should understand the imperative necessity of keeping communication open 
over the wires, and attending promptly to any defect or breakage. When 
the wire is broken, it should be released from one or two poles on each side 
of the break by removing the tie wires on the insulators, the broken ends 
being then united by a screw clamp. A proper joint is made by holding 
the wires lapping each other in the pliers and taking 5 or 6 short turns of 
each end round the other wire. 

The poles are usually spaced 176 ft. apart, or 30 poles to the mile; some- 
times 150 ft. apart, or about 35 to the mile (or 40 on curves). They are of 
chestnut, red or white cedar, cypress, redwood, spruce, Oregon pine or Nor- 
way pine, the latter being usually for very high poles. They should be of 
the best quality of live green wood, with the butt cut above the ground line 
of the tree, reasonably straight, thoroughly seasoned, and should be peeled 
and have the knots trimmed close. If painted or set in the ground when 
green, dry rot is sure to set in. For single poles, the diameter should be not 
less than 7 ins., and 20-ft. poles should be about 10 ins. diameter at 6 ft. from 
the butt. The butt is sometimes charred, or coated with tar to a point above 



BRIDGE AND TELEGRAPH WORK. 407 

the ground line, or tarred in a belt at the ground line. The earth should be 
well tamped around the poles, but not heaped up into a mound at the base, 
although a small pile of clean gravel or broken stone will keep weeds away 
and protect the pole from fire. Sometimes the poles are whitewashed. In 
Europe, the poles are very generally treated with creosote, chloride of zinc 
and other preservatives, with very satisfactory results, such poles lasting 
from 25 to 35 years. Creosoted poles are commonly used in English telegraph 
work, and have been tried in this country, where they have been found in 
perfect condition, even at the butts, after 12 or 15 years' service. They are 
better insulators than untreated wooden poles, but are very inflammable, 
which is one reason for their not being used more extensively for railway 
telegraph lines in this country. Iron poles are sometimes used, but are 
dangerous, as they are grounded conductors and likely to cause accidents 
to the lines and linemen. 

The poles should be as low as possible, the minimum headway under the 
lowest wire being 12 ft., or 22 to 24 ft. at road crossings. Where sleet 
storms are frequent, double-pole lines may be built, the poles being 6 ft. 
apart at the bottom and held together at the top by a %-in. bolt. Two 5 x / 2 - 
in. poles may be used instead of one 7-in. pole. They may be braced at 
intervals, and on curves the outer pole should be anchored. In some cases 
the. two poles are vertical, and connected by the cross arms. Poles on 
curves should be inclined to resist the pull of the wire, and those on curves 
and in exposed places where high winds prevail should be supported by 
braces or by wire guys secured to anchors buried in the ground. The guys 
are likely to cause a leakage of current. Usually, every fifth pole has a 
wire lightning conductor, but on account of leakage of current experiments 
were made in the way of abandoning these. The results were so unsatis- 
factory that the use of the conductors is still almost universal. 

The cross arms are usually of pine or spruce, 3x4 ins., painted. Those for 
four wires or less should be secured by two lag screws, y z x 6 ins., with 
washers, while longer arms should be secured by a %-in. bolt and two 
galvanized iron braces. The arms are set into notches or gains in the poles, 
these gains being from 1 to z ins. deep. The insulator pins are either of 
wood or steel. The former are usually locust, boiled in paraffin oil, driven 
into holes in the cross arms and secured by sixpenny galvanized wire nails. 
The latter are about %-in. diameter, with a collar resting on the top of the 
cross arm. The lower part of the pin is secured by a nut under the arm, 
and the upper part has a wooden sleeve fitting the insulator. The insula- 
tors are usually of glass, although in Europe porcelain is generally used. 
The middle pins are 22 ins. apart, c. to c; the outer ones, 4 ins. from the end 
of the arm, and intermediate pins, 16 ins. c. to c. 

The wire is usually of copper or No. 6 or No. 8 to No. 10 galvanized iron, 

and the joints should be soldered. The sag should not be less than 24 ins. 

between poles, as a short sag puts a heavy strain on the wire, which strain 

may be calculated by the following formula, in which A = strain in pounds, 

B = y 2 distance between poles, in feet, C = sag, in feet, D = weight of 1 ft. 

of wire. The proper sag can be determined by sighting over the cross arms, 

which are 2 ft. apart. 

B 3 
A = v r. 

2 



408 TRACK WORK. 

The following are the official instructions issued by the Western Union 
Telegraph Co., in reference to the construction, reconstruction and repair 
of its lines: 

Rules for Telegraph Work. 

The minimum depth that poles should be set beneath the surface of the, 
ground is as follows (except where rock is encountered at 2% ft. or less, in 
which case it is only necessary to set 25-ft. poles 3% ft. deep, 30-ft. poles 
4 ft., and 35-ft. poles 4% ft.). 

25-ft. poles 4% ft. deep. 45-ft. poles 6 ft. deep. 

30-ft. " ' 5 " " 50-ft. " 7" 

35-ft. " 5.%" " 55-ft. " 1" 

40-ft. " 6 " " CO-ft. " 8" " 

In wet or marshy locations, or where the ground is likely to be softened 
by heavy rains, or where it is necessary to set poles on slopes, they should 
be set at a greater depth than above indicated, the object being to set them 
at such depth that there will be no possibility of their being blown over by 
any wind. 

In building a line, the tops of the poles should be made wedge shape, so 
that they will completely shed rain or snow. The bottom of the wedge 
should be 4 ins. above the top of the upper gain. The direction of the 
wedge must be in a line parallel with the wires and at a right angle to the 
cross-arms. The slant of poles on curves should be gradual, so that the 
strain on the poles will be evenly distributed. All sharp curves and angles 
should be well braced or anchored. Braces are preferable where there is 
room and suitable timber is available. Braces should be set a uniform dis- 
tance from the butt of the pole, at least 6 ft. when possible, and the top 
of the brace should be just below the bottom gain. Where necessary to 
anchor poles (instead of bracing), the hole for the anchor should be 4 ft. 
deep and 3 ft. long. Anchors should be so constructed that the top of the 
anchor will project a sufficient distance above the surface of the ground to 
admit of properly attaching the guy wire to it. Under no circumstances 
should the guy wire be fastened to the anchor beneath the surface of the 
ground. Office poles should be guyed in such a manner as to keep the strain 
of the wires off the office fixtures and front of building. 

Lightning conductors of ordinary line wire will be placed upon every 
fifth pole on new lines when being constructed, unless otherwise ordered. 
About 10 ft. of this wire should be formed into a flat coil and placed under 
the butt end of the pole; the other end of the wire to be stretched up the 
side of the pole and fastened by 12 or more wire staples, and extended 
about 3 ins. above the top of the pole on bracket lines, the ground wire 
'should be attached to the pole one-quarter of the way around from the 
bracket, so that if a second wire is put upon the opposite side, neither of 
the line wires can touch the ground wire if detached from the brackets. 
On cross-arm lines, the ground wire should be attached to the pole on the. 
opposite side to the cross arm. Lightning conductors should be attached 
to all office poles, and when they are placed upon poles already standing, 
the above directions should be followed as nearly as possible, the coil of 
wire being placed at least 3 ft. beneath the surface of the ground. 

Gains for cross-arms should not exceed %-in. in depth in sawed redwood 
poles, nor 1% ins. in round cedar poles that are 6 ins. or less in diameter 
at the top. Where cross-arm braces are used, the gains should not exceed 
1 in. in depth. The distance from the upper side of the top gain to the ex- 
treme top of the pole should be 8 ins., and the. distance c. to c. between 
gains must be 2 ft. When additional cross-arms are added to any pole 
carrying two or more arms, the distance apart must.be made to conform 
to that which may already exist upon such pole. Double cross-arms should 
be used on all office poles, corners, and at all railway or river crossings, 
and on all unusually long sections. Cross-arms will be fitted with sufficient 
steel pins to accommodate only the wires already on the line, or additional 
wires that are to be immediately constructed. Two bolts will be used in all 
cross arms. 



BRIDGE AND TELEGRAPH WORK. 409 

When building a line, the cross-arms should be faced alternately, first 
in one direction, and then in the opposite, except when it is necessary to 
face the cross-arms in a certain direction in order to have the arms pull 
against the pole where bridle or line guys are used. Cross-arm fixtures 
should be attached to office buildings with bolts passing through the wall 
instead of through deer or window casing, wherever it is practicable \o 
fasten them in this way. Never use screws for fastening fixtures to build- 
ings, as they are liable to pull cut when subjected to a heavy strain. 

Wires must be tied on the side of the insulator next to the pole, except 
on curves or corners, where it may be necessary to place the wire on the 
opposite side, so that it will draw against the insulator. The full-sized 
line wires should be carried to the inside of the building from the standard 
glass and pin insulators en a cross-arm attached to the wall with iron fix- 
tures, in such a manner that the wires will have an upward direction from 
the insulators to the point where they enter the building,, to prevent rain 
and moisture from following them to the wall. Where the wires run into 
the building in exposed places, they should be covered with a sloping roof 
board of sufficient width to perfectly protect them from rain and snow, 
and should be insulated with rubber tubing where they pass through walls 
and partitions, using tubing of sufficient length to go entirely through the 
wall from outside to inside of the building. Where telegraph offices are 
located in railway stations, or similar long buildings, the wires should enter 
such offices at the window or ether opening nearest the switchboard, and 
should be so strung that they can be plainly seen and easily inspected at 
all times. 

At railway crossings all the wires must be kept at a height of not less 
than 25 ft. -above the rails, and at public and private highway crossings 
not less than 18 ft. above the roadway. In the construction, reconstruction 
and general repairs of lines, all splices must be soldered, except on copper 
wires, where Mclntyre sleeves are used. All connections between copper 
and iron wires must be soldered. 

The wires inside of a building should be insulated on porcelain knobs 
or wooden cleats, and kept as far apart and as far from the ground as 
possible. The use of staples for attaching office wires is forbidden. Porce- 
lain insulators and knobs must net be used outside of buildings. Rubber 
hock insulators must net be used outside cf buildings, except in places 
where they are completely protected from rain, snow or moisture, and 
where it is impracticable to use the standard glass insulation. All connec- 
tions in main battery wires must be soldered, and the wires insulated. 
Permanent terminal ground wires should be composed of No. 8 copper 
wire, soldered to the main gas or water pipes. 



CHAPTER 24.— PERMANENT IMPROVEMENTS AND WORK TRAINS. 

One of the striking features of railway management within the past few 
years has been the amount of work done and the enormous amount of 
money expended in effecting permanent improvements, undertaken largely 
for purposes of economy, in order to increase the capacity of the line and 
to reduce the charges for maintenance and operation. Besides the con- 
tinual work of improvement which is carried on more or less by every rail- 
way, larger works are being undertaken by many roads to improve the 
railway as a whole, and much of this work is in part under the charge of the 
maintenance of way department. The question of cost of operation and 
maintenance were largely overlooked in the location and construction of 
many lines; while on others a winding and steep location was purposely 



4'0 TRACK WORK. 

adopted to avoid the first cost of heavy works and to enable the road to 
be opened quickly. On many lines built under these conditions very heavy 
expenditures have been and are being made in making the works more 
. substantial and in new works and changes to reduce the operating and 
maintenance expenses. In other cases, the growth of traffic and increase 
in train loads have made necessary similar alterations, as well as the pro- 
vision of second or third tracks to increase the capacity. Wherever filling 
is required, as for building or widening banks, raising grades or filling 
trestles, the material should, as far as possible, be procured at points where 
its removal will also benefit the road, as in widening cuts, reducing grades 
or enlarging ditches. Papers describing work of this character were pub- 
lished in "Engineering News," Jan. 25, 1900. The various improvements may 
be classified as follows: (1) Reduction of grades and curves; (2) Double 
tracking or providing additional tracks; (3) Widening embankments and 
cuts and protecting their slopes; (4) Enlarging and rearranging yards and 
terminals; (5) Replacing trestles with solid embankments; (6) Replacing 
timber and old structures with new structures of steel or masonry; (7) 
Eliminating grade crossings; (8) Constructing new and improved stations; 
(9) Improving water supply and water stations; (10) Extending the. use 
of signaling, interlocking and the block system. Space does not permit of 
any extended treatment of this subject. 

(1) Changes in Alinement. — Within recent years very many railways have 
undertaken extensive work of this sort to effect a saving in distance and 
curvature. The latter is particularly important on high speed passenger 
lines. The work is practically similar to new construction, but care must 
be taken to properly connect the old and new work where the two locations 
cross or meet, and to effect the change in track without interfering with 
the traffic. New banks may be conveniently and rapidly built by dumping 
from temporary trestles, with aprons on the sides of the cars and of the 
trestle so as to throw the material to a distance from the foot. In this way 
the material will fall towards the sides of the bank and roll back to the 
center, making it much more solid than if the material is dumped in a single 
center ridge. On the Boone County (Iowa) cut-off of the Chicago & North- 
western Ry., in 1899, some very large and high banks were built from two 
trestles 80 ft. apart, with traveling aprons on tracks below the top. Half 
of each apron was twice as long as the other, so that the banks were built 
up in the form of eight ridges, making the completed bank very solid. (See 
No. 3.) 

(2) Reducing Grades. — This has also been carried out very extensively, 
in order to enable heavier trains to be hauled, or to enable standard trains 
to run through without being divided or assisted by pusher engines. In 
most cases the alinement has been improved and easier curves introduced 
at the same time. The work usually combines the cutting down of sum- 
mits and the raising of sags, and generally involves considerable difficulties 
in carrying on the work rapidly and economically without undue interfer- 
ence with traffic. The elevation for new grades should be staked out be- 
fore beginning work if the filling is to be of considerable depth. On one 
piece of work on the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Ry., in Illinois, on a 
stretch of 3 miles with a maximum depression of 13 ft. (in a 6-ft. cut) and 
a maximum elevation of 12 ft. (on a 33-ft. embankment) a steam shovel 



PERMANENT IMPROVEMENTS. 411 

with bucket of 2 cu. yds. was used, loading three trains of 10 flat cars, 
each train having its own engine and crew. As the material was a wet, 
heavy clay, and unloaded by side plow, it was necessary to have a fourth 
engine to help on the cable in unloading. The first cut was made north 
of the main tracks, the shovel cutting to grade until a depth of 7 ft. below 
top of tie was reached, that being the extreme depth from which it could 
dump into cars standing on the main track. The north main track was 
laid through this cut immediately on its completion, and the shovel started 
through the second cut, taking it to grade all the way. The third cut com- 
pleted the work, the south main track being temporarily in the second cut. 
Thus two through connected tracks were kept in operation at all times; 
and the delays to traffic were only those due to operating a single track 
during working hours. 

(3) Filling Trestles. — A class of work which is in constant progress on 
many railways is the filling in of timber trestles with solid banks, provid- 
ing pipe or masonry culverts for the necessary waterway. The great extent 
to which timber trestling has been adopted in this country is one of the 
principal factors in the economy of construction and rapidity of completion 
which have been characteristic of American railway work, and the use of 
such temporary structures has been justified by the necessity of keeping 
the first cost of long lines as low as possible, and by the importance of put- 
ting the companies in a position to earn money by carrying freight as soon 
as possible. Well-built trestles are safe and substantial structures, but all 
timber structures require frequent attention and repair, and are liable to 
be destroyed by fire, causing, perhaps, train wrecks and serious interrup- 
tion to traffic. When once a railway is open, attention should therefore be 
given to the work of gradually replacing the trestles with solid banks, 
having culverts or metal bridges for openings, as the banks will be per- 
manent and will, under ordinary circumstances, require practically no re- 
pair or attention. This work of filling can almost invariably be done much 
more quickly and cheaply by work trains after the completion of the road 
than by the ordinary plant used while the road is under construction. In 
many cases trestles may be filled with material taken out in widening nar- 
row or wet cuts. Interesting articles on this subject have appeared in 
"Engineering News," Nov. 28, 1895, Oct. 12, 1899, and Jan. 25, 1900. Aprons 
may be used to throw the material to each side (as already noted), and in 
this way as the bank becomes higher and the pressure greater, the earth 
rolling back towards the center will cause less damage to the structure 
than when it is dumped close to it in the usual way. The main timber 
work of course remains in place, but while the work is in progress, the 
bracing should be removed as far as possible, so that the filling may be 
homogeneous and any settlement or shifting of the structure will not affect 
the embankment as a whole. On the Canadian Pacific Ry., the practice is 
to fill up to the level of the tops of the ties in the autumn, and then to re- 
move the ties, stringers and floor system in the following spring. 

Earth or gravel is commonly used, but furnace slag and refuse from coal 
mines are sometimes available. It is often assumed that the work involves 
no particular skill or difficulty, beyond keeping the work trains out of the 
way of traffic, but as a matter of fact each piece of work presents its own 
difficulties which require special treatment. On soft ground or steep slopes 



412 TRACK WORK. 

the work of filling calls for very careful consideration. In extensive work 
of this kind on the Canadian Pacific Ry., two specially troublesome kinds 
of soft bottom were met with. In one case, the bottom was practically 
unfathomable, and swallowed up all of the filling, until the successful. ex- 
pedient was adopted of using light sawdust instead of heavy gravel. In 
the other case, the soft bottom rested upon a sloping rock bed, down which 
the bank would slide. In some cases the alinement was changed to avoid 
the most troublesome and dangerous places (and it is to be noted that it 
was sometimes found possible to get a better location on firm ground than 
the original location on treacherous ground), but in many cases the difficul- 
ties were steadily fought until overcome. In no case should such work 
be commenced until careful soundings and investigation have been made. 
as to the depth, slope of hard bottom, etc., and a proper plan then devised 
in accordance with the conditions to be met. Otherwise the result may be 
the loss of money, time and material, or the wrecking of a structure and a 
costly interruption to traffic, as the dumping of material in a swampy bot- 
tom or a sinkhole may develop unexpected upheavals in a more or less dis- 
tant part, which may lead to damage suits or involve the compulsory pur- 
chase of real estate. 

Not only has the foundation to be considered, but also the trestle itself. 
Thus in the case of a long structure, especially if the longitudinal bracing 
is deficient, as is too often the case, it is not safe to fill in from the ends or 
from one end, as the pressure may result in the injury or collapse of the 
trestle, but the filling must be carried on uniformly along the length of the 
trestle, thus maintaining a practically horizontal surface for the bank, and 
preventing the straining of the structure. On such a trestle, care must be 
taken not to impose severe longitudinal strains by too free a use of the air 
brakes in getting the gravel trains into position. If the earth or gravel is to 
he plowed off the cars in the usual way, the strength of the trestle is an im- 
portant considerations regard to the resistance to the racking strains, and 
to the lateral strains if a side plow is used, especially if the material is stiff 
and the cars are chained to the track. A plow being hauled over a car and 
suddenly striking a boulder or other obstruction may throw very severe 
strains upon a trestle. This is more particularly the case where the trestle 
is on a curve. The strains due to plowing off the material may be con- 
siderably reduced by using a "rapid unloader," with a steam winding en- 
gine on the front car, as described in Chapter 17. If there are boulders 
tn the material, an open plank screen, inclined downwards from the edge 
of the trestle (like an open picket fence) will cause all such large material 
to fall clear of the trestle bents and form the toe of the bank. Unloading 
the material by hand shoveling or hand dump-cars is dangerous, there 
being the constant liability of a man falling from or being knocked off the 
structure. This is especially the case when dump-cars are used on high 
trestles, as the floors are usually narrow, and the men likely to stumble, 
get dizzy or be struck by moving cars. In order to provide against these 
dangers, two or three systems of dumping cars by compressed air have been 
introduced and used to some extent. The. body of the car is attached to 
the piston rod of a vertical cylinder, connected by a train pipe and hose 
couplings with the air reservoir on the engine. 

A very effective and economical method of filling where water is obtain- 



PERMANENT IMPROVEMENTS. 413 

able under considerable head is that of washing earth into place from the 
hillside above the trestle, using a 3 or 4-in. water jet from a monitor in the 
same way as in placer mining, with a head usually of about 200 ft. This 
method has been employed on the Canadian Pacific Ry. and Northern Pa- 
cific Ry. To prevent the water from flowing away too rapidly over the fill, 
carrying away with it the earth and also washing channels in the side of 
the embankment, a line of old ties, or a bank 6 to 12 ins. high made of 
marsh hay faced inside with earth, is placed along the edge of the bank, 
forming a pool in which the finer material settles, while the water flows 
over the top. This bank is renewed on the slope as the pool fills. The ties 
or grass help to sustain the face of the bank, while the grass grows and 
eventually forms a protecting sod. The water and earth are carried down 
from the excavation by a flume, the lower end of which is movable, and 
the flow from the mouth of the flume can be directed to any desired point 
by means of movable flashboards or planks. There is no obstruction to 
traffic by work trains, but the progress is usually somewhat slow. The 
embankments thus made are extremely solid and stable and cost from l 1 /? 
to 20 cts. per cu. yd., the general average cost being 5 to 7 cts. per yd. The 
hydraulic filling is carried up to within 4 ft. of subgrade, and the bank is 
then finished by means of gravel trains. 

(4) Double Tracking. — In widening banks, the ground should be cleared, 
as in new work, a trench cut to give a footing to the new slope, and the 
slope of the old bank stripped and stepped or benched so that the finished 
bank will be homogeneous. If the material is simply dumped over an old 
and compacted slope, it will be liable to continual sliding. After heavy 
rains, long cracks will appear at the top and large masses of the new ma- 
terial will break away from the shoulder. The filling can be distributed 
by side dump cars or a side plow, and leveled by a ballast spreader work- 
ing on the existing track, as described under "Ballasting." Improvements 
in alinement and grade very generally go hand in hand with the work of 
double tracking. The Chicago & Northwestern Ry. in 1896 double tracked 
its line between Madison and Baraboo, Wis., 37 miles, improving the profile 
for 60% of the distance. Summits were cut down 6 to 10 ft. and intervening 
sags correspondingly raised, with the result of materially increasing the 
hauling capacity of the locomotives. Some heavy curves were also taken 
out. New banks on the realinement were built by dumping material from 
temporary trestles, the gravel being plowed off the cars by "rapid un- 
loaders," hauling side or center plows as required. When filled to the level 
of the trestle, the material for widening was dumped on the shoulder and 
leveled off by a spreader car. This was described in detail in "Engineering 
News," June 3, 1897. 

(5) Elevation of Tracks. — In many cases where railways were originally 
built through cities and towns on the street grades, the dangers and in- 
conveniences to street travel and railway service caused by the numerous 
grade crossings have led to the elevation (or sometimes depression) of the 
tracks at great expense. This work calls for very careful organization 
and arrangement in order to keep the cost as low as possible and to avoid 
accidents or interference with the traffic, which is usually very heavy. In 
the extensive work of this character at Chicago different methods have been 
employed. The Chicago & Northwestern Ry. erected the steel bridges on 



414 TRACK WORK. 

pile abutments, and built temporary inclines for the work trains bringing: 
the sand filling. The masonry abutments were built afterwards. Sections, 
of one track about y 2 mile long, were closed to traffic, switches being put in. 
and telegraph operators established at each end to provide for handling 
the work trains. The switches were shifted as the work progressed. On 
the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry., framed trestles were built to carry 
the tracks across the streets, being raised 3 to 5 ft. from time to time as the 
filling progressed from adjacent tracks. ("Engineering News," Jan. 11 and 
Feb. 22, 1900.) 

(6) Drainage. — This may include cutting down and draining slopes to pre- 
vent landslides, and widening cuts to prevent trouble from snow or from 
wet, sliding banks, the material thus taken out being applied to advantage 
in filling trestles. Where cuts give trouble from sliding in wet weather (and 
where cuts have been made as narrow as possible, to save expense in first 
construction, a very little sliding threatens interference with traffic), it 
will often be economy to put in a steam shovel and widen the cut to more 
suitable dimensions, using the material for filling trestles or widening nar- 
row banks. An effort should be made to convince the higher officers of the 
true economy resulting from such expenditures. Many roads are gradually 
building new and better culverts, or replacing open culverts having wooden 
or iron stringers, with cast iron pipe, concrete arched culverts, or short 
plate girders, having either open floors with ties about 2 ins. apart, or solid 
floors of old rails or other construction. 

(7) Low Grade Tunnel Lines Replacing High Grade Summits. — In several 
cases railways have been carried over mountain ranges by summit lines, 
for economy in first cost and for promptness in completing the line for 
traffic. The increase in train loads and traffic, high cost of operating steep- 
grades, and sometimes difficulties from snow, have in some of these cases 
led to the construction of a low-grade cut-off piercing the range by a tun- 
nel. The Northern Pacific Ry. crossed the Cascade Range in 1887 by a 
switchback line 7 miles long with grades of 5.6%, compensated 0.04% per 
degree, and having tail tracks of 0.2%, 400 to 500 ft. long. The summit 
elevation was 3,675 ft. The Stampede tunnel line reduced the distance to 3 
miles, the grade to 2.2%, and the elevation to 2,827 ft. The Great Northern 
Ry. crosses the same range by a switchback line 12 miles long, with grades 
of 3% and 4%, compensated 0.04%. The summit elevation is 4,055 ft. The 
tail tracks are level from headblock to frog (100 ft.) and then rise 1% to 5% 
for 1,000 ft. The tunnel now under construction will reduce the distance to 
3y 2 miles, the grade to 1.74 and 2.2%, and the elevation to 3,350 ft. On the 
Colorado Midland Ry., the Busk tunnel saves 7 miles in distance, 530 ft. of 
elevation and 2,000° of curvature, as compared with the summit line (which 
has no switchbacks). The Zigzag tunnel line on the New York, Ontario & 
Western Ry., about 1 mile long, replaces a switchback line with four in- 
clines, about 3 miles long, and saves about $30,000 per annum (formerly ex- 
pended in helping trains over the summit), or more than thrice the interest 
on the cost of the tunnel. The incline grades were 1.98% for southbound 
trains, and 1.8% for northbound trains, while on the tunnel line they are 
1.25 and 0.75%, respectively. 

(8) Minor Improvements. — These may include the filling up of sags and 
flattening summits (due to settlement of earthwork or bad arrangement- 



PERMANENT IMPROVEMENTS. 415 

of grades) so as to lessen the trouble from breaking of couplings, caused 
by the jerks and strains at such places; also the minor but general changes 
of curvature to insure a better alinement throughout the length of a rail- 
way or a division. These improvements may, perhaps, be undertaken on 
general principles (if the road considers that the result will warrant the 
outlay) or to enable the road to compete, to better advantage with rival 
routes, this latter having been the cause of the extensive work done for 
the systematic improvement of the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Ry. 

(9) Resurveys. — Another and more detailed class of work is the entire re- 
survey of the line to check its maps, profiles, monuments, larid boundaries, 
etc. In many cases the maps and records are incomplete, especially as to 
changes in location made during construction (which may affect the actual 
length and position of mile posts), and as to subsequent additions and 
changes in yards and sidetracks, right of way, etc. This work, as carried 
out on 600 miles of railway, has been fully described by Mr. Hosea Paul 
in a pamphlet on "Railway Surveys and Resurveys," and in 1896 Mr. George 
D. Snyder presented to the American Society of Civil Engineers a paper on 
"The Resurvey of the Williamsport Division of the Philadelphia & Reading 
Ry." The subject need not, therefore, be further considered here. 

Construction and Work Trains. 

The permanent improvements now in progress on a very large number 
of railways involve the extensive use of construction or work trains, which 
must be handled promptly and efficiently in order to work them with 
economy and a minimum interference with regular traffic. Some particulars 
of the work of these trains have been given in the first part of this chapter, 
and in Chapter 17. 

A work train is usually given train orders authorizing it to occupy a 
specified portion of the track as an extra, and no other irregular train 
should then be authorized to pass over that portion of the track without 
provision for passing the work train. If it is anticipated that a work 
train may be where it cannot be reached for meeting or passing orders, 
it may be directed to report for orders at a given time and place. Work 
trains occupying the main track on a line operated under the block system, 
must inform the signalman at the entering end of the block (or at both 
ends on single track), and leave a flagman at the tower. Regular trains 
will then be stopped, and allowed to proceed with a "caution" card. 

Much expense and delay in work done by construction trains is fre- 
quently caused by considering these trains as belonging to the very lowest 
class, and allowing train dispatchers to sidetrack them at any and all 
times and places, only occupying the main track by special order, after 
every other train has had right of way. This causes much loss of time 
in waiting, besides which the steam-shovel or gravel pit crew and the un- 
loading gang are idle when the train is waiting for regular trains which 
are behind time. This makes the excavating and ballasting very expensive, 
and might, in many cases, be easily remedied by the dispatcher if made 
to understand that the work train is an important and expensive item in 
the maintenance account and should be kept at work to its fullest capacity. 
Where work is in progress at some distance from a station, a temporary 
telegraph station or bell-code station may be established at the gravel pit, 



416 TRACK WORK. 

and the men in charge of the train kept informed as to train movements. 
The roadmaster or other officer in charge should see that the trains are 
unloaded as quickly as possible, the rails properly cleared and ballast or 
filling leveled off so as not to strike car steps, brake beams, etc., and the 
train then promptly sent back or got out of the way. It is generally ad- 
visable to keep one train of cars in the pit while the other is out on the 
track. 

It is poor economy and bad practice to assign old and worn out locomo- 
tives of light power to the work trains, and such engines may cause serious 
delay to traffic. The engine may be a passenger engine that is somewhat 
too old for its service, but still in fair condition and not too light. The 
caboose, supply car, and regular train of service cars should be equipped 
with air-brake and air-whistle, and whenever going to a considerable dis- 
tance the train should be qualified to run as a section of a passenger train 
with perfect safety. Much time is lost by work trains going to and from 
work, and in passing over the road for any considerable distance during 
the day, when taking thjeir chances with the other traffic, as is the common 
practice. 

The, handling of work trains in connection with steam shovel work, sucn 
as in lowering grades and double tracking, where it is necessary to avoid 
interference with through traffic, depends largely upon the local conditions. 
In the improvement of the Michigan Division of the Grand Trunk Ry. in 
1900, one piece of work included lowering the grade 9 ft. in one place and 
raising it 9 ft. in another. There were three telegraph offices in about 2y 2 
miles. At each of these was a semaphore, and all work trains were under 
the protection of those semaphores, regardless of orders. These trains 
were in no way handled by dispatchers. The operator at the center office 
instructed the office east and west of him when to block trains. For ex- 
ample, when a train of material left the steam shovel to go east or west, 
the operator at the center block instructed the operator at the east or west 
block (whichever way the train was going), and the work train moved in 
the territory covered by this block, regardless of all trains. It was found 
that in this way the best service could be obtained from the crews. Witn 
three crews, 300 cars of material could be taken from the shovel and un- 
loaded on main line without interfering with the traffic, which averaged 
in working hours about 8 to 12 trains each way per day. 

In the raising of the grade of the New York, New Haven & Hartford 
Ry. for about 4%. miles at Forest Hills, near Boston, Mass., the earthwork 
filling was done from the temporary main line double track trestle between 
the masonry walls. The filling material was obtained from a gravel pit 
13 miles distant, and the gravel train service was very carefully organized. 
Small dump cars were at first tried, but gave much trouble by getting 
derailed, and flat cars used were found to be unsatisfactory by reason of 
the time occupied in unloading them. Bach gravel train was therefore 
made up of 20 Pratt dump cars of 25 cu. yds. capacity each, or 500 cu. yds. 
per train, hauled by a powerful mogul engine. There were about 1.000,000 
cu. yds. of filling altogether, and the work went on at the rate of about 
13,000 cu. yds. per week. One shovel was usually employed loading one 
train while another was on the work, but another shovel was put in service 
if the first could not keep the trains supplied. This work went on night and 



PERMANENT IMPROVEMENTS. 417 

day. With two shovels at work, 3,500 cu. yds. (or seven train loads) could 
be dumped in 24 hours. The unloading was attended to by groups of men 
on the track, who also attended to the ballasting, lining, surfacing and gen- 
eral work on the track. In some of the improvement work done on the 
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Ry. in 1899, the average haul from borrow 
pit was two miles, and the contractors used a 1%-yd. steam shovel and two 
switch engines, each handling a train of 16 standard gage, 5-yd., side-dump 
cars. The work was prosecuted night and day, in two shifts of ten hours 
each. A comparison of the efficiency of flat cars and cable with the 
side-dump cars was greatly in favor of the latter. Under very favorable 
circumstances a train of 16 loaded cars was dumped and righted, ready to 
return to the shovel, in 2 minutes; and the average actual working time 
was about 6 minutes, or one-third the average for flat cars and plow. The 
train load was 65 yds. in each case. A large amount. of information relative 
to widening cuts" and banks, operating gravel trains, etc., is given in Mr. 
Hermann's book on "Steam Shovels and Steam Shovel Work." 

If a work train engine is only required to take the men to and from their 
work, this engine should attend to the distribution of material for the 
sections, which frequently require such assistance, and if it cannot be so 
employed it should be turned over to the transportation department from 
the time of delivering the men at their work to the time of taking them 
home in the evening. When it is considered that this engine costs about 
$25 per day, including the crew, it will be readily seen that with a force of 
laborers costing $25 a day, it increases the cost of every day's labor per- 
formed 100%. Hence the practice of running a work train with a small 
force of laborers is an expensive luxury, and any work train gang com- 
posed of less than 50 laborers will make the average rate of each day's 
labor higher than any contractor would figure on doing work. Of course, 
there is always work on the railway that cannot be done by contract, and 
is only possible to reach by the use of an engine; but the force, of laborers 
should bear such a proportion to the cost of the engine that the cost of each 
day's labor is within reasonable limits. In many cases the engine can be 
profitably employed in unloading rails, stringing new rails, distributing 
ties, moving switches, etc. 

The foreman of the construction gang should act as conductor of the 
train and share the responsibility for the safety of the train with the en- 
gineman. A conductor who has nothing to do with the work of the train 
should not be employed, there being too many opportunities for him to 
sleep in the caboose, and he will consequently antagonize the foreman, 
who is' particularly interested in and held responsible for a fair day's work. 
By the foreman acting as conductor, he gets a knowledge of the trains 
that he would not otherwise have, which enables him to arrange his work 
to better advantage, and especially smaller items of work (which consume 
so much of the train's time), so that it can be done between the time of 
certain trains. This conductor must be an expert foreman, qualified in 
all branches of track work. He should be. provided with an assistant fore- 
man, thus enabling him to give more time to the trains than otherwise 
would be possible, and, if his force is large enough to require it, he should 
also be furnished with a timekeeper. He is responsible for seeing that the 
cars are in good running order, and must make reports of all track material 



418 TRACK WORK. 

delivered, and of all delays experienced through not receiving orders 
promptly. On the New York Central Ry., the conductor is under the im- 
mediate direction of the supervisor, and acts as foreman of the gang, the 
assistant foreman taking charge when the conductor leaves with the 
train. The trains are usually required to be clear of the main track 
between 5 or 6 a. m. and 7 p. m., and to be sidetracked for the night at a 
telegraph station. 

The conductor and dispatcher should work in harmony, the former noti- 
fying the dispatcher as to the location of his work, the time it will probably 
require, and his movements when the work is finished, while the dis- 
patcher should inform the conductor as to expected movements of trains 
affecting him, especially of expected extras, so that he can report at a 
telegraph station in time for orders. It too often happens that the work 
train is tied up by signals put on regular trains to enable the dispatcher 
to run other trains which could otherwise be run as extra's. The limits of 
the work train should be as short as possible, as the dispatcher can handle 
it better, and where the track is crooked and traffic is heavy the work 
trains should not be allowed to work under flag on the time of freight trains. 
A work train conductor working on limits should not run past telegraph 
stations on the way to sidings without ascertaining the times of regular 
trains and whether the dispatcher can assist in any way. On the other 
hand, dispatchers should be held strictly accountable for delays to work 
trains. 

On the Lehigh Valley Ry., the work train crews are in the roadway de- 
partment, and each crew consists of an engineman, fireman and three 
brakemen. These men are selected with great care and are considered 
•experts, as there is no more important train than the work train, being in 
the way of all extra trains, and as the traffic is very great the best men 
are necessary for the most effective working. There is also a man who 
acts as conductor and foreman, being selected from the roadway force, 
and having been raised on the division on which he works. He is qualified 
to do all kinds of construction and repair work in the roadway department, 
and is required to pass the regular conductor's examination. There is 
also an assistant foreman, who is a first-class man, and when the force 
of men numbers more than 40 a timekeeper is assigned to the gang. The 
work formerly done by floating gangs is now done by the work train gang, 
which is an improvement, as the material for the floating gang was handled 
by the work train, and this train was often put to a disadvantage in taking 
that gang to and from work. Work train extras are assigned working 
limits by special telegraphic orders, in accordance with the standard code. 
They are required to clear first and second class trains by 10 minutes. Most 
of the freight trains are run as extras, and in such cases, the work train 
works until overtaken, being protected by a flagman. When schedule trains 

are late, the work extra is given time on the delayed train, the same 
as any other extra. The work train gang may assist the track gangs 
at times, as in reballasting when waiting between trains. Ties, rails, 
etc., should be unloaded at suitable points and where needed, so as to avoid 
rehandling on the right of way as far as possible. On the Pennsylvania 
Ry., work trains are assigned to all main line supervisors and to branch 
line supervisors where the< traffic is heavy enough to warrant it. The work 



PERMANENT IMPROVEMENTS. 419 

trains are run as extras, and on single track they are handled by the dis- 
patchers so as to give them every opportunity to work without causing de- 
lay to their own movements or to regular trains. Working limits are given 
wherever possible. 

On the Southern Ry., work or gravel trains are run as extras under spe- 
cial orders, and the practice is to assign them working limits each day 
between certain mile posts, and for them to keep out of the way of all regu- 
lar trains. When any special work is going on they are allowed to work 
close up to the limits, and are given special orders against every train up 
to the time of arriving, if tne trains are behind time, but are required to 
be clear cf passenger trains' time and to keep cut of the way until the pas- 
senger train has passed. Where, there is specially important work being 
done, a telegraph office is opened and all trains are required to come 
to a stop before entering the. limits assigned to the work train, until given 
an order to proceed. These orders are rarely given against first-class pas- 
senger trains. 



CHAPTER 25.— HANDLING AND CLEARING SNOW. 

One of the annual difficulties encountered is that of dealing with snow, 
and keeping the read open during the winter. If a road is carried on an 
embankment, even a low one, the snow will drift up on the windward 
side until it is level with the track, and will then blow over and form a 
drift on the other side, so that it is not difficult to keep the track clear. 
For this reason, even prairie lines should not be built on the surface level, 
but should be raised on embankments. Shallow cuts will soon fill if the 
wind is blowing across them, unless snow fences are built (see Chapter 8). 
In deep cuts there will be greater trouble in getting rid of the snow, and 
all cuts may be made less troublesome by widening them and flattening 
the slopes. In sidehill work the drifts against the- bank are likely to be 
dangerous, especially if the tee is about even with the outer rail, as the 
side pressure on the plow is likely to cause derailment. Drifts containing 
earth or sand are very heavy and dangerous. Shallow drifts across the 
rails, which cause trains to lose time, or necessitate reducing the number 
of cars, may be successfully dealt with, by pilot plows and Gangers on the 
engines, or on specially equipped cars attached to the trains. 

Steady falls of light soft snow at a mild temperature are the easiest to 
deal with if the road has proper equipment, but if* the temperature is very 
low the snow may settle and freeze into a mass, or if the wind is high it 
may be packed very hard in the drifts. Hard dry snow, whether drifting 
or packed, is apt to be troublesome by filling up against the rail heads, 
increasing the liability of the engine wheels to slip and even causing de- 
railment unless Gangers are promptly used. The same trouble, but of 
greater extent, results from partial thaw followed by freezing, which 
causes the formation of solid ice on the roadbed. The worst drifts are 
formed by heavy falls of dry, hard snow which will form drifts in every 
place affording a lee side. Where the wind blows through a cut instead of 
across it the snow will not drift, and in fact a change of wind may clear 



420 



TRACK WORK. 



a cut in which the snow is not packed hard. The weight of snow varies 
from 12 to 25 lbs.- per cu. ft., according to its condition, while the heavy- 
masses in snow slides sometimes weigh as much as 45 lbs. The weight 
in Canada has been given as follows: Freshly fallen snow, 14^ lbs. per cu. 
ft.; 24 hours after falling, 8° F., 21*4 lbs.; 72 hours, 30° F., 28.7; but after 
high winds', which pack it hard, it will weigh about 30 lbs. per cu. ft. If 
the snow in drifts 3 to 7 ft. deep has been partly thawed and refrozen and 
become very hard packed, the plows may ride upon it and be derailed. 

Snowsheds are sometimes built in open flat country, but mainly on side- 
hill lines and to cover deep cuts on mountain divisions, at places where 
deep drifts occur. They are usually heavy log structures, sometimes with 
rock-filled cribbing on the uphill side, earth being filled in behind the crib- 
bing to a level with the roof of the shed so as to form an even slope from 
the hillside to the outer edge of the shed roof. The bents are 5 to 10 ft. 
apart, and framed bents of triangular section are often used for the outer 







Fig. 219.— Snow Sheds; Canadian Pacific Ry. 



or downhill side. Planking is spiked to the batter posts of these bents, a 
narrow opening for light and air being left along the upper part, under the 
overhang of the roof. The timbers are usually 8 x 10 to 12 x 12 ins., with 
3-in. and 4-in. planking. • Some forms of snowsheds used on the Canadian 
Pacific Ry. are shown in Fig. 219. On this road an open air line is laid out- 
side the snowsheds for use in summer. On hillsides where snowslides occur, 
glance and split fences are sometimes used to guide the snow into gullies 
and to break up the slide. The latter are V-shaped, with a sharp angle and 
a strongly braced and anchored crib at the point. They are used to protect 
ventilating openings in the sheds, as in heavy weather the smoke escapes 
slowly, and the shorter each shed is the better. The sheds must be care- 
fully watched and patrolled, as there is great danger from fire, which, if 
once well started, is very hard to fight. On the Central Pacific Ry., fire 
trains, equipped with tanks, fire pumps, hose, etc., are kept in readiness 



SNOW. 421 

at sidings in the sheds, while some of the large sheds on the Canadian 
Pacific Ry. have pipe lines, with 200-ft coils of hose at hydrant nozzles 400 
ft. apart. 

In fighting snow there are two methods to be followed. The first is de- 
fensive, consisting in the erection of snow fences and sheds, and the use 
of pilot or engine plows or plows hauled by the trains, so as to keep the 
snow from covering the track to such a depth as to interfere with the 
traffic. The second is aggressive, and consists in the use of breaking plows 
and armies of shovelers to clear deep drifts and heavy falls which threaten 
to blockade or have blockaded the road. In a heavy storm or a succession 
of storms, the main thing is to keep on breaking up the drifts by snow 
plows, so that they do not have time to pack and become so hard as to re- 
quire shoveling, and the work of the breaking plow must be supplemented 
by the wing plow and Hanger to widen the cuts and clear the rails. 

The shoveling of snow by hand is slow and laborious work, especially 
in heavy drifts and with snow still falling or fierce winds blowing. Such 
work is often attended with danger, and the officers in charge should see 
that the laborers sent out are warmly clad, and that provisions and hot 
coffee are provided. In shoveling from deep cuts, the work must be done 
in benches, the vertical height of which is the height to which the men 
can shovel the snow without too much exertion. With shoveling in heavy 
work there is sometimes difficulty in getting rid of the material, and it has 
to be carried out on work trains, and dumped over trestles, etc. In one 
case on the Canadian Pacific Ry., after several small structures had been 
filled the snow trains had to be. run considerable distances, entailing great 
loss of time and constant trouble in backing up over badly flanged track, due 
to the almost continuous snowfall and drifts in that neighborhood. These 
difficulties were avoided the next year by the use of the rotary plow and a 
small gang of shovelers. The compressed snow on the slope was shoveled 
onto the track to a width covered by the scoop of the rotary and the wings 
of the wing-plow, and was thus thrown clear of the track, and a good 
flange way left. In heavy level snowfalls of over 12 ins., the rotary plow 
was used, but with less than that the ordinary wing-plow was used, as 
it could be run faster, and time was of first importance, besides which the 
wing-plow, of course, cost considerably less in operation. Cuts widened 
in the way noted above are less liable to fill up again very quickly. Some 
roads slope the snow cut back for 30 or 50 ft, and the wider the cut the 
longer it will stay open. 

A deep snow cut with vertical sides, as left by the plow, is liable to fill 
very quickly, and it is wise to break down the sides, shoveling the loose 
snow into the cut, and then run a wing plow through at high speed to fling 
the snow to a distance. If the snow in deep drifts is hard, it is well to cut 
trenches across it, either large trenches, 30 ft. long and 10 ft. wide, and 
about 30 ft. apart, or short ones with two men to each trench, the trenches 
being just as long as the men can work, and 15 ft. apart. This dan be done 
by the regular section gangs as well as the snow shoveling gangs, and en- 
ables a locomotive with engine or breaking plow to clear the drift. When 
men are engaged on this sort of work, or in a narrow snow cut with verti- 
cal sides, a man should be posted on top of the cut to watch out for and give 
warning of the approach of trains or plows. 



422 TRACK WORK. 

The section men and yard men must look to the clearing of snow from 
yards, switches, frogs, crossings, guard rails, etc. Yards should' have 
plenty of good clean ballast, and he kept well drained, so that in case of 
a cold snap following a thaw there will be less liability of thawed snow 
freezing up the switches, etc. The trenches in which switch connecting, 
rods work should be kept open to prevent the accumulation of water which, 
by freezing, might prevent the operation of the switch. Salt should be 
used in clearing snow and ice from switches and frogs, and light drifting 
snow frequently swept out, the. slide plates being also frequently oiled as 
the salt water will rust the iron and make the switch rails hard to move. 
Where many snowstorms occur during the winter it is a good plan to put 
up posts near the switches in yards, with a broom and shovel hung on each 
ready for use by trainmen or others. 

The use of plows should be commenced as soon as a storm begins, pilot 
plows being used first to clear light drifts. For heavy work, the snow is 
first broken up by a plow driven into it by two or more engines, and when 
a passage has been made, the cut is widened by running a plow through it 
with wings extended. These wings are hinged to each side of the plow, 
and can extend about 3 ft., their spread being controlled by a man in the 
"lookout" in accordance with whistle signals from the leading engine. They 
are, of course, closed in to clear bridges, tunnels, etc. On lines with two 
or more tracks, an engine with a wedge-shaped, square-nosed plow in front 
and a wing plow behind may be run on one track, throwing a bank of snow 
over towards the next track. Following this on the other track is an en- 
gine with a side-delivery plow in front and a wing plow behind, with the 
wing on the outer side of the track extended. This will not only clear its 
own track but clear off the snow thrown out by the wing of the first wing 
plow. 

Flangers and Flanging Cars. — An important auxiliary to the snow plow 
is the flanger, which clears the snow and ice away from the rail heads, 
especially on the inner side, so as to leave an ample flangeway (usually 
about 5 ins. wide) for the wheels. This device is usually mounted on the 
snow plow, but sometimes it is fitted to a special flanging car, and operated 
by hand levers or air cylinders, it being necessarily raised at frogs, switches 
and crossings, and at road crossings where the planks have not been re- 
moved. The Nevens flanger is fitted to a car, and consists of a double- 
bladed scraper, set diagonally across the track at an angle of about 75° 
and resting on the rails. The car can be run in either direction. Bach 
blade consists of a steel knife for cutting the snow and ice, and a mold 
board so curved as to throw the snow well away from the track. The 
blades cut even with the tops of the rails, 16 ins. wider than the gage, and 
also cut a* groove 2y 2 ins. deep and 15 ins. wide inside each rail. The mold 
boards and knives consist of two parts set end to end with a middle vertical 
joint, and provided with a connecting sleeve and spring which allow the 
parts to close together in case the scraper strikes an obstruction. The 
flanger is raised or lowered by levers, and the car can be run at 30 to 35 
miles per hour. One form of flanger for pilot plows is shown in Fig. 220 
On the Northern Pacific Ry., flangers are secured to the pilot and work m 
combination with a shallow snow plow wing, the flanging knives being se- 
cured at front or point of pilot and lifting at rear end only. 



SNOW. 423 

The Priest Sanger, which is used on a number of roads, is a flanger only, 
and not designed for heavy drifts. It goes behind the pilot, supported on 
the equalizing bars, the cutting thrust being borne by the engine truck 
dox. The object in carrying the cutter bar on the equalizers is to obtain 
an even depth of cut, which is done by using slotted lifters, so that the 
cutter bar partakes of none of the vertical motion of the engine on its 
springs. This feature is designed to give an even depth of cut, however 
rough the track may be. The lateral motion of the bar, on account of its 
being but little in advance of the axle, is not much greater than that of 
the wheels, so that good work can be done on sharp curves as well as on 
tangents, and without touching the rail. The cutters may be set to within 
%-in. above the rail and V/^ ins. clear of each side of the rail head. Experi- 
ence has shown that the clearance on the sides could be increased to 3 ins. 
and still allow good work, the snow and ice being unable to remain on 
top of and against the side of the rail after the removal of the backing 
which supports it. With this clearance, torpedoes fastened to the rail re- 
main undisturbed by the flangers. This machine cuts a swath 12 ins. wide 
inside and outside of rail, 1% ins. deep inside and %-in. deep outside. The 
knives only are liable to injury, all reinforcing bars being carried sufficient- 
ly high to clear everything. The knives require simply the manipulation 
of one bolt in removing them. The flanger is lifted by means of air. 

A handy device for dealing with moderate depths of snow on side or 
main tracks is a flat car fitted with a nose plow and flangers, the car be- 
ing well weighted, especially at the ends, by car wheels or stone. The 
Michigan Central Ry. has a car of this kind mounted on rigid-center trucks. 
The. plow is of wood and has a vertical nose and sides, the sides being 8 ft. 
4 ins. long and 5 ft. 6% ins. high. It is hung upon the end of a beam 12 x 
14 ins- (above the floor), hinged at the rear end of the car, and raised by 
two vertical brake cylinders mounted near the front end of the car. The 
flanger is attached to the heel of the plow. A somewhat similar car on 
the Pennsylvania Lines has a fixed nose 7 ft. 2 ins. wide at the heel, 5 ft. 
long on the center line, with an angle of about 80°. It is faced with iron 
like a pilot plow, the height of the nose being 2 ft. 4 ins. Between the 
trucks is hung the flanger, which resembles the plow but has an angle of 
60°. This is hung on the end of two 10 x 5-in. timbers 14 ft. 8 ins. long, 
set on edge, which form a V, the nose of which is inside the point of the 
flanger, while the ends butt against the transom in front of the rear*"cruck 
and are hinged by straps to the intermediate, sills. The flanger can be raised 
T)y a 10-in. inverted air cylinder, the piston rod being connected by a rod 
with the flanger, which moves vertically in guides. 

Pilot and Engine Plows. — The use of pilot plows, or snow plows bolted to 
the engine pilot, is common on most railways which have to deal with 
moderate or heavy snowfalls, as they serve to keep the track from getting 
blocked with snow, except in case of very heavy storms or drifts, and en- 
able the train to make better time by clearing the track of light snow. In 
general these are curved plates rigidly bolted to or in front of the pilot, but 
Fig. 220 shows an adjustable plow, operated by air from the brake reservoir, 
which has been used on the Grand Rapids & Indiana Ry. for some years. 
Four flat bars (A) are bolted to the bumper beam, and carried down to 
-within 3 ins. of the rail level, being then bent back and inclined upward 



424 



TRACK WORK. 



to have the rear ends attached to the cylinder casting. The inclined part 
of each bar is stiffened by a tee iron (B). The plow (C) is of the usual 
form, with overhanging nose and curved wings, 18% ins. above the rail. 
The sides and bottom are stiffened by angle irons. On each side of the 
bottom is bolted an ice-cutter or Sanger (D), consisting of a %-in. steel 
plate with notched edges. When in position for work, this ice cutter is Zy 2 
ins. below the top of the rail. On the bumper beam are bearings for a 3-in. 
shaft (E), carrying two arms (F) connected by a rod (G). To this rod 
are hung two links (H), by which the heel of the plow is lifted, sliding 
vertically on the bars (A) ; also a diagonal rod (J) which lifts the nose of 
the plow, and is adjusted by means of a turnbuckle. An upright rocker 
arm (K) has a connecting rod (L) to the piston rod (M) of an air cylinder 




Fig. 220.— Pilot Snow Plow and a 
Flanger; Grand Rapids & 
Indiana Ry. I 



("N) placed behind the steam chest. The Chicago & Northwestern Ry. has 
a somewhat similar plow, but with a Sanger pivoted to the outer side of 
each face of the plow, the flangers being raised by an inverted air cylinder 
behind the plow. Slots allow the flangers to move ahead in rounding curves, 
the pressure of the snow bringing them back into normal position. 

The larger engine plows are usually of iron, bolted to a special frame 
which takes the place of the pilot, the plow extending above the top of the 
boiler and being braced to the frame and smokebox. On the Northern Pa- 
cific Ry., snowdrifts up to 4 ft. deep are handled with pilot plows, unless 
too hard, in which case channels are cut across the track. The engine 
plows are of the wedge type, of two designs; one has central deflecting 



SNOW. 



425 



wings, which throw the snow to each side of the track, and the other has a 
single wing placed diagonally on the wedge portion of the plow and throw- 
ing the snow to one side of the track only. This wing is adjustable and used 
on either side at will. On double track, the single-wing plow is found to be 
most useful. Engine plows of this kind have been used for drifts even up 
to 15 ft. deep, the drifts having first been cut by cross trenches. Wire 
brushes should be attached to engine pilots and behind all flanges so as to 
clean the rail head. 

Breaking Plows. — The ordinary form of breaking or driving plow resem- 
bles a large box car with an inclined front end, the plow being pro- 
pelled by locomotives in the rear. If the plow is run at high speed into a 
drift it has to stand very severe racking and wrenching strains, and not 
unfrequently leaves the track. This leads to continual delay in digging 
out and replacing the plow. If the plow and engines strike a heavy drift 
the sudden shock is likely to derail both plow and engines, or to shift the 
tender tanks, or the plow may run up into the snowdrift. Drifts that have 
been in place for several days should not be attacked until soundings or 
some investigations have been made, as alternate thaws and freezing may 




Fig. 221.— The Russell Snow Plow, with Wings. 



have caused dangerous pockets of hard ice. The plow will only drive a 
certain distance into the drift, and must then be dug out to enable the en- 
gines to haul it back for another run, and sometimes one or more of the 
engines has also to be dug out. The dimensions of any plow in cross sec- 
tion should be such as to leave a clearance of 3 to 5 ins. above the rails and 
5y 2 ins. between the plow and fixed structures, such as bridge abutments, 
tunnel walls, freight platforms, etc. The plows of the New York Central 
Ry. are 10 ft. 1 in. wide, and 12 ft. 2 ins. high from the ties, the overhanging 
nose being 9 ft. above the ties. Sometimes the face of the plow is square to 
the track, but more commonly it is wedge-shaped in plan. 

The Russell snow plow, shown in Fig. 221, is extensively used. It has very 
heavy framing and lateral bracing, and is mounted on two four-wheel 
trucks with roller side bearings. For single track, it has a central nose di- 
viding the inclined plane of the face; for double track, it has a vertical nose 
at one. side, so as to discharge the snow at the side only. The latter plow 



426 TRACK WORK. 

may also be used for sidehill work. The large plows have on each side an 
elevator wing, 9 x 11 ft., for use in deep drifts, the wings being forced out 
so as to widen the cut, and having curved channels by which the snow is 
delivered above the machine. These, with a slight tapering of the sides 
back from the front, prevent the snow from wedging or binding against 
the side of the plow. The wings are operated by gearing by means of 
hand wheels in the car. The pushing bar is formed of two oak timbers 
bolted together, and the front end is let into the. oak timber which forms the 
backbone of the inclined face of the plow, so that the propelling power 
is applied right at the nose of the plow and not at its rear. This greatly re- 
duces the danger of derailment, and the plow is in practice run up to its 
work in drifts 5 to 15 ft. deep, at speeds of 25 to 35 miles per hour. The 
rear end of this timber is fitted with a heavy coupler head having slots for 
close coupling to engines of different heights. The timber is not a fixed 
part of the framing, but has a lateral movement, allowing it a certain 
amount of play on curves. A coupling bar extends through the face, by 
means of which the plow can be hauled. The horizontal edge has a sharp 
steel cutting edge; about 5 ft. back from the edge begins the share, with 
curved flaring sides to throw off the snow. The sharp cutting edges of the 
front and sides enable the plow to get into and under the snow, 
wedging it up and lifting and loosening it before it reaches the share where 
the side pressure begins. This again tends to reduce any liability to derail- 
ment. The front end is covered with a %-in. steel plate, and the double 
track plow has on the side opposite the run of the share a %-in. steel plate 
extending the full height of the machine, its front edge forming the verti- 
cal cutting edge in advance of the share. In working, a man rides in the 
cab or outlook and signals the engineman of the pushing engine by a bell 
cord. 

A Russell plow has successfully attacked hard packed snow 6 to 8 ft. deep, 
using two engines with a run of about % mile, and having a speed of about 
30 miles per hour. With one engine it will handle 6 or 7 ft. of snow and go 
through 4 or 5 ft. of snow for half a mile without stopping. With two en- 
gines it will handle 7 to 11 ft. of snow and go through 8 or 9 ft. for y 8 mile 
without stopping. One of these plows, weighing 32 tons, and being 40 ft. 
long and 11 ft. 8 ins. high, has been used on the New York Central Ry., 
usually with two mogul engines having cylinders 19 x 26 ins., but sometimes 
-with three lighter engines. Drifts 3 to 9 ft. deep and 200 ft. long, and up to 
10 and 15 ft. deep, 300 ft. long, were disposed of, and also a drift of 2,200 ft. 
long and 3 to 10 ft. deep. The speed was about 30 miles per hour in running 
: at the drifts. After the first cut is opened, the plow is run through with 
extended wings to widen the cuts and make a slope instead of a vertical 
wall. 

Machine Snow Plows. — The first machine plow was the Leslie rotary 
plow, which was introduced irrj.885, and has been adopted on several rail- 
ways. It is a large car mounted on four-wheel trucks and containing an 
engine and boiler, with gearing to drive a wheel lly 2 ft. diameter which re- 
volves in a vertical plane transverse to the track. The wheel revolves in 
a circular shell or drum, in front of which is a rectangular housing 12 ft. 
-wide which trims the sides and bottom of the cut, leaving only 3 ins. of 
,dead surface on each side to be sheared off by the hood. The wheel has 12 



SNOW. 427 

radial conical tubes, with a slot in the face of each fitted with a, blade 4% 
ft. long. The snow falls through the tubes to the back of the wheel, whicb 
acts as a powerful fan, discharging the snow through a movable chute in 
the top of the drum. The ice cutters are capable of cutting ice 2 or 3 ins. 
thick, and the hangers remove the snow and ice between the rails and de- 
liver it clear of "the track. These devices are attached to balanced arms on 
sleeves on an axle of the front truck, the arms being controlled by an air 
cylinder operated from the pilot house. The cutters and hangers are each 
held in place by a shearing bolt, which will break if an obstruction is struck, 
thus allowing the blades to swing up. The machine is about 30 ft. long, 
weighing 55 to 85 tons, and the largest size has engine cylinders 18 x 26 ins. 
A tender carries 4,000 gallons of water and 5 tons of coal, and behind this 
are the pusher engines. 

The Jull or "cyclone" plow is mounted on a six-wheel leading truck, and a 
four-wheel trailing truck, and carries the machinery for driving a huge 
cone. This cone has its apex at the front lower corner of an enclosing 
frame or housing, while the center of the base is at the opposite back upper 
corner. The cone is built of %-in. steel plate, and is about 7 ft. 8 ins. long, 
1 ft. diameter at the apex and 7% ft. at the base, having riveted upon it four 
spiral curved cutting blades, making about % of a revolution in the length 
of the cone, and varying in height from 16 ins. at the axis to 24 ins. at the 
base. The blades are made of two thicknesses of %-in. steel plate, pressed 
to shape in dies. At the front they are nearly straight, but towards the 
base their curve increases gradually. They are cut away at the base, how- 
ever, for a width of 24 ins. on the cone, to allow the snow to escape freely. 
The housing of the cone is 10 ft. 4 ins. wide, 9 ft. 4 ins. long, and about 9 
ft. deep, the bottom being 3% ins. above the rail head. The edge of this cuts 
into and loosens the snow. The cone is revolved at high speed, and the 
blades carry the snow to the back of the cone, where it is thrown off by 
centrifugal force through one or other of the adjustable openings, falling at 
a distance of 40 to 60 ft. from the track. The engine has cylinders 18 x 24 
ins., driving the cone shaft by bevel gearing, the ordinary speed being 250 
revolutions of the engine and 300 of the cone, per minute. The hanger be- 
tween the trucks is a V of %-in. steel plates, 18 ins. deep, with a width of 
7 ft. over the broad part. It is mounted on a parallel motion, and is so ad- 
justed that it will swing back and up if it strikes an obstruction. It slides 
on top of the rail and is raised or lowered by a steam cylinder controlled 
by a lever in the cab. The entire machine is about 42 ft. long, and weighs 
65 tons. A tender is coupled to the rear and behind this are the pusher loco- 
motives. 

The introduction of machine snow plows has rendered the work of keep- 
ing the lines open and of opening blockaded lines very much easier than, 
when only breaking plows and hand shoveling were available, but there are 
limits to the use of these machines. The Colorado Midland Ry. has had con- 
siderable experience in dealing with snow, and has tried both forms of ma- 
chine plows, with results which are noted below, being taken £rom "Engi- 
neering News," of Aug. 23, 1900. The snow is sometimes 30 ft. deep, and 
there are grades of 3% with sharp curves on the part of the line where the 
greatest trouble is experienced. The preference is for the rotary machine, 
though either one will cut its way through newly fallen snow drifts, 3 ft. to 

15 



428 TRACK WORK, 

6 ft. deep, at 8 to 10 miles an hour, and through snow 10 to 11 ft. deep at 5 
to 6 miles an hour. Experience has shown that the "rotary" plow delivers 
the snow in a clean stream from the outlet over the wheel, and throws it 
40 ft. to 200 ft. from the track, according to the velocity of the wheel. The 
"cyclone" plows throw the snow in promiscuous ways, some going to the 
right, some to the left, and some falling directly on top of the machine. 
These plows, however, were old ones, formerly used on prairie roads. 

In the very hard snow encountered during the winter of 1898-99, it was 
impossible to advance 1,000 ft. in the snow in an hour, even after channels 
4 to 6 ft. long at right angles with the track had been dug from the surface 
down to the rails, leaving from 7 to 10 ft. of snow between the channels. 
This was the case even when the rotary plow was handled with five en- 
gines. The object in using so many engines was to push the plow into the 
snow so as to keep it moving slowly all the time and so prevent stalling 
the train or choking the plow. The snow was channeled so that there might 
be no danger of crushing the plow by pushing it against a solid mass of 
snow with five powerful engines. 

In some places the plow encountered snow 34 ft. deep, and even if it had 
been possible to push the plow into such a depth of snow it could only tun- 
nel a few feet before the outlet over the wheel would be closed and it would 
be impossible for the wheel to throw the snow away. Under such circum- 
stances, the only practicable method was to place lines of men above each 
other on the slopes of the cut, one line of men throwing the snow up to 
the line above, until it was raised to a height varying from 40 to 60 ft., and 
finally disposed of, leaving not more than 12 ft. of snow in the bottom of the 
cut. Holes were drilled into this bench of snow and giant powder exploded 
to shatter the frozen bank, after which the men were stationed on the bench 
of snow immediately in front of the plow to drag the snow down with 
shovels and throw it in the bottom of the cut in blocks from 1 cu. ft. to 2 
cu. yds. in size. After breaking this snow down, the plow would run into 
the loose snow, throw it up on the bench excavated on the slope of the cut 
for men to stand on, and the men would shovel it one to the other again 
until it could be disposed of over the top of the cut. Bach time the plow 
would run into the shattered snow it would remove that snow and force 
itself from 5 to 10 ft. into the undisturbed mass of snow. Progress was 
necessarily exceedingly slow in such work. 

The "cyclone" plows were of little service in this class of work, as the 
•snow fell back around the plow, settling between it and the walls of snow 
and sealing the plow into the cut. The "rotary," on the contrary, would 
deliver a clean stream of snow, nearly as large as a flour barrel, very much 
as a stream of water is delivered from a fire hose. As long as the wheel 
could be turned at its highest velocity the snow would be delivered so far 
up on the sides of the cut that very little of it would roll down around the 
plow. The "cyclone" plow took much more power to force it into deep and 
hard snow. 

It was found almost impossible successfully to operate a plow unless 
equipped with very strong and substantial ice cutters in front of the for- 
ward trucks, so as to remove any ice which might have formed on the rail, 
and as it is very necessary to remove entirely the snow and ice from the 
rails in order to give the engines a good grip on the rails, it is necessary to 



SNOW. 429 

have the plow as close to the rail as possible. One of the "cyclone" plows 
stood 4 to 5 ins. above the rail. This left so much snow on top of the rail 
for the flanger to move that it would be thrown up against the banks, and 
as soon as the flanger had passed it would roll back on to the rails, leaving 
a very bad rail, often covered by G to 8 ins. of snow. This would cause the 
engines to slip badly, and ice would form to such an extent that often the 
plow train could not proceed more than a train length without stopping 
while the track was flanged by hand, so as to give the engines a footing and 
enable them to do the work. 



CHAPTER 26.— WRECKING TRAINS AND OPERATIONS. 

The exigencies of railway operation, the impossibility of avoiding acci- 
dents, and the necessity of removing train wrecks and repairing washouts, 
etc., with the least possible delay, so as to keep the road open for traffic, 
render it necessary for every railway to keep in readiness for immediate use 
"wrecking trains" equipped with cranes, tools and appliances for clearing 
the track or building temporary structures. The wrecking train, therefore, 
is a highly important part of the operating plant of a railway, and upon 
the proper equipment of the train, and the proper organization and hand- 
ling of the wrecking gang, depend in great measure the promptness, effi- 
ciency and economy of the work of clearing the track and resuming traffic 
after a train accident, or providing temporary connections at washouts, 
landslides, etc. The trains should be stationed at division points, where 
men and locomotives are immediately available, and supplies of bridge 
timbers should also be kept at these points for repairs or temporary struc- 
tures. The number of these trains and the length of division to which 
each is allotted, necessarily vary with the traffic conditions. The methods 
of operation will vary in each case, in accordance with the nature of the 
accident and the work to be done, but while in case of train wrecks it is 
generally of the first importance to remove the wreckage as quickly as 
possible from the track, so that provision can be made to carry on the traf- 
fic, this should not be done recklessly by the smashing of cars or other 
equipment which may with a little care and clearheadedness be moved out 
of the way for future attention. 

One of the most important appliances for the wrecking train is a steam 
crane or derrick car capable of lifting cars or even engines bodily, thus 
avoiding the necessity of having to break up heavy wreckage in order to 
clear the track. The machine should be able to swing a box car clear of 
the track and to raise it high enough to place the body on its trucks or on 
a flat car. Many of these wrecking cars are heavy flat cars fitted with steam 
jib cranes. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. has a wrecking car 
with a steel frame 42 ft. long, mounted on three trucks and carrying a 
crane of 35 tons hoisting capacity. The boom is 33 ft. long, with 1-in. steel 
cables; the hook will reach to the rail and has a clear lift of 18 ft., with a 
hoisting speed of 10 ft. per minute. For side lifting, a base 19 ft. wide can 
be obtained by steel jack arms pivoted to the base of the A-frame of the 



430 



TRACK WORK. 



crane, the jacks being supported on blocking. This machine weighs about 
68 tons. A steel wrecking car on the Norfolk & Western Ry. is 22 ft. long 
and 10 ft. wide, weighing 55 tons. The crane has a radius of 14 to 20 ft., 
and is designed to hoist 25 tons at 16 ft. radius, either in front or at the 
side, outrigger supports being used in the latter case. The. powerful- 30 to 
40-ton derrick or steam crane is a most economical wrecking tool, al- 
though some few roads do all the work by lines and jacks, smashing up 
freight cars if necessary in order to clear the track, and using small der- 
rick cars only for picking up the wreckage and freight. This, however, is 
not a commendable practice. Derrick cars may be fitted with hoisting en- 
gines, as in Fig. 222, or may have the hauling rope attached to a locomotive, 
the former being the better plan as a rule. The Chicago, Burlington & 
Quincy Ry. uses a heavy 40-ft. derrick car having two masts, one operated 
as a derrick by hand gear, and the other having the rope led down through 
the floor and between the sills to the rear of the car, the end of the rope 
having a shackle by which it can be attached to a locomotive. Hoisting can 




Fig. 222.— Wrecking Car. 



be done much more effectively by a wrecking crane than by a rope attached 
tc a locomotive. 

All parts of the derrick and machinery should be designed with a high 
factor of safety, to withstand the impact due to sudden heavy shocks. The 
hoisting tackle should be of chain or wire rope for very heavy weights, 
and the best quality of pure manila rope for lighter weights. Only iron 
or steel tackle blocks should be used in lifting. A spring shock-arrester 
may be attached to the lower tackle block, consisting of a cylindrical case 
containing a heavy coiled spring carrying the hook bolt to which the load 
is attached. Steam wrecking machines should have sills of plate girders, 
I-beams or channels, sufficiently deep to give vertical stiffness, and well 
braced laterally. The frame for the machinery should be of heavy iron or 
of steel, with the bearings for the movable parts formed in them. The 
power should consist of at least one pair of reversible engines, coupled to- 
gether, and the crane may be mounted on a turntable, the boiler, coal 
bunker and water tank forming the counterbalance to the boom. The 
machinery should have lifting, lowering and revolving motions, raising 
and lowering motions for the boom, and self-propelling gear, while provi- 



WRECKING. 



431 



sion should be made for revolving the crane in either direction without 
reversing the engines. Straight booms are usually of I-beams or channels, 
while curved booms are usually plate girders. To anchor the car while 
making a side lift, two or more outriggers are used, each consisting of a 
pair of I-beams, placed below the sills, and so fitted that they may be run 
out on either side, the outer ends being supported by jacks or blocking. 
Screw jacks to support the car frame, and rail clamps to hold the car down 
to the track are also provided. A steam capstan (or vertical drum) on the 
car would be very handy for special hauls when the derrick is under load, 
and would thus replace specially-rigged hand tackle. A device used, for 
similar purposes is a portable hand hoist or crab, Pig. 223. Hydraulic jacks 
are the most important tools, being second only to the derrick. A set 
should include jacks of 10 to 30 tons capacity, and, at least, one pair should 
be fitted with claws. They should have thumb-screw releases. The com- 
mon wrecking frog consists of a heavy bent bar, the upper end of which is 
pivoted to a support which straddles the rail, the feet of this support and 
the free end of the bar having spurs to bite into the ties .or blocking and 
prevent slipping under a load. With these are used wedges of wood, plated 




K- - 48 - - X 

Fig. 223.— "Wrecking Crab or Hoist. 

with metal, the "long wedge" being 6 ft. long, with both ends inclined, 
and the "short wedge" only 3 ft. long, with one end inclined. Various forms 
of metal wrecking frogs are used, being placed on or at the side of the rail, 
as shown in Pig. 224. 

The organization of the wrecking force is an important consideration. 
It is best to have the force in charge of the motive power or operating de- 
partment, and the gang should be composed of shop men, as they are familiar 
with car and engine work, and with the use of tackle in heavy hoisting, 
while the same men are available in each case and are thus experienced. 
The crew of a wrecking train should consist of 15 to 20 men, including a 
foreman. All should have had some experience in this line of work; at 
least six should be familiar with the use of hydraulic jacks and all kinds 
of rigging, and two should understand how to splice ropes, and make 
hitches and knots of the various kinds. At night, the wrecking foreman 
should carry a colored lantern to distinguish him from the rest of the gang. 
The foreman or one of the men should be competent, to tap the wires at 






TRACK WORK. 



the work and so open communication with headquarters. One man should 
be assigned to handle the engine of the wrecking car. Another should have, 
charge of the wrecking cars, and it should be his duty to see that all rig- 
ging is in perfect order for emergencies, and in case a rope, chain, block, 
jack or any other tool has been broken or damaged at the last wreck, have 
it repaired or replaced. This man should be a good mechanic and under- 
stand how to handle and repair hydraulic jacks and keep them in perfect 
order. If any of the ropes have been placed in the car wet or dirty they 
should be washed off, thoroughly dried, neatly coiled, and placed in their 
proper location in the car. All wrenches should be cleaned, oiled and wiped 
with waste. There should be a particular location in the car for each of 
the tools, so that any of the wrecking crew may go to the car and pick 
up any tool at once. The man in charge of the car should have a complete 
list of all tools which belong in the cars, and should proceed immediately 




Alexander. 

Fig. 224.— Wrecking Frcgs or Car Replacers. 



after the. wreck is cleared to check up his tools, and in case any are miss- 
ing, report them to the proper superior officer to be replaced. The tools of 
each wrecking car should be painted or marked in a distinctive manner. 

The tool and living car should have a tool room (with racks for ropes 
and tools and fixed clairips for jacks), kitchen, office and living room, with 
berths and table. Steam-heating pipes, a stove and a boiler for making 
coffee should be provided, in order to make the men comfortable and to fur- 
nish refreshment during their heavy work. A powerful locomotive should 
be assigned to the wrecking train, especially if it has to haul on the der- 
rick lines. 

Torches and other open lights are a source of danger, especially when 
there is oil or other highly inflammable material exposed. An electric arc 



WRECKING. 433 

light would add greatly to the convenience and safety of wrecking opera- 
tions, and it has been suggested that an electric searchlight, mounted on the 
derrick car, would be specially valuable, as its light could be turned to any 
desired part of the work. The Pennsylvania Ry. has a car for this pur- 
pose, fitted with power for 10 or 12 lamps, the lamps being mounted on 
tripods, 25 ft. high. The poles are carried in a rack on the roof. The car 
is carried on two four-wheel trucks, with track clamps at the ends of the 
frame, and is fitted with an engine, boiler, dynamo and large, amount of 
supplies. On the Ohio Division of the Erie Ry., a revolving headlight 
is located on the roof of the derrick car. Two sizes of oil torches are used, 
the larger ones mounted on wooden posts placed at convenient points, and 
the smaller ones being carried by hand. The Wells light, which burns a 
large flame of oil sprayed by compressed air, is much used for wrecking 
purposes. Ordinary hand lanterns are used in working around inflammable 
wreckage. Where oil is exposed, as in the case of wrecked tank cars, it 
should be covered with earth or cinders before any work is done around it 
and before any locomotive or steam derrick is allowed to approach closely. 
If this cannot be done, a number of empty cars should be coupled between 
the locomotive and the derrick car, so as to keep the former at a safe dis- 
tance. Lighting by fires of wood taken from wreckage or cars is objection- 
able, but such fires may be required in inclement weather. 
For the care and transportation of injured persons, an ordinary car is 

l* " -^.P v .:-::- c -:-::::::-| 

*--/ B — > 

' /W 

carver 

Fig. 225. — Diagram of Temporary Track for Passing Around a Wreck; So. Pac. Ry 

better than a parlor or sleeping car, owing to the winding entrance of the 
latter. Stretchers should be about 7 ft. 3 ins. long and 21 ins. wide, and may 
be placed across two reversed seat backs, which gives them about the right 
height for convenient medical attention. In case of cattle train wrecks, the 
uninjured stock should be transferred promptly, and badly injured cattle 
must usually be killed on the spot. With refrigerator cars, special care 
should be taken to replace the ice and put scattered freight back in one of 
the least injured cars. 

In case of accident, the nearest section foreman must at once proceed with 
his whole force to render assistance, even if it is not on his own section, and 
if notified of a broken rail on an adjoining section he must at once make 
the track safe for the passage of trains. When assisting a train delayed 
by accident, the foreman will act under the orders of the conductor (or 
such other person as the superintendent may designate) until the arrival 
of the roadmaster, trainmaster or the foreman of the wrecking gang. The 
roadmaster, supervisor or engineer should proceed at once to the wreck. 
The foreman must appoint watchmen to protect property at wrecks, etc., 
and must make a report of every accident, large or small. A natural eager- 
ness to get the track clear must not lead to unnecessarily rough or careless 
handling of cars or freight, or to the destruction of the same. Note should 
be made of the style, initial or name, and number of all cars destroyed in 



434 TRACK WORK. 

the wreck or broken up and burned as wreckage. If cars are piled up, the 
top ones should first be removed, and any tilted cars blocked or upset to 
prevent their falling over during the work. On double track, attention 
should first be paid to clearing one track. In some cases it may be neces- 
sary or advisable to build a temporary track around a wreck or washout, 
and Fig. 225 shows the standard plan of the Southern Pacific Ry. for such 
work, the dimensions of the lettered parts being given in Table. No. 36: 

TABLE NO. 38.— LAYING OUT TEMPORARY TRACKS AROUND WRECKS AND 

WASHOUTS; SOUTHERN PACIFIC RY. 

Ten-Degree Curves. 



A, 


B, 


c, 


D, 


E, 


F, 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


10- 


53.6 


103.3 


156.9 


2.5 


7.5 


20 


84.0 


133.5 


217.5 


6.3 


13.7 


30 


107.3 


156.5 


263.8 


10.3 


19.7 


40 


127.3 


176.0 


303.3 


14.4 


25.6 


50 


144.8 


193.1 


337.9 


18.7 


31.3 


60 


160.3 


208.3 


368.6 


23.0 


37.0 


70 


174.5 


222.1 


396.6 


27.4 


42.6 


SO 


187.8 


235.0 


422.8 


31.8 


•48.2 


00 


200.2 


247.0 


447.2 


36.2 • 


53.8 


100 


211.9 


258,3 
Fifteen-Degree 


470.2 
Curves. 


40.7 


59.3 


10 


42.2 


92.0 


134.2 


2.3 


7.7 


20 


66.2 


115.4 


181.6 


5.7 


14.3 


30 


85.0 


133.7 


218.7 


.9.5 


20.5 


40 


100.8 


149.2 


250.0 


13.5 


26.5 


50 


114.7 


162.6 


277.3 


17.5 


32.5 


CO 


127.2 


174.4 


301.6 


21.5 


38.3 


70 


138.7 


185.6 • 


324.3 


26.0 


44.0 


80 


149.4 


195.6 


345.0 


30.3 


49.7 


90 


159.2 


204.8 


364.0 


34.6 


55.4 


100 


168.5 


213.5 


382.0 


39.0 


61.0 



The conductor's report of an accident should be full and complete. The 

following form is used on the Erie Ry., the conductor giving only the letter 

of each question: 

Station, 190 

To Supt. Time sent M. Time received M. 

Train -No Conductor 

Engine Engineman 

A. Time and place of accident. (State also if on main or side track, company or indi- 

vidual siding, at frog or switch, in fill, cut, or on level) 

B. What caused it? 

C. Were any persons injured, and to what extent? Give name, age, residence and oc- 

cupation and what was done with the persons 

D. Which track is obstructed, and which clear? 

E. Which track can be opened first, and how soon? 

F. What crossing-switches or sidings, east and west of obstruction, can be used to pass 

trains around ? 

G. How long will it take to get track clear so that trains can pass? 

H. Will the derrick-car be required, and which way should it be headed to work to ad- 
vantage? 

I. How much force is wanted to clear the obstruction ? 

J. Is the track damaged, and to what extent? Have trackmen been notified? 

K. Is engine off track, or damaged? .. 

L. . What position is engine in? 

M.' What position are cars in ? 

N. How many cars are broken and off track, loaded? (Give numbers, initials and kind) 

O. How many cars are broken and off track, empty? (Give numbers, initials and kind) 

P. How many cars and kinds are wanted to transfer freight in? 

Q. What does lading of cars consist of? What amount of damage to lading? 

R. How many cars next engine? 

S. How many behind cars wrecked? 

The quickest way of notifying the wrecking gang is by means of electric 
bells connecting the dispatcher's office with the shops where the men usu- 
ally work, the men starting for the wrecking train as soon as they hear the 
bell. Whistle signals may also be given. There may be electric bells in the 



WRECKING. 435 

houses of the wrecking foreman and of some of the men, so that they can be 
promptly notified at night, to these men being assigned the duty of calling 
others in the neighborhood* A telegraph operator should be sent with or 
soon after the train, unless the foreman is an operator, so that the head 
office may be communicated with and advised as to the progress of the 
work. When the force arrives at the wreck, the man in charge should 
organize the men for work and also arrange for the distribution of hot 
coffee and rations in protracted work, and for the cooking to be properly 
done. If he sees that it will take longer than 12 to 15 hours' work, and he 
has sufficient force, it should be divided into a night and day gang; the 
force not on duty to be kept entirely away from the work, resting and 
getting ready for their shift. As soon as the first gang has finished its 
time, the second should be ready to carry on the work. If the force is not 
adequate to be so divided, then there will be more accomplished if they are 
worked steaily through the day and then required to rest, than by trying to 
work the same men night and day. 

As already noted, the equipment and operation vary according to the 
traffic over the road, and the nature of the accident, but from the follow- 
ing particulars of equipment of wrecking train and organization of wreck- 
ing gang on several roads, may be obtained a very good idea of the general 
practice: 

Burlington & Missouri River Ry. — Tnere are regular wrecking outfits at 
main points, and smaller outfits stationed at division points at long distances 
from the main points. The wrecking train consists of a derrick car, three tool 
cars, a riding car and a sleeping car. The riding car is used by the men in 
going to and from wrecks, and to dry their clothing in when wet. The 
sleeping car is made over from an old passenger car, and has sleeping ca- 
pacity for 24 men. It has iron bunks (single on one side of car and double 
on the other), steel spring mattresses, wash sink, water closet, and a stove at 
each end. The smaller outfit consists of blocking, jacks, rope, etc., loaded in 
two box cars that could be got to a wreck promptly and track cleared or 
constructed around the wreck. Then as soon as possible a regular wrecking 
outfit is sent out and the wreck picked up with as little, loss to property as 
practicable. The regular wrecking car has an oak mast and boom mounted 
on a strong car specially made. The mast is about 14 ins. diameter in the 
center and 37 feet high above the car bed, pivoted 18 ft. above the rail at the 
top of a strong frame, so that it can be lowered down and laid on top of the 
car, together with the boom, when not in use. The boom is of the same 
dimensions, and is trussed with 1-in. rods on the sides. It can pick up a 
loaded 34-ft. box car and place it on its trucks in front of the derrick. 

Heavy base timbers mounted with channel irons are placed on rollers 
under the car bed in such a way that they can be pulled out and blocks put 
under the ends; this, with strong braces from the ends of these timbers to the 
top of the mast frame, makes a firm base. For heavy lifting, guy lines, are 
run from the top of the mast to anchors or deadmen in the ground. The 
power is derived from an oscillating engine with two cylinders 10 x 12 ins., 
acting on friction drums and spools with slow and fast motion, as desired. 
The derrick is rated at 35 tons capacity, but heavier loads have often been 
handled, and derricks of greater capacity are now to be used on account of 
the increased weight of engine and cars. It enables the gang to take loaded 



436 TRACK WORK. 

cars that are off the track or have trucks smashed, and set them on one side, . 
working through a wreck and cleaning the track without breaking cars or 
wreckage any more than necessary. Later on, they pick up the stuff and 
put it back on the track, or load on cars such wreckage as cannot come out 
on its own wheels. 

The car repairing crews at the main division points are organized as 
wrecking gangs. These men sleep in a car attached to the wrecking train, 
and are always ready for duty, by day or night. The foreman, who sleeps 
at home, is connected with the dispatcher's office by telephone. When the 
derrick is run out to a wreck, each man gets to his position immediately. 
The boom and mast are raised, guy lines run out, and the time taken in 
getting everything ready is about 20 minutes. There is 1 man at the en- 
gine, 1 in front of the drums, and 1 at back of the drums to take care of 
ropes„l on the deck in front of the derrick to receive signals from the fore- 
man and give them to the engineman by the bell, and 2 in the rope, car next 
to the derrick, making 7 men in all, besides the foreman. There are no 
special rules in regard to handling the work, except that if a wreck occurs 
after regular working hours (which are from 7 a. m. to 6 p. m.), the shop 
whistle is blown six times to call the men together in case they should be 
away from the sleeping car. This is repeated two or three times. 

Erie Ry. — The train (consisting of a hand derrick, a 25-ton steam derrick 
and 3 flat-cars) is in charge of a wreck foreman, who is always in the neigh- 
borhood during the day, while another man is in charge of the tools and 
sees that everything is returned to place or accounted for before the car 
leaves the wreck. This man stays in the neighborhood of the car. The tools 
are marked distinctively. The wrecking organization is under the division 
master-mechanic, and car-shop men form the wrecking gang, being better 
qualified than the section men on account of their familiarity with car work 
and tools in their daily work. The work is in entire charge of the wreck 
foreman, who is held responsible for its proper conduct. Nobody is al- 
lowed to interfere with him, and he tells the dispatcher what movements 
he wants made. For heavy work, about 16 men are employed; 2 foremen 
and 14 men under them, but for ordinary wrecks of two or three car? not 
more than 10 or 12 men are employed. They are assisted by the section 
gangs are required. With very bad wrecks, the wrecking gangs from adja- 
cent divisions are combined. Every baggage car is furnished with an or- 
dinary frog and wedge, and with the necessary chains for doing light 
wrecking. Jacks, wrecking frogs and wedges are kept at all important tel- 
egraph stations and block signal towers, the section foremen being respon- 
sponsible for keeping them in proper condition. By day, a whistle signal 
calls the wrecking gang to the train, and by night there is a system of call- 
ers, certain men being called by a man from the station, and in their turn 
calling others.. 

Fitchburg Ry. — The wrecking train at Boston consists of one flat car and 
two 56-ft. box cars (which were formerly baggage cars), fitted with pas- 
senger trucks, air brakes, passenger lamps and steam heat. The flat car has 
the usual iron crane on its deck, besides two sets of freight car trucks, one 
locomotive truck, rail benders, rails of various lengths, car replacers, etc. 
At the side of the track where the train stands are kept two extra freight 
trucks, so that those used on a trip may be at once replaced on the return 



WRECKING. 437 

of this car. The first box car contains blocking of all sizes, from blocks 12 
x 12 ins. to buckets of ^-in. shims. There are also a railway tricycle, picks, 
axes, saws, and various tools, bushel baskets for gathering up grain, a bar- 
rel of sand for use in icy places, shovels for working earth, manure forks, 
ice tongs, cotton bale hooks, bolts, rail spikes, wooden levers for carrying 
carboys of acids which cannot be handled, and half a dozen devices called 
"bee hives," which are truncated pyramids of heavy plank about 4 ft. high 
and 2 ft. base, to rest a car body on so as to allow of removing the blocking. 

The second box car is provided with lengthwise cushioned seats for the 
men, and contains oil-cloth covers for perishable freight in stormy weather, 
chains, jacks, bridge tools, oil suits for the men, hip boots, etc. The car is 
fitted with a water-closet, cooking stove, ice water tank and wash basin 
with running water and towels. The pantry contains canned baked beans, 
canned salmon, deviled beef, luncheon beef, coffee, tea, a barrel of hard 
tack, and many kinds of preserved foods. In this car are also a complete 
telegraph outfit, a tent and poles to protect the operator, several short lad- 
ders which can be joined together, if necessary, coils of telegraph wire and 
a rope, a telegraph table, and 36 umbrellas for use in transferring passen- 
gers around a wreck in a rain storm. In one corner of this car is a state- 
room for the master mechanic, with a berth to let down from the wall; 
this has a mattress, sheets and pillows, and a rubber blanket to put over 
the mattress in case a bleeding person should have to be carried on it. There 
are closets full of old clothes, and by using a window and drop shelf in this 
stateroom an inside private or public telegraph office can be made. 7n the 
rear end of this car are lanterns, tackle and falls of several sizes, torpedoes 
and torches, ropes, and boat hooks for getting timbers out of water. The 
train is equipped with the air signal, and for backing up there is a large 
warning gong on the rear of the last car. 

There is always an engine with steam up coupled to this train, which 
stands just outside the roundhouse. Any available engine is used, and 
when thus attached, a card bearing its number is brought into the master 
mechanic's office and placed in a holder over the telegraph operator's desk. 
This enables him to get his train order without delay. The wrecking crew 
consists of 20 men, and they are at work in the yard, the car shop, the ma- 
chine shop and the roundhouse. A push-button in the master mechanic s 
office connects with a compressed air whistle in the car shop, one in the 
machine shop and another outside. These whistles call the men to the 
wrecking train, and they are tested every day at 4 p. m. In addition there 
is a large bell in the roundhouse struck from the master mechanic's office 
by compressed air at the same time. The bell is used to prevent confusion 
with locomotive whistling. The code of signals on the bell and whistle is 
as follows: One stroke and blast — test; two strokes and blasts — any emer- 
gency when men are wanted; three strokes and blasts — a wreck in the limits 
of the Boston yards; four strokes and blasts — a wreck out on the road. 
When these are heard the men run to the train. It is the duty of one to get 
a lump of ice and put it into one of the box cars, of another to attach a hose 
(always ready and on a plug near by) and fill the tanks of the box car. 
Meantime the engineman has got his orders from the dispatcher, and as 
soon as the men are on board the train starts. The rails of the whole siding 
on which the. train stands are kept sanded, so that no time may be lost from 



438 



TRACK WORK. 



driving wheels slipping. Late at night when all the wrecking crew are at 
home (except the engineman and fireman), this train has been fully- 
manned and got under way in 22 minutes. 

New York, West Shore & Buffalo Ry. — The clearing of wrecks is in charge 
of the roadmaster. The motive power department furnishes four men, one 
of whom is called the wreck master, and he has charge of the three me- 
chanics sent with him and of the handling of the equipment of the wrecking 
train. If the wreck is a large one, the master mechanic is asked to send as 
many additional shop men as may seem necessary. After the train is at the 
point of action, the operations are in charge of the. roadmaster, who has col- 
lected as many of his foremen and sectionmen as necessary, and either the 
superintendent or trainmaster is present, but only to assist, as it is believed 
that only one person at a time can successfully direct the work. There is 
always an abundance of ideas as to how the work should be done, and if a 
chance were given to try them all the road might remain blocked indefinite- 
ly. Every freight train is furnished with a set of wrecking frogs. 

Northern Pacific Ry. — The. wrecking outfit consists of a derrick car, tool 
car, truck car and blocking car, all equipped with air-brakes. The derrick 
has a lifting capacity of 20 tons. The truck car carries five freight car 
trucks of 40,000 lbs. capacity, one engine truck, and two pairs of 33-in. cast 
iron wheels with standard journals. The blocking car carries a full supply 
of hard and soft wood blocks, 200 oak wedges and one small portable build- 
ing for an emergency telegraph office. The equipment of the other cars is 
given in Table No. 37. The wrecking gang is in charge of the foreman of 
car repairers, and consists of eight men, who have regularly assigned 



TABLE NO. 37.— EQUIPMENT OP WRECKING TRAIN; NORTHERN PACIFIC RY. 



Derrick Car. 



1 truck line, 2Va ins. diam., 250 ft. long. 

1 truclt line, 2y 2 ins. diam., 200 ft. long, 

2 second-hand steel rails, 
4 iron-bound wedges, 

Heating stove, 

Hand saws. 

Axes, 

Adzes, 

Wheel gage, 

Steel wrenches, 

Soft and chipping hammers, 

Track shovels, 

30-in. steel bars, 

12 torches, 

16-ft. ladder, 

Drift bolts, assorted sizes, 

Coupling links and pins, 

8-in. and 12-in. pony jacks, 

Standard frogs, 

Switch chains, 

Torpedoes, 

Portable stretcher, 

2 gallons alcohol, 

Packing hooks and spoons, 

12 grain sacks, 2-bushel, 

Water barrel, 

Cross-cut saws, 

Hand axes. 

Sledge hammers, 

12-in. and 15-in. monkey wrenches, 

Spike mauls, 

3-in. rolling line, 



6 .?witch chains, 

3 truck chains, 

2 wire cables, 1% ins. diameter. 



Tool Car. 



Picks, 

1 pair of climbers, 

Sccop shovels, 

Pinch bars, 

Cold chisels, 

Clevises, 

1 pairs rubber boots, 
Pair patent frogs, 
Iron-bound wedges, 
Red flags, 

Red, white and green lanterns, 
Oil and waste for packing, 
baskets (grain), 2-bushel. 
6 water pails, 

Standard journal brasses and wedges, 
12 assorted journal brasses for foreign 
cars. 

2 hydraulic lifting jacks, 15 and 20 tons, 
2 ratchet lifting jacks and levers, 

A few hundred feet of spare 1-in. to 2y 2 - 
in. guy lines and snatch blocks, 

A small coil of telegraph wire and a few 
insulators and other telegraph supplies 
necessary to start an emergency office. 

A full set of edge-tools, the personal 
property of the foreman of the wreck- 
ing crew. 



duties, and are thoroughly organized. When a wreck is reported, the fore- 
man is first called; and the caller then calls one of the crew, who in turn 



WRECKING. 



439 



calls another and starts for the wrecking train. The second man calls the 
third and starts for the train, and so on until the crew is all on hand. By 
this system, in emergency, the crew has been on hand 15 minutes after the 
word was given. For night work there are six large torches. 

Pennsylvania Ry. — Each division wrecking train is composed of tool car, 
derrick car, and such maintenance-of-way flat cars as may be necessary- 
Single derrick cars have derricks of 5 to 15 tons capacity, while double cars 
have two 15-ton cranes. Tne wrecking gangs are in the immediate charge 
of the conductor of the work train, who, as a rule, is also foreman of the 
wrecking gang. The supervisor or his assistant is usually in attendance 
at wrecks of any importance. The custom is to assign men in the gang to 
handle certain tools, the detail of the work being in charge of the super- 
visor or the foreman of the gang. The Wells light is used in night work. 
Table No. 38 gives a list of the equipment of the wrecking trains: 

TABLE NO. 38.— EQUIPMENT OF WRECKING TRAIN; PENNSYLVANIA RY. 

10 pieces of blocking 7 x8 ins. x 5 ft. 7 ins. 

8 " " " 7 x8 " x2 " 9 " 

12 " " " 7 x3% " xl"10 " 

20 " " " 7 x8 " x5" 7 " 

12 boards, bard wood 6 x 1% " xl " 6 " 

12 wedges, bard wood 3y 2 x 4 " xl " 8 " 

1 rope, 1% ins. diameter 300 ft. long, 2 and 3 sheave blocks. 

1 rope, 1% ins. diameter 200 ft. long, 2 and 3 sbeave blocks. 

2 tank ropes, 2% ins. diameter CO ft', long. 

2 " " 2i/ 2 " " 30" " 

2 " "2 " " 30 " " 

4 patent cbains, 2 patent frcgs, 

1 truck chain, 4 pinch bars, 
t> dog chains, 2 claw bars, 

3 truck connections, 1 spike hammer, 

2 pulling bars, 2 sledges, 

4 fire buckets, 4 jack braces, 
2 ropes, %-in., for fire hooks, 4 jack hooks, 

1 snatch block, 1 aug*er, 2^-in., 

2 grappling irons, 1 " 2-in., 

2 fulcrums, 1 " l^-in., 

1 track gage, 1 " 1%-in., 
y 2 coil telegraph wire, 1 " 1-in., 

2 large levers, . 2 hand saws, 

2 small levers, 1 axe (hand), 

3 fire hooks, 1 soft hammer, 
1 wooden mallet, 2 iron hammers, 

1 ratchet, 2 monkey wrenches, 14-in., 

2 drills, 1-in., 2 monkey wrenches, 20-in'., 
2 small vices for splicing wires, 1 carpenter's chisel, 1-in., 

1 pair telegraph climbers, 1 carpenter's chisel' 2-in.' 

coupling pins, 6 chipping chisels, 
■ coupling links, 2 files, 14-in., 

4 coupling links (crooked), 1 wheel gage, 
4 body pins, 1% ins., 2 wash basins, 

2 draft pins, 2 pole axes, 
2 short 15-ton jacks, 6 torches, 

2 long 15-ton jacks, s white globe lamps, 

2 long 10-ton jacks, '> red globe lamps, 

1 broom, 4 sicle lamps. 

1 dusting brush, ! sp0 rge hook, 

6 oil cans, i« clay shovels, 

6 boxes of matches, 14 C oal shovels, 
2o signal caps, i sp-de = 

150 spikes, 16 picks ' 

1 fire shovel, 4 cold cutters, 

?•• three-bushel bags, 1 soap box, 

10 lbs. waste, 1 match box. 

Washouts and Burnouts. 
In times of continuous heavy rain, floods and freshets, or in protracted 
droughts, when there is danger from fire, precautionary measures should 
be taken by keeping fire, tubs and buckets full, clearing snow and drift 



440 TRACK WORK. 

from all waterways, and by putting on extra watchmen and trackwalkers 
to look after the safety of structures and watch for indications of 
undermining of foundations, slips in cuts and washouts in banks. During 
such times the section foremen and roadmasters should keep the superin- 
tendent constantly informed as to the condition of the road, so as to facil- 
itate traffic by preventing delay in running trains cautiously where the road 
is perfectly safe and by getting prompt attention to any point of danger. 
After a flood has subsided, a special examination should be made of the 
condition of foundations of abutments, piers, trestle bents, etc., as many 
accidents occur from the collapse of structures which have been under- 
mined. 

Damage to falseworks, timber abutments, temporary trestles, etc., by 
logs, etc., carried down by the current, may be prevented by a boom of logs 
on each side of the stream, with the upper end of each boom attached to 
the shore. These, will guide the floating objects safely through the water- 
way. At trestles, bridges, etc., which are threatened by logs, drift, ice, etc., 
men should be stationed to guide floating objects through by means of poles, 
so as to prevent any obstruction. Ice jams or gorges may be shattered and 
broken up by explosives. A good method is to put about 100 lbs. of blasting 
powder in a 4-gallon can and sink it through a hole into the. water, allow- 
ing it to drift some distance under the ice, holding it in position by a rope 
tied to a stake at the hole. The charge should be exploded by an electric 
blasting battery, and not by a time fuse. Washouts can sometimes be pre- 
vented by watching, as above advised, but as a rule they occur suddenly and 
under such conditions as to floods, etc., that the only thing to be done is to 
prepare for repairs at the earliest possible time. 

In case of a washout, burnout, wrecked structure, caved-in tunnel, etc., 
the foreman should first take steps to send out flagmen to stop trains, 
and then report at once to the proper track oflicial and superintendent, 
stating in full the exact location of the accident, the number or name of 
structure, character and extent of damage, etc., and particulars of train 
wreck (If any). He should then do what he can with the means at his 
disposal to prevent further damage, and prepare for the repair work. 
The. wrecking train and gang will then be sent out promptly, equipped 
with the necessary plant and tools. Further cutting away of the banks 
of a washout may be checked by covering them with stone, logs, or 
brush and trees interlaced to form a mattress, or even by rough cribbing to 
cut off destructive currents or eddies. It is generally useless to try and fill 
a gap with anything but stone if a current is flowing through it. If the 
water is too high or turbulent to allow of commencing the repair work 
at once, the time may be profitably spent in building trestle bents, cribs, 
etc., and filling sacks with earth, ready to be put in as soon as possible, 
as it is of the greatest importance to get the road opened for traffic. 

Cribs may be built of old bridge timbers, logs or ties. The latter will 
be about 8 x 8 ft. in plan, with from two to four ties in each course, and a 
single crib of this kind will suffice for a height of 6 to 8 ft. For a greater 
height, there should be two cribs side by side, or a wider crib with the two 
rows of ties transverse to the track, these ties overlapping side by side. The 
cribs should be brought to a level surface, and topped by regular trestle 
caps 10 to 16 ft. long, to support the stringers. For wide openings, cribs 



WRECKING. 441 

(with one end pointed to facilitate handling in the current) may be towed 
or floated out to form foundations for crib or frame piers, being sunk by 
stones onto the natural bottom or onto a pile of stone, first dumped. An 
opening of 15 to 25 ft., with firm sides, such as a washed out culvert, may be 
spanned by two 12 x 12-in. timbers under each rail (6 ins. apart), resting 
on a sill at each end. These are crossed by about four smaller timbers car- 
rying two 12 x 12-in. stringers for the rails or ties. 

A pile driver is a very impoitant implement where large washouts of 
banks, trestles or bridges have to be dealt with, while steam shovels can be 
used to advantage at landslides. Track pile drivers are heavily built flat 
cars, with leaders carried by a frame on a revolving bed supported by a 
turntable on the deck of the car. Usually, the engine and boiler are at the 
rear end of the bed and counterbalance the. leaders, but in some cases the 
former are. stationary at the rear end of the car. The bed has a lateral 
travel of 16 to 20 ft. over the turntable to allow of setting piles a panel 
length ahead of the car, and 16 to 22 ft. on either side of the center of the 
track. The leaders are usually pivoted about 12 ft. above the rail, so that 
when lowered for transportation the upper end rests on the engine house 
roof, while the lower ends project in front of the car. This makes it nec- 
essary to put a flat car ahead to enable the pile driver to be coupled into a 
train. A pile driver on the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry., however, 
has a curved heel on which the leaders roll backwards and downwards, so 
that when lowered they do not project beyond the car. The 40-ft. leaders 
are pivoted about 26 ft. above the rail to swing laterally, for driving brace 
piles, etc. A pipe and hose for water jet may be added to the equipment, 
and some pile drivers carry a steam pile hammer as well as the usual 3,000- 
lb. ram. 

The pile driver car of the Missouri Pacific Ry. is 55 ft. long, and the lead- 
ers are, carried 16 ft. ahead of the car body, so that 10 ft. panels can be 
built. It has a reach also of 14 ft. on either side of the track. The leaders 
are 40 ft. long, 20% ins. apart in the clear, faced with 8-in. steel channels, 
and are hung on hinges. A 3,000-lb. hammer is used. The pile handling 
and hammer lines are led over different sheaves on the leaders and over 
guide pulleys back to separate drums on the engine, which has two cylin- 
ders 7% x 10 ins., and two 12-in. drums. Steam is supplied by a vertical boiler 
45 ins. diameter and 6 ft. high. The car is fitted with two 1%-in. manila 
hammer lines, and two 114-in. pile lines with one end spliced to the ring 
of a %-in. crane chain 7 ft. long, the free end of the chain having a hook. 
Next to the pile car is a flat car equipped with a 20-ton hydraulic jack, 6 
screw jacks, 2 snatch blocks for 2-in. line and 2 for 1^-in. line, 3 sets of 
blocks and falls for 1-in.. ly 2 -in. and 1^-in. line, 600 ft. of 1%-in. rope, hand 
hoist (Fig. 223), 6 sets of carpenter's tools, and a supply of bars, wrenches, 
chains, hauling lines, axes, spikes, nails, etc., a supply of coal and a 2,000- 
gallon water tank. The crew for this car consists of an engineman, fireman 
and 7 men, or 24 men for emergencies, of whom 8 are laborers and the oth- 
ers bridge men. This crew will drive 5 bents of 4 piles each, cut them off, 
and fit caps, stringers, ties and track in 10 hours. 

If a temporary trestle is required, piles may be driven, cut off to height 
and connected by caps drift-bolted in the usual way. If a pile driver is not 
.available, piles or timbers may be put in place singly by a hand derrick, 



442 TRACK WORK. 

"jumped" and churned by means of ropes to sink them into the bed, and 
secured to each other by plank braces as soon as they are. secure, using the 
planks to guide the additional piles. In this latter method the man in 
charge will not care about getting his piles evenly spaced, but will try to 
locate them in holes and soft places. Another method, which may be used 
where there is hard bottom, is to make, soundings for each leg of the bent, 
cut the posts to length, connect them by a drift-bolted cap, and a 4 x 10-in. 
diagonal brace and 4 x 10-in. horizontal plank at what will be the water line. 
The. bents are then placed in position and connected by longitudinal bracing. 
If framed bents are used, they are usually of 12 x 10-in. timbers, with four 
posts secured to a cap and sill by dog irons or plank splices spiked across 
the joints, and stiffened by two diagonal plank sway braces. The middle 
posts should be 5 ft. apart, c. to C-, and the caps 10 ft. long if outer batter 
posts are used, or 14 to 16 ft. if all the posts are vertical. The bents should 
be 12 or 14 ft. c. to c. These bents may be floated out to place and swung 
into place by a derrick, resting upon the bottom or upon a pile of broken 
stone dumped in place and leveled off. If above the water line or on dry 
ground, the sills may rest upon a mudsill or a row of short cross timbers. 
Upon these bents may be. placed two or three stringers under each rail (two" 
8 x 16 ins. x 24 ft., or three 7 x 15 ins. x 28 ft.), and track ties laid upon 
these. The stringers break joints and may be secured by 6 x 6 in. triangular 
braces or blocks, spiked to the caps and stringers. 

If the waterway is very wide, rough boats or pontoons may be built for 
the men in handling piles and bents and putting on the sway bracing. 
Great care should be taken to insure strong and substantial construction, 
-and ample longitudinal bracing should be provided so as to distribute the 
pressure and prevent the collapse of the structure by undue pressure upon 
an unevenly supported bent. In all such work the liability of a second 
flood or of heavy floating pieces being carried down by the stream must be 
borne in mind. Mortise and tenon work should not be employed, as it is 
expensive, takes time, and prevents the subsequent use of the timber in 
other work. The timbers should be butted together, bored, fished and bolted. 
A handy method of fastening timbers together is to use dog irons, 12 ins. 
long, with the ends bent for 4 ins. to drive into the. two pieces, the ends 
being chisel pointed, one vertically and the other horizontally. One leg is at 
right angles to the straight front, the. other at a little more than a right 
angle, so as to pull the timbers together. Two dog irons should be driven 
simultaneously on opposite sides of the joint, so as not to displace the tim- 
bers in driving. Where, spikes are used they should be %-in. boat spikes, 8 
ins. long. 

Roadmasters and bridge foremen should be furnished with a complete 
list of plans of pile and trestle bridges, and should have blue prints show- 
ing the bill of material for from one to 30 panels of bridge deck com- 
plete. They should also have a bill of material for frame bents from 8 
ft. to 50 ft. in height, slowing sway braces and longitudinal and sash 
girts, and they should have the same for pile bents. They should have a 
blue print for framing bents, showing length of sills and distance between 
mortises and length of plumb and batter posts, so that it will not be neces- 
sary for them to do any figuring in case of a rush. The foremen in charge 
of emergency repairs to bridges, etc., should be selected for their judg- 



WRECKING. 



443 



ment and self-reliance as well as skill, since they may often be thrown upon 
their own resources, owing to the telegraph wires being down. 

The following table was prepared by Mr. R. D. McCreary, Assistant En- 
gineer, Pennsylvania Ry., to show bridge men, carpenters, etc., the neces- 
sary size of stringers for various spans, c. to c. of caps or wall plates. The 
table gives the width in inches of each stringer for fiber strains of 750 and 
1,000 lbs. per sq. in. The former is for hemlock or pine, structures of one 
or two spans and where the stringers extend only from cap to cap. The lat- 
ter is for white oak stringers on single spans and pine or hemlock stringers 
extending over two spans and breaking joints. The end spans of trestles 
over two spans in length should be only three-fourths the length of inter- 
mediate spans, so as to equalize the stress. The stringers may be of one 
thickness or divided into two or more members, packed together. The 
table is calculated for engines having a weight of 113,800 lbs. on the driving 
wheels : 

TABLE No. 37.— SAFE WIDTHS OP STRINGERS FOR TEMPORARY RAILWAY 

TRESTLES. 



Span, 




For 1 


2 ins. 


For 14 ins. 


For 1 


- VV i 

5 ins. 


J.LJ-1, 

For 16 ins. 


For 18 ins. 


For 20 ins. 


c.toc. 


Load, 


, — deep. — , 


r— de 


ep.— ^ 


, — deep-.^, 


, — deep. — ^ 


, — deep. — N 


, — deep. — » 


of 


bending 


750 


1,000 


750 


1.000 


750 


1,000 


750 


1,000 


750 


1.000 


750 


1,000 


caps, 


moment, 


lbs., 


lbs., 


lbs., 


lbs., 


lbs., 


lbs., 


lbs., 


lbs., 


lbs., 


lbs., 


lbs., 


lbs., 


ft. 


ft.-lbs. 


ins. 


ins. 


ins. 


ins. 


ins. 


ins. 


ins. 


ins. 


ins. 


ins. 


ins. 


ins. 


4 


18,730 


12.5 


9.4 


9.2 


6.9 


7.9 


6.0 


7.0 


5.3 


5.6 








5 


22,910 


15.3 


11.5 


11.2 


8.4 


9.8 


7.3 


8.6 


6.4 


6.8 


5.1 


5.5 




6 


27,090 


18.1 


13.5 


13 3 


9.9 


11.6 


8.7 


10.2 


7.6 


8.1 


6.0 


6.5 




7 


31,270 


20.8 


15.6 


15.3 


11.5 


13.3 


10.0 


11.7 


8.8 


9.3 


6.9 


7.5 


5.6 


8 


35.450 


23.6 


17.7 


17.4 


13.0 


15.1 


11.3 


13.3 


9.9 


10.5 


7.9 


8.5 


6.4 


9 


42,460 


2S.3 


21.2 


20.8 


15.7 


18.1 


13.6 


15.9 


11.9 


12.6 


9.4 


10.2 


7.6 


10 


50,920 


33.9 


25.5 


24.9 


18.7 


21.7 


16.3 


19.1 


14.3 


15.1 


11.3 


12.2 


9.2 


11 


59,470 


39.6 


29.7 


29.1 


21.8 


25.4 


19.0 


22.3 


16.7 


17.6 


13.2 


14.3 


10.7 


12 


70,660 


47.1 


35.3 


34.6 


26.0 


30.1 


22.6 


26.5 


19.9 


20.9 


15.7 


17.0 


12.7 


13 


82,590 


55.1 


41.3 


40.4 


30.3 


35.2 


26.4 


31.0 


23.2 


24.5 


18.4 


19.8 


14.9 


14 


94,640 


63.1 


47.3 


46.3 


34.8 


40.4 


30.3 


35.7 


26.6 


28.0 


21.0 


22 7 


17.0 


15 


106,850 






52.3 


39.3 


45.6 


34.2 


40.1 


30.1 


31.7 


23.7 


25\6 


19.2 


16 


119,210 






58.4 


43.8 


50.9 


38.1 


44.7 


33.5 


35.6 


26.5 


28.6 


21.5 


17 


131,730 














49.4 


37.0 


39.0 


29.3 


31.6 


23.7 


18 


146,050 














54.8 


41.1 


43.3 


32.5 


35.0 


26.3 


19 


162,050 






















38.9 


29.2 


20 


178,250 






















42.8 


32.1 



In rebuilding the Pennsylvania Ry., after the severe damage to its line 
by the flood of May, 1889, the following complete outfit was prepared 
for feeding and housing the carpenters, telegraph linemen, laborers, etc. 
Two baggage cars were turned into kitchen and provision cars, and fitted 
with a cooking stove, tables, benches, etc., and supplied with cooking and 
table equipment for a strong commissary department. Two passenger 
cars were turned into dining cars by taking out the seats and building 
a plank table down the middle for the full length. Day cars were used for 
temporary sleeping accommodation, each man being provided with two 
blankets. A car was loaded with tools and materials for carpenters and 
trackmen, including two or three 1,000-ft. coils of 1-in. and 1%-in. rope, 
about 50 kegs of 6-in. and 8-in. cut and boat spikes for bracing and scaf- 
folding use, and all the carpenters' tools that could be collected. In addi- 
tion there were several carloads of 3-in. plank, 12 x 12 or 10 x 10 in. lum- 
ber for trestling, standard stringers, etc. While, the river was too high 
and too swift for putting in the trestling, the carpenters were employed 
in framing caps and top ends of logs. Soundings were taken for the leg 
of each trestle bent, and about 2y 2 tons of rails were spiked to the first bent 



444 TRACK WORK. 

got in position to sink it to the bottom through the current. The bents 
were 15 ft. centers. The electric lighting car of the Cumberland Valley Ry. 
(already mentioned) was used. 

The course of operations to be pursued under certain conditions has 
been outlined by Mr. George J. Bishop, of the Chicago, Rock Island & Pa- 
cific Ry., in a paper read before the American Association of Superintend- 
ents of Bridges and Buildings, 1895, and from this paper the following notes 
are abstracted: 

In making repairs across streams 10 to 30 ft. deep, with a steam pile 
driver car, the following organization is recommended: (1) Unload enough 
material to start work; (2) start a gang of men framing ties and one end 
of stringers and sizing both ends, sizing the end not framed back 30 ins.; 
(3) start pile driving; (4) have foreman and 10 men in front. By the time 
the pile driver has a bent of piles driven, the foreman has his staging up 
and height marked on the piles, arud at the last blow of the pile-driver 
hammer the straight edge is put on and two men to each pile start sawing 
them off, while the driver runs back for a cap. When the piles are sawed 
off, the pile driver lowers the cap to position and starts for stringers for 
one side. The stringers are lowered to position and the driver goes back 
for the other side, during which time the men place stringers and finish 
drift-bolting the cap. The other stringers are then lowered to position and 
the pile driver starts for a panel of bridge ties. As soon as these are low- 
ered the driver goes back for two 30-ft. rails. These are placed on the ties 
and the driver goes for a pile. It is necessary to use two rails 20 ft. long 
and two of 10 ft. for temporary work. Rails 30 ft. long do not always work 
to good advantage on 14 and 16-ft. spans; they are either too short or too 
long, as the rails should project over the bridge. While the pile driver is 
gone the track is spiked, bolted, gaged, and lined. There is then, generally, 
a few minutes' delay of the pile driver waiting for the men to finish. Then 
it starts driving the next bent. While driving this, two of the men in front 
are sawing off the ends of the stringers, getting ready for the next panel, 
and two of the men are detailed to bore and bolt up the stringers, so as to 
keep everything safe. These operations are continued until the gap is 
crossed. Of the 10 men in front of the pile driver, each has his part to look 
after. While the pile driver is driving the next bent, 1 man sees that angle 
bars, track bolts, drift bolts, and tools are ready for the next bent; 2 men 
are sawing off stringers; 5 are putting up ledger boards and staging, put- 
ting on sway braces and bolting up same; the other 2 men are back boring 
and bolting up the chord. They should have turnbuckles to pull bents 
square with the track and to pull the piles into place. All caps are bored 
out on the dump for sway brace bolts, and the gang there should do air the 
unloading, framing of material and piling same after framed for the pile 
driver to pick up. A foreman and 9 men can do this and keep material pre- 
pared for a day and a night gang. One man should be detailed from this 
gang to file cross-cut saws for the pile driver and the two bridge gangs. 
With proper management, such a gang can drive and complete six to ten 
panels of bridge work every ten hours, and at night three to five panels 
of permanent work. As the night gang has to do all the changing and 
coaling-up on their own time, there will necessarily be considerable loss 
of time to them and slower work on account of the darkness. If night work 
is done it will be necessary to have an extra engine tank for water for 
pile-driver and locomotive. The locomotive should be arranged to take 
water from the pile-driver tank to avoid running for water from 6 a. m. to 
7 p. m., or from 7 p. m. to 7 a. m. In temporary work, where only three 
piles are driven to the bent, better results can be secured and fewer men 
are required. 

If the pile driver has a reach of 16 to 18 ft., it is well to have two or 
three pieces of Oregon fir timber 24 x 24 ins., 50 ft. long, and use them as 
stringers, projecting them over the cap 10 ft. or more and laying bridge ties 



WRECKING. 445 

and track thereon. The driver can be run out on them for driving a bent 
of piles, and every time one has been driven and capped the stringers can 
be readily moved forward to drive the next. 

There are several different ways of making repairs to banks that have 
been badly washed at the side. One is to dig down the remaining embank- 
ment and bring up the part washed to a level. It is necessary sometimes 
to make a long run-off, so that grade will not be too steep, as the fill cut' 
down is often 6 or 8 ft. below grade. Another way is to build around the 
break what is called a "shoofiy" (Fig. 225). This is very often done, but it 
is not advisable except in extreme cases, as the cars are likely to run off the 
track, or the train to break in two parts on account of sharp curves and 
steep grades. 

The following is recommended as the best way to make these repairs: 
Where embankments are half washed out and only 10 ft. deep, lay one sill 
12 x 16 ins., by 10 ft., longitudinal with track, set plumb pests on that, put 
caps on the plumb posts, dig out the bank, project the caps through and 
place stringers under outside rail, resting on caps. The stringers carry 
the track on one side and the embankment on the other. Where the wash- 
out is 18 ft. deep, set up a plumb and a batter post on sills and sway brace 
the plumb and batter posts to the cap. By putting in this temporary tres- 
tle work the track is up to grade, regular trains can be pulled, which can- 
not be done where the embankment is cut down or a "shoofiy" is put in, 
and it can be filled by work train or steam shovel. If by steam shovel 
and side plow only a few section men will be required to handle the dirt; 
on the other hand, if a "shecfly" is put in and filling is done with the steam 
shovel, it is necessary to scrape dirt off on one side and keep raising track 
up and throwing in line to get it back on its old centers and grade. This 
will require a large force of men and will cause a waste of material and 
delay of shovel unless they have other work in the vicinity. It is the same 
with embankment cut down, as a large number of men are required. 

There should be boarding trains at all large washouts, or other arrange- 
ments made for the men to get their meals regularly. This should be' 
looked after by the head of the bridge and building or roadway depart- 
ment, or by some one detailed by him. All bridge gangs should have outfit 
cars, one bunk, one tool, and one material car, so as to be ready to move 
upon short notice. 



CHAPTER 27.— RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 

Charts and Records. — Most railways keep some form of map or chart 
record, which shows at a glance the alinement, profile, sidings, stations, and 
important features of the roadway equipment. In Fig. 226 is shown a re- 
duced specimen of a graphical chart of the Peninsula Division of the Chi- 
cago & Northwestern Ry., the original scales being 1 mile to the inch hori- 
zontally, and 100 ft. to the inch vertically. Besides giving a graphical repre- 
sentation and profile of the line, it locates and briefly describes all the truss 
bridges, roundhouses, turntables, coaling and water stations, and a record 
of the rails, being intended to include such physical features as pertain 
especially to the track and operating departments. There, is also given in 
one corner of the sheet a geographical map of the division on a small scale. 
The charts are corrected once a year and new sets of blue prints are made, 
which are framed under glass and hung in the office, or cut into strips and 



446 



TRACK WORK. 




RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 447 

folded for the pocket. The sheets are ahout 34 x 52 ins. inside the border 
lines. 

The top line gives the limits of the track sections, with the number and 
length of same. The next line gives the miles, a vertical line, being ruled 
across the chart at each mile. Then comes the alinement, showing the de- 
gree of each curve. Below this is shown the geography, the railway be- 
ing indicated by a straight line, all bridges, road crossings, sidings and 
spur tracks, buildings, etc., plotted on, and particulars of spans, grades 
of spurs, capacity of roundhouses, etc., noted. The township and other 
boundaries are also marked. Under this is a profile, with bridges marked 
and described, and elevations and rate of grade in feet per mile also noted. 
The profile is broken, as required, to keep it below the plan. At the bottom 
of the chart are shown the make, weight and date of rails, and the length 
laid with each make. Station and yard tracks are only indicated, reference 
being made to yard plans, but exterior sidings and spurs are as shown, 
except that spurs to mines, etc., are not plotted to scale. With each sheet 
is a table showing the dates of construction from point to point, by years, 
and another table giving the location of each bridge, its record number, and 
its clearance in width and height. 

A chart used on the Pennsylvania Ry. is 6 ins. nigh, folding up to a size 
of 4 x 6 ins., and is divided vertically by sections instead of miles, with the. 
names and addresses of the supervisors and foremen along the top of the 
chart. Then comes a broad space for the plan, which shows the state and 
county lines, mile posts, number of tracks (and, by symbols, the weight of 
rail), sidings, road crossings, bridges (with their numbers), stations, sig- 
nal towers (with their telegraph calls and the number of the block), etc., 
with notes as to special rail joints, etc. Below this is the alinement plan, 
showing the direction and degrees of curves, and symbols on this line in- 
dicate the character of the ballast. Below this again is the profile, with 
rate of grade marked in feet per mile. A more pretentious chart, intended 
rather for office record or file, used on the New York, New Haven & Hart- 
ford Ry., is to the scale of 300 ft. to the inch, with pages 22 x 10 ins., each 
showing 5,000 ft. It is divided by vertical lines making spaces representing 
100 ft., and by numerous horizontal lines. It gives in separate lines the 
names of station agents, trainmen, roadmasters, foremen, etc., landowners, 
land tax, express and carriage companies at stations, etc. It gives also a 
track plan, and a profile indicating switchstands, bridges, signal towers, 
signals (with number of blades) and other equipment. The Atchison, To- 
peka & Santa Fe. Ry. has a rail, ballast and fence record consisting of 
process sheets (blue lines on white ground) 13 x 8 ins., divided vertically 
by lines forming a scale of 1 in. to the mile, with five strips of track on each 
page. Each strip of track has three, lines, the center line indicating the 
rail and ballast, and the two side lines the fences, while numbers and sym- 
bols indicate the kind of ballast, weight of rail, kind of fence, etc. The 
location of water and coaling stations, Y's and turntables, and the capacity 
of sidings, are shown on the time cards. The bridge record is a blue print 
list for each division, corrected from time to time. This shows the bridge 
number, the position as fixed by mile post and feet additional, tne center 
height, number and length of spans, total length, description, and year of 



448 TRACK WORK. 

construction. Other bridge records and charts have been referred to in 
Chapter 23. 

In a paper on "Railway Map and Profile Records," presented to the Illi- 
nois Society of Engineers in 1899 ("Engineering News," Feb. 16, 1899), Mr. 
V. K. Hendricks, Engineer of Maintenance of Way of the Terre Haute & 
Logansport Ry., described a system based on the practice of that road. 
First of all, there are continuous maps of the entire road, showing right 
of way and property lines, section lines, railway and highway crossings, 
mile posts, etc., and the alinement. The scale is 400 ft. to 1 in., 100 ft. to 1 
in. in towns and cities, and the sheets are 18 x 26 ins., each containing only 
one land section instead of a certain length of track. Then there is a set 
of station plans, scale 100 ft. to 1 in., showing the. tracks, sidetracks, build- 
ings and platforms, water tanks, stock pens, coal docks, etc., with the sub- 
division of adjacent property and all important buildings and industries 
within the limits of the plan, whether on railway or private property. Be- 
sides these, there are miscellaneous plans, which should conform as far as 
possible to the standard sizes. Bridge records and fence record plans 
should also be kept. The working profile is usually on a scale of 400 ft. to 
1 in. horizontally and 20 ft. to 1 in. vertically. A line (with a yellow mark 
below it) should represent the top of rail, and another line (with a 
brown wash below) should show the original surface of the ground at the 
center or the. surface on one side. High and low water mark of water- 
courses should be marked in blue, and all elevations should be based on 
sea level datum. Below the profile should be a plan, the. curves being repre- 
sented by lines of a different color from the tangent (instead of by curves or. 
offsets) so that the right of way lines can be clearly shown. This plan 
should show all the stations, sidetracks, water and coaling stations, cross- 
ings, important buildings, etc. For the use of train dispatchers and other 
officers there may be a condensed profile and datum map. The profile, will 
show the location of water and coaling stations, passing tracks, car capacity 
of station tracks, the rating of engines over the various grades, and also 
the alinement, and the location, size and style of bridges. The map would 
show the arrangement of tracks at each station, all connecting Y tracks, 
distances between all connecting lines, location of water tanks, location 
and length of sidings, the ruling guides between all connections and the 
weight of engines safe to run over each stretch of track. 

Reports. — The proper carrying on of the work of the roadway depart- 
ment and the. necessity of determining the cost of the work, involves the 
use of various reports, note books, blanks, etc., and these should be in as 
few different sizes and styles as possible, so as to ensure uniformity and 
to facilitate filing as records or for reference. Nearly every road has its 
own series of blanks, and for different purposes, but a list of the principal 
blanks issued for reports by the engineer's department of the Lake Shore & 
Michigan Southern Ry. is given in Table No. 40. The table also shows the 
sizes of the reports (the width being given first), when and by whom made, 
and to whom sent. The styles of those marked (*) are illustrated herewith, 
and the following are some general explanatory notes: 

Nos. 2 and 3 are alike except that the latter is larger, as the roadmaster 
will have to include the reports of all his section foremen. No. 6 has a left 



RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 449 

hand column of items and other columns for amount and value of ma- 
terial received, shipped, used, and on hand. No. 8 is now sent to the prin- 
cipal assistant engineer, instead of to the division engineer. No. 12 has 
vertical columns for division or branch, between what station stakes, feet 
of track, which track, kind of ballast, cubic yards, and remarks. No. 17 
has debit and credit columns for cords of wood and value. No. 24 is iden- 
tical with No. 23, except that the leading "number of rails" is replaced by 
"weight per yard." No. 26 has vertical columns indicating the location and 
describing the style and make of frog and switch, with the date of laying 
and removing, and cause of removal. No. 29 is a cloth bound book, with 
the left-hand page for material used and shipped, and the right-hand for 
material received; each page is ruled for date, amount and description, and 
the left has a column headed "On what work used or to whom supplied," 
while the right has one headed "From what piece of work or from road- 
master." Tools are not to be entered, but new and old materials must be 
distinguished. The entries are to be made only on the left-hand page, and 
a list is given of the classes of work for which the material must be 
given separately; these include (1) main track, (2) sidetracks, (3) road 
crossings, (4) outside track on structures for which the railway is paid, 
(5) railway crossing, (6) bridge, (7) new fence, (8) old fence, (9) repairing 
tracks damaged by derailment, (10) constructing or extending sidetracks. 

No. 30 is the roadmaster's alphabetical record of material and tools, with 
one column for "items" and numerous columns for amount and value of 
material on hand, received and shipped. No. 31 is used for the monthly pay 
rolls, and has 58 lines; there is one column for "items," followed by about 
26 columns for amounts. No. 32 is a monthly letter report, showing the 
length of splice bar, bolt spacing, and year of laying. No. 33 is a home- 
ruled report of hard and soft wood ties, used (on main and side tracks 
separately), shipped, received, and on hand. No. 34 is a letter report, giv- 
ing causes of the failure. No. 35 shows the number of men employed, 
length and kind of fence built and repaired, cattleguards built and repaired, 
number of post holes dug and posts cut, kind of soil, etc. No. 37 shows the 
hours pumped, the revolutions per minute, and the supplies received for each 
day, with the size of pump and number of boiler. No. 38 has two pages, 
with the various parts printed in a column at the left, followed by a column 
for "condition when inspected," leaving over half the page for remarks. Be- 
tween the horizontal lines are the names of the structures as follow, having 
about four lines between them for the various parts: (1) Water tank, (2) 
coal derrick, (3) stone derrick, (4) stock chute, (5) mail crane, (6) stand- 
pipe, (7) hog drencher, (8) target, (9) windmill, (10) pumping engine, (11) 
coal chute, (12) coal dock, (13) elevator, (14) passenger and freight house, 
(15) semaphore. A separate report is used for each station and is mailed 
daily, with a letter if any detailed report is required. 

No. 40 is similar in style to No. 4. No. 41 states the cause of delay re- 
ported by a train at a block signal. No. 42 denotes the signal, train, date, 
and cause of delay, whether legitimate stop, defective maintenance, de- 
fective system, fault of trainmen, or workmen. No. 44 gives the initial and 
number of car and the number of first-class ties and culls. No. 45 is to 
notify the roadmaster that ties have been shipped and are to be counted. 



450 



TRACK WORK. 



No. 48 describes the location, kind, capacity and condition of scales. No. 49 
has vertical columns for names of men, time each day, total time, rate and 
amount. No. 50 is in two sizes: one with two columns for "items" and 
"articles and description," while the other has an additional column for 
remarks. Besides these there are blanks for shipments of supplies, and 
requisition blanks for heads of departments ordering from other depart- 
ments articles and repairs too small to require a requisition on the engineer, 
but copies of these are sent to him as a check against misuse. 



TABLE NO. 40.— REPORT BLANKS OF THE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT; 

L. S. & M. S. RY. 



7.* 
8.* 
9.* 

10.* 

11.* 

12. 

13.* 

14. 

15.* 

16. 

17. 

18. 

19.* 

20. 

21.* 

22.* 

23.* 

24. 
25. 

26.* 

27.* 
28. 
29. 
30. 

31. 
32. 
33. 

34. 
35. 
36.* 
37. 

38. 

39.* 

40. 

41. 

42. 

43.* 

44. 

45. 

46. 

47. 
48. 
49. 
50. 



Size, When Prepared 

, ins. ymade. by Sent to 

Work done and changes made 8 x 13% M. Sect'n foremn. Roadmaster. 

Defective steel rails removed from 

main track 8% x 7 M. Sect'n foremn. Roadmaster. 

Defective steel rails removed from j Roadmaster, P. A. Engr. 

main track 8% x 14 M. ( P. Asst. Engr. Chief Engr. 

Tools and equipment on section (2 pp.) 8% x 14 M. Sect'n foremn. Roadmaster. 
New and second-hand material on sec- 
tion (3 pp.) 9% x 15 M. Sect'n foremn. Roadmaster. 

New and second-hand material, and 

new tools on division 14 x 8% M. Roadmaster. G. Off. Act'f. 

Section and fence gang report 5% x 9% W. Foreman. Roadmaster. 

Section and fence gang report 6 x 9*4- W. Roadmaster. P. A. Engr. 

Extra gang 6 x 9% D. Foreman. Roadmaster. 

Excavator or steam shovel 6 x 9% D. Engineman. 

Work train 5% x 9% D. Conductor. 

Main track ballasted 9% x 8 M. Roadmaster. P. A. Engr. 

Extra force 14 x 8% D. Roadmaster. P. A. Engr. 

Extra force 14% x 9 D. P. Asst. Engr. Chief Engr. 

Gravel and earth handled 14 x 8% D. Roadmaster. P. A. Ecgr. 

Gravel and earth handled 14% x 9 D. P. Asst. Engr. Chief Engr. 

Wood 8% x 7 M. Roadmaster. P. A. Engr. 

Ballast 9 x 4 M. 

Scrap on hand 8% x 7 M. 

Rails used .....9x4 M. 

New side tracks constructed 9% x 8 M. " " 

Side tracks taken up 10% x 7% M. 

New steel rails laid in main track for 

renewals 9% x 8 M. 

Second-hand steel rails laid in main 

track for renewals 9% x 8 M. " " 

Steel rail frogs and switches removed 

from main track 11% x 9 M. " " 

Bridge and culvert inspection 8% x 14 M. 

Broken rails found in main track 8% x 11 

Distribution of labor on section 11% x 8 M. Sect'n foremn. Roadmaster. 

Material received, used, shipped (Book) 7% x 10% ... Sect'n foremn. Roadmaster. 
Material and tools received, used, 

shipped and on hand 22 x 16 M. Roadmaster. P. A. Engr. 

Distribution of pay rolls 21 x 16 M. " G. Off. Act't. 

Broken splices found in main track. . .Letter^ M. " P. A. Engr. 
Ties received, used, shipped and on 

hand Home ruled M. " " 

Failures of electric alarms at crossings. Letter. M. " " 

Fence gang work • 8% x 10% D. 

Fencing 8% x 14 M. " " 

Water station , 8% x 6% W. Pump. Engr. Mast'r Carp. 

Structures and appliances at stations 

(2 pp.) 814x14 D. Carp.Dep.Insp. Mast'r Carp. 

Interlocking plant 8% x 14 W. Towerman. P. A. Engr. 

Tools & material at interlocking plant 8% x 14 M. Towerman. 'Mast'r Carp. 

Delay by block signal 7 x 5% ... Sig. or rep. mn. Hd. of Dept. 

Electric block signal report 8% x 14 M. Head of Dept. P. A. Engr. 

Train accident's ? 8% x 14 ... Roadmaster. 

Tie inspection 5% x 8% D. Tie Inspector. 

Ties forwarded (notice) 5% X 8% ... P. Asst. Engr. Roadmaster. 

Condition of handcars taken to shop.. . 8% x 7 ... Shop Fore, or Mast'r Carp. 

Trav.H.C. rep. fore. 

Handcars inspected (giving defects, &c.) M. Master Carp. P. A. Engr. 

Scales tested 14 x 8% M. Master Carp. P. A. Fngr. 

Time of work on buildings SVi x 10% W. Bldg. Fore. Heads depts. 

Requisitions 5%x8% and 8% x 10% . . . Hds. of Depts. P. A. Engr. 



RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 



451 



ENGINEER DEPARTMENT. 

Section No (Division or Branch.) 

Report of Work Done and Changes Made During Month of 190. . . . 



This blank must be filled out and sent to Roadmaster as soon after end of mouth as 
possible. Each item must be answered in some way; if there is nothing to report, the 
words "Nothing Done," must be written. Section foremen will report results and 
changes on their sections whether made by themselves or by others. Results accom- 
plished by extra gangs, fence gangs, and other section gangs, as well as by carpenters, 
telegraph linemen, or outside parties must theretore be reported by the various foremen 
having charge of the sections on which done. Foremen en lines having 2, 3 or 4 main 
tracks will show which .track is referred to oy writing its name in the space left for that 
purpose in certain itemfe. 



New steel rail has been laid in 
2d-hand and cut rail has been laid in. 
New ballast has been put in 
New ditch has been dug on 
Old ditch has been cleaned on 
Stand, cross-sec. been completed on. 
New fence has been constructed on . 



tin track from Sta to Sta 



,side of trapk from Sta to St* 



Steel rail has been laid in following named side tracks: 

The following new side tracks have been built and old ones extended 



The following side tracks have been taken up and shortened. 
Fly rails were changed at following switches: 



Frogs were changed at following switches: 

Cattle-guards were renewed or repaired at following named crossings: 



The following changes were made in fixed signals: . 
The following railway crossing frogs were changed: 



New obstructions within 6 ft. of track have been put up at following places: 



The following named side obstructions within 6 ft. of track have been changed or re- 
moved : 

All bridges and culverts on this section are in good condition, except the following: 



Remarks: 



(Blank No. 1.) 
Monthly Report on Section Work; L. S. & M. S. Ry. 



Section Foreman. 



Rjport of Defective Steel Rails removed from Main Tracks < 



-Division, during month ot. 



• Farenen cr ill. export <>n tbie blank tu Roadmaster all rails removed from Main Tracts for any of tho causes mentioned below, or 
any other failure. Tfiis will include rails disabled by wreck, but. will not include rails worn out in a ligitimate way after 5 years service. No- 
e track or switch rnHs »re to be reported hereon. Report one rail only on each line. 



) OF JOINT FASTENING. 



C»U1E OF REM0V»t_ 



Datt 
Mode. 



I I 



lB\ank..No^; 



n 



452 



TRACK WORK. 



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RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 



453 



Weekly Report of ......Gang No. 

for Week ending 



.Diu'n, 



.189.. 



FOR RECULAR SECTION AND FENCE GANGS ONLY. 

Section and fence gang foremen will fill out these blanks on the 7th. 14th, 21st and last day of each month 
and forward to Road .Master. Under "Remarks," should be given amount of other work done not enumer- 
aied on the blank, together with necessary explanations or additional data asked for by Road Master. 



.Number of men now in gang including foreman 

Total days work performed during week, per time book 

What hand and push cars are on hand?... 

Have they been examined daily? , 

What is their present condition? : 

Have frogs and switches been daily examined and repaired?.., 

Has frog and switch blocking been daily examined and repaired?.. 

Cross ties put in main tracks 

•* " " " new and old side tracks 

Xorth main track surfaced. From sta.„ .to sta. 

South. " " " " " — " " 

Xorth , " " ballasted and completed. " " " " 

South " " " " " " " " " 

New rail laid in ; main track. " " " " 



Feet of new ditch dug 

" " ditched cleaned..... 
" " cross-section made. 

REMARKS: 



( Blank No.7.) 



A committee of the Roadmasters' Association of America reported in 
1894 that the blank forms for maintenance of way records should he made 
up to suit the organization and the system of accounts in use on each road. 
Consequently no special recommendation could be given as to their number 



Weekly Report of Section aM Fence Gangs r . JiT'n, 



For week ending. 



.189. 





Number of. 


Number of days 

work performed 

including laborers 

and foremen. 


Regular section gangs, 
•« fence " 







(Blank No.?).) 



454 TRACK WORK. 

Daily Report of Extra Gang Division. 

....: - : 189.... 

Extra Gang Foremen should fill out these blanks each night and forward to their 
superior. The distribution of labor should be taken from sheet or book on which it is- 
kept, the object being to obtain, daily, a record of how much time is being expended on 
each piece of work or portion of it. 

On what piece of work engaged r , 

No. of days work performed ( E *Td iv £river T s eams ) - 

No. " " by Teams and Drivers , 

Total days work performed, per time book .... 



No. Flat cars of earth or gravel loaded Earth GraveL. 

No. Gondola " " " Earth. Gravel.. 

No. Dump :"' " '• ...Earth Gravel.. 



UNLOADED. WHERE UNLOADED. 

No. Flat Cars Gravel 



No. Gondola 
No. Dump 
No. Flat 
No. Gondola 
No. Dump 



Earth. 



DISTRIBUTION OF LABOR, 
.days work on .... 



Blank Ho.9. 



or details. It was thought that the blank forms on many roads were more 
complicated than necessary to secure the end desired, and often secure 
duplicate, or insufficient information. The committee regarded the follow- 
ing information and forms as generally necessary for a proper record of 



DAILY REPORT OF EXCAVATOR No. 



189 



Steam Shovel Engineers should fill out these blanks each night and forward 
to their superior. 



Where located . _ _ 

On what work engaged 

Total days work performed, per time book 

Number of Flat Cars loaded Kind of MateriaL„ : 

11 Gondola " " 

" Dump " " 

Total time lost 

Cause of delays: 



(Blank No.10.) 



RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 455 

the maiAtenance of way department of any railway, and for securing the 
proper charges: 

(A) Daily record of each trackman's work on a sub-division or on a work 
train, so that his time can he charged to the proper account. 

(B) Daily record of material used on each track foreman's sub-division. 

(C) Daily record of materials handled by work trains. 

(D) Track foreman's monthly report of work done and materials used 
terial on hand. 

(E) Work train foreman's monthly report of work done. 

(F) Foreman carpenter's monthly report of all materials used and on 
hand and work done. 



Daily Report of Work Train Division. 

189.... 

Work Train Conductors should fill out these blanks each night and forward to 
their superior. 

On what piece of work engaged... 

Number of Locomotive 

Number of days work performed, per time book 1 



UNLOADED. WHERE UNLOADED. 

No. Flat Cars Gravel 



No. Gondola " " 

No. Dump 

No. Flat " Earth 

No. Gondola 

No. Dump 



No. Flat Cars held in service for next day's use 

No. Gondola Cars held in service for next day's use. 
No. Damp " " " " " 

(Blank No. II.) 



(G) Monthly report by track foremen and foremen carpenters of tools 
'On hand. 

(H) Supervisor's or roadmaster's monthly report of all materials used 
and on hand, and giving the distribution. 

(I) Supervisor's or roadmaster's report of periodical inventories of ma- 
terial on hand. 

(J) Track foreman's and roadmaster's report of fires along the right-of- 
way. 



456 



TRACK WORK. 



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RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 



457 



Scrap on hand, 1st, ISO. 



Division. 



Steel rail, less than 3-ft. long. 

Steel rail, 3-ft. long and over. 

Iron rail, American. 

Iron rail, English. 

Steel cap rail. . . . . 

Steel frog, switch and guard rail. 



gross tons. 



Roadmaster. 



(Blank No. 19.) 
Monthly Report of Scrap; L. S. & M. S. Ry. 



NEW SIDE TRACKS CONSTRUCTED,- 



. Division.- 



-189- 



AT WHAT STATION. 



OCATION BY STATION STAKES. 



FEET OF 
TRACK 

CONSTRUCTED. 



(Blank No. 21.) 



SIDE TRACKS 


TAKEN UP 




Division. 




7,9.9 




AT WHAT STATION. 


NAME OF TRACK. 


FEET OF 

TRACK 

TAKEN UP. 


KIND OF 
RAIL 


KIND OF SWITCH 
REMOVED, 
IF ANY. 


i , 

REMARKS. 















(Blank No, 22.) 



NEW STEEL RAIL LAID IN MAIN TRACK FOR RENEWALS, 



(Blank No. 23.) 



.189. 



LOCATION BY STATION STAKES. 


FEET 0.- 
TRACK LAID. 


BRAND. 


NUH8ER OF RAILS 

LAID 
OF EACH LENGTH. 


REMAKES. 




FROM 


TO 


MANUFACTURE. 


Mortl 


Vw. 























Road-Master's Bridge and Culvert Inspection on 




(Blank No. 26.) 



458 TRACK WORK. 

REPORT OF BROKEN RAILS FOUND IN THE MAIN TRACK. 



Whenever a broken rail is found in the main track, a report should be sent to the 
Principal Assistant Engineer by the Roadmaster as soon as possible after a careful in- 
vestigation has been made. 

About a foot of the rail on each side of the break should be cut off and stored away, 
properly labeled and numbered, so that the fracture may be inspected at any future time. 



Date 

Time of day or night 

By whom 

Where located (approximate distance east or west of nearest Passenger Station) 

Brand of rail (maker and year) 

Heat mark 

Length of rail „ 

Was it a cut rail or not ? 

Kind of joint fastening 

Description of break, stating how far from end of rail 

Did it occur between ties or on top of tie ? 

Approximate temperature of atmosphere when found 

When had track been last patrolled? 

What is label number of stored pieces?. 

■Cause of break, if known 

Roadmaster. 

(Blank No. 27.) 
Monthly Report of Broken Rails; L. S. & M. S. Ry. 



(K) Track foreman's and roadmaster's report of stock killed. 
(L) Track foreman's and roadmaster's report of broken rails. 
(M) Roadmaster's report of scrap for sale. 

(N) Statement covering shipment of rail and other maintenance of way 
or construction material. 

(0) Roadmaster's report of track laid or changed. 



FENCE CONSTRUCTION ON Division, during 190. . 

~~ IF 



Locat'ns by Sta. stakes 



From 



To 



Which! 
| side IFeet 

of I 
track. I 

I 



Kind of 
fence. 

I (Labor. 

II 



Cost. 



New 
II or 
-j| old 
jlmate- 



Material. ITotal. I ri; 



II 



II. 



II I I 

(Blank No. 30.) 
Roadmaster's Report on Fence Construction ; L. S. & M. S. Ry 



Remarks. 



RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 459 

WEEKLY REPORT ON CONDITION OF INTERLOCKING PLANT AT 

This blank must be carefully filled out on Saturday of each week by towerman hav- 
ing charge of plant, and forwarded to Principal Assistant Engineer in accordance with 
Rule 31 of General Instructions to Towermen, governing the operation and maintenance 
of interlocking plants. 

What foundations have needed bracing and tamping? 

What stands (of any kind) are hard to keep solid on the foundations? Do the nuts 
work loose, or do the bolts seem to be pulling up through foundation? 

Have any washers been put under any of the point rail feet, and are any in use now?. . . 

What switches or signals have got out of aujustment? 

What levers throw too hard; do they have to be rushed past a sticking point when once 
started? 

What lamps are giving trouble, either by going out, burning poorly, or getting on fire? 
What style of make are the lamps, and what pattern burner? 

Has any sand been used over the plant? If so. give date and time with train and en- 
gine number 

Mention here anything not specified above: 



Date 190. 



(Blank No. 39.) 
Interlocking Plant Report; L. S. & M. S. Ry. 



Towerman. 



REPORT OF TRAIN ACCIDENTS. 



Classification 

Train ; No ; Section ; Conductor 

Engine No Engineman 

Date 190 Time: A.M.; P.M. 

Place 

Main, side or private track 

If private track give owner's name in full 

At switch or frog ; Split or stub switch 

Trailing or facing point 

Cause 

On curve or straight line„ 

If on curve, give degree of curvature ; Elevation ; Spread of gage 

Gage of track : feet inches. 

Is engine off track? 

Damage to track 

No. of cars off track loaded; empty. 

Cost of repairs: Labor. . . .$ ; Material. . . .$ ; Total. . . .$ 

Cost of wreckage done by Engineer Department 

Name of employee of Engineer Department who reported accident 

Occupation 

Remarks : 



Correct: 



(Blank No.43.) 
Train Accident Report; L. S. & M. S. Ry. 



Roadmaster. 



Among the most important of these reports are the. weekly reports made 
by the section foremen, showing the details of work done on the sections. 
By these the roadmaster can keep in touch with the maintenance work 
on the whole line and see how the men are getting along, besides know- 
ing what sections need special attention at the first opportunity. The 
blank may be in book form, the first page having columns for the month, 
day, number of men, number of hours worked, location of work (by mile 
and station) and about a third of the page for describing the kind of work. 
In the lower left-hand corner may be a space for the number of ties re- 
ceived, used and on hand at the end of the week and month. In the larger 
space for remarks are entered the. dates of completing special work, and 
notes of materials or tools needed. Some roads, however, prefer to use 



460 TRACK WORK. 

sheets, as giving space for a greater number of items, the entries being 
made daily from the time book. The section foremen's report sheet used on 
the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Ry. is 11% x 18 ins., with 31 vertical 
columns f6r the time worked each day on the various items; these are fol- 
lowed by a column for the total amount of each item for the month, and a 
column of "cost," which latter is to be filled in by the roadmaster. The 
following is a list of the items of work in the left-hand column: 

SECTION FOREMAN'S REPORT; L. S. & M. S. RY. 
Distribution of Labor. Section Division 190. ... 

Section foreman must charge up on this blank at close of each day the total day's 
work per time book. Any work done not covered below must be described clearly in one 
of the blank lines. It is important that these various kinds of work be charged with 
the labor performed on them, so that the cost over the entire road may be determined. 
The item "Repairs sidetracks and switches— other repairs," is to be charged with all 
work of repairing sidings and switches, whether in maiD track or elsewhere, except the 
ballasting and putting in new cross ties, which are to be shown separately as below. 
Any work done on a track or switch for which some outside party should pay, must be 
shown separately on a blank line. If work be done on bridges, steam railway crossings, 
interlocking plants, street railway crossings, station grounds, etc., the number or name 
should be always given, and a description of what was done. 



Kind of Work Performed: 

Patrolling track 

Track watching extra, account of 

Tightening bolts Main track. 

Gaging " 

Changing rails " 

Shimming " " 

Shifting ties, surfacing and lining " " 

Handling and distributing new cross ties for " " 

Putting new cross ties in " " 

Handling and distributing new rail and splices for " *' 

Laying new rail in " " 

Surfacing and shifting ties under new rail (when laying) " " 

Picking up second-hand rail taken out of " " 

Handling and distributing second-hand and cut rail and splices for. . " " 

Laying second-hand and cut rail in " " 

Surfacing and shifting ties under second-hand and cut rail (when 

laying) " 

Loading gravel for ballasting " " 

Unloading gravel for ballasting " 

Putting new gravel ballast in , " " 

Handling cinders for ballasting " 

Putting cinder ballast in " " 

Cross sectioning 

Digging new ditch 

Cleaning old ditch 

Scurfing and clearing up roadbed outside of yard 

Mowing, burning and cleaning up right of way 

Handling track scrap 

f Gravel ballasting 

Repairs sidetracks J Cinder ballasting 

and switches. . . 1 Putting in new cross ties 

[ Other repairs 

Taking up old sidetrack 

Scurfing and cleaning up roadbed in yards 

Grading for new (or ext. of) sidetrack 

Laying and ballasting new (or ext. of) sidetrack 

Handling track materials and supplies 

Railway crossing frogs 

Railway interlocking 

Acc't. block signals 

Street railway crossings 

Handling snow and ice at Railway crossing; interlocking (L. S. 

& M. S. tracks) '. 

" " " " on our main tracks 

" " " on sidetracks and switches 

" " " " on street, highway and farm crossings 

" " " "on station platform 

Inspecting bridges and culverts 

Cleaning out bridges and culverts 

" "at bridge (or culvert) No 



RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 461 



Handling and distributing material for new fence 

Building new fence along right of way 

Repairing old fence along right of way » 

Repairing street, highway and farm crossings and signs. 

Building new highway (or farm) crossing... 

Cleaning up station grounds. . 

Handling car scrap , 

Handling fuel for water station 

Handling fuel for station use. . . 

Loading old lies for wood 

Handling and loading wood 

Clearing up wrecks, and assisting wrecking crews 

Repairing tracks and switches, acc't of derailments 

Fighting fire 

Helping agent transfer freight at 

Oiling windmills at 



Total days' work performed 



In preparing forms of reports for use by the foremen, it must be recog- 
nized that the men are apt to be but poorly educated and not well fitted 
for doing much literary work. For these reasons, the reports should be 
simple and plain, as complex reports inaccurately filled out are merely 
a waste of time, since they are. practically valueless. The foremen should 
be required to fill in their reports with their own hands, and not have 
station agents or others do this, as there will be less liability to error and 
it will serve to educate the foremen in the proper method of keeping the 
reports. In some cases the foreman is left to fill in the kind of work, but 
as a rule there are numerous columns, the headings of which are the dif- 
ferent classes of work, and the foreman fills in the number of hours for 
the particular kind of work done each day by each laborer, there being a 
page for each man. At the back of the book may be a page for the ma- 
terial received, used and on hand, the latter amount being entered in the 
new book at the beginning of each month. The columns are footed up at 
the end of each month and sent to the roadmaster. 

The form of time book used by the Pennsylvania Ry. is shown here- 
with. The record occupies the two opposite pages of an oblong book, $y 2 x 
6% ins., having 50 double pages, and being bound in limp leather. This 
book, properly signed by the foreman, must be returned on the last day 
of each month to the supervisor, who examines it, certifies if correct, and 
forwards it to the office of the assistant engineer, where the check rolls 
are made out. The last columns — "Total Amount Due" and "Chargeable 
to" — are left blank by the foreman to be filled in by the supervisor. An- 
other form of monthly time book, used by the Chicago & Northwestern Ry., 
is also shown. The book is upright, 8}4 x 5% ins., with stiff paper covers 
and seven double, pages. It is entitled "Distribution of Track Labor for 

Section No. ;" the exact location of the section is entered on the cover, 

or if the book is used for a train, gravel pit or quarry, the name of same 
must be. entered. On the inside of the cover are printed the following in- 
structions to the track foremen in reference to the distribution of labor 
in the book: 

The total number of hours worked should be entered in the first column, 
headed "Total Time Worked." Following this, columns are. provided for 
distributing the labor under the different headings, and track foremen 
are required to enter under such headings the number of hours charge- 
able to each as follows: 



462 TRACK WORK. 

General Repairs to Track. — Enter the time consumed in cutting and re- 
pairing rails, repairing side tracks, taking up sidings, surfacing track and 
all other ordinary repairs not enumerated below. 

Laying Ties. — Enter the time used in taking up and disposing of old ties, 
and unloading, handling and laying new ties to replace those taken up. 

Laying Rails. — Enter the time consumed in removing and disposing of 
rails from track and replacing same with other rails; also the ordinary 
surfacing of the track at the time the rails are. laid, and loading the old 
rails to be sent away. 

Ditching. — Enter the time used in opening, clearing, widening and per- 
fecting ditches and drains, and cutting down or strengthening embank- 
ments. 

Freshet Repairs. — Enter the time consumed in repairing damages to road- 
way and track caused by freshets. 

Track Watchmen Necessitated by Repairs. — Enter the. time of men en- 
gaged as watchmen and flagmen while repairs of track are in progress and 
rendered necessary by such repairs. 

Ballasting. — Enter the work done in gravel pits, hauling gravel and stone 
for use in track, quarrying and breaking stone for ballast, raising and 
repairing track with ballast. (Note. — Gravel train conductors and foremen 
of gravel pits and quarries must, in ail cases, state on what division, sub- 
division and section of road the gravel or ballast is to be used, so that the 
expenses may be properly charged.) 

Clearing Track of Snow, and Cutting Weeds, Brush and Grass. — This in- 
cludes clearing same from the roadway and track, etc., and mowing and 
burning weeds, brush and grass inside of fences. 

Repairs of Fences, Road Crossings and Signs. — Enter the time consumed 
in repairing and rebuilding fences, road crossings and signs. 

Flagmen. — Enter the time of men engaged as flagmen at crossings. 

Repairs of Bridges and Culverts. — Enter the time consumed in repair- 
ing or strengthening bridges and culverts. 

Bridge Watchmen Necessitated by Repairs. — Enter the time of men en- 
gaged as watchmen and flagmen while repairs of bridges or culverts are 
in progress and rendered necessary by such repairs. 

Repairs of Cattleguards. — Enter the time consumed in repairing and re- 
newing cattleguards. 

Reloading Freight, Getting Cars on Track, Etc. — This account includes 
time occupied in watching and reloading freight into cars and getting 
cars on the track when wrecked or disabled. It also' includes time con- 
sumed in picking up lumber or other freight lost from cars along the line. 
(Give particulars in each case.) 

Station Labor. — Enter in this column labor assisting at stations in load- 
ing and unloading freight or performing other station labor, such as attend- 
ing to switches. (Give name of station in each instance, and kind of work 
done.) 

Maintaining Telegraph. — Enter the time devoted to repairing or looking 
after telegraph lines. 

Construction of Sidings. — Enter the time consumed in grading and lay- 
ing new sidetracks and lengthening and extending old sidings. 

Remarks. — Enter in this column such items or charges as do not prop- 
erly belong under the headings provided, as specified above, stating in 
every case the nature of the work and where it was done; also if a time 
ticket has been given, enter the particulars in this column. 

The time of track foremen, conductors of gravel trains and foremen 
of gravel pits should be distributed herein each day in the same manner 
as track laborers. 

Enter the distribution of labor in this book in a plain, legible manner, 
at the close of each day's work, and oftener when necessary. At the 
close of the month add up each column and enter the footings at the 
bottom of the column, opposite the word "Totals," being careful to see 
that the footings of all the distribution columns (when added together)' 
agree with the footings of the columns headed "Total Time Worked." 



RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 463 

This book must be sent forward promptly, as directed, on the night of 
the last day of the month. 

Instruction Books. — The work of the roadmasters and section foremen, 
who are the men in actual charge of the track, carries a considerable re- 
sponsibility, and the most thorough means should be taken to keep these 
men fully informed as to their duties, and to impress upon them that the 
safe, and proper condition of the track is the first and most important con- 
sideration. An excellent plan is to issue "instruction books," similar to 
those already in use on many roads. For a road starting to adopt this plan, 
the books should at first be small pamphlets, so as not to incur much ex- 
pense, and after they have been in service for a sufficient time to become 
well known and well used, opinions and suggestions should be invited from 
time to time from the men on the road and from officers of other roads in 
order that improvements may be made by eliminations, alterations and ad- 
ditions, so as to embody the best results of actual experience. A handy 
book can then be made up for permanent use. The matter should be clearly 
and concisely written (care being taken to avoid ambiguous phraseology, 
involved sentences or words not commonly used), so as to be readily under- 
stood, and the use of diagrams will add to the usefulness of the book. It 
should be clearly printed on strong paper, and strongly bound. A few stubs 
between the leaves will' allow of pasting in additional leaves issued from 
time to time. The illustrations should preferably be on the pages of the. 
book, or at any rate on sheets not folded more than once or twice, as large 
folding sheets are. awkward to handle and are liable to be very soon torn. 
Special instructions should be given to the section foremen when any im- 
portant improvements are to be carried out or new devices tested. 

The character of the instructions and regulations to be given in these 
books has been outlined in the chapter on "Organization." The latest edi- 
tion of the "Rules of the Road Department" of the Illinois Central Ry., 
issued in 1899, is a book of 62 pages, bound in cloth, iy 2 x7 ins., the pages 
having rounded corners to prevent "dog's ears." First come the rules for 
section foremen as to "Ditching," "Ballast," "Cross Ties," "Rails," 
"Curves," "Switches," "Watching," "Material," "Accidents," "Hand and 
Push Gars," "Water Stations," "Folicing," "Reports," and "General Rules." 
Then come Rules for Conductors of Construction Trains, Rules for Road 
Supervisors, and Rules and Instructions for the Bridge Department. There 
are also tables of curve elevation and bills of switch timbers. The illus- 
trations are printed on the pages of the book and include various roadbed 
cross-sections, switches, frog guard rails, position of spikes, and diagrams 
of slip switches with rigid frogs and movable points. The Southern Pacific 
Ry. book is more bulky, and has a number of folding plates. 

Requisitions. — One. of the most troublesome details in railway service 
is the handling of requisitions for supplies, and much friction and ex- 
pense are too frequently caused by a lack of harmony between the execu- 
tive officers and the. accounting officers. Requisitions for ties and such 
material are not infrequently disallowed or cut down by some higher 
official who has no idea of the actual requirements, but who simply 
thinks that requisitions are too large, or that economies must be observed, 
or who entertains the erroneous impression that every dollar cut from a 
requisition is a dollar saved to' the company. Such officials need to be 



464 



TRACK WORK. 



educated in the principles of railway economics until they realize the 
relations between expenditures and the results obtained therefrom, and 
understand that large expenditures may in some cases tend to real econ- 
omy of operation. The wide cutting down of requisitions is very discour- 
aging to a man who has carefully and honestly prepared his requisition 
to meet actual needs. Such a practice cannot but result in carelessness. 



ACCOUNT OF TIME WORKED for the Pennsylvania Railroad Company during the 



HOW EMPLOYED. 



1C 11 15 13 H 15 16 1 



I certify that the persons to zv'l 
the service of the Pennsylvani 



names time is affixed 
Railroad Company. 



be '.n t lili <sei tly 



pic 



ycc l, d iri ig the tin .e s, leci fled , in 



in estimating, or in the exaggeration of the amounts called for, so that the 
"cut" requisition will still meet requirements. The roadmaster, engineer 
or superintendent should inform himself as to the' financial conditions of 
the company, and its business outlook. He should prepare his estimates 
with these conditions in view, and then be prepared to stand by his esti- 
mate or requisition and show that it is reasonable and necessary. On 
the other hand, the accounting officers should recognize that the execu- 
tive men are in better position to know what are the needs of the road for 



[bee next page.] 



WORK Performed in the Month 



Occupation., 





Total Time 
Worked. 


"REPAIRS OF ROADWAY AND TRACK." 


"Eoptirsof 
?«aees." 




DATE. 


General 
Repairs 
Track. 


laying 
Ties. 


laying 
Kails- 


Ditching. 


Freshet 
Repairs. 


Track 
Watchmen 
necessitated 
by repairs. 


Ballasting. 


Clearing Track 

of Snow and 

Catting Weeas 

and Grass. 


Repairing 
Fences, RtGsi 

Crossings 
and Signf, 




1 
























2 
























3 
























31 
























Total No 
of Hours, 
























Total Am't 
of Wages, 



























its proper and economical maintenance and operation, and should be pre- 
pared to authorize the requisitions, or to at least consult with the men sub- 
mitting them before making any changes. These men are thus made re- 
sponsible for their requisitions, and should be held strictly accountable 
for them. Such a system will conduce to harmonious working of the entire 



RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 



465 



operating force, from president and manager to roadmaster and foreman, 
and will result in the truest economy in operation and maintenance. 

Cost of Railway Maintenance Work. — This is so large a proportion of the 
total cost of operation that it is most important, in the interests of econ- 
omy, that full and accurate records should he kept of the deails of work 
done, the material consumed, and the cost of the various items of work 



Month of_ 



ISO... 



Time Rate 

Worked. of Pay. 



Total 
Am't Due. 



_ —DIVISION. 

Subdiv. No 



19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 SO 



Mo. His. I Dolls Cls. 



CHARGEABLE TO 



%fiuni CI TTi ct 



jSt'.pe ~vi. 



lital ,lmoi nt, i 



Total Amount of Check Roll, . i 



and material. As such records must he based mainly on the returns and 
reports of the section foreman, it is essential that such returns and reports 
should be so designed as to give all necessary information with the least 
possible work on the part of these men, and with the lowest possible 
chance for error on their part. This matter has been dealt with very 
clearly by Mr. Marshall M. Kirkman, Vice-President of the Chicago & 
Northwestern Ry., in his pamphlet on "The Track Accounts of Railways." 
His plan is, in brief, to have the final records attained in two distribution 



[SEE PRECEDING PAGE.] 

of 



Rate, $ per.. 



By 





Flag- 
men. 


"Watch- 
men." 


"Bepairs of Bridges 
and Culverts." 


"Eepairs of 
Cattle Gds." 


"Lacorsrs." 


"Maintaining 
Telegraph. " 


"Construction 
of Sidings.' 






Flagmen at 
Crossings. 


Bridge and 

Track 
Watchmen. 


Repairing 
Bridges 

Culverts. 


Bridge 
Watchmen 
Necessitated 
by Repairs. 


Repairing 
Cattle 
Guards. 


Reloading 
Cars.Getting 

Cars on 
Track, etc. 


Station 
Labor. 


Repairing 
Telegraph. 


New Side 
Tracks. 


B2MABZS. 




































































































































Grand Total, 
5. _ 





books or statements, one being for labor and the other for material. These 
are posted up by the superintendent monthly from the foremen's books, 
and show all track expenditures, and the accounts to which such expen- 
ditures are properly chargeable. At the general office a "track material" 
account is kept with each division superintendent. In the superintendent's 



466 TRACK WORK. 

book the average, cost per mile for repairs of track and roadway is ob- 
tained by summing up the total number of hours worked on each sub- 
division, and taking a full day's work for each man for the entire month. 
Particulars of the distribution of cost for the various items of work are 
given in the instruction books of some railways, and in Mr. McHenry's 
"Rules and Instructions for Location, Construction and Maintenance; 
Northern Pacific Ry." The scheme of distribution is based upon that drawn 
up by the Interstate Commerce Commission and issued to the railways for 
instruction in the preparation of their annual reports to the Commission. 

During construction and maintenance, careful notes should be made 
and records kept and tabulated to show the work done, time -occupied, 
tools and materials used, items of cost, etc. The regular reports should 
show the number of men engaged on each particular item and class of 
work, and the character and amount of materials used. All work of this 
kind, which puts figures on record and enables comparisons to be made, 
and the relations between work, expenditure and results to be compre- 
hended, tends toward the improvement of work and methods. Proper 
financial accounts of all expenditures for maintenance and renewals and 
betterments should also be. made. In the annual estimates, some rail- 
ways allow to each division a certain amount for track work, but the ap- 
propriation for betterments or construction should be entirely separate 
from that for maintenance. 

The lack of complete and uniform records of the cost of various items of 
work is a drawback to the economical administration of the roadway de- 
partment. In 1897, the author pointed out in an address delivered before 
the Roadmasters' Association of America, that if statistics were kept of the 
cost of the various items of work on the track they would furnish most 
valuable information. As a matter of fact, there is great uncertainty both 
as to the cost of work and as to the amount of labor involved in the work. 
The importance of this matter may be recognized when it is understood 
that a roadmaster may have charge of the expenditure, of $60,000 to $100,000 
per year, as already explained. The mechanical and operating departments 
keep itemized records, and the annual reports of railways show the amounts 
of coal, water and oil consumed per mile run by the engine, and the expenses 
for wages and repairs per mile run; also the cost of service per ton-mile, 
per passenger-mile and per train-mile, etc. These are compared from year 
to year, so that it can be seen at once how the traffic and operating con- 
ditions have varied and how the cost of handling the traffic has varied. In 
the same way it should be possible to know the cost of such items as the 
following: (1) Cost of ties in the track (including first cost, transportation, 
handling, distribution, putting in, tamping and cleaning up) ; (2) Average 
cost per mile per year for tie and rail renewals, for ballast and ballasting, 
etc.; (3) The cost of switch work, maintenance of joints, etc.; (4) The aver- 
age life, wear and cost of rails, spikes, bolts, frogs, etc.; (5) Cost of operat- 
ing work trains and gravel trains. In very many cases there is no record 
of track and roadway expenditures beyond a general statement as to the 
quantities of rails, ties and ballast laid, with lump sums of the expenditures. 
More detailed records are kept by some railway officers, but they are not 
systematic or uniform. 

This is a matter which has a most important relation to the economy 



RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 467 

of track work and the general operation of the road. If properly planned 
and carried out for a few years the records may show that expensive ties 
(including cost of preservative processes and tie-plates) may be really more 
economical than cheap ties, by reason of their greater life, thus giving a 
lower cost per year. The records may also show that certain cheap rails 
are really less economical than more expensive but better made rails, by 
reason of their shorter life and poorer wearing qualities. They may also 
show, in the general cost per mile of track, the false economy of laying 
new rails on, old worn out ties, the same rails showing a shorter life and a 
greater total cost for maintenance of track under such conditions than 
when laid on new ties. These are. questions of economics, for it must be 
understood that merely cutting down expenditures is not necessarily an 
economy, and it may be a wiser policy to make, a large outlay at one time 
and thus reduce the cost of maintenance for several years, than to distribute 
the expenditure in small sums, with the result of having a continual 
high charge for maintenance. The work of keeping such records will 
seem somewhat complicated at first, but after a few years it would become 
crystallized into a uniform standard practice, like much of the. statistical 
work of the mechanical and traffic departments, so that extremely valuable 
records could be kept with very little trouble, or cost. If the railway man- 
aging officers more generally realized the importance of the expenditures 
on track, both directly as cash expenditures and indirectly in their influence 
upon traffic and other expenses, they would demand a "more detailed ac- 
counting of these expenditures and their results. 



468 TRACK WORK. 



APPENDIX NO. 1. 
STANDARDS OF TRACK CONSTRUCTION. 

In the earlier days of American railways there was great diversity of 
practice in design of material and methods of work, due in part to the lack 
of means of interchange of knowledge and in part to the general idea that 
each man should impress his individuality upon his work by the use of de- 
vices or methods different from those employed by other men. With the 
advance of technical knowledge, and the means of widely disseminating 
this knowledge, there has been in track work, as in other branches of rail- 
way and engineering work, a decided tendency towards the. adoption of 
standards and uniformity in materials and methods. The first edition of 
this book contained tabular statements showing the standard practice of 
track construction then in force on some, fifty railways in the United States. 
For this second edition, new tables, on a more extended plan, have been 
prepared, showing the standards of construction in 1900. Since the first set 
of tables was prepared, considerable changes have been made, and in cer- 
tain respects there has been a decided increase in the adoption of uniform 
standards to supersede individual ideas and preferences. It will, of course, 
be understood that the standards described, and which 'were officially stated 
to the writer by the chief engineers of the various lines, do not represent 
the actual construction on the entire mileage of these, lines. They repre- 
sent, however, the style of construction which is now the adopted standard 
in each case, and which is therefore gradually replacing other older and 
lighter materials and track construction. 

Taking the rails as the first item for consideration, the extent to which 
the type of section recommended by the rail committee of the American 
Society of Civil Engineers has been adopted is very striking. About 60% 
of the railways included in the list (including the two great Canadian sys- 
tems) have adopted these sections as their standard. The total mileage 
of the railways on the list is about 120,000 miles, of which 75% is repre- 
sented by the lines which have adopted the Am. Soc. C. E. section. This, 
of course, does not mean that rails of this section are actually laid on any 
such mileage as yet, but that it is the adopted standard which is already 
laid to a greater or less extent and is being used for all new work and re- 
newals. Of the other sections in use, many (including those of the Dudley 
type.) are based on the principles underlying the design of the Am. Soc. C. E. 
section, and one of the most important features of all these sections is the 
use of a comparatively broad and shallow head with sharp top corners. The 
Pennsylvania Ry. is almost the only important railway which still adheres 
to the. old-fashioned section having a thick head with corners of large 
radius. Many minor roads use rails of this latter type, but the general 
tendency on such roads also is to purchase new rails of the Am. Soc. C. E. 
type. Most of the main lines have rails of 75 and 80 lbs. per yd., at least. 
Several railways are using rails 60 ft. in length in special cases, but none 
have adopted this as standard, while the Lehigh Valley Ry. and Philadel- 



APPENDIX NO. 1.— TRACK CONSTRUCTION. 469 

phia & Reading Ry. have. 45-ft. rails, though the standard length is 30 ft. 
Rails 33 ft. long are now standard on eight railways on the list. 

In rail fastenings, the showing is distinctly unsatisfactory, there being 
no change from the old spike, whose deficiencies (especially for track car- 
rying heavy traffic) are. well and widely recognized. Spikes of improved 
manufacture, having sharp points or cutting edges, and clean, smooth sur- 
faces for the shank, are being somewhat extensively used, but apart from 
this the rail fastening remains practically as it was 20 or 50 years ago. 
The. usual size of the spike is 9-16-in. square, 5y 2 ins. long under the head, 
and 6 ins. over all. The interlocking bolt and other bolt fastenings appear 
to be very little used now, even on bridge floors. Only one road is experi- 
menting with screw spikes, while two others have abandoned them after 
some trials. What is now needed is a fastening which will hold the rail 
rigidly to the tie, and we might learn much in this respect from European 
practice, where the screw spike is a standard device for track laid with T- 
rails. 

In regard to rail joints, the extent of track laid with suspended and 
broken joints far exceeds that laid with supported joints and square joints. 
Many roads are using various forms of bridge joints, and a few have 
adopted such a form as standard, but in most cases they are regarded main- 
ly as experimental or incidental. Only three roads report the three-tie joint 
as standard, and only eight report the supported joint. As to the practice 
regarding square or broken joints, the. latter is now almost universally 
followed. Only six roads still adhere to the former, while, two use both 
systems on different parts of their lines, and four lay their rails with square 
joints on tangents and broken joints on curves. The length of splice bars 
shows a tendency to decrease, and there are now very few of more than 
36 ins. As between four-bolt and six-bolt joints, the railways are almost 
equally divided, the length of splice bars ranging from 20 to 26 ins. for the 
former and 26 to 42 ins. for the latter. The latest splice bars for the 100-lb. 
rails of the Pennsylvania Ry. are 30 ins. long, instead of 34 ins., as for- 
merly. The Union Pacific Ry. is also proposing to adopt a 29-in. bar with 
six bolts. It is evident that close spacing of the bolts and a shortening of 
the joint as a whole are now much more generally approved than they were 
some years ago. Several railways use a 6-in. spacing for the bolts, and a 
few go as far as 7 or 8 ins., but beyond this the only example is the 9-in. 
outer spacing of the six-bolt joints of the Illinois Central Ry. On the 
other hand, the closest spacing is 3% ins. and 4 ins. As to the. track bolts, 
the diameter is almost universally %-in., or %-in., though the Grand Trunk 
Ry. and the Pennsylvania Ry. have adopted a 1-in. bolt, the latter road 
using this size for 100-lb. rails only. Square nuts are used on about 75% 
of the. lines and hexagonal nuts on the others. Many use the grip-thread 
bolts, with nuts automatically locked, but where ordinary bolts are used, 
spiral washers or nutlocks of various makes are usually applied. 

The returns as to the ties used admit of but little summarizing, but the 
author has been careful to show in most cases the sources from which the 
different kinds of timbers are obtained. Records of this kind are usually 
classified simply by the kinds of timber, but this is not sufficient for ac- 
curate records of the life and economy of ties. Fof instance, it will be seen 
that oak from the south and southwest has a life of 6 to 7 years, while oak 



470 TRACK WORK. 

from the northern part of the country has a life of 10 to 14 years. The most 
general length is 8 ft., but very many roads adopt Sy 2 ft., while on southern 
lines a length of 9 ft. is common. The usual number of ties per 30-ft. rail 
is from 16 to 18, though the Grand Trunk Ry. uses as many as 19 and the 
Pennsylvania Ry. uses only 14 to 16. The cost is very variable, depending 
upon the quality of the timber and the cost of transportation. Thus, oak 
ties range from 25 to 70 cts.; cedar, 22 to 25 cts., and yellow pine, 28 to 70 
cts. The Mexican Interoceanic Ry. (3 ft. 6 ins. gage) is using English steel 
ties at $2.25 each (Mexican money), with an estimated life of 30 years; and 
also ties of Australian jarrah wood at $2 each (Mexican money), with a 
guaranteed life of 15 years. The showing as to the use of ties treated by 
preservative processes is not as good as it should be, in view of the well 
proved advantages and economy of these ties. It seems probable, however, 
that in a few years these advantages, together with the increased prices of 
green or untreated ties, will lead to a much more general adoption of treat- 
ed ties. On the other hand, steel tie-plates continue to be very generally 
used. Only three roads report that these plates are not used. Of the others, 
some use them only on curves, or only on soft ties (sometimes on all ties 
and sometimes on alternate ties), while others use them much more gen- 
erally. One road, the Kansas City, Fort Scott & Memphis Ry., reports that 
their use has been discontinued, except on bad curves. The majority of 
these used are of the flanged type, of different makes. The claw pattern 
is represented only by one make, and the Pennsylvania Ry. still uses some 
flat plates, which are obsolete nearly everywhere else. 

Gravel ballast, including all the various qualities which that term covers, 
is probably used more than any other material, although stone ranks prob- 
ably a close second to first-class gravel. Slag is used on many roads, and 
burnt clay is quite common on western railways. 

Coming now to the consideration of frogs and switches, we find the bolted 
frog in very general favor. In several cases a combination type of frog is 
approved, having the rails bolted or clamped together (using the ordinary 
form of flange filler) and riveted to a base plate. This makes a very sub- 
stantial construction to withstand the effects of heavy traffic. Spring-rail 
frogs are almost universally used in main line turnouts, only four or five 
roads still continuing to discountenance this type. Presumably the ob- 
jections are mainly on the ground of greater safety with rigid frogs, but this 
objection will hardly hold good in the light of the very extensive experience 
with spring-rail frogs under the fastest and heaviest classes of traffic. 

The split switch is now practically universal in main track work, though 
a few roads still adhere to the Wharton switch as a standard. The Canadian 
Pacific Ry. has adopted the MacPherson switch as its standard. The split 
switch is also very commonly used in yard tracks, where, however, the. stub 
switch is still frequently to be met with, even on roads where its use would 
hardly be expected. The most common length of. switch rail for split 
switches is 15 ft, while several roads use 18 ft. Lengths of 19%, 20, 21, 24, 
28 and 30 ft. are also reported, the latter being used by the Cleveland, Cincin- 
nati, Chicago & St. Louis Ry. for switches at the ends of double track sec- 
tions. Lengths of 10 to 15 ft. are usually employed for yard switches. The 
practice as to the use of rigid or automatic switchstands seems about equal- 
ly divided, except that in many cases the switchstands are locked so as to 



APPENDIX NO. 2.— SPEED OF TRAINS. 



471 



be rigid when set for the main track. In other words, a main line train 
can safely trail through a switch left set for the siding, but a train on the 
siding cannot trail through a switch set for the main track. The use of a 
spring in the switch rod, as in the Lorenz switch, is standard on only two 
of the railways in the list. On many important roads the main line turn- 
outs are. protected by distant signals, especially in cases where owing to a 
curve or obstruction the switch target cannot be seen at a distance by the 
engineman of an approaching train. The use of guard rails on curves is 
more common on the sharp curves in yard tracks and sidings than on main 
track, and the practice is very diverse. They are used on all curves sharper 
than 10° or 12° on some lines, and 20° to 25° on others. The width of 
flangeway ranges from 1% ins. plus the amount of widening of gage on the 
curve, to 2y 2 and 3 ins., and even 5 ins. 

Taken as a whole, the standards described in the tables show that the 
principal main lines at least have a sufficiently substantial form of track 
construction for the high-speed passenger trains and the enormously heavy 
freight trains which are now such a feature, of American railway service. 
On many of the less important lines the construction is equally good. It is 
most desirable, however, that the improved character of construction should 
be extended much more rapidly over the entire railway system than is now 
being done. 

Note. — Canadian Pacific Ry. — Later returns from this road revise the 
information given in the tables as follows: Spikes: the Goldie is standard. 
Rail joints, suspended, with Bonzano splices; rails laid with square joints 
on tangents and broken joints on curves; splice bars weigh 76 lbs. per pair 
for 80-lb. rails and 100 lbs. for 100-lb. rails; track bolts, % x 4% ins. for 
80-lb. and 1 x ^ ins. for 100-lb. rails. Nut locks are of the plate type. Ties: 
Average life, 8 years for tamarack and Douglas fir, 6 years for hemlock; 
spruce not used; width not less than 6 ins. Tie-Plates: Various types; 
Glendon, Y^x^xS 1 /^ ins.; adopted for 80-lb. rails. Frogs: The Eureka 
spring-rail frog and MacPherson frog substitute are standard. Switches: 
The MacPherson and the split switch are standard; switch rails, 15 ft. long 
for 80-lb. rails, 18 ft. for 100-lb. rails; rigid and automatic switchstands are 
used. 



APPENDIX NO. 2. 











SPEED OF TRAINS. 










Dis- 








Dis- 








Dis- 






tance 


Time for 




tance 


Time for 




tance 


Time for 


Miles 


run in 


running 


Miles 


run in 


running 


Miles 


run in 


running 


per 


1 sec, 


r-1 mile.—, 


per 


1 sec, 


r-1 mile.—, 


per 


1 sec, 


r-1 mile.-^ 


hour. 


ft. 


mms 


.sees. 


hour. 


ft. 


mms. 


sees. 


hour. 


ft. 


mms. sees. 


1. .. 


. .. 1.47 


60 





36.... 


..52.80 


1 


40 


58.... 


. . 85.07 


1 2 


5... 


. .. 7.33 


12 





38..., 


,..55.73 


1 


35 


60.... 


. . 88.00 


1 


10... 


...14.67 


6 





40 


..58.67 


1 


30 


65..., 


. . 95.33 


55 


12... 


...17.60 


o 





42.... 


..61.60 


1 


26 


70. . . . 


..102.67 


51 


15... 


...22.00 


4 





44 


..64.53 


1 


22 


75 ... . 


..110.00 


48 


18... 


...26.40 


3 


20 


46. . . . 


. .67.47 


1 


18 


80.... 


..117.33 


45 


20... 


...29.33 


3 





48.... 


..70.40 


1 


15 


85.... 


..124.67 


42 


25... 


...36.67 


2 


24 


50. . . . 


. .73.33 


1 


12 


90.... 


..132.00 


40 


30... 


...44.40 


2 





52.... 


..76.27 


1 


9 


95.... 


..139.35 


38 


32... 


. . .4R.93 


1 


53 


54.... 


. .79.20 


1 


i 


100.... 


..146.66 


36 


34... 


...49.87 


1 


46 


56.... 


..82.13 


1 


4 









STANDARDS OF TRACK CONSTRUCTION. 

Tables I., II. and III., referred to in Appendix L, are shown on the 
folded sheets which are bound in between this leaf and the index. 
Table I., Standards for Rails, Fastenings, and Joints; 
Table II., Standards for Ties, Tie-Plates, and Ballast; 
Table III., Standards for Frogs, Switches, etc. 
The Note to Appendix I., giving corrected information as to the stand- 
ards of the Canadian Pacific Ry., should be read in connection with the in- 
formation as to those standards given in the tables. 











TABLE 


I.— STANDARD RAILS, FASTENINGS, AND JOINTS 






















Bail. 


Spike. 










Bail Joints 










RAILWAY. 


Wt, rer 


Length. 


Section. 


Style. 


Size. 


Type. 


Broken. 


Angle Bars. 


Bolts. 


Spae 


ngc 


t Bolts. 


Nuts. 


Nut Locks. 


Patented or Special 












Joints used. 


















Length. 


Wt. per pair. 


No. 


Size. 


















1 Atoll.. Top. 4 S. F 


lbs. 
65 arid 75 
85 


ft, 
30 


A. S. C. E. 


Ordinary 


5',x,i. 


iStofffi 


Broken 
Broken 


22' 
38 


40 & 67 
48 481. 


4 


-t;;.x\ 


ins. 


ins. 
5 


5 


Ills 

5 


5 


Square 


None 1 
None J 


A few experimental 1 


2 Bait. 4 Ohio 


33 


A. S. C. E: 


Chisel pt. 


x,"„ 


Susp. 


Broken 


24 




4 














Square 


None IHarvev Continuous 2 
grip. th. bolt)' 

l-lxeelsior None ; 


:i Boston* Albany 


95 
85 


30 


Dudley 


Goldie 


5'x;:, 


Bridge 


Broken 


20 


43.72 


4. 


4' J xM 




4% 


4-\ 


4\ 




Square 


4 ii„ston 4 Maine 


33 


1. S. 0. E. 


Goldie 


ri,i.5 f ;. 


Sauare 


24 




4 


5'.,x', 




6 








Hexagon 


Excelsior on 
Weber, none 


Weber and Continuous 4 


5 Buff.. Koch. & Pitts 


100 


33 


A. S. C. E. 


Goldie 


5;,x,*„ 


3-tie 


Broken 


42 


100 


6 


iX±X 


7 


7 


7 


7 


7 


Square 




None . 5 


I) Burl. A Mo. River 


75 


30 


A. S. C. E. 


Chisel pt. 


5%x& 


3-tie 


Broken 


38 


63 


6 


4 x2J 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


Hexagon 


Verona' h ° hS> 


None 6 


7 Burl..O.B.A No 


80 


30 


A. S. C. E. 


Chisel pt. 


5'»x;:, 


Susp. 


Broken 


24 


1 45L-liar 1 
158 Cont. 1 


4 


V.i-siM 




6 


6 


6 




Hexagon 


.National and 


Continuous 7 


X C:,il.l.liun l':i -Hi.- 


80 4 100 
80 


30 


V. S C. E. 


Ordinary 








§§ 


76 










5,1 






Square 




llonzanoisstandard 8' 


II C -nf.-il of . N.J ••-. 


30 


.Ill.llev 


i 






Broken 


88 


6 






5 






"5" 


Square 




Continuous 9- 


1,1 Ohes.il Ohioilvisiern Dll.l 


75 




-ip.-.-ial 


Old. A- Cli. Pt. 






Broken 


34 








5 




5 




Square 




Continuous 10 


11 Ones. & Ohio I Western Div.) 


100 


30, QO 


V. S. C. E 


Ordinary 






Broken 
1 Ron cur.' ! 


34 


88 








5 




5 










12 Ohio. & Northwestern ..-•■ 


90 


30 


A. S. C. E. 


Ordinary 




Bridge 


26 


48.8 


4 


3i;x'„ 




6 


6 


6 




Square 




None in gen. use 12 


i;i I'iii-.. Burl. & Quiney 


75 


30 


v. s. a e. 


Ordinary 






Broken 


38 


68.75 


6 




5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


Square 


Verona 


Ncne 13 


11 I'll:.-, lit. Western 


75 


§y 


V. 8. C. !■'. 


Ordinary 








26 


44.94 








6 












None 14 






33 


\. s. i-. E. 


Jhiselpt. 






Broken 


24 


50 




4 , '*'.■> 




5 




5 












85 


30 


V. s. ('. 1 . 






jupp. 


Both 


40 


70 


















Verona 


Continuous iii 


17 Cbic.,'B.Id.*;Paciflc. 




30 


V. S. C. E. 


Chisripl'. 










59 










6 








Ver. tail 


Continuous 17 


18 Oin..N.O.&T.P 


75 


30 


Special 


Ordinary 


x,„ 


Susp. 


Broken 


29.30 


51 


6 


4 xs.< 


4?.{ 


43i 


4ft 


4?.i 


4K| 


sl'iin'iv'" 


Haryey 1 


Weber and Continuous 18 


11) 0.,C.,C.&St.L.... 


80 




V- S. C. E. 


Ordinary 


• >' : v;:. 


Susp. 


Broken . 


30 ■ 


62 


















Na't°aild Ver. 


few experimental 19 


2,1 ii -1.. Lack. & W.-sl. 






v. K.c.i-:. 








Broken 


30 











4\, 










Ainerican 


Continuous 20 
















Square 




52.2 




4-\,x-» 














Verona 




22 Erie I.'.".'.."!!!!!'.'.!! 


90 


30 


vs. c. :■;. 


Ordinary 




Susp. 


Broicen 


30 










4', 






iU 


Square 


Verona 


None "" 22 






33 


1. S. (.'. 11. 


Ordinary 


•V 'v. 1 


Bridge 


Broken 




74! 
















Squai, 


National 


C.iiilinuous is standard '':: 




88 


30 


\. s. C. Ii. 










24 


43.62 


4 
















Verona 


None 24 


•]:, limit Nortiiui-u". '.'.'..: !:;: 




Special 


Ordinary 






Both 
1 B.' 01, cur.' I 




















Hexagon 




25 


20 111. Central 


85 


30 


A. S. C. E. 


Chisel pt. . 


5Jix,"„ 


Kupp. 


40 


78 




4';X : :. 




4'j 


in 


4' s 


9 


Square 


Verona 


None 26 


27 K.C.,Ft.S.&Mcm 


7.5 


30 


A. S. 0. E. 


Ordinary 


o'.x,:. 


Susp. 


Broken 


24 


42.75 


4 


4 x', 








5 




Square 


None 


Web., Cont. 4 Sellers 27 




I75 


30 


' I.ria 1 

ISC'E 1 


Ordinary 


5',.x,'; : 


Susp. 


1 B ' on cur' 1 


20 


37 


if 










111 




Square 


Verona 


Continuous 28 


2!i Lake Shore &Mieh. So 


80 


bo 


i. S. <J. B. 


Goldie 


5'..x', 


Supp. 


Broken 


24 


44.6 




i'.'i'x'.; 






6 






Square 


None 


None 29 


30 Lehigh Valley.... 


71 1. xi 1 


30 


A. S. 0. E. 


Goldie 


5'..x \, 


Susp. 


Broken 


28 


58 4 74 


6 


4»iX'» 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


Hexagon 


National 


None generally 30 


31 Louisv. ^Nashville 

:;2 JLi.-n. C.-n 

:« Mo., Kau.4T.-x 

34 Nasi,.. llol.A-M.L - 

35 N. ST. Central 




A. S. C. E. 


Ordinary 


5 x,i. 


Susp. 


Broken 


29 


59 










i\ 


4'.. 






Verona 


Exper. only 31 
I'orrey 32 






y. s.i.'. 1:. 


Goldie 




Susp. A Iii-..- 
Bridge 


Broken 


25 




























Ordinary 




Broken 


22 


41.6 




3'.,'x;, 




5 


5 








Ver. on old bits 


Continuous 33 






a'sIc' 11. 


Chisel pt. 








28 


51.5 


6 












"5" 


1-,-in.sq. 


Verona 


Sfone 34 


80 


30 


Huill.-) 


Goldie 


5Hx* 


3-tie' 


Broken 


36 


69 • 

'i.4 


6 


4 , „x'i 


5.6 


5.6 


5.6 


5.11 


5.6 




None 


30 N.Y..N.H.&H 


J78 


Special 1 

■i -i.-ii : 


Ordinary 


r.'.x,",, 


Susp. 


Broken 


24 


6 


3»ix' ; , 

4 ! ,x 'i" 




7 


5 


7 




Square 


National 


Weber 36 


37 Norf. 4 Western 


1 100 
85 


30 


A.'s'.'c. E. 


Ordinary 


5J4xA 


Susp. 


Broken 


30 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


Square 


None 


37 


38 Nor. Pacific 


72 


30 


No. Pae. 


Ordinary 


5Kxft 


Susp. 


•24 


36 


4 


3?.,xs; 




6 


6X 


6 




Square 


Ideal nut 


Only experimental 38 


3B Ohio Central 

in Pennsylvania. 

41 Eenn. Lines (P., C. C. & St. L. I 

42 " " IP.,Ft.W. &C.I 


70 

711. 85. 11)1 


30 
30 

30 


V S C E. 


Ordinary 


5MxA 




Broken 


24 


33 










8 




..„.. 


Hexagon 


Excelsior 




"p.'i;. ];. 
A. s. c. ].',. 


Ordinary 


5'i: 


sus P : 


Broken 


30,34 
33 


(Note) 
62 


6 


(Not'ej 


% 


5 
5 




5 
5 




Hexagon 


Nat. and Ver. 
Verona 


Exper. only 40 
Trial only 41 
iarsehall. Fisher & 42 
Heath 


85 


30 


v.s.f.ll. 1 
p. li.li. 1 


Chisel pt. 


5' 3 x,«i 


Susp. 


Broken 


34 


60 


6 


\Mi 


J6 


5 


3S 


5 


6 


Ili-xagon 


Verona { 


43 Phila ^Reading. 

lo Plant! ■•..'. '....'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 
40 aeaboard Air Line 


180 
190 
100 


30 & 
45 


A. S. 1 '. K 

\. s.i.'. i-:. 


Chisel pt. 
Ordinary 


im 


Susp 


Broken 
Broken 


30 
32 


{11} 

84 


6 
6 


±w 




i 


* 


4 


? 


Square 

Hexagon 


Ver. and Nat. 


None 43 
sone 44 










Broken 


26 


45 H 








4 


4 


4 


4 






\ ad- .pled 45 


08,80 


30 


Special 




Bridge 


Broken 


22 


50 4 59 


4 


4 xl, 










Square 


National 


Conliiiuous istandard) 40 

and Weber 
A, m in nous and Weber 47 


-IS Su'i'l Pae'lAll .Sv^teni) '".'.'.'.' 

Iii ■■ ■' ,i-a,.s -l..„,i 

50 Union Pacific. 


80 
75 


30 


a. s.c. e. {]j;;)|»:;^ 

Special Ordinary 
A. S. C. E. | Ordinary 




Susp' 


Broken 

Broken 


26 
24 


5 o 


4 


4',x', 
4 x'i 




L 


5H 




Snuare 


None 






Broken 






















Web.! Cont,. Bonz. 40 


80 90 


30 


O.'jXft 


Susp. 


Sauare j 


Old 2ii to 41 


55K&6D 


4 












4 1 j Hexngoii 


Various 


None 50 


51 W sh 

52 Mo* Central 

53 Hex. Internal i.„,-,i ... . 

at M.-.x. lnter.ii-.-ani.- 


50 


J 1 


A. S. C. E. 

V. '." 1 
Special 


English 


Iii it 


IS 

Broken 


24 
24 


47.5 


4 
4 


! I 


... 


h " 






•:-::|&n 


National 


S ^2 

Nmiio 5! 
None 54 













Tios 












Tie-Plates 




Bulla? (. 


RAILWAY 


Wood and Where Obtained 


Avit.ii:,' 
Life 


Widtli 


Size 
Thick- 


L o,,tn 


Cost 


30-it. I Knil 


Preservative 


No. of 
Tivatoil 
. He? 
in Use 


Make 


Sizo Where Used 


■. : 1 1 . 1 I ■ 


Depth 

1 n.lor 
Ties 










ins 


ins 


ft. 


cts 
















ins 




1 Atoll.. Top. & S. Fe 


i Oak (Mo.), Treat, pine (N.M.)I 




8 





8 




18 


Wellhous.: 


3.939,849 


Wolhaupter 


7Hx4« 


Curves o"ver 3° 


SI,, no. . : ni\,.|, slag. 1 


L( 




2 Balt&Ohio.. 


! M" : 'Vii '''w'-'i^'-hi'si' 'wooiV I 




8 


7 


8« 




15 






Sorvis, Goldio 




Joint (ios 


St ono 


12 




. .„, 


| CedarlOan.), chest. (B. & iM.), i 
1 yol. pinolGa.) ( 














\'ono 




I'.orvis.C. A. C. and 
tint, ii, .,- law 

1 (Urlllinll nil till,. 1 


5 8 ( 

ii xlO sJ 

5x8 


AU ties on eurv. 1 

Joints 1 

Oedartios 


Gravel 


2- 


, 


4 Boston & Jl;i inc. 




.; 




8 


Co.lar. 30 
Chi St., 45 


10 


None 


Nono 


Gravel 


4 


5 Buffalo. E. & P. 


Oak(W. Va. ami Pa.) 


0to8 


7 


7 


OH 


60 


16 


None 


Nono 


Glendon 


5x8 


i Joints andall i 




|. 


5 




Pine, oak. cedar. 
I W.. luirranrl nost.unk tTi-nn.) 
i W. larlMinn. and Uich 




8 


8 


8 

8 


51) | 


18 


Chi. of Zinc 


Eow 


OoldioandCA.C. 


5x7J x,l 


Ourvosow i 1 


,,',., ,'i. I., ,,; 


s 
1( 

12 






1 


» Can.Pac 


Noto 


at 


22 


15 to 18 


None 


None 


Various 




fNotc) 


Gravel, olndei 


Central New Jersey 


| and^jnVplUvi^lrv!': 


Note 





7 


O..S 
Y.P..8K 


62 


16 


Creosotino; 


88,056 m.t. 

Il.liSlsid. 


Goldio (Note) 


Int. 0x7 x ! 

.11. 7x7 Ox'., 


Mil,,. 


Stone, slog 


s 


ii 


Hi c * Ohio IE. Jiiv ) 




8 


7 


7 


8'= 




16 






Sorvis 




















A 








None 
























8 




HI 






5x8* 
































Bridges and eur\ 
Soil ties only 














8 to 11 








17 








iw7\ 








ir, Ohio., lnd.4 Louisville 


I IS,,. 1,1,1. :,n,] N... lu. i 




S 


8 


8 


5(1 


16 


Nono 


Nono 


Wolhaupter 


4',XS; 2', IbS. 


(Nolo) 


. I .,' ,: 




" 


16 Ohio.,Mil. &St.Paul 




5to6) 


8 


ii 






17 


None 


Nono 


Q. & W. 


r.xsv,:, 


All soft ties 




10tol2 




17 Chic. Rock Island &Pae..-- 






8 


[: 


8 


53 ( 


17 


Formerly burnet- 


1.824.977 ii: 


Wollinnptor mnl 


4x8 


1 1 idnr i lea 


tmV andbt e clay d 


i 


17 


18 (Jin.. NowO. itT.-x. Pao.... 


Oak (mln. tlisls. nlonu roaili 


7 


0tol2 


7 


8X 


30 


14 






Serv., Gold.. Oliv, r 


7 0X.-.XV,, 


Brg.only; all ties 


Sb sltugr, i mii i 


12 


IS 


Hi Clev..Cln.,Ohie.&StL... 




8 to 10 


8 


7 


8 


40 to 50 


18 (33 ft.) 


None 


Nono 


1 Goldio 
1 C. A. C. 


6x7i ' 


Curves, switch., i 
bridges.yards 1 


Gravol and atono 


12 


■ :, 


20 Dol.,1 aclc. a Western. . 




0...8 


! ° 


7 


8,'J 


55 


10 to 17 


None 


Nono 


Wolhaupter 


1 vsx ■, ■ :: lbs, 


Curves, all ties 


Stone, Bfr. ,'M-ivi-i i 


4 to 10 




2] Denver* RloGrnndc. .... 




9 


7 ton 


i'..l,,7'. 

7 

7 


8 


40 


19 








6x8jts.; i'.xsini. 


(Noto) 


Btono lunl ; v;ix< i 




-' 


22 Eric \ 


' V '""ivii'',','i],Vu;!r^'ia''" N ' Y '' 


! 8 




8HS 


00 to 70 


16 


None 


Nono 


Sorvis 


r,x9x,:. : 3.3 lbs. 


(Note) 


■j-iii. Btone, ■ rravi -i 


12 










8 




8 






None 


Nono 


Qervis ami Glendon 
Goldio 
Gt. Nor. 


4' xX 
8x6xH 

5J t8xft; 3" lbs. 


Cnn and iwitoh 

All ties 
Curves, switch, i 

and ej - ties 1 


Gravel 

Gravel and clndor i 

Gravel mainly 


IS 


.,., 




' i Oak n m, P ceda C ??9), i ' 


Not. 




1 40 anil 2H 1 


18 to 19 
16 


1 


25 Groat Northern 






7 


7 

6 


8 


1 48 and 23 1 


i,ii.,"| 


20 Ml Contra] 




5 to 9 


| 


9 ' 




18 


Nono 


Nono 


Servis 


5.xS 


Gravel and Btone 


10 


20 


27 Kan. Cy., FtS. & Mom ... 










8 


27 
28 I 


18 


None 


Nono 


Goldio. Servis 


Discontinued ex. 


Btono and plag 


12 


27 


2K Knn. Cy. Southern 


) f ■ ';"|"'. l '|''"'| 1 |'" | 1 ,',' '■'''■ 




8 




§ 


18 


Nono 


Nono 


Goldio 




Curves only 


!,■,. ^ ,,, l 111 ' 




28 










7 






15 


Nono 






5x8x ! i 


Sofl ties and i «. 








30 Lehigh JKlfcy.. 


:"" ' '.' ' | "! , ;: 1 .,';.' I 







7 


8and8* 


50 to 70 


16 


None- 




Goldio, Glendon 


1 Int.5x9«xft i 


Switch loads and 
sh, curves 




8 


311 


:;i I. ivfllofc Nashville.. ... 






9 


7 


8% 


25 to 45 


10 to 18 (33 ft.) 


Nono 


Nono 


Goldio 


* 


(Noto) 




12 


31 


32 Mio/igan Central.. 


C i i ' 'i iwnl.oak. 


8 


8 


tl 


8 


50 


16 


None 


None 


Goldie, Servis. 1 

\\..|. i.li'ii.. l).H W. 1 
' Var - l.iil .'illy 

:P None 




All oedar ties 




12 


32 


33 Mo., Kan.&Tex. 




0.. 8 


8 


8 


8 


40 


17 to IS 


Nono 


Nono 






Stone. M. elay 


y 


33 


::i Sash., Chat. & St. Louis . 


. s ii m' : ''," ! ' i ; . ; ' ■ ' v -, . . 


Ot.08 


8 


7 


XL 


30 


16 


Nono 


Nono 






Stone, gravel 


12 


3 1 


3S N.Y.O otral 


,'i. '' ,. 1 '. V ..,,!, 


I 


; ' 





s 


50to60 


10 and 13 


Creosoting 


10,000 


Glendon, v7oll pter 


6x6 and i 




Gravel, 2 la ifcono 


12 


35 




in! il and ball (along/line). 


8 


6 




40 




Nono 


Nono 


Sorvis 




BrgS. anil BW. Ids. 






























5xS; L'.n II 

OxDond'Sxll 








Vl l-.-nn ,v K'iinin , 


Oak" ii, hi. 1 w! Va.) 

i W.. burr & chest ouk (0., W. 


8 to 10 


in in: 7 




s 

8« 


25 to 50 

57 to 70 


14fc.HI, 
14 anil 10 


BSSS 


Somo exper. 


^ftftt^ 


I 


.1- . ,.l. t. .!..■, - -irj.J. -j 
« .i;i\.-l. :"l;i-. •.Imn' 

>t..ll«-.ma .. I., mli | 


8 to 12 


3S 

111 


41 P ° nna - ( ^O 8 .0. & 8feL>... 


. 8 


7 


s . 


50 to 55 


16 


Trials only 


75,000 


Sorvis, Goldie 




Curves 


Stone, :/i ' 


10 


II 






Note 








50 


14 T.; HlC. 






Gold., Serv., Wol. 




























Nono 




Goldio claw 






Btono, In 
Blag 






1 1 Pitts., Bess, < L. E 


W. oak i\\ . Va. and local). 


lit, ill 


8 


7 




flOlnllo 


14 




Im.'InK . ,Tt..7xN 






•14 


i.. Plan! 


1 I-.I...-I. oyoivs's. 

Oak I pine (along lino). 

Oak, pine, 03 pre 




! " 


7 


Ii 


P., 23; 0., 25 


10 


Nono 


Bono 


Nono 






Gravel and ■ ■ • 





1., 






9 
9 












Fow only 








Gravel, Btone, earth 

St , las 




Hi 
47 




Aver. 7 


7 


8X 


,, -).:.■ 11 'ho'Ich 


16 


Nono 


ind othei i 


r, ins. wide 


, 'in ... main! 


4to8 




18 So, Pao, i Ul. System)....- 


1 Cypress ILa.) 


8 


10 


7 







10 


Ohl.ofZine 




Serv., Wol., Glen. 

and i.i. A w 
er..Wol..Glen..Q.\i 


(Note) 


All ties 


'.. ■ !. itono 


N 


48 


19 Bo Pao. (Pao. System) 


Rv, I. Bp„ p, [Oal„ iiro.. Tex.) 

, : In. 








8 


20 to 40 


16 


Ohl. ofZlnoOJ.) 


1.091,092 




































l lit rl,'i\. .1 -i , 

I! :„■.;;. ;;■ 1 
















K 




11 


• None 


None 


Wol., Son-is 


(Note) 


(Note) 


7 to 9 










1 ii! .1. i. In,. 

\.,i ious (Hotel 


8 




8 

ii 


s 
8 


40 

51 JIox. 1 

, , ft ■ | 


17 
, 10 


None 


Few thous, 


-I '. 1 Illl'l Wol. 

Wol.. &c. 


5x9 


Hi, all tie 


10 




52 Mi ' antral 






1 Nativ lloWOil piuo. 

J Oak. 


4 

61 


8 


7 


8 


17. 20 cur 


Burnetizing 


437,000 


Sorvis and (.1, i,,l,,,, 


(Note) 




j 


1(1 








Id 


Co.lar. 

p Itex.) 

ngtish). 
Jarrah 1 Australia). 


1 1 2 

15 

51 


8 


6 


ex 


72 

45 [ 
$2.25 f 
2.00 
85 


16 


None 


Nono 


None 






i, 


1 


.-,! 


























l J 







TAIil.i: HI 



SWITCHES. ETC. 



HI. 1J. I.". 
Hipp, II,;. 

II) 

9. 11.15 



I I si, IV 

II 

7 

:. 7.M. III 

7 ,,■■„! 

7.H 

8, 7. n 



s,„„r- 
lli-i.l 

s, - 

s.;., ,,, : 

li. .li! 



'I I", . I'. - .'. L. L 



Blv. and bolt, 



,;: ? 

:; V 

10 8.8.10 

H. 10. r_' ii.7;.H, 10 

11* » 

!i 7.0 

I' . 8,9 

]'>-irii,;: 7 rit-'id 



Bpring u>. ij. ir, 
Both in 

Both 10, 12, L5 

Sprint; I 11 



Rigid 



Ij .11 
s!'ii' 



ri,.', ,,,,,■] split 

m 

Split 

Bplil 

iplit 
iplit 

.ml, and Split 
Split. 
Split. 
Split. 
Split 



Sp ,\ \ 



Switches, 
ard Length< 



Sliarprst 
MKiiu I, ark. 



iplit 

! 

Iplil 

iplit. 

Split 

Split 

Split 

Split 

Split 

Split 

" & Wharton 

Sp.i Wharton 

Split 

Split 

\Vli:n-t in. 

Sp it. yds. 



1 18, ni. 



Auto. ,,r risid 

Bpring in rod. 



Hit-id 

i;it-id 

vui"! •<; s! 



Villi,, s 

i ;,'■■■ t 

lllv,.l 



Ant... .V rigid 



Hit id 
Kitnl 
i;,. ,d 



Foot guards 
tor frogs 

and SW [tones. 



Wood mainly 
Oak 

Wooa 



W 1 

Woodbloclcs 

Wood 

Wood blocks 
Casl iron 

Cast llll.-i- 



Vood 



Wood 

Wood 

. Stool lor in, r s 



Wood and iron 



Wood and metal 
No std. 



(Note) 

and over 

None used 



I'l' and , 



oil:,,,,! „i 



Canadian Paeiflc Ry. Standards: For later returns see Note. p. 471. 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Accidents 273, 275 

Bridge floor 151, 157 

Reports on 459 

Track jack 238 

Washouts, etc 439 

Accounts, track 4(55 

Alinement 377 

Bridges 28o 

Changes 410 

Crossings 121 

Angle bars. (See Rail Joints.) 

Ashpits, engine 186 

Ashes, for wet roadbed 28 

Handling 186 

Ballast 11, 19, 22, 311, 470 

Cleaning 30j 

Distributing 305, 307, 308 

Effect on rolling stock 22, 26 

Handling 305 

Oiling 22, 28 

Plowing off cars 305 

Protection against wind 27, 311 

Quantities per mile 11, 12 

Records 447 

Renewing 23 

To check trespassing 348 

Ballast cars 305, 306, 308, 416 

Ballast crusher 23 

Ballast spreader 222, 307, 30S, 413 

Ballast stakes 2S5 

Ballasting 286, 301, 308, 416 

By freight trains 307 

Banks 16 

Filling 410, 411 

Round corners 310 

Sawdust 312, 412 

Settlement 21 

Block system 243 

Boilers, quality of water 177 

Bolts, Bush 83 

Joint 89, 97, 99, 343, 350, 469 

Rail fastenings S3 

Bolts and nuts, joint 98 

Bolting. (See Rail Joints.) 

Bonds, rail, electric 258 

Bridges, alinement 285 

Chicago track elevation 151 

Creosoted timber 153. 40i 

Curve elevation on 372 

Draw, rail joints 96 

Electric railway 157 

Erection 401 

Floors. (See Bridge Floors.) 

Guard rails 154, 157 

Inspection '. .228, 400 

Longitudinals on 150 

Maintenance 400 

Memphis, rail joints 90 

Numbering 169 

Painting 401 

Poughkeepsie, rail joint 96 

Reconstruction 442 

Records 401, 447 

Refuges on 154, 319 

Rerailing devices 155 

Roadbed on 18 

Signs 169, 171 

Substructure 403 

Temporary 440 

Tracklaying on 289 

Victoria. G. T. Rv 150 

Washington. Pa. Ry 150 



Page. 
Bridges: 

W asnouts 440 

Watchmen 278 

Bridge Floors 37, 150 

Bai.asted 151, 153, 373 

Coxrosion , 153 

Elevated railways 157 

Foreign railways 152 

Guard rails 154 

Inspection 404 

Longitudinals on 150, 158 

N. Y., N. H. & H. Ry 156 

Old rails 152 

Solid 151, 153, 373 

Without ties 158 

Bridge & Building Dept., Organiz.283, 400 

Bridge repairs, protection 405 

Bridge tell-tales 189 

Buildmgs 197 

Bumping posts 193 

Burnouts 439 

Bushes, fence 141, 145, 311 

Wind and snow breaks 27, 311 

Capstan, steam 431 

Carpenters 283 

Cars, ballast 305, 306, 308, 416 

Boarding 292 

Derrick and ditching.. .222, 314, 430, 435 

Dump 308, 412 

Dump vs. flat 417 

Dynagraph 62, 95, 380 

Electric 120, 158 

Size of wheels 255 

Electric light 433 

Flanging 222, 422, 429 

Hand 196, 240, 320 

Pile driver 222, 441 

Rail sawing 77 

Rails on 242, 291, 335 

Spike peddling 292 

Spreader 222, 307, 308, 413 

Tie-Tram 299 

Track indicator 62, 95, 380 

Turning . . . 189 

Weed cutting 346 

Wheel loads 62, 85, 318 

Weighing 189, 213 

Weight 85, 318 

Wrecking 429, 435 

Yard movements ...... 208 

Car replacers 155, 433 

Cattleguards 145 

Centers, track 285, 323 

Chairs for European rails 78 

Charts, record 445 

Check plates 75, 85 

Coaling stations 185, 215 

Concrete, asphalt 204 

Fence posts 140 

Paving 203, 204, 255 

Street railway foundation 253, 256 

Track foundation 19, 253, 255 

Construction trains. (See Work Trains.) 

Conveyors, ash 1S7 

Counterbalance for steep grades 259 

Cranes, hydraulic, freight 216 

Mail 191 

Wrecking 429 

Yard 208 

Creeping, rails 75, 312 

Switches, Bryant device 107 

Track on swamps 312 



II. 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Creosote, for ties 44 

Crossings, grade 120, 159, 395 

Avoidance of 159, 163, 164 

Electric and steam railways. .. .164, 254 

Eliminating 159, 163, 254 

Expenses >o£ 159 

Gates and signals 161, 166 

Gatemen's cabins 202 

Interlocking 166, 247 

Road ". .160, 343 

Signs and signals 161, 166, 170 

Track 119, 163, 39o 

Watchmen 161, 202, 278 

Crossovers 127, 394 

At stations 208 

Culverts 157, 308, 414 

Ballasted floor 154 

Bridges for 152 

Reports on 457 

Steel 309 

Curves 355 

Bridges 372 

Compound 363, 372 

Degree of 355, 357 

Divergence 360 

Elevation 170, 255, 358, 359 

Gage on 254, 359, 386, 370 

Grade compensation 353,414 

Grade crossings 395 

Guard rails.. .259, 359, 380, 373, 470, 471 

Lining 325 

Maintenance 355 

Middle ords 325, 340, 341, 

357, 358, 371 

Offsets 357, 358 

Parabolic 362 

Rail braces on 84, 360, 361 

Rail wear <on 77, 361 

Relation to traffic 355, 358 

Roadbed on 13, 16 

Setting out 357 

Sharp 215, 358, 370, 414 

Shifting rails on 340 

Short rails 287, 339 

Signs 170 

Street railway 254, 255 

Superelevation : 255, 368 

Temporary track 434 

Tracklaying 298, 303, 304 

Transition .232, 361 

Street railway 259 

Vertical 286, 254 

Cuts 11 

Deepening 410 

Wet 309, 414 

Derails 110, 163, 166 

Electric railway 163 

Derrick cars 222, 314, 430, 435 

Detector bars _ 110, 248, 250 

Ditches 10, 309, 318 

Irrigation, track over 153 

Roadbed 9, 308, 313 

Road crossing 161 

Ditching 313, 318 

Ditching car 222, 314, 430, 435 

Double tracking 413 

Drains, box 10 

Cross, box 313 

Pipe 10, 161 

Tile ....309, 312 

Drainage 414 

Bridges 18 

Land 308 

Roadbed 10 

Tile 309, 312, 321 

Tunnels 16 

Wet ground 310 

Drainage opening. (See also Culverts.) 308 
Dynagraph track records 62, 95, 380 



Page. 

Economics 2, 19, 38, 41, 317 

Electric Railways. (See also Street Rys.) 

Bridge floors 157 

Crossings 164 

Elevated. (See also Elevated Rys.). 158 

Rail punch 240 

Electrolysis 258 

Elevated railways 49, 106, 157 

Bumpers 195 

Chicago, curves 359, 373 

Sand track 220 

Spike puller 228 

Switches 106 

Track 157 

Curves 359, 372, 373 

Floor system 157 

Hoboken 158 

Kansas City 158 

Loop terminals 219 

New York, curves 359, 372, 373 

Renewing rails 338 

Tie plates 49 

Track tools 228 

Equilibristat, track indicator 381 

Expansion. (See Rails.) 

Expenses, maint. of way 5, 6, 38, 267 

Operating 5 

Ex era gang 222, 266, 279, 456 

Report of 454, 456 

Fences 135, 345, 377 

Apron 150 

Boiler tubes 351 

Cattleguard 150 

Hedge 141, 145 

Records and reports 447, 458 

Snow 142, 421 

Stays for 140 

Wall 141 

Whitewashing by machine 198 

Wing 150 

Wire 136 

Wooden 135 

Fence posts 135, 140, 231 

Fencing 344 

Reports 453 

Filling. (See Trestles.) 

Sags 305 

Flags 242. 320 

Flangers 222, 422, 429 

Flangeway. (See Guard Rails.) 

Floors, shop 205 

Footguards 123 

Foremen, construction train 282, 417 

Reports 460 

Section 273, 461 

Four-track work 307 

Freight, cranes, etc 208, 216 

Frog 110, 384 

Coughlin 118 

Crossing 119, 165, 259, 395 

Crotch 112 

Curving 389 

Elliott, Eureka 116 

Guard rails 85, 121, 399 

Angle iron 122 

111. C. Ry. standard 115 

Jordan 177 

iMacPherson 118, 470 

Modern standards 470 

Movable point 117 

Number and angle 112 

Price 118 

Repairs 121 

Spring-rail 114 

Street railway .' 259 

Substitutes 117 

Swing rail, Pa. Ry 116 

Vaughan 116 



INDEX. 



III. 



Page. 
Frogs: 

Vvneels and Ill, 116, 117, 123 

Wrecking 43 L 

Yard 117, 212 

Gage, change of 351 

Curves 254, 358, 351), 366, 370 

Narrow and standard 351 

Track 231, 325, 383 

Wheel wear 124 

Gaging track 325 

Gantletted tracks 405 

Gardening 348 

Gates, crossings 162, 166 

Fence 137, 141 

Grades, checking by survey 353 

Curve compensation 353, 414 

Heavy 259, 352, 414 

Counterbalance system 259 

Docks and terminals 215 

Improving 410,414 

Momentum or virtual 353 

Relation to traffic 352 

Street railway 254, 255, 259 

Grade intersections. (See Curves, Ver- 
tical.) 

Grade stakes 285 

Grass line 322, 346 

Guard rails. (See Bridges, Frogs and 
Switches.) 

Hand cars 240 

Operating 320 

Turnouts for 196 

Heaving 344 

Hedges, fence... 141, 143 

Hoist, pneumatic for rails 335 

Wrecking 43i 

Ice, blowing up 440 

Improvements, economy of permanent 

2, 409, 415 

Inclines 215, 259 

Instruction books 462, 463 

Insulation, bridge floors 151 

Rail joints 95 

Interlocking... 110, 129, 243, 247, 248, 250 

Crossings. 163, 164, 166, 170 

Pennsylvania Lines 250 

Reports on 459 

Yards 213 

Jacks. (See Tools.) 

Junctions, interlocking 247 

Labor 1, 200, 265, 270, 273, 278, 2S0 

Apprentice gang 281 

Brown's discipline 282 

Carpenters 283 

Changing gage 352 

Distribution 317,461 

Extra gang '.222, 266, 279, 456 

Flagmen 161 

Forenei, 273, 282, 417, 460 

Moving track 332 

Renewing rails 337,338 

Reports on 448 

Section men 275,278 

Track 1, 278 

Tracklaying . . . .289, 293, 297, 303, 304 

Yardmasters . ; 283 

Ladder tracks. (See Yards.) 

Lamps 131,133,243 

Landslides and slips 309, 414 

Lights, track work 243, 319 

Wrecking 432,439 

Yards 213 

Lining track 323 

Locks, bolt, for switch 248 

Locking. (See Interlocking.) 

Locomotives, dead, damage by 319 

Pumping water 181 

■Snow plows on 423 

Terminal, provisions for 208 



Page. 
Locomotives: 

Track, wear by 317 

Water for 177 

Weight and wheel loads 62, 85, 318 

Woi k train 416 

Longitudinals 17, 18, 10, 37 

Bridge floors 150 

Concrete 19, 253 

Elevated railways 158 

Steel 21 

Lowering track 327 

.Mail cranes 101 

Maintenance, bridges 319 

Cost 6, 7, 317, 465 

Curves 355 

Expenses 5, 6, 38, 267, 377 

Force for 278 

Poor material for 318 

Protection of men 320 

Rails and 317 

Relation to traffic and trains 3 

Season's work 321 

Section work 279 

Street railway 260 

Structures 6 

Track work 317 

Tunnels 319 

Yards 213 

Maintenance of way department . .1,261 
Maps and charts. (See Charts.; 

Material, inventory 452 

Old 345, 347, 349,. 404 

Mile posts 167, 172 

Monuments, property 173 

><uts and nut locks ......... .99, 100, 469 

Oil, for ballast. (See Ballast.) 
Organization, bridge department .283, 400 

Street railway 260 

Track department 1,261, 266 

Work train 283,417 

Wrecking 431,434 

Paints, preservative 48 

Painting, bridge 405 

Buildings 197 

Compressed air 198, 349 

Ironwork 197 

Paving, platforms 203 

Roundhouses and shops 204 

Street railway track 253 

Yard roadways 210 

Pensions 281 

Piers, tracks on 215 

Piles, treatment 45, 48 

Creosoted 153 

Pile driver car 222, 441 

Piling 310 

Pipe, signal connections 249, 251 

Platforms. (See -Station Platforms.) 

Plows, ballast 305, 417 

Snow 421 

Poles, electric railway 259 

Iron and wood 260, 406 

Telegraph 406, 40S 

Policing 347, 377 

Premiums, section houses 200 

Track inspection 2S1, 374, 3S0 

Profile records 448 

Property, boundary signs 1 73 

Pumping, cost 181 

Pumping stations ....181, 270 

Rails, Am. Soc. C. E. investigat.. .58, 468 

Bending 234, 325, 339, 340 

Broken 319, 458 

Car for carrying 242, 291 

Chemical composition 67 

Compound 79 

Continuous 66 

Continuous supports 21 

Creeping 75, 312 



IV. 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Rails: 

Curves .287, 303, 339, 340, 361 

•Cutting 77, 229, 240, 341 

Deflection on ties 5, 36 

Design .' 58, 468 

Dimensions 64 

Double head 78 

Drilling and punching 239 

Expansion 73 

Street railway 258 

Flattop 61 

Girder 235, 240, 257 

Grooved 256, 257 

Guard 85, 105, 106, 121, 

122, 159, 399 

Bridge 154 

Handling 230,334 

Harvey steel 68 

Heavy .... 62, 63, 212, 383 

History 58 

Light for guard rails 122 

Long 65, 259, 335, 468 

Manning 60, 77 

Manufacture 60, 66, 76 

Modern 468 

Nickel steel 69 

Old 349 

Relaying 77, 339 

'Pneumatic hoist for 335 

Records 447, 458 

Record plans 271 

Relation to track 383 

Relaying 77, 339 

Renewals 65, 76, 77, 322, 335 

Reports 457, 458 

Rerolling -.76, 349 

Section - 58,468 

Shifting on curves 340 

Short for curves 287, 303, 339, 361 

.Spare ..|. 196 

Specifications 68, 69 

Street railway 235, 240, 253, 256, 257 

Stresses in 62, 72 

Track maintenance 317 

Track signs for 174 

Traffic and 62 

Transporting . 335 

Unloading 334 

Vietor 77 

Wear 73, 77, 254 

On concrete base 254 

On curves 361 

Wheels and 60, 62 

Rail benders. (See Tools.) 

Rail braces 84, 101, 106, 360, 361 

Street track 256 

Rail cars 242, 291 

Rail fastenings. (See also Spikes).. 49, 

79, 468, 469 

Foreign 83 

Insulated 151 

Invention 58 

Spikes 79, 469 

Screw 82 

Rail joints T...82, 469 

American 94 

Atlas 94, 95 

Auxiliary rail 94 

Base support *. . 91 

Bolt spacing 97,469 

Bolting 343 

Bonzano : 90,469 

Bridge 91 

Broken and even 97, 339 

Cast weld '. . .255, 258 

Changing, even to broken 339 

Chicago & Northwestern Ry 93, 101 

Chicago. Burl. & Quincy Ry 101 

Churchill 90, 92 

Continuous 66, 92 



Page. 
Rail joints: 

Delano 94 

Design 85 

Dimensions 98 

Drawbridge 96 

Electric, railway 258 

Electric weld 256,258 

'Expansion 73, 96 

Expansion spacing 74, 86 

Fisher 92, 94 

Heath or Common-Sense 93 

Hinge 94 

Hydraulic press for 235 

Insulated 95 

Lake Shore & Mich. So. Ry 97 

Long's truss 92 

Louisville & Nashville Ry 101 

Low 319 

Malleable iron 94 

Miter 87 

Modern standard 469 

New York Central Ry 101 

Riveted, pneumatic 259 

Scarf 87 

Spike slots 101, 343 

Splice bar 58, 87 

Breakage 90, 94, 95 

Design 88, 469 

Dudley 89 

Length 97 

Modern 469 

Punched and drilled 89 

Straightening 235 

Tapped 99 

Wear of 89 

Z-shape 89 

Step 95, 121 

Steel railway 258 

Supported and suspended 91 

Switch heels 106 

Tamping 331 

Tap bolts ^9 

Tests of 90 

Thomson 90 

Three-tie 91 

Memphis bridge 89 

Torrey 94 

Truss 92 

Various devices 94 

Weber 93, 95 

Welded 255, 258 

Rail saw 77, 341 

Railings 142 

Railway mileage and statistics 1, 8 

Railways. American. 

Alleg. Vail., ties 31, 32 

Ark. Mid., cattleguard 148 

A., T. & S. Fe., ballast 27 

Bridge insoection 400, 447 

Organization 264, 266 

Roadbed 15, 27 

Standpipes 179 

Ties and tie preserv 33, 45 

Track and bridge records 447 

Tracklaying 294 

Track signs 168,. 

169, 170, 172, 174, 175 

Bait. & O. fence 13ft 

Organizaion 26ft 

Renewing rails 336 

Roadbed 12, 27 

Track signs. . . .170, 172, 173, 175, 176 

Track tanks 182 

Tunnel 16 

Water stations 179, 182 

Bost. & Alb., mile posts 172 

Organization 266 

Rail joint 97 

Renew, rails 337 

Switch guard rails 106 



INDEX. 



V. 



Page. 
Railways: 

Bost. & Me., organization 2G6 

Snow fence 143, 144 

Track gage 233 

Track signs 172 

Buff., Roch. & Pitts., tools 232, 234 

Track signs 170 

Burl. & Mo. Riv., tracklaying 29S 

Wrecking 435 

Can. Pacific, change of gage 352 

Fencing 137, 143 

Grade revision 353 

Section houses 200 

Snowsheds 420 

Ties 35 

Track signs 170 

Track standards 118, 471 

Tracklaying 289, 302 

Trestles 154, 411, 412, 413 

Cen. New Jersey, team tracks 210 

Ties 32 

Central London, track 17 

Ches. & Ohio, ballast 24 

Bridge floor 152 

Signal and tel. tower 201 

Chic. & Alton, water stations 179 

Chic. & East. 111., ballast 25 

Cost of pumping 181 

Roadbed 14 

Tie preserving 40 

Tracklaying 304 

Chic. & N. W., bridge floors 152 

Chart 445 

Organization 266 

Rail joint 92, 94, 101 

Switch work 399 

Tools 224 

Track elevation 413 

Water station 179 

Chic, Burl. & Q., Improvements 417 

Organization 266 

Rail joint 101 

■Signs 170, 176 

Wheel wear gage 124 

Yard fross 212 

Chic. Gt. West., transfer table 189 

Chic, L. S. & E., track scales 213 

Chic, Mil. & St. P., organization... 266 

Pile driver 441 

Signal posts ! 249 

Tra^k elevation 414 

Track tanks 182 

Wheel wear gage 124 

Chic, R. I. & P., standpipes 179 

Tracklaying 301 

Chic, St. P.. M. & O., telegraph 405 

Cin., N. O. & T. P., track signs 173 

Bridge tell-tale 191 

Clev., C, C. & St. L., organization. 266 

Roadbed 16 

Ties 31, 33 

Colo., Kan. & Neb., tracklaying.... 300 

Colo. Mid., Busk tunnel 414 

Snow clearing 427 

Dul. & I. R., guard rail 122 

Erie, ballast 24 

Bridge dept 401 

Bridge guard rails 157 

Mile posts 172 

Organization 264, 266 

Roadbed 213 

Rock gang 276, 277 

Tools :...224, 225 

Track signs 170| 172 

Trackwalkers 276^ 277 

Turnout and crossover 126 

Turntable 188 

Wrecking 434, 436 

Yard, Pt. Jervis 213 

Ev. & M. C, tunnel 17 



Page. 
Railways: 

Fitchburg, wrecking 436 

Fre., Elk. & Mo. Val., fences 137, 

143, 144 

Grand Trunk, improvements 416 

Tunnel, St. Clair 18 

Great. Nor., switchback 414 

Han. & St. Joe, ballast 25 

Har. Transfer, terminal 210" 

Hock. Val., switch work 386, 395 

Houst. & Tex. C, roadbed 26 

111. Cen., ashpit 187 

Bridge inspection 400' 

Frogs 115 

Organization 263, 266 

Roadbed 13 

Switchstand 131 

Tics and renewals 30, 39 

Tools 224, 225,228 

Transfer table 189' 

Trestles 153 

Kan. C, Ft. S. & Mem., renew, rails 338 

Kan. C. So., bridge floors 157 

Lake Sh. & M. So., ballast 26- 
Mile posts 172" 

Organization 266 

Rail joint 97 

Reoort blanks 448 

Roadbed 12: 

Track signs 170, 172, 173 

Water stations 180- 

Leh. Vail., ballast 24 

Roadbed 16 

Tool house 199 

Turnouts 386 

Work trains 418 

London & N. W., bumpers 195 

Long Id., water supply 177" 

Louisv. & Nash., ballast and tires.. 26 

Ballasted trestle 153 

Bump, post 194 

Change of gage 351 

Fencing 138 

Mail crane 191 

Rail joint 101 

Section houses 201 

Ties and renewals 35, 39- 

Wear of tires i:6 

Maine Cen., mile posts 172 

Signs 176 

Mich. Cen., bridge guard 157 

Continuous rails 66 

Culverts 152 

Fence ...136, 137 

Grade crossings £95 

Matching rails 77 

Organization 263, 266 

Rail joint 94 

Track tanks 382 - 

Minn., St. P. & S. S. M., roadbed.. 16 

Ties 32, 33 

Tracklaying 289 

Mo., Kan. & Tex., ties 32 

Mo. Pac, pile driver 441 

N. Y. Cen., ballast 23 

Box drains 10 

Bridge inspection 401 

Culvert^ ^ 153" 

Gd. Cen. station 208, 212 

Mail crane 191 

Organization 263, 266" 

Platforms 18 

Rail joint 91, 101 

Roadbed 11 

Station tracks 18 

Tracks in streets 159" 

N. Y., N. H. & H., accident 238 

Ballast 27 

Boston terminal 207, 38T 

Bridge floor 156-" 



VI. 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Railways : 

Organization 265, 2G6 

Record chart 447 

Roadbed 12 

Tools 224, 225,231 

Turnouts 390 

Work trains 416 

N. Y., 0. & W., switchback 414 

N. Y., W. S. & B., wrecking 438 

Norfolk & West., ballast '44 

Frog 114, 122 

Rail joint 92 

Split switch 104 

Switchstands 131 

Nor. Pac, auto, water station 1S1 

Bridge floors 157 

Bridge inspection 400 

Organization 266 

Snow fencing 144 

Switchback 414 

Tools 231 

Track signs 172, 17*, L75 

Wrecking equip 438 

Ohio Riv., organization 268 

Penn., Bonzano joint 90 

Frog guard rail 122 

Grade cross, elim 163 

Lap sidings 206 

Nickel steel rails 69 

Organization 262, 266 

Rebuilding 443 

Record chart 447 

Roadbed' 11 

Swing rail frog 116 

Tools 225 

Temp, bridges 443 

Track inspection 375 

Wreck, equ ip . . 439 

Penn. Lines, ballast 26 

Bridge tell tale 190 

Bumping posts 193 

Cattlsguard 143 

■Coaling station 185 

Frogs 114 

Lap sidings 205 

Signals 133, 250 

Signs 176 

Switch guard rails 108 

Tool house 199 

Track signs 169, 171, 174, 175 

Peoria & Pek. Term., Y track ISO 

Phila. & Read., bill of sw. timbers. 128 

Shop floors 204 

Pitts.. C, C. & St. L., coaling sta- 
tion 185 

Pitts., F. W. & C, lap sidings 205 

Rich., F. & Pot., trestle floor 154 

St. L., K. & N. W., avoid, crossing. 159 

Ballast 25 

Sav., Fla. & West., rail joint 97 

Track inspection 379 

Wet cuts 309 

Southern, work trains 419 

Sou. Pac, ballasted culverts 154 

Bill of sw. timbers 128 

•Bridge inspection 400 

Bridge tell-tale 190 

Frog guard rail 122 

Handcar turnouts 196 

Organization 262 

Roadbed 14 

Signs 170, 171, 174, 176 

Switch guard rails 308 

Temp, tracks 434 

Ties 31, 35 

Tie preserv 45, 46 

Track inspection 379 

Track over ditches 153 

Turnout 126 

Terre H. & Log., records 448 



Page. 
Railways: 

Tex. Mid., ballast 25 

Un. Pac, concrete fence posts. 140 

Life of ties 32 

Transfer table 188 

Wabash, organization 266 

Track inspection 376 

Wash. Co., tracklaying 297 

West Jer. & S. S., oiled ballast 28 

West. Va., C. & P., track gage 233 

Railways, foreign 27 

Argen. Rep., earth ballast 27 

China, rail joints 95 

Dresden, freight yards 220 

England, rail joints 97 

Europe, bridge floors 152 

France, sand ballast 27 

Freight terminals 215 

Germany, marking ties 41 

Tie-plates and track 53 

India, sand ballast 27 

'Maintenance expenses . . ^. 6, 7 

Netherlands, switch 107 

Tie-plate 53 

Rails 62, 78 

Rail fastenings 83 

Sand tracks 220 

Siberian, sand ballast 311 

Ties, metal v ... 54 

Wheels 35 

Railways, four track 163 

Rapid transit (see also Elec, Elev. 

and St. Rys.) 17 

Terminals 219 

Raising track 227, 

2d3, 236, 238, 307, 308, 326, 331, 332 

Reconstruction 409 

Records, ties 39 

Track dept 272, 275, 445, 465 

Reports, blank forms 448 

Requisitions 2, 38, 464, 465 

Rerailing devices 155, 431 

Reservoirs 178 

Right of way, clearing 322, 345 

Monumenting 173 

Roadbed, ballast for 22 

Bridges and viaducts 18 

Concrete 19 

Construction 9 

Curves ' 13, 16 

Hand car turnouts 196 

Preparing for track 286 

Rolling 10 

Stations 18 

Wet, treatment 11 

Roadmasters 1, 260, 261 

Education 267, 268 

Roadmasters' Assocs.;std. tools. .223, 

226, 227, 228, 229, 238 

Roundhouses, paving 204 

Sags, filling 414 

Sand, consolidating 27 

Drifting, prevention 27, 311 

Sand tracks 220 

Scales 189 

Tra^k 213, 218 

Scrap 222, 349, 350 

Sections, length 265 

Section foremen 273, 461 

Section gang, protection 320 

Section houses 200 

Section men. (See Labor.) 275, 278 

Selectors, signaling 249 

Shims and shimming 51, 326, 32S, 344 

Shops, floors for 204 

Tracks for 387 

Sidetra -ks 175, 205, 288 

Sidings, passing 205 

Relief 207 

Street railway 259 



INDEX. 



VII 



Page. 
Signaling • • • =f§3 

Insulated joints and rails Oo, lol 

Specifications, Penn. Lines 249 

Switches 1J-0 

Yards 213 

Signals, automatic. 160. 1GS, 244, 245, 405 

Block 100, 168. 243 

Bridge repairs l^o 

Colors ... 133, 134, 246, 252 

Crossing 161, 166 

Distant HO, 245, 166 

Switch 129, 470, 471 

Forms of 24o 

Interlocking • • • -13 

Lamps, 133, 134 

Night, colors 246 

Passing sidings 207 

Spacing of 10b 

Street railway 254 

Switch 12a, 132 

Track repair 320 

Train 321 

Train order 243. 405 

Signal department, organization. ..243, 2S4 

Signal engineers 261 

Signal towers 201 

Signs, crossing 160 

Fence gates Ill 

Premium 172, 375 

Track 107, 375 

Slides and slips 309, 414 

Slopes, sodding 310 

Snow, clearing 323, 419 

Melting with salt 323 

Weight 420 

Snow fences. (See Fences.) 

Snow flangers 422 

Snow plows 222, 421 

Machine 420 

Signs for 172 

Snowsheds 420 

Sod.. 11 

Sod line 322, 346 

Speed of trains 471 

Spikes. (See also Rail Fastenings.)... 343 

Pulling 228, 343 

Spike holes, plugging 41, 343 

Spike peddling cars 292 

Spike pullers 228 

Spike slots 101, 343 

Spiking 338, 342 

Spiking gang 343 

Splice bars. (See Rail Joints.) 

Spreaders for ballast 222, 307, 308, 413 

Standpipe. (See Water Column.) 

Standpipes vs. tanks 179 

Stations 197, 208, 212, 387 

Appearance 348 

Boston Southern 207, 387 

Bumpers for 193, 221 

Fencing for 142 

Freight, coal 210 

Freight tracks 205 

Grand Central, N. Y 20S, 212 

Longitudinals for tracks 37 

Name boards 175 

Roadbed 18, 37 

Sand tracks 221 

Sanitation 349 

Signs for 175 

Tracks in 18, 37, 207 

Station grounds 348 

Station platforms IS, 203, 207, 20^ 

Statistics, railway 6, 8 

Track work 466 

Steam shovel 410, 417, 454 

Steel, angle bars 89 

Rails 68 

Ties 53 

Stop blocks 195, 196 



Page. 

Streets, railway tracks in 190 

Street railways 21. 253 

Chicago City, organization 260 

Crossings 120, 163 

Indianapolis, track 250 

Kansas City, track 255 

Philadelphia, organization 200 

Switch work 387 

Toronto, track 256 

Track 21, 253 

Subdrainage. (See Drainage, Tile.) 

Summits, reducing 415 

Tunnels and 414 

Subway, Boston, track 17 

Sunday work 280, 340 

Superelevation. (See Curves, Elevation.) 

Surfacing 295, 322, 320 

Machine 32S, 331 

Surveys, resurvey 415 

Switches, adjustment 104 

Automatic 107 

Bryant anti-creeper for 107 

Channel 103 

Chic. & N. W. Ry 399 

Concentration of levers 213 

Cooke 103 

Derailing 106 

Duggan 102 

Facing and trailing 10.) 

Foremen at 273, 320 

Guard rails 105, 106 

Leads 384 

Location 392 

MacPherson 109, 470 

Moving by engine 398 

Norfolk & West 104, 105 

Operated from engine 110 

Rail braces at 108 

Relation to wheels 106, 123 

Repairs 121 

Slip 108, 212 

Split 104, 3S9, 399 

Street railway 259 

Stub 102, 389 

Three-throw 108, 132, 3S9, 394 

Tyler 103 

Wharton 10S, 470 

Yard 212 

Switch angle 102 

Switchbacks 370, 414 

Switch lamps 131, 133 

Switch protection 109, 130 

Sand track 220 

Switch rails, length 105, 3S4, 470 

Switchstands 128, 131, 393, 470, 471 

Switch targets 132 

Switch ties and timbers 125 

Switch work 384 

Instructions 399 

Ladder tracks 395 

Switching, gravity 209, 214, 220 

Power 213 

Yard movements 209, 213 

Tamping 225, 230, 331 

Machine 328, 331 

Tanks 177 

Signs for 176 

Standpipes and 179 

Track 181 

Wood and steel 17S 

Target, track lining 324 

Telegraph 405 

Construction 292 

Holes for posts 231 

Tower 201 

West. U. Tel. Co., rules 408 

Terminals 205, 207, 219 

City 215 

Design 216 

Loop 210, 219, 359, 360 



VIII. 



INDEX. 



Page. 
Terminals: 

Sharp curves 358 

Switch work 387 

Ties 469 

Adzing 35, 45, 51, 329, 330 

Burning 329 

Concrete 58 

Consumption in U. S 28 

Cost 469, 470 

. Distributing 328 

Growing by railways 29 

Inspection 271 

Jarrah 469, 470 

Life of 29, 31, 38, 42, 45, 471 

Marking 39, 40 

Metal , 54, 257, 469, 470 

Number per rail 5, 36, 294, 470 

X)ld, disposal 41, 329 

Turning 329 

Preservative processes 41 

Portable plant 45, 46 

Records 40 

Renewals 37, 321, 32S 

.Seasoning 33 

Second class 31, 34 

Size 35 

Spacing 36 

Spotting 330, 351 

Street railway 257 

Track crossings 165 

Tie bars, gaga 303, 361 

Street ry. track 256, 257 

Tracklaying 303 

Tie chute 292 

Tie-plates 48, 61, 361, 470 

Applied by machine 51, 295, 330 

Bridge floors 151 

Check plate and 75 

Felt 48, 159 

Foreign 52 

Gage for setting 233, 330 

Rail brace and 84 

Setting 51, 330 

Street ry. track 256 

Switches, at 104 

Tie plugs 41 

Tie-rods. (See also Tie-Bars.) .. .256, 

257, 303, 361 

Street ry. track 256, 257 

Tie-spotting machine.. .35, 45, 51, 330, 351 

Tie wagon, tracklaying '. 292 

Tile drainage. (See Drainage.) 

Timber, creosoted, trestles 153, 405 

Preservatives 48 

Switch 126 

Ties 31 

Track crossings 165 

Trestles 153, 405 

Time-books 462, 463 

Tools 222, 291 

Bridge inspection ' 228, 402 

Distribution 222 

Gage and level 231, 232, 292 

Inventory 452 

Jacks 222, 236, 239 

•McHenrys 232 

Made from scrap 223 

Roadmasters' standard .223, 

226, 227, 228, 229, 238 

Sighting boards 326 

Testing 223 

Tie-plate gage 233, 330 

Tie-spotters 35, 330, 351 

Wrecking 431 

Tool houses 198 

Torpedoes, use of 320 

Tower, signal and telegraph 201, 248 

Track, advantages of good 3, 317 

Distance, c. to c 11, 210 



Page, 
Track: 

European opinions 5 

Gantletted t 405 

Gravity 209. 213, 220 

Longitudinals 17, 19, 21, 37 

Material piled by 271 

Moving 332 

Narrow gage, widening 351 

Raising 227, 233, 236, 238, 

307, 308, 326, 331, 332 

Relation to operation 1, 281, 317 

Rigid 21 

Standard 5, 467, 468, 471 

Stations 18, 37, 207 

Streets ; 159 

Street railway 21, 253 

Surfacing 233, 238 

Team 210 

Temporary at wreck 433, 434 

Tunnels 16, 17 

Wear by traffic 317 

Yard 208, 212 

Track and traffic, relations 1, 4, 

19 281 317 

Track department '. . . .1, 261 

Track elevation 413 

Boston 416 

Chicago 151, 159 

Track indicator cars 62, 95, 380 

Track inspection 62, 95, 269, 

273, 276, 374 

Diagrams 380, 382 

Dynagraph cars 62, 

95, 269, 273, 276, 374, 380 

Mechanical 380 

Premiums 172 

Track jacks. (See Tools.) 

Use of 222, 239 

Track material, quantities 102 

Track scales ". 189 

Track signs 167 

Tracklaying 285 

Cost 289, 301, 302 

Curves 298, 303, 304, 360, 361 

Hand 287 

Machinery 295 

Records .289, 294, 296, 298, 304 

'Street railway 255 

Track throwing machine 333 

Trackwalkers 275 

Traffic, railway 1, 8 

Trains, freight for ballasting 307 

Relation to maintenance. .3, 60, 62, 

85, 353 

Signals for 274, 321 

Speed 471 

Tracklaying 291, 294, 296, 298 

Work 271, 287, 410, 411, 415 

Wrecking 429, 436 

Train dispa tching 243 

Train resistance 62, 63, 353 

Train service, relation to track 281 

Transfer tables 187 

In stations 208 

Tree growing by railways 29 

Trespassing, prevention of 348 

Trestles, ballasted 153 

Banks and 411 

Bracing of 412 

Creosoted timber 153 

Electric railways 157 

Filling 15, 152, 410, 411 

Fire protection 154 

High, C. P. Ry 154 

Hydraulic filling 412 

Inspection 402 

Refuges on 154, 319 

Small 157 

Tempo.-ary 441 

Tracklaying on 2S8 



INDBX. 



IX. 



Page. 

Tunnels, Refuges in 319 

Roadbed and track 16, 17 

Summits and 414 

Surfacing in 326 

Turnouts 113, 126, 288, 384 

Frog for 11^ 

Hand cars 196 

Rails for 113 

Turntables 187 

Y-tracks and ...: 189 

Viaducts, electric railway 164 

N. Y. Central Ry 151 

Roadbed 18 

Walls, fence 141, 

Warehouses, tracks in 21o 

Washouts 439 

Watchmen 161, 202, 276 

Cabins for 202 

Water columns 179 

Water stations 176, 177 

Automatic 181 

Pumps and pumping 181 

Water supply, effect on boilers 177 

Treatment 177 

Yards 219 

Waterways . . . .' 30S 

Weeds, cutting 322,346 

Killing 346 

Wheels, cone of tires 35 

Dist. between flanges 367 

Electric cars 158, 255 

Flat 273, 318 

Gage for wear 124 

Lap of flanges 360 

On curves 367 

Relation to rails 60, 62 

Relation to frogs and switches. .106, 

111, 115, 117, 123, 125 
Wear, limit of 124 



Page. 
Wheels: 

Worn, effects of 106, 111, 115, 

117, 124, 125, 273, 318 

Wheelbarrows . . . 314 

Whitewashing, compressed air 198 

Wind, bushes to check 27, 311 

Windmills 181 

Wire, signal connections 249, 251 

Wood piles 271 

Work trains 271, 287, 410, 411, 415 

Conductors 282, 417 

Operation of 415 

Organization 282, 417 

Report 455 

Wrecks, procedure at 273 

Temporary track 433, 434 

Wrecking 429 

Wrecking trains 222, 429 

Y track 189 

Yards 18, 205, 207, 394, 395 

Bumping posts 193 

City 215 

Cleaning 349 

Cost of operation 220 

Design 210, 211, 216 

Ditching 313 

Entrance 394 

Frogs 117, 212 

Heavy rails 212 

Ladder tracks 394, 395 

Lighting 213, 219 

Maintenance work 213 

Operation and equipment 208 

Passenger 212 

Power switching 213 

Staking out 210, 387 

Stub switches 103 

Switch rails 105 

Switch work 387 

Water supply 219 

Yard limits 176 



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especially designed for use on railways, highways, trolley-lines, etc. A large number 
of testimonials from prominent railway companies and city officers attest it's prac- 
tical value."— Engineering News, New York City, N. Y. 




"I am very favorably impressed with your portable culverts. I believe that they 
fill a long-felt want. The outstretched wings from the mouth present a smooth solid 
surface to the water. It is also exceedingly useful when laying track and paving in 
towns where surface drainage is still in use."— D. A. Hegarty, Gen. Supt., Railways 
Company General, Philadelphia, Pa. 

"I think they are very fine, and would be a great improvement upon iron pipes 
they now use for macadam roads. Yours would certainly afford a very nice passage- 
way for water and is in every way properly sbaoed to easily catch tbe water and re- 
lieve the leaves and other debris."— Henry I. Budd, Commissioner of Public Roads of 
New Jersey. 

Send for Catalogue to 

WILLIAM A. NICHOLS, Qirard Building, Philadelphia, Pa. 



IV 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



THIRTEENTH EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED 

l2mo. Flexible Leather, with Tables and Figures. Price, $2.50 



THE FIELD ENGINEER: 

A Practical Handbook for the Survey, Location and 
Track-Work of Railroads. 

Prepared with Special Reference to the wants of t?ie Young Engineer, 
With many original and selected rules and tables applicable to both the 
staniard and narrow gauge. 

BY 

WILLIAM FINDLAY SHUNK, C. E. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER. 

I.- 

III.. 

XI.- 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 



II. Logarithms. 

VIII. Plane Trigonometry. 

XV. Adjustment and Use of 
Instruments. 

Prepositions Relating to the 
Circle. 

Circular Curves of Rail- 
roads. 

To Find the 
Apex 
Length 



Radius, The 
Distance, The 
The Degree, etc., 



of a Curve. 

Ordinates. 

•XXIII. Tracing Curves and 
Turning Obstacles in the 
Field. 

■XXV. Suggestions as to 
Field Work and Location- 
Projects. 

■XXXVII. 'Problems in Field 
Location. 

-LI. Track Problems. 

TABLES. 

I. Mean Local (Astronomical) Time, 

etc. 
II. Azimuth cf Polaris when at 
Elongation for the years 1890 
to 1910, inclusive. 



XIX. 
XX. 



XXIV. 

XXVI. 
XXXVIII. 



CHAPTER. 

III. Roods and Perches in Decimal 

Parts of an Acre. 

IV. Decimals of an Acre in One 

Chain Length of 100 Feet and 
of Various Widths. 
V. Acres, Roods, and Perches in 

Square Feet. 
VI. Circular Arcs to Radius of 1. 
VII. Feet in Decimals of a Mile. 

VIII. Inches Reduced to Decimal Parts 
of a Foot. 
IX. Radii and Their Logarithms, 
'Middle Ordinates, and Deflec- 
tion Distances. 
X. For the Use of a 20-Meter Chain. 
XI. Squares, Cubes, etc., of Numbers 

from 1 to 1,042. 
XII. Logarithms of Numbers from 1 
to 10,000. 

XIII. Logarithmic Sines, Cosines, Tan- 

gents, and Cotangents. 

XIV. Natural Sines and Tangents. 
XV. Slopes for Topography. 

XVI. Chords, Middle Ordinates, Ex- 
ternal Secants, and Apex Dis- 
tances of a One-Degree Curve. 

XVII. Rise per Mile of Various Grades. 

Index. 



D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, 

Publishers, 
23 Murray and 27 Warren Sts., New York 

Copies sent prepaid on receipt of price. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



The Buda Foundry 
& Mfg. Company 

Manufacturers of Steel Wheel H 311(1 and 

^ Push Cars 

Railway Crossing Gates 
Paulus Track Drills 
Ramapo Switch Stands 



Chicago Office General Office and Works 

917 Monadnock Block Harvey, 111. 



Paige Iron Works 

Manufacturers of 

^ Railway Switches 
Frogs and Crossing 



Special Track Work 

For Steam, Electric, Elevated and Cable Railroads 

Chicago Office General Office and Works 

917 Monadnock Block Harvey, 111. 



yi ADVERTISEMENTS. 

AN IMPORTANT BOOK 

8vo. Cloth, about 350 pages, fully illustrated. Price, $3.00 



TUNNELING: 

An Exhaustive Treatise, containing many Working 
Drawings and Figures. 

BY 

CHAS. PRELINI, C. E. 



CONTENTS. 



Introduction — The Historical Development of Tunnel Building. 
CHAPTER. 

I. Preliminary Considerations, Choice Between a Tunnel and an Open Cut. 

Method and Purpose of Geological Surveys. 
II. Methods of Determining the Center Line and Forms and Dimensions of 
Cross-Section. 

III. Excavating Machines and Rock Drills: Explosives and Blasting. 

IV. General Methods of Excavation; Shafts: Classification of Tunnels. 
V. Methods of Timbering or Strutting Tunnels. 

VI. Methods of Hauling in Tunnels. 

VII. Types of Centers and Molds Employed in Constructing Tunnel Linings of 
Masonry. 
VIII. Methods of Lining Tunnels. 
IX. Tunnels Through Hard Rock; General Discussion; Excavation by Drifts. 
Mont Cenis Tunnel. 
X. Tunnels Through Hard Rock (continued). The Simplon Tunnel. 
XI. Tunnels Through Hard Rock (continued). Excavation by Drifts. St. 

Gothard Tunnel. Busk Tunnel. 
XII. Representative Mechanical Installations for Tunnel Work. 

XIII. Excavating Tunnels Through Soft Ground; General Discussion; The Bel- 

gian Method. 

XIV. The German Method of Excavating Tunnels Through Soft Ground; Balti- 

more Belt Line Tunnel. 

XV. The Full Section Method of Tunneling; English Method; Austrian Method. 

XVI. Special Treacherous Ground Method; Italian Method; Quicksand Tunnel- 

ing; Pilot Method. 
XVII. Open-Cut Tunneling Methods; Tunnels under City Streets. 
XVIII. Submarine Tunneling; General Discussion; The Severn Tunnel. 
XIX. Submarine Tunneling (continued). The East River Gas Tunnel; The Van 
Buren Street Tunnel, Chicago. 
XX. Submarine Tunneling (continued). The Milwaukee Water- Works Tunnel. 
XXI. Submarine Tunneling (continued). The Shield System. 
XXII. Accidents and Repairs in Tunneling during and after Construction. 

XXIII. Relieving Timber-Lined Tunnels with Masonry. 

XXIV. Ventilation and Lighting of Tunnels during Construction. 

XXV. Cost of Tunnel Excavation, and the Time required for repairing the work. 
Index. 



D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, 

Publishers, 
23 Murray and 27 Warren Sts., NEW YORK 

Copies sent prepaid on receipt of price. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. VII 



MEASURING TAPES 



MADE BY THE 



LUFKIN 

SAGINAW, MICH., U. S. A. 




Are INDISPENSIBLE for Accurate Track Work. 

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< 

INDEX 






Engineering News I! 



covering the volumes 
for the ten years 

1890 to 1899 Inclusive 



The work has been compiled by an 
expert indexer and librarian under the 
supervision of our editorial staff. By 
its aid the contents of the twenty 
volumes of Engineering News above 
alluded to, which constitute a cyclopedia 
of engineering for the perio'd, are made 
easily accessible. It contains about 
25,000 references, and over a fifth of 
the whole relate to matters of railway 
construction, equipment and management. 
Green Buckram, 6x9 inches, 328 pages. 



Price, $2.50. 



TheENGINEERING news publishing go. 

220 Broadway, New York. 
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VIII 



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ADVERTISEMENTS. 




Since the introduction of solid metal floors 
by the leading railroads of the world, the 
burning question with railroad men has been 

How can we Insulate our Rails 

if applied directly to the metal supports? 
This question has been satisfactorily an- 
swered by the introduction of our 

Standard Track Rail Insulation 

which has met the most severe requirements and stood the most critical tests. Our de- 
vice is SIMPLE in construction and exceedingly DURABLE. It is composed of but 
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fastening of any kind being required. NO 
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at all times. Now in use on many leading 
roads, and rabidly being adopted by others. 
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MANUFACTURERS OF 

Rail Fastenings, Sound=Deadening Materials and Special Insulating Parts 




Designed for the 
Use of 

STUDENTS, 
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(Engineering Contracts 

and Specifications ZuZZZ 

Including.... 

Among the subjects considered *■»»••/>» • ■ _e 

in part in are: a Brief Synopsis of the Law of 

Specifications for Excavations and " " 

Contracts and Illustrative 
Examples of the General and 

Technical Clauses of Various Kinds of 

Engineering Specifications. 



Embankments 

Specifications for Cement, Mortar, 
Concrete and Masonry, 

Lumber Grading and Classifica- 
tion, 

Specifications for Iron and Steel, 

Specifications for Pile and Trestle 
Bridging, and 

Specifications for the Track Con- 
struction and for the Machinery 
of Electric Railways. 



Send for Complete Table of Contents. 



The ENGINEERING NEWS PUBLISHING CO. 

220 Broadway, New York. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



XI 



ATLAS RAIL JOINTS 

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XII 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



SOME BOOKS 

of interest to those who have to do with 

Railway Construction, Operation and Maintenance 



COOPER, THEODORE, "Ameri- 
can Railroad Bridges." Cloth; 7x9*6 
ins.; 60 pp.; 7 tables and 26 full-page 
and folding plates $2.00 

CROSS, C. S., "Engineers' Field 

Book." Fourth Edition. Cloth; 4%x7 
ins.; 166 pp.; illustrated 1.00 

DUNHAM, H. F., "Plat and Pro- 
file Book for Civil Engineers and Con- 
tractors." Containing 28 pages of Pro- 
file paper and also handy tables for 
Excavation and Embankment, Strength 
of Material, Size of Sewers for various 
Slopes and Drainage Areas, and in- 
formation for making Estimates in 
Electric Construction. Flexible leather, 
oblong, 9x4 ins 1.00 



containing 90 pages of profile 
paper 2.00 

FOWLER, CHAS. E., "Engineer- 
ing Studies." Part I. American Stone 
Arches. 8 half-tone engravings on 
plate paper and short description of 
each. Paper, 6x11 ins 25 

"Engineering Studies." Part II. Ro- 
man Stone Arches. 8 half-tone en- 
gravings on plate paper, and short 
description of each. Paper, 6x11 ins. .25 

HALL., JOHN L., " Tables of 

Squares." Containing the True Square 
of every foot, inch and one-sixteenth of 
an inch between l-16th of an inch and 
100 ft. Flexible morocco; 3^x5% ins.; 
gilt edges 2.00 

HANDY BINDER for ENGINEER. 

ING NEWS. Black cloth; gold stamp 

on cover. 75 



HERMANN, E. A., "Steam Shov- 
els and Steam Shovel Work." Cloth; 

7x10 ins. ; 60 pp. ; 98 figures in the text.$1.00 

JACOBY, Prof. H. S., "Text Book 

on Plain Lettering." Cloth; oblong; 
10 x 7 ins. ; 82 pp. ; illustrated with 48 

full-page plates 3.00 

KIDWELL & MOORE, "Tables of 

Safe Loads for Wooden Beams and 
Columns." Paper; 6x9 ins.; 57 pp.. .50 

McGEE, JNO., "Tables of Equiva- 
lents" of Metrical and English Meas- 
ures, Weights, etc.; Areas of Right- 
Angled Triangles; Frogs and Switches 
for Various Gages, etc. Half cloth; 
flexible boards; 4% x 7^ ins. ; 43 pp... .25 

McHENRY, E. H.."Rules for Rail- 
way Location and Construction of the 
Northern Pacific Ry. Co." Cloth, 3%x 
6 ins. ; 74 pp., 3 diagrams 50 

PAUL, H., "Railway Surveys and 

Resurveys." Pamphlet; 6x9 ins.; 13 

pp 25 

REINHARDT, C. W., "Tecbnic of 

Mechanical Drafting." Cloth, oblong; 
11x8 Ins.; 36 pp.; 62 text illustra- 
tions, 10 full-page plates; plates I. 
to IV. contain 69 distinct conventions 
for Section-Lining 1.00 

WELLINGTON, A. M., "Economic 

Theory of Railway Location." Cloth. 
6 x 8y 2 ins. ; 980 pp. ; 312 illustrations 
and full index •. . 5.00 

WINSLOW, 11ENJ. E., "Tables and 

Diagrams for Calculating the Strength 
of Beams and Columns." Cloth, ob- 
long; 12x9 ins.; 53 pp., including 19 
full-page plates 2.00 



Complete Catalogue giving Prices will be mailed free upon application. 

The Engineering News Publishing Co., 220 Broadway. New York 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



XIII 



Continuous Rail Joint Co of America 




Continuous Rail Joints 
Continuous Step Joints 
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Best Economical Results 
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Received the highest award in its class at the World's Paris Exposition, 1900. 

GENERAL OFFICES: 



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Telephone 822 
NEWARK, N. J. 

L. F. BRAINE, General Manager 




OUR REPRESENTATIVES 
Geo W. Stevens, Agent, Atlanta, Ga. 

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W. A. Chapman, Agent, Boston, Mass., 

John Hancock bldg. 
B. M. Barr, Agent, 

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H. M. Montgomery, Agent, 

Chicago. III. Monadnock Bldg. 
Wm. E. Clark, Agmt, Chicago, III., J. G. Miller, Agent, St. Louis, Mo., 

Monadnock Bldg. Security Bldg. 

F. E.Catne, Agent, Hontreal, Can., C.B. Kaufman, Agent, San Francisco, Cat. 

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Geo. W. Wollastoa, Agent, London, Eng , 26 Victor a St., Westnvnster 



XIV 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



THE 



MANUFACTURING C? 



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BRANCH OFFICES 

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STANDARD "T" RAIL JOINT 



SPECIFICATIONS 

FOR WORK CONNECTED WITH 

:r.a.iivway Construction 



COOPER, THEODORE, "Specifi- 
cations for Iron and Steel Highway 
Bridges." (1890.) Paper; 7x9% 
ins.; 23 pp. ......... 1 $0.25 

"Specifications for Iron and Steel Rail- 
road Bridges." (1890.) Paper; 7x9% 
ins. ; 25 pp 25 

"Specifications for Steel Highway 
Bridges." (1896.) Paper; 7x9% ins.; 
25 pp 25 

"Specifications for Steel Railroad 
Bridges." (1896.) Paper; 7x9% ins.; 
24 pp 25 

DILLENBECK, CLARK, "Speci- 
fications for Stone and Brick Passen- 
ger Stations." Paper; 8x14 Ins.; 32 



PP. 



.40 

"Specifications for Frame Passenger 
Stations" 40 

"Specifications for Stone and Brick 
Freight Houses" 40 

"Specifications for Frame Freight 
Houses" 40 

Full set 4 specifications 1.50 

FOWLER, CHAS. E., "General 

Specifications for Steel Roofs and 
Buildings." Paper, 6x9 ins.; 12 pp.. .25 



KATTE, W., "Specifications for 

Grading and Masonry." Paper; 

7% x 12% ins. ; 16 pp $0.25 

"Specifications for Tracklaying" 10 

"Specifications for Standard Pile and 

Timber Trestle Bridges" 05 

"General Specifications for Cross Ties." .05 

OSBORN CO., "General Specifica- 
tions for Railway Bridges." Paper; 

8x12 ins.; 10 pp 25 

"General Specifications for Bridge Sub- 
structure." 8 x 12 ins. ; 10 pp ... .25 

"Specifications for Metal Highway 
Bridge Superstructure." 8x12 ins.; 
12 pp 25 

STOWELL,, CHAS. P., and CUN- 

ningham, A. C, "General Specifications 
for Structural Steel." Paper; 8% x 13% 
ins. ; 11 pp 25 

THACHER, EDWIN, "General 

Specifications for Highway Bridges." 

Paper; 8 x 13% ins. ; 8 pp .25 

"General Specifications for Railway 
Bridges." Paper; 8x13% ins.; 8 pp. .25 

THOMSON, G. W., "Standard Spe- 
cifications for Structural Steel for 
Modern Railroad Bridges." .10 



The Engineering; News Publishing Co., 220 Broadway, Hew York 



Mar-01901 



(to*) 



FEB 27 1901 









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