. o x V- o T i ^ 4 O A >f* v rv ♦ ^ 4- -a¥a* /-'v * x^nrk/ to, * ,\ y * j i ° ^ A • k?li® ■« O^ c » « • ♦ ^o A V A t *P C U • -r^Vv ^ v v •'.■%-> aN * ; v’ ^ ♦ r\ ^*. * * * . 4 * ’ A 0 'V * o i » * « V • 0> ^ O ' . . s s A <.'*»•** ,Ci \D ,v ' .. s" A o*o ^ .V a ,. / * <5> o» O „ ^ 0 — - o ^ r, u . & r^ % a .A » ry A *■ * A. , o V . /»« ^ n v ;♦ ^0 j- 0 v • ^ r ZZZ?Wj? ^ ^ 'Z *. <£* ^ VlWV^y* ' K~ _ * Vy /iiF + rv X- rf> V'-^V A ‘‘-•A 0 > *0 ,»••'♦ ^ «> ’ * .0 ** • *'* "> "p. /V*l? ' ./&'"< * .A A * A S} « ■'p. >» v S /{|i» r .o ^ A * A' ♦ ,rf\'Sf A° A * &\mLrk « * V » ■* > . ^ - . * ct* X* “» •* .0^ c ©" ° -» "o -A ♦'•'*♦ ■» Zy 0 *^ ^ *-*■'* :£M.Z*- ^o 4 :<^ -4, O ® A ' K V * • <1.^ o * °»° 0 * •»■> a0^ C Vj * s < A °*C> %* n o %, *ym?y .y o *’*' ^ V «» y *0 v o’* 0 - o * _ X V \ <2 *■* A S * A 'o * » & t f a <5* r\ v ' , o " a - "o -k *■ \ c, u ° • * A A • * A ... V A 0 * 4 O ° vc> ^ ->w/ ^ *• - 0 0 v * a -X 0 ‘liiL;* A> * ;***• * ./ AA vA / ,/'\ 4 - ^ A s 4 a <. 'o, i * ,c> o * *. s * -* A*’ t » a <£> (A 0 " O ^ 'q A . 1 ■ A C •«ssS5^V‘ ° A * fc * U A V *•■'• A° V. ^ „<*=>, c\ \0 5*'A» ^ * A ’ 4 r\ - ’ , . '.^V o* 0 * 0 4 \> *v - V A * * A A>. * 4 «V ^ - * A . % cr o 0 '° + . o * Aa <0* ' '° Ao ,* ^° ^ * e ~tyy/ivj(i' * r\ ^. ■ p V v °V "‘" 1 *’a 0 ' V r ’ * V C> *■ * V 3 ., -mM\ vs- * ___ 4° ^ a * W$ws S # - «.<’ .u ^ * *«» A Ax * ° • * * A* ^ 0 ^ ,o««. A _A Ac ,o v o•_* • -. o 4 *" 6^ ^ ^vTlT 4 ' A A . w « ^ o . ^ C V . r-CXXN . «* A SHORT HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE BY EDNA TURPIN A 11 WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY S. C. MITCHELL, Ph.D. PRESIDENT OF DELAWARE COLLEGE ILLUSTRATED “ Long as thine Art shall love true love, Long as thy Science truth shall know, Long as thine Eagle harms no Dove, Long as thy Law by law shall grow, Long as thy God is God above, Thy brother every man below, So long, dear Land of all my love, Thy name shall shine, thy fame shall glow! ” — Sidney Lanier B. F. JOHNSON PUBLISHING CO. Atlanta — RICHMOND — Dallas All rights reserved £.//« •/ . Copyright, 1911 Copyright, 1914 EDNA TURPIN 14-11—H.P. /',6 y . JAN 21 1915 ©CI. A !J93!5 6 8 INTRODUCTION Miss Turpin’s Short History of the American People has impressed me as a work of exceptional value. The narrative is clear, impartial, spirited, and altogether read¬ able. The prime merit of the work is, in my opinion, that events are made so to unfold that even a child will grasp the principle of cause and effect as it has worked itself out in the history of our country. This volume is not a series of detached dates and incidents, however picturesque or pleasingly told. The process of growth is brought out in every paragraph in such a way as to make the sequence of events illumining. By such treatment the reader is en¬ abled to contract the historical habit. As “ the habit of sound thinking is more than a thousand thoughts,” so the historical habit of interpreting cause and effect in human experience is of far more value than any knowledge of events, however comprehensive. The author has preserved the due perspective of Ameri¬ can history by giving a large place to the facts bearing on the industrial and social development of our people, in accordance with the changing sphere of the modern State, which is becoming more and more social both in its spirit and aims. The style is simple and yet energetic, while the appara¬ tus for teaching, such as maps, topics for study, references for reading, and suggestive questions, are admirable. Columbia, S.C., February, 1911 S. C. MITCHELL . PREFACE The history of America is the story of the transforma¬ tion of a country, in brief space of time, from a wilderness occupied by half-naked savages to the home of a great, highly-civilized nation ; it is the history of the growth of an ideal, — a government founded on the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity. Only three hundred years ago the English race and free government were established in the little Jamestown colony. Twelve other colonies, like it in race and principles, grew up along the middle Atlantic coast. The colonies became states, the states formed a confederation, the confederation gave way to a republic of united republics, the republics have been welded into a great and glorious nation. This book is an attempt to tell the story of the Ameri¬ can people in a simple, connected, vivid way, so as to make their history interesting and their past and present prob¬ lems intelligible to young students. American children should learn the history of our country and should under¬ stand its past and present problems, so as to be prepared to accept, in their turn, the sacred trust of its guidance. Events are described with due regard to their rela¬ tive importance. Especial emphasis is laid on the advance in invention, education, science, literature, — the wonder¬ ful progress of peace. It should always be borne in mind that we see events clearly and truly only when we look at them by the light of their own times. Early religious persecutions, British viii PREFACE trade laws, New England’s slave trading, southern slave holding, are to be judged by the standards and conditions of the times, not by those of the twentieth century. The history of America is one of physical, mental, and moral growth and progress. To this growth and progress, each section — north, south, east, west—has contributed and is contributing its part. We must recognize and duly value each and all. The cultivation of sectional egotism, the inculcation of one-sided, narrow-minded views, are great evils to any community. It is hoped that this book will be useful in teaching American history so as to inspire true patriotism and to train children for honest, earnest, intelligent citizenship. PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION This history has been carefully revised and brought up to date. There are a number of slight changes for the sake of clearness and correctness, two new sections have been inserted, there are several new illustrations and maps, and the narrative now includes the first part of the present administration. The titles of the fourth and sixth chapters have been changed: “From Colonies to States” seems a better title than “ War of the Revolution ” for the Ameri¬ can struggle for liberty, which was carried on before and during the Revolution, in legislative halls as well as on battlefields; clearness and continuity are secured by in¬ cluding the sectional strife of 1850 et seq. in the chapter with the “ War of Secession ” and entitling this chapter “ Discord, Secession, and War.” For help in the work of revision, the author thanks Dr. Lyon G. T.yler, Dr. James S. Wilson, Dr. S. C. Mitchell, Mr. R. D. W. Connor, Col. Hilary A. Herbert, and others. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS Every intelligent, conscientious teacher, through per¬ sonal experience and peculiar needs, evolves his or her own methods; but a few suggestions, originating from the author’s own experience in the schoolroom, may be helpful. 1. The teacher’s own preparation should be as thorough as possible. A subject must be definite and vivid to us before we can make it living and interesting to others. 2. Keep always clearly in view what you desire to accomplish. You wish the pupil to know thoroughly the main facts of the history of our country and to understand the causes, effects, and relations of these. You wish this knowledge to develop the child’s character and to inspire intelligent patriotism and a sense of personal responsibility for the good government of the country. How can these ends be best accomplished ? a. The teacher may profitably spend a few minutes on a lesson assigned for preparation, training the pupils to recognize and select the main points and to connect them with what has already been learned, as parts of one story. b. Thorough preparation should be required on the part of the pupil. He should study the subject as presented in his text-book, and this should be the basis of class work. c. The lesson should be assigned and recited by topics. For this purpose the section headings of this text-book will be found helpful. In reciting, the pupil should use his own language, not that of the book, and should be required always to express himself clearly and correctly. He may IX X SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS recite without being interrupted or questioned, and then other pupils may be required to correct misstatements, or to supply omitted facts. d. The training of memory and thought should go hand in hand. The child should learn the facts and relate them clearly as a connected story. He should consider also their causes and results, and look for the connection and se¬ quence of events. It should be borne in mind that the foundations of American history are laid in European his¬ tory,— of which for nearly three hundred of its four hun¬ dred years it was a part. e. Diligent use should be made of “ the two eyes of his¬ tory,”— chronology and geography. The few dates given in the text should be learned thor¬ oughly. Around the main facts, related ones should be grouped. These should be so closely associated that the mention of one event will call to mind connected and con¬ temporary events. Use maps constantly with the text, and keep definitely in view the physical features of the country and their effects on settlement, industries, events, and character. It is a good plan to use an outline map for each chapter, marking on it the chief events of the period. f. Each period, each term, should be taught thoroughly and then its events connected with the past. Important events should be taught by grouping related events in sev¬ eral different ways,—according to subject, geography, and chronology. g. Do not advance too rapidly. Review often. Do not overtax the pupil’s mind or memory, but insist on his grasping and retaining the main facts. Many devices may be used for this purpose. Five minutes’ written exercises on topics are useful. So are questions prepared by the pupil SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS xi h. Interest may be added to the lesson by the judicious use of the Topics for Study. These furnish suggestions for class and individual study. It is not expected that all nor most of them shall be required of each member of any class. i. Sources should be used with care, but they should be used. Each pupil should read contemporary accounts of important events. Illustrative literature has a twofold value: it adds interest to the narration and it develops a taste for good literature. Pictures of scenery, portraits of famous persons, and copies of good pictures should be col¬ lected and observed. Every available means should be used to make events interesting and personalities real. j. The ethical teachings of character and events, should be emphasized. A boy of to-day will not need to lead a colony, like Captain John Smith; but there are always fields in which common sense, energy, and wisdom are needed. First, last, and always, that historical training is best which best prepares the child for his or her duties as an American citizen. • • . CONTENTS CHAPTER I The Beginnings of American History PAGE 1. Physical Features of North America.i 2. The Indians.5 3. The Coming of the Northmen .12 4. Europe in the Middle Ages.14 5. Columbus and Other Discoverers.18 6. Early Explorers.26 CHAPTER II English Colonies 1. Attempts to settle North America.36 2. The Jamestown Colony ..43 3. New England Colonies.57 4. Settlements on the Middle Coast.72 5. Colonial Growth.76 6. Bacon’s Rebellion and King Philip’s War .... 83 7. The Settlement of Pennsylvania ...... 86 8. The Colonies at the End of the Seventeenth Century . . 91 CHAPTER III The French-English Contest 1. King William’s and Queen Anne’s War.102 2. The Settlement of Georgia and King George’s War . . 108 3. The French and Indian War.113 CHAPTER IV From Colonies to States 1. Colonial Discontent.124 2. The Beginning of the War of the Revolution . . . 137 xiii XIV CONTENTS PAGE 3 - The Events of 1776 ...... • 143 4 - The Northern and the Western Campaigns of 1777- 1779 . 152 5 - The Campaign in the South ..... . l6l 6. The End of the War ...... • I69 CHAPTER V The American Republic i. Forming a Government ..... 175 2. Washington’s Terms ...... 182 3 * John Adams’s Term ...... 193 4 - The Republic at the End of the Eighteenth Century I96 5 * Jefferson’s Terms ....... 206 6. Madison’s Terms : The War of 1812 215 7 * Monroe’s Terms ....... 229 8. John Quincy Adams’s Term ..... 236 9 - Jackson’s Terms ....... 241 IO. Van Buren’s Term ...... 249 ii. Harrison and Tyler’s Term ..... 252 12. Polk’s Term: The War with Mexico . 258 CHAPTER VI Discord, Secession, and War I. Taylor and Fillmore’s Term ..... , 264 2. Pierce’s Term ....... 271 3 * Buchanan’s Term ...... 273 4 - Lincoln’s Presidency : The Beginning of the War of Secession 285 5 - The Events of 1862 . . • . # 294 6. The Events of 1863. 310 7 * The Events of 1864. 3 i 9 8. The End of the War. 325 CHAPTER VII National Development I. Johnson’s Term. • t 334 2 . Grant’s Terms. 339 3* Hayes’s Term . . . , 349 CONTENTS xv PAGE 4. Garfield and Arthur’s Term . . . * 352 5. Cleveland’s First Term.354 6. Harrison’s Term.358 7. Cleveland’s Second Term.362 8. McKinley’s First Term : The War with Spain . . . 370 9. The Nation at the End of the Nineteenth Century . . 377 10. McKinley and Roosevelt’s Term ...... 390 11. Roosevelt’s Second Term.396 12. Taft’s Term . ........ 401 13. President Wilson.. . 409 APPENDIX Topics for Study . i List of Books .xxviii Charts and Outlines.xxx Declaration of Independence ..xxxviii Constitution of the United States ...... xlii Index ..lix ' I . . .c'^7 ■ ■ MAPS FULL-PAGE MAPS Early Distribution of Indian Tribes {colored') , . facing u Trade Routes to the East.16 Routes of the Explorers ........ 40 North Atlantic Coast, 1650-1695 ( colored} ... ,,90 America Two Centuries after Discovery ..... 104 South Atlantic Coast, 1650-1695 ( colored ) . . . facing 106 Territorial Changes, 1763 ( colored ) .... „ 122 The Colonies at the Outbreak of the Revolution ( colored ) „ 134 The United States at the Close of the Revolution ( colored} „ 172 The United States in 1803 (colored} .... „ 209 Free and Slave Territory in 1821 (colored} ... „ 233 Territorial Acquisitions, 1783-1853 (colored} . . „ 263 United States and Confederate States (colored} . . „ 290 Territorial Growth of the United States (colored} . following 376 MAPS IN THE TEXT Map of Savage, Barbarous, and Half-civilized Tribes ... 6 Toscanelli's Map ..18 Explorations aiid Settlements during the Sixteenth Century . 34 Land Grants under Charter of 1606.42 Quebec and Vicinity . 120 The Battle of Bunker Hill.141 Clark’s Campaign, 1777-1778.160 Greene’s Carolina Campaign.167 Washington’s March to Yorktown.170 Adoption of Manhood Suffrage.191 Scene of the War in the North.218 British Campaign against Washington, 1814 .... 223 New Orleans and Vicinity.224 xvii MAPS xviii Battle of New Orleans • PAGE . 225 The Mexican War, 1846-1847 • . 259 Charleston Harbor .... • . 286 Routes of the Invading Armies . • . 296 Map of Vicksburg .... • . 298 The Battlefield of Gettysburg • • 3*3 The Chattanooga Campaign • • 315 War Map of Virginia .... • 320 Philippine Islands .... • 372 Operations around Santiago de Cuba . * 372 Profile of the Panama Canal • 393 The Panama Canal .... • 393 Movement of the Center of Population . 402 Map showing Percentages of Population Increase, 1900-1910 • 403 Twelve Federal Reserve Banks and Districts . . . 411 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE CHAPTER I THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY i. Physical Features of North America Physical history of North America. — A country, like a nation, has its history, — its beginning, its slow ages of growth, its great periods of change. By patient study of rocks, plants, and animals, scientists have learned the his¬ tory of our continent. They tell us that ages and ages ago the sea flowed over what is now dry land. By de¬ grees, the land rose out of the water and was occupied by strange plants and wonderful animals. In course of time, the climate changed. There came a long, long winter ; it destroyed plant and animal life and formed a great glacier which covered two-thirds of North America. At last, the climate grew mild again; the gla¬ cier melted and the land was occupied by plants and ani¬ mals like those known to us. People came, we know not when nor whence. They were tribes of wild men who hunted and fought their way across the country. Amer¬ ica was a world to itself, unknown to the people who lived beyond the great oceans which encircled it. It took hun¬ dreds of years for Europeans to learn what every school child now knows about our continent. Coast line. — North America is a great wedge-shaped 2 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE body of land, broad at the north and narrowing toward the south. The eastern coast is indented with bays and gulfs which make good harbors. At the south, the Gulf of Mexico, a great arm of the Atlantic Ocean, extends half¬ way across the continent. Along the northeastern border of the United States is a series of inland seas, the Great Lakes, connected by water-ways with the Atlantic. The eastern coast, with its narrow ocean and many inlets, seems to invite access from Europe. The western coast, on the other hand, presents an uninviting front to Asia. It is washed by the broad Pacific, and its long shore from Can¬ ada to Mexico has few good harbors. Mountain systems. — The chief mountain systems of the continent extend along its eastern and western coasts. On the Atlantic side, there is the Appalachian system, with an average width of a hundred miles and an average eleva¬ tion of 2000 feet. The mountains lie near the New Eng¬ land coast, but at the south there is a wide coast plain which extends westward along the Gulf of Mexico. Near the Pacific lies the Cordillera system. It consists of great table-lands, elevated valleys, and lofty mountain ranges. It has an average width of a thousand miles, and some of its snow-capped peaks rise to a height of nearly 15,000 feet. The Sierra Nevada, the Cascade, and the Rocky mountains are parts of this system. v Rivers. — On the northeastern coast of America, there are two large river systems, the Nelson-Winnipeg and the St. Lawrence; both flow northward and are closed by ice during the winter. The eastern coast is broken by nu¬ merous rivers. In New England, where the mountains are near the shore, the streams are short and rapid; they furnish good water-power, but are not navigable like the longer, slower rivers of the south. On the western coast, there are few rivers. Two mighty streams, the Columbia THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 3 and the Colorado, cut their way through deep gorges to the ocean. In the central valley, there is the Mississippi; Colorado Canon this river and its great, easy-going, navigable branches drain over a million square miles of land. Climate and soil. — Its vast extent and varied elevation give our continent great variety of climate. The winters are generally colder and the summers hotter than in the same latitude in Europe. In most parts of the United States, the rainfall is sufficient to secure good crops. There is, however, a semi-arid and arid region east of the Rocky Mountains. The ocean breezes are deprived of their moisture by the mountains and plains surrounding 4 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE this region, and the rainfall is scanty; in some places, there are months and even years without rain. The soil is varied in character; for the most part, it is fertile. The Mississippi Valley, a vast extent of fertile land with abundant rainfall and favorable climate, is one of the greatest agricultural regions of the world. Mineral resources. — North America is rich in mineral resources. Coal and iron, the most useful, are found in nearly all sections. The Appalachian Mountains are a great coal field, rich also in iron, building stones, pottery clays, and other minerals and metals. The Cordilleras have vast rich deposits of coal, and of iron, silver, gold, and other metals. Vegetation.—The country has varied and abundant vegetation. The most important native plant is maize, or Indian corn, which is cultivated everywhere except in the coldest regions of the continent. Among other native crop plants are the potato, tomato, and tobacco. Wheat, rice, cotton, and most of our domestic plants are natives of the Old World that find here a congenial home. When white men first came to America, most of the country, except the central valley, was covered with forests. Along the eastern coast were forests of white, yellow, and other pines, and of maple, beech, birch, elm, ash, oak, hickory, chestnut, walnut, and cottonwood. In the west are great forests of spruce, fir, hemlock, cedar, yellow pine, and redwood; some of the western trees are hundreds of years old and have attained huge size. Animal life. — Most of our domestic ani¬ mals, like our domestic plants, were brought here from the Old World. The turkey is the only North American animal which has been domesti¬ cated. Among the natives of America are many game Wild Turkey THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 5 birds and game or fur-bearing animals — quail and pigeon, deer, bear, beaver, bison or buffalo, and others. The waters along the coasts, especially the shoals of the north¬ east and northwest, abound in fish. Cod, mackerel, and herring are plentiful in the Atlantic waters; salmon and cod abound in the Pacific. Changes made by man. — In many ways, the natural features of a country influence the life of its inhabitants; the inhabitants also affect the natural features. American forests have been destroyed, and in their places have arisen farms, villages, towns, and cities. Deserts have been sup¬ plied with water by irrigation, and instead of barren wastes there are gardens, grain fields, and orchards. Swamps have been drained and made productive. Harbors and rivers have been dredged and deepened, and the courses of streams have been changed. Plant and animal life has been greatly changed by human agency. Most of our flowers, crop plants, orchard trees, and domestic animals, and many of the birds and weeds most familiar to us, are natives of other countries. They have been brought here by man, either intentionally or unin¬ tentionally. Summary. —North America is rich in natural advantages, and well adapted to be the home of a great nation. Its chief native crop plants are Indian corn, the potato, tomato, and tobacco. Most of our domestic plants and animals have been brought here from the Old World. 2. The Indians Indians of North America.— The rich natural resources of America are just beginning to be used, for we are the youngest of the great nations of the world. A few hundred years ago, our forefathers were living in England and other countries of Europe; they had not seen nor 6 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE even heard of this great continent. The only inhabitants of North America were the people whom we call Indians. There are still Indians in this country, but now they live chiefly on western lands set apart for them by our gov¬ ernment. Four hundred years ago, they roamed over the whole conti¬ nent of which their race had been masters for hun¬ dreds, perhaps thousands, of years. Yet they were not numerous. Fam¬ ine, disease, and fierce and frequent wars prevented their rapid increase. East of the Missis¬ sippi River, there were only a few hundred thousand peo¬ ple, probably fewer than are now in one city like Baltimore. The Indians of the United States had no records to give us information about their origin and early history. We can only describe them as they were when white men first came to this country. In general appearance, the Indians of different sections were much alike. They had A Typical Indian Face THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 7 copper-colored skin, small black eyes, high cheek bones, and coarse, straight, black hair. There were, however, many tribes which differed in appearance, language, and customs. Savage tribes. — In the north and northwest, there were savage tribes which had no settled homes. They moved from place to place in search of fish, game, roots, and herbs which were their food. They made rude shelters of skin or bark, or dwelt, like wild beasts, in holes and caves. Half-civilized tribes.—Very unlike these savage tribes were the partly-civilized ones which inhabited the moun- Puebios in New Mexico tainous country from New Mexico and Arizona southward to Chili. They depended on agriculture for food, and raised crops of maize and vegetables. They made pottery and were skilled in the art of weaving; some of these tribes had a sort of picture-writing and knew how to work soft metals. Their homes were built of wood, stone, or adobe, — that is, sun-dried clay. 8 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE To protect themselves against neighboring savage tribes, some of these Indians built their homes on steep cliffs along the streams. These houses were perched like swallows’ nests on the rocks and were reached by ladders or steep paths. They consisted of several stories, one rising behind and above another like steps. Inside were many little rooms, crowded together like cells in a great honeycomb. Sometimes one, two, or even three thousand people lived in one of these village houses. The Spanish name for these strongholds is pueblos , meaning ‘villages,’ and the people who live in them are called Pueblo Indians. Some tribes in New Mexico and Arizona still have such houses and lead lives much like those of their fore¬ fathers. Barbarous tribes. —The Indians most interesting to us are the half-savage or barbarous tribes that occupied the eastern part of the United States and were the helpful friends or the deadly foes of the white men who settled the country. These barbarous Indians lived in rude huts or in wigwams made of poles covered with skins or bark; these dwellings were grouped together in villages from which the men wandered far and often in hunting and fighting parties. Their tools and weapons. —The use of iron was unknown to the Indians, and they made their tools and weapons of wood, stone, and bone. Their weapons were bows and arrows, spears, wooden clubs, and stone axes. Their household goods consisted of some skins or mats for beds and a few pots and dishes made of wood, clay, or soap¬ stone. Some of the northern tribes made light, strong canoes of birch bark; the bark was fastened on a cedar frame by means of roots or deerskin strings. The south¬ ern Indians used ‘dugout ’ boats. These ‘ dugouts ’ were made of logs hollowed by burning the wood and scraping THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY it with j-ude knives of stone or shell; sometimes they were large enough to carry thirty or forty men. Wampum.— Like other barbarous people, the Indians were fond of bright colors and ornaments. They loved to streak their bodies with paint and to adorn themselves with ornaments of shells and feathers. Beads of shell, called wampum, were strung to¬ gether into necklaces, bracelets, and belts. The color and arrangement of the beads had certain meanings, and wampum served as records as well as ornaments. It was used for money also, but this was a matter of small importance. A little copper, certain kinds of clay and stone, and beads of seashells were the chief articles of trade. The stream, field, and forest were the storehouses from which the Indians obtained food and clothing. Occupations of men.— As fishing and hunting supplied their chief needs, these occupations were not sports, as with us, but work. The men, or ‘ braves,’ roamed about the country, — fishing, hunting, and fighting. When not busy with these duties, they spent their time sleep¬ ing, gambling, playing games, danc¬ ing, making weapons or canoes. Occupations of women. — The duties of the Indian women, or Wampum ‘squaws,’ were many and varied. They made the clothes of the family,—shirts or mantles, waist cloths, leggings, IO SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE and moccasins of skins, usually deerskin or buffalo hide. They collected dry sticks and kindled a fire by rubbing two sticks together or by striking one hard stone against another. In the ashes they baked sweet potatoes, ears of corn, and bread made of dried corn pounded into meal; game and fish were roasted on the coals or boiled in pots made of clay; a favorite dish was succotash, a stew of corn and beans. The women planted, cultivated, and harvested the little crops of corn, beans, pumpkins, and tobacco. These were raised on patches of fertile ground, cleared by burning or girdling the trees. The soil was tilled with rude plows made of sharpened sticks and with hoes made of stone or shells fastened to sticks. The Indians had no domestic animals except dogs, which were used for hunting and for food. Children. — Indian babies, or * papooses,’ were wrapped in skins and tied on wooden frames till they were old enough to walk. These papooses were laid on the ground or carried about on their mothers’ backs. Children wore no clothing except in winter when they had deerskin shirts. When they were four or five years old, the girls began to help their mothers. The boys learned to run, swim, play ball, and use the bow and arrow; they delighted in sports which prepared them to join their fathers in fishing and hunting parties and on the warpath. Indian traits. — Their outdoor life made the Indians hardy and active, quick of eye, keen of ear, and gave them great powers of endurance. They could travel seventy-five miles a day, with no food except a handful of corn. They could go in a straight line through the tangled forest, guided by the growth of moss and trees. Trampled turf or a few broken twigs informed them as to the whereabouts of game, the number and movements of an enemy. They . I Wnfa ■'/} \ s>ix, ^>,„r p" *kaii> tl XJWlin; ■ l ^d.N.'V jjJHftNVvv AlJ, V THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY II lived and died bravely, and bore hardship and suffering with patient courage. They seldom fought in the open, however, preferring secret attack from ambush or by night. They were cruel and revengeful; they seldom forgot or forgave an injury, and they delighted in scalping their enemies and in torturing their prisoners to death. The Indians had little idea of a supreme God, but they looked forward to a future life in a happy hunting ground. As a rule, they were superstitious; they believed in signs and dreams, and worshiped the powers of nature, personi¬ fied as animals. Government. — In general government and habits, the eastern tribes were much alike. Several related families usually lived together in the same wigwam or house. These families formed a clan. The clan was generally named for some animal from which its members claimed to be descended, and had, as its mark or badge, an image of this animal, called a totem. Each clan chose its own chief to lead it in war and its own sachem, or ruler, for time of peace. These chiefs had little power except the influence which their eloquence or courage gave them. A number of clans having the same language formed a tribe governed by its council of sachems. Tribes related in language formed a group called a family. Muskhogean, Algonquins, and Iroquois. — The eastern In¬ dians belonged to three great families which included many tribes. In the south were the Muskhogean, who occupied a fertile country and had farms and villages. Most of the country from the Carolinas to Hudson Bay was inhabited by the Algonquins, the most numerous of the three families and the one with which the English settlers came first into contact. Most of our adopted Indian words — such as wigwam, squaw, papoose, wam¬ pum, moccasin — are from Algonquin dialects. 12 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE Scattered among the Algonquins, there were tribes of Iroquois, the ablest and most warlike of the eastern Indians. Many of the Iroquois ‘ long houses,’ cabins of logs or bark, were large enough to hold twenty or thirty families. Their tribes south of the Great Lakes were united in a confederacy called the Five Nations; it was said to have been formed by an Iroquois hero, Hiawatha. Mound Builders.—In the United States, especially in the Ohio Valley, there are thousands of great earthen mounds. Some are square, some are round, some are shaped like serpents, birds, or beasts. Pipes, weapons, and vessels of various kinds have been found in these mounds. It was once thought that they were erected by a race which has disappeared; now, the general belief is that the Mound Builders were the ancestors of the people found in America by the white men. Summary. — The Indians were the early inhabitants of North America. There were savage tribes in the north and northwest, partly- civilized tribes in the southwest, and barbarous tribes in the east. The men of the barbarous tribes spent their time fishing, hunting, and fight¬ ing ; the women did the work at home and raised the little crops of corn, beans, pumpkins, and tobacco. The Indians were gathered together in clans, each led by its own war chief and its sachem. A number of clans formed a tribe, and tribes related in language formed a family. The three chief families of eastern Indians were the Muskhogean, the Algon¬ quins, and the Iroquois. 3. The Coming of the Northmen Northmen.—While Indian tribes roamed over North America, our forefathers were living in Europe. It is thought that the Northmen were the first Europeans who visited this country, and that they discovered it by accident. These Northmen lived hundreds of years ago in Scandi¬ navia, the northwestern part of Europe. They were iooo] THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY !3 skillful, fearless sailors, like their descendants, the Danes, Norwegians, and Swedes. The Northmen discov¬ ered Iceland and settled it about the ninth century, — that is, between the years 800 and 900. A century later, they established a colony on the coast of Greenland. Discovery of Vinland [1000]. —About the year 1000, a ship going to Ice¬ land from Greenland was driven southwest by storms, and the sailors saw an un¬ known land to the west. The next year, Leif Erik- son, called ‘ Leif the Lucky,’ sailed with thirty-five men to seek the shores of which his countrymen had caught a glimpse. He landed on the northeastern coast of America and explored the coun¬ try. The Northmen found‘self-sown wheat’ — probably wild rice — and such quanti¬ ties of wild grapes that the land was given the name Vinland, meaning ‘ wine land.’ For some years, occasional voyages were made from Greenland to Vinland. These became less and less frequent and From Statue by Anne Whitney Anally Ceased. The Northmen forgot LeifErikson their western discovery, and so far as the An Old Buried Ship discovered in Scandinavia 14 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE world was concerned, their voyages were as if they had never been made. The land they had found was lost again. Century after century, the great continent lay un¬ visited, forgotten. Only the old sagas, or stories, of Ice¬ land kept record of the discovery of the far western coast of ‘ Vinland the Good.’ Summary. — The old Icelandic sagas say that the Northmen came to the coast of North America about the year 1000. They called the country Vinland. They made no permanent settlement, and in course of time their discovery was forgotten. 4. Europe in the Middle Ages European trade with Indies. — The story of the Indians, the early inhabitants of our country, forms only a small part of its history. Its discovery by the Northmen was merely an incident. The history of the American people really begins with Europe in the Middle Ages. The Middle Ages is the name given to the period of time beginning about the eighth century and ending in the fifteenth with the invention of the printing press and the discovery of America. In early times, Europe was occupied by many little warring tribes. As civilization and Christian¬ ity spread, nations were formed which grew strong and rich. Trade increased. There was growing demand for spices, drugs, silk, sugar, ivory, pearls, diamonds, and other things which were found in the Indies, as southeastern Asia was called. These goods were not brought directly from the Indies to Europe; they came by long, slow, and difficult routes and changed hands many times on the way. They were conveyed by camel caravans across the deserts and mountains of central Asia or by sail or row boats over the stormy, pirate-haunted Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf. At last, they reached seaports on the Mediterranean or the 1453] THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 15 Black Sea. Thence, they were carried by ships to Euro¬ pean ports. Gradually, two cities on the Italian coast, Venice and Genoa, gained control of the eastern trade. It was said that no one could season a dinner without adding to the profits of one of these cities. Marco Polo’s travels. — In the thirteenth century, eastern Asia was visited for the first time by a European. This was Marco Polo, a native of Venice. He spent twenty years in Asia; at one time, he ruled a province under the authority of the Great Khan, or king of the country. In a book about his travels, Polo described the wide extent and vast wealth of the Great Khan’s possessions. He told about the huge cities and swarming people of Cathay, or China, where he lived many years. East of Asia, he said, there was an ‘Ocean Sea,’ on which he had sailed. Near the Asian coast, there was an island kingdom, Cipango, or Japan, which he did not visit, that he was told had palaces “entirely roofed with fine gold” and paved with golden slabs. Polo described truthfully what he saw, but he repeated many extravagant tales which he heard. His story was so wonderful that at first people regarded it as a mere fairy tale ; as they learned more about the East, they found that so much of his tale was true that they began to believe it all. Bold adventurers longed to visit Cathay and Cipango and bring back their treasures. Trade routes seized by Turks. — Instead of carrying out these plans, it seemed as if Europeans were to lose even their trade with the Indies. In the fifteenth century, the fierce, barbarous Turks made themselves masters of west¬ ern Asia and gained control of the trade routes to eastern Asia. They captured Constantinople [1453] which was the great trade center. Sometimes they demanded heavy toll from the traders; sometimes they plundered caravans i6 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE Trade Routes to the East The dark part of the map shows parts of the eastern hemisphere unknown at this time. The whole western hemisphere was undiscovered. THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 17 and killed or enslaved the men engaged in the traffic. They made trade so difficult and dangerous that Euro¬ peans began to seek new routes to the East. Europeans seek new routes. — Naturally, the first plan was to sail around Africa. The Portuguese were the first to attempt this all-sea route. Prince Henry, called the Navigator, sent out expedition after expedition in search of a way around Africa to the Indies. Some ships went only a short distance down the long coast, others sailed hundreds of miles, but in the end all turned back. The sailors were discouraged by the seemingly-endless stretch of land. Their small ships were not built for long, rough voyages ; they had no charts nor maps to guide them, and they were just beginning to use the mariner’s compass. Even if it were possible, the voyage around the vast con¬ tinent of Africa would be long and slow. Was there no shorter route to the East ? Some wise men said that there was ; they said that a ship could sail west and reach the eastern shore of Asia. Beliefs about earth’s shape. — Most people then believed that the earth was flat, like a plate, and that if any one went to the edge, he would fall off. They said that the great Sea of Darkness, inhabited by dreadful monsters, circled around the known land. Many learned men, how¬ ever, laughed at these tales and asserted that the world was round. If this were true, of course if a man traveled far enough in any one direction, he would come back to the place from which he started. The scientists were right about the shape of the earth, but most of them made two mistakes. First, they thought that the earth was smaller than it really is, and so they supposed the western route to be much shorter than it is ; second, they did not know that there was a great continent in the ocean between Asia and Europe, and 18 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE so they supposed that seamen could sail straight west to Asia. Summary. — During the Middle Ages, Europe carried on an im¬ portant trade with the Indies in silks, spices, and other things. This trade was interrupted by the Turks during the fifteenth century, and Europeans sought new trade routes. Some scientists believed that the earth was round, — not flat, as most people thought, — and they said that eastern Asia could be reached by sailing across the western ocean. Marco Polo, a Venetian who visited China during the thirteenth century, said that there was an open sea east of the country. No one knew that between Europe and Asia lay the great continent of America. 5. Columbus and Other Discoverers Columbus and Cabot. — Bold seamen began to plan voy¬ ages across the western ocean in search of a new route to Asia. Foremost among the men who made such plans were two Italian seamen, Christopher Columbus and John Cabot. Both were natives of Genoa, the Italian city which had grown rich by the eastern trade and which was suffer¬ ing heavy loss from the Turkish control of the trade routes. THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 19 At Genoa there is still to be seen the house in which Columbus passed his childhood. A tablet bears this in¬ scription : “No home more worthy! Here under his father’s roof Christopher Columbus passed his boyhood and youth.” Young Columbus went to sea when he was about fourteen and became a daring and expert sailor. “Wherever ship had sailed, there have I journeyed,” he said, in later years. Columbus plans a western voyage. — In the course of time, he began to plan a voyage across the western ocean, where, so far as he knew, no ship had sailed. If he had ever heard of Vinland and the Northmen’s western voyages, he attached no importance to them. He was seeking, not The Fleet of Columbus a northern land of grapes and ‘ self-sown wheat,’ but the Spice Indies of the south and Cathay and Cipango de¬ scribed by Marco Polo. The more Columbus thought about 20 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1492 the subject and studied maps and charts, the more con¬ vinced he was that the world was round and that he could reach Asia by sailing westward. He tried in vain to get the king of Portugal to help him carry out his plan. Then he sent his brother to seek aid in England and in France. He himself went to present his cause to the king and queen of Spain. After many years, King F'erdinand and Queen Isabella agreed to aid his en¬ terprise. He obtained three small vessels, called caravels, — the Santa Maria , the Pinta , and the Nina. The three Columbian Exposition Model A Caravel carried only ninety men, but it was hard to secure even this small number. The wisest men of the kingdom had said that the plan of this “ foreign upstart ” was “ vain and impossible.” No wonder the common people distrusted it. They felt that to go forth on the unknown Sea of Darkness would be taking their lives in their hands. But at last the needed sailors were secured. Some were won by rewards, some were forced into service, some were taken from jails. Columbus’s first voyage [1492].—Columbus set sail from Palos, a Spanish seaport, one summer morning in The Landing of Columbus 22 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1492 1492. He carried with him a compass, a letter from the king and queen of Spain to the ruler of Cathay, and a year’s provisions. Instead of following the coast, as all mariners before him had done, he struck boldly out across the Atlantic, the dreaded Sea of Darkness. Day after day, week after week, he “ steered west and sailed day and night.” In vain his fearful, turbulent crew urged him to turn homeward. One night, ten weeks after he left Palos, Columbus saw a flickering light in the distance ; the next morning, October 12, there lay before him a fair shore “very level, with very green trees and many streams.” Columbus went ashore, fell on his knees, kissed the earth, and gave thanks to God. Then he drew his sword, unfurled a banner, and took possession of the land in the name of the king and queen of Spain. This land was one of the Bahama Islands. Columbus thought that he had reached the Indies ; so he called the natives of the country Indians, the name which they retain to this day. He cruised about and discovered Cuba, Hayti, and other islands. Then he returned to Spain to carry news of his discovery which was proved by the display of people, plants, birds, pearls, and gold ornaments from the new land. He was loaded with honors, and a second expedition was promptly fitted out. His second voyage [1493]. — Instead of seeking criminals for a crew, he chose his companions among gentlemen and nobles. Five hundred men in seventeen vessels accom¬ panied him on his second voyage. They thought that the newly-discovered country was the treasure land described by Marco Polo, and they were eager to take possession of its gold, gems, silks, and spices. Instead of these, they found “ a wilderness peopled with naked savages.” They were disappointed and angry, and quarreled with Columbus. 1497] THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Line of Demarkation.—Spain and Portugal, the two chief seafaring countries of Europe, agreed to divide the New World between themselves. The division was to be made by a line, called the Line of Demarkation, run¬ ning north and south through the Atlantic. It was said that lands discovered east of this were to belong to Portu¬ gal, lands west of it were to belong to Spain. Other nations, however, did not acknowledge the exclusive right of Spain and Portugal to the New World, and they, too, sent out expeditions. Cabot’s voyages [1497, 1498]. — The king of England gave John Cabot and his three sons permission “to sail to all parts, countries, and seas of the east, of the west, and of the north.” They were not given authority to sail to the south; Spanish seamen had discovered the southern lands, and Spain had a strong navy to make good its claim to those regions. John Cabot was a bold Ital¬ ian seaman who had made his home in England “to follow the trade of merchandise.” With “ one little ship of Bristol and eighteen men,” he set sail in the spring of 1497. He crossed the stormy Atlantic, reached the coast of North America, which he thought was a part of Asia, and took possession of the country in the name of the king of England. Cabot saw no people, but he found snares for game, needles for mak¬ ing nets, and other signs of inhabitants. He was amazed at the multitude of fish along the coast, and reported that they were so numerous that they “almost crowded one another out of the water.” John Cabot 24 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1498 The next spring, John Cabot, or his son Sebastian made a second voyage with fifteen ships and explored the coast from Labrador southward. The English were disappointed at finding icebergs, fish, and fur-bearing animals where they expected gold and spices, or at least a passage to Asia. For years, they made few explorations and no settlements in the country and valued it only as “a codfish coast.” The banks of Newfoundland were visited every year by fishing expedi¬ tions from England and France. Columbus’s third voyage [1498]. — Meanwhile, Spanish expeditions went southward in search of the Indies. Co¬ lumbus, on his third voy¬ age, took a southerly course, and reached the mainland of South Amer¬ ica, which he supposed to be a part of Asia. He went on to the West Indies. There the dis¬ content against him be¬ came so violent that he was sent back to Spain in chains, like a criminal. Vespucci’s voyage [1497-1499?]. — About the time that Columbus made his third voyage, the coast of South America was visited by an Italian merchant, Amerigo Ves- Columbus in Chains pucci, or Americus Vespucius, according to the Latin form of his name. Vespucci wrote an interesting account of the country. He and others thought that this was a new con- 1499 ] THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 25 tinent, and that the land which Columbus had discovered was Asia or islands off its coast. A German geographer called the southern continent Americi terra , or the land of Americus, from the traveler who described it. The name America finally came to be applied to both the great western continents. Da Gama’s voyage [1499]. — While seamen from Spain and England were exploring the shores of America, a Portuguese sailor named Da Gama sailed around the coast of Africa, went to India, and returned to Portugal laden with spices, silks, and ivory. His cargo proved that he had reached the land which Columbus had sought. Columbus’s fourth voyage [1502]. — Da Gama’s discov¬ ery of a sea-way to India made Columbus more bent than ever upon finding a western route. He secured ships and men to make a fourth voyage. The story of this his last voyage, as told by his son who took part in it, is a sad one of famine, disease, tempests, mutinies of his crew, and quarrels with the natives. Columbus cruised along the coast of Mexico rich in treasures which would have brought him fortune and favor; but in search of the western sea route he passed them by. Worn-out with hardships and disease, he returned to Spain. He died two years later, believing to the last that the lands he had discovered were islands off the coast of Asia, and that he had found only a new route to the Indies. But the world was greater than he thought — and so was his discovery. Summary [1436-1502].— Expecting to reach Asia, Christopher Columbus sailed in 1492 across the Atlantic. He discovered some of the West Indies. He made three other voyages, discovering other is¬ lands and touching the coast of South America. Columbus was fol¬ lowed across the western ocean by other navigators. North America was discovered in 1497 by John Cabot, a seaman from England. South 26 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1513 America was visited and described by Amerigo Vespucci, and in his honor the name America was given to the New World. Da Gama, a Portuguese navigator, sailed around Africa and discovered an all-sea route to India. 6. Early Explorers De Leon visits Florida [1513]. — At first, nothing seemed too wonderful to tell and to believe about the New World. Men said there was in it El Dorado, a land of gold. “ Gold is more plentiful there than copper is with us. . . . All their dripping pans are pure gold . . . and as for rubies and diamonds, they go forth on holidays and gather them by the seashore to hang on their children’s coats and stick in their children’s caps.” Another story said that there was in the New World a fountain the waters of which gave everlasting youth to whoever drank of them. Gray-haired Ponce de Leon, who had accompanied Co¬ lumbus on his second voyage, sailed in search of the Foun¬ tain of Youth. On Easter Sunday, he landed on a sandy peninsula, beautiful with live oaks, palmettos, magnolias, and many flowers. Disappointed and gray-haired still, he turned from its shores; for nowhere in the fair land which he called Florida could he find the fountain that he sought. Balboa discovers Pacific Ocean. — The year that De Leon visited Florida, Balboa, a Spanish navigator, explored the Isthmus of Panama. From a mountain peak, he beheld a broad ocean. He made his way to the shore; clad in armor, he waded into the ocean and took possession of it in the name of the king of Spain. Magellan’s ship sails around globe [1519]. — Six years later, Magellan, a Portuguese navigator in the service of Spain, started on an eventful voyage. Passing through the strait which now bears his name, he struck out boldly across the western ocean which he called Pacific, meaning isio) THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 27 ‘ peaceful.’ He discovered the Philippine Islands, and there he was killed in a skirmish with the natives. His ship continued its westward course. After a three-years’ cruise, it returned to Spain with a crew of eighteen half-starved men, the first seamen who ever made the circuit of the globe. Their voyage did more than discover a western route; it proved positive¬ ly that South America is a continent and not a part of Asia. Spanish conquests. — In the New World, the Spaniards found at last the treasures that they craved. They discovered the pearl fisheries of Ven¬ ezuela and the gold and silver mines of Mexico and Peru. They robbed native homes and temples and graves of their treas¬ ures, never seeming to think that the Indians had any rights which ought to be respected. The stories of the con¬ quest of Mexico and of Peru by little bands of Cortez, the Spanish Conqueror of Mexico Spanish adventurers are sad tales of the cruelty of the invaders and the sufferings of the natives. A Spanish writer says, “With mine own eyes I saw kingdoms as full of people as hives are of bees, and now where are they ? . . . almost all have perished.” “ The men perished in the gold mines with hunger and 28 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1528 labor, the women perished in the fields under whips and cudgels.” To supply hardier laborers for the mines and fields, negroes were brought from Africa. Thus be¬ gan the curse of negro slavery in the New World. Explorations in United States. — In search of new treas¬ ure lands, the Spaniards explored the country to the north. The stories of Narvaez, De Soto, and Coronado, the first explorers of the United States, are records of wonderful hardships, courage, and cruelty. Narvaez’s expedition [1528]. — Narvaez landed in Florida with about four hundred men, provided with food enough to last only a few days. He marched through the pathless wilderness, expecting to find kingdoms and treasures; in¬ stead, he found fierce, hostile Indians lurking in swamps and forests. After suffering severely from hunger and disease, at last the Spaniards reached the Gulf of Mexico. There they built frail boats and embarked. They were shipwrecked in a storm and only four men escaped. After eight years and a pitiful, wonderful journey of 2000 miles, these men made their way to a Spanish settlement on the Pacific coast of Mexico. They had walked across the con¬ tinent, had been among many tribes of Indians, and had heard tales of cities rich in gold. De Soto’s expedition [1539]. — Cabeza de Vaca, one of the four survivors of Narvaez’s band, met in Mexico a young daring Spanish soldier, Hernando De Soto. De Soto had gone to the New World with “ nothing else of his own save his sword and his shield ”; he had taken part in the conquest of Peru and had gained a vast fortune. He listened with interest to the story of Cabeza de Vaca’s journey, and resolved to explore the northern land, hoping to find treasures like those of Peru and Mexico. It was easy to get adventurers to accompany him. With an army of several hundred men, he landed in Florida one 1539], THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 29 May day eleven years after Narvaez’s ill-fated expedition. He found the Indians of the region, enraged by the cruelty of De Leon and Narvaez, “ as fierce as mad dogs.” De Soto added fuel to the fire of their hatred; an old histo¬ rian says that “ he was much given to the sport of slaying Indians.” Beset by the difficulties which had overcome De Leon and Narvaez, De Soto marched through the country. The exact route that he followed is not known. He wandered for months through the southeastern part of the United States. His men suffered terribly from disease, from In¬ dian attacks, and from lack of food. At last, they reached “a deep and very furious river,” so wide that a man standing on the farther shore could not be distinguished from a stump. This was the Mississippi, so called from an Algonquin word meaning ‘ great river.’ The Spaniards made boats and crossed the stream, wandered through the western country for several months, then returned to the Mississippi. De Soto was stricken with fever and died. To conceal his death from the Indians, his follow¬ ers buried him in the river. They built rude boats and made their way down the river and along the coast. Months later, the survivors of the band reached a Spanish settlement in Mexico. Coronado’s expedition [1540]. — While De Soto’s party was exploring the eastern wilderness, another band of Spaniards was wandering through the west. Coronado left Mexico with an army of three hundred Spaniards and eight hundred Indians, and marched in search of seven rich cities of which he had heard. These cities proved to be Indian pueblos, or cliff dwellings, such as are still seen in Arizona and New Mexico. The Spaniards conquered the Indian strongholds and shot or burned many of their prisoners. Continuing their journey, they went probably 30 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1540 as far as central Kansas. They found streams flowing through great rocky chasms, and wide, treeless plains over which roamed bands of fierce Indians and vast herds of “ crook-backed cows,” as they called the buffalo or bison; Supposed Buffalo Real Buffalo but nowhere did they find gold and cities. After travel¬ ing weary hundreds of miles, they returned at last to Mexico. Verrazano’s voyage [1524]. — France, like England, refused to recognize the right of Spain and Portugal to divide the New World between themselves. * Where was the will,’ asked Francis I., the French king, ‘by which Father Adam had made them his sole heirs? ’ King Francis sent Verrazano, an Italian seaman, to explore the coast of America. The first voyages of western discovery for each of the four great nations — Spain, Eng¬ land, Portugal, and France — were made by Italians — Columbus, Cabot, Vespucci, and Verrazano. The decline of Italian commerce had thrown out of employment many seamen who turned to other nations for occupation. Ver¬ razano was the first navigator to explore and describe the coast of the United States. He sailed along the shore from North Carolina to Newfoundland and took possession of the country, which he called New France, in the name of the French king. Cartier’s voyages [1534]. — Ten years later, Jacques Cartier, a bold French seaman, crossed the Atlantic in 1534] THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 31 search of a northwestern route to Asia. Cartier explored the northern coast and entered “a goodly great gulf” which he named St. Lawrence. The next summer, he returned and sailed up the St. Lawrence River. He built a rude fort upon the heights where Quebec now stands, and ascended the river as far as the site of Montreal. French attempts to make settlements. — An unsuccessful attempt was made to establish a colony in Canada. Later, French Protestants called Huguenots made two unsuccess- The Spanish Gate, St. Augustine ful attempts to settle on the southern coast. The first settlement was in South Carolina, called Carolana in honor of the French king, Charles IX. This settlement was destroyed by fever and by famine which reduced the colo¬ nists to such straits they ate their shoes and leather jackets. The second attempt at settlement was in Florida. This colony was destroyed by a band of Spaniards who built, in 1565, a fort at St. Augustine — the beginning of the 32 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1565 city which is the oldest permanent settlement in the United States. English sea captains. — In two ways, the English got a share of the New World treasures. One was by a slave trade, bringing negroes from Africa and selling them to the Spaniards. English seamen, however, found an easier way of getting treasures than by the slave trade. They took advantage of the fact that Spain and England were on unfriendly terms, and they preyed on the Spanish ships An Old English Warship bearing gold and silver from Mexico and Peru. One little English ship would attack a huge Spanish vessel, or even a whole fleet, and bear off its treasures. For daring cour¬ age, the English sea captains of the sixteenth century have never been surpassed. Drake’s voyage around world [1577]. — The most famous of these seamen was Sir Francis Drake whom the Span¬ iards called “the Dragon of the Seas.” On an expedition to Panama, he heard about the great western ocean which Balboa had discovered. Drake climbed to the top of a 1577 ] THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 33 tree and thence beheld the broad Pacific; immediately he resolved to “sail once in an English ship on that sea.” Five years later, he started on his famous voyage around the world. On the way, he attacked Spanish ships and settlements and captured vast stores of treasure. At one time, we are told, his men, “ being weary, contented them¬ selves with as many bars and wedges of gold as they could carry, burying above fifteen tons of silver in the sand and under old trees.” The old records give exact lists of the treasures taken ; but of the countries visited they say only that the seamen “saw many strange birds, beasts, fishes, fruits, trees, and plants too tedious to mention.” With only one ship, Drake passed through the Strait of Magellan and up the western coast of America. He entered “ a fair and good bay ” on the California coast. In the name of the English queen, Elizabeth, he took possession of the country, which he called New Albion. After sailing northward as far as Oregon, he turned to the southwest, crossed the Pacific, and returned safe to Eng¬ land. Spain in New World, — Thus, explorers from Spain, England, and France sailed along the coast of America, touching here and there, claiming for the nations that they represented the regions visited. Spain, indeed, claimed the whole western continent; the western ocean was called the ‘ Spanish Main,’ and seamen who sailed there under the flag of any other country were put to death as pirates. For fifty years, Spain held the foremost place in America. It sent forth the men who discovered the New World, found the Pacific Ocean, made the first circuit of the globe, coasted along the Atlantic and Pacific shores, and explored the interior. Love of adventure and of gold brought the Spaniards by thousands to the New World, especially to the south where they found countries rich in 34 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1588 gold, silver, and gems, and inhabited by unwarlike, easily- conquered people. Spain gained vast wealth and for a while it prospered. But in the sixteenth century, its power declined. Its rich Dutch provinces rebelled and won their independ¬ ence. Later, it came into conflict with England on the sea. Again Spain lost. The defeat of its Great Armada [1588] by the courage and skill of English seamen and by the tempests of the northern seas was a blow from which Spain never recovered. This defeat cleared the way for the English and other nations to settle America. Results of explorations. — America had been discovered near its narrowest part, and this was explored ; for a long time, men did not know that it broadened at the north and the south into great continents. Year after year, seamen sailed up and down the coast, entering bays and rivers, hoping at each indentation to find a water-way to the Pa¬ cific. Explorers wandered to and fro in the land, pene- THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 35 trating forests, crossing streams, climbing mountains, following great canons, crossing “ mighty plains and sandy heaths, smooth and wearisome and bare of wood.” In spite of sea voyages and land explorations, people remained, for more than a century, ignorant of the size and shape of North America. Slowly but surely knowledge grew. As years passed, men accepted North America for what it was, — a place the treasure of which must be of their own making. Wealth and cities and nations were to be there, but they were not to be discovered. They were to be built up and created; and the task required patience, perseverance, hard work, and business methods. . Colonies were to be es¬ tablished in the wilderness, and the only firm and safe foundations for colonies are agriculture and trade. Summary [1513-1588]. — By slow and painful degrees and many explorations, people learned the size and character of North America. The first explorers were Spaniards, — De Leon who visited and named Florida, Balboa who discovered the Pacific, and Narvaez, De Soto, and Cbronado who explored the United States. The ship of a Spanish captain, Magellan, made the first circuit of the globe, but an English¬ man, Sir Francis Drake, was the first sea captain to make that voyage. The first French explorers were Verrazano who visited the eastern .coast of America, and Cartier who discovered the St Lawrence Gulf and River. The first permanent settlement in the United States was made, in 1565, at St. Augustine, in Florida, by the Spaniards. CHAPTER II ENGLISH COLONIES i. Attempts to settle North America Spain, England, and France in North America.— Nearly a century had now passed since the discovery of the New World. The Spaniards claimed the whole northern con¬ tinent, but they made few attempts to occupy the regions explored by the ill-fated expeditions of Narvaez, De Soto, and Coronado. Their only settlements north of Mexico were at St. Augustine in Flor¬ ida and at Santa Fe in New Mexico. While Spain was busy seek¬ ing treasures in Mexico and South America, England and France attempted to settle the eastern coast of North America. England wished to have colo¬ nies there in order to offset the Spanish colonies and to develop English commerce. Love of adventure and hope of gain made men join expeditions to the New World, just as these motives lead them to-day to explore Africa or to go to the gold fields of Alaska. Ralegh and Gilbert—A foremost part in the work of “western planting” was taken by Sir Walter Ralegh. Ralegh was a courtier, scholar, author, soldier, and states- 36 ENGLISH COLONIES 37 * 584 ] man, one of the bravest and most brilliant Englishmen of the sixteenth century. By his efforts to settle America he earned the title of ‘ the father of English coloniza¬ tion.’ Ralegh, however, was not the first Englishman to under¬ take to colonize America. He was preceded by his half- brother, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who obtained from Queen Elizabeth a patent, or written permission, for “planting and inhabiting certain northern parts of America,” which were claimed by England on account of the discoveries of Cabot. Gilbert came to America, but on his homeward voyage he was overtaken by a tempest, and in the stormy September night his little vessel went down. Some of his fellow-voyagers escaped. They told how calmly Sir Hum¬ phrey met death, reminding his comrades, “ We are as near to heaven by sea as by land.” Ralegh took up Gilbert’s patent and devoted his for- “ *“ ^ - tune and energy to the effort to “ plant an English nation in America.” Voyage of exploration [1584]. — The year after Gilbert’s fatal voyage, Ra¬ legh sent an expedition to explore the coast in search of a suitable site for a colony. The Englishmen reached Roanoke Island, off the coast of North Carolina, and found the natives friendly and hospitable. After a two-months’ visit, the explorers described the land as “ the most plentiful, sweet, fruitful, and wholesome of all the world,” and the people as “ most An Indian Town 38 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1584 gentle, loving, and faithful . . . and such as live after the manner of the golden age.” In honor of Elizabeth, called the Virgin Queen, the name Virginia was given to the middle coast of North America. Ralegh’s first colony [1585].—The next year, Ralegh sent a hundred men to settle on Roanoke Island. This first English colony in America was badly managed, and in a few months the colonists returned to England. They took with them some American plants, the uses of which they had learned from the natives. These were Indian corn, which “maketh a very good bread,” tobacco, which the Indians said “would cure being tired,” and potatoes which “when boiled had a goodly taste.” ‘ The Lost Colony ’ [1587]. — Sir Walter Ralegh sent out another colony with Captain John White as governor. Instead of being composed of men, like the first band, this included some women and children. Soon after they landed, Mistress Dare, one of the colonists, had a daughter. This first child of English parentage born in America was named Virginia Dare. Soon Captain White returned home for needed supplies. England was preparing to fight the great Spanish Armada, and it was three years before White could get supplies and return to Roanoke Island. He found the place “ desert, tenantless, and silent.” Of over a hundred persons, not one remained. The only trace left by them was the word “ Croatoan,” the name of an Indian tribe, carved on a tree. Whether the settlers had been killed by Indians, had died of famine and disease, or had been carried off and adopted by an Indian tribe, no one knew. No one knows to this day. Ralegh resigns his patent. — Ralegh found that the estab¬ lishing of a colony was too great an undertaking for one person; so he gave up his patent to a company in London. ENGLISH COLONIES 39 1608] “ I shall yet live to see it an English nation,” he said. He did live to see an English colony established north of Roanoke Island. In course of time, the flourishing colony of North Carolina grew up on the coast to which he had sent ship after ship. In his honor, its chief city was named Raleigh. French settlement at Quebec [1608]. — While the English were trying to settle the middle coast, the French were send¬ ing expeditions to the northern coast which they claimed on account of the discoveries of Verrazano. For nearly a century, their fishing vessels had frequented the northern waters, and by degrees a fur trade had sprung up with the Indians. A French company was organized to carry on this trade, and posts were established on the St. Lawrence River, the gateway to the fur country of the north. Early in the seventeenth century, a settlement was made at Quebec. Of the twenty-eight settlers, twenty died the first winter. For many years, the colony had to struggle with hardships and lack of supplies. “ We ate our peas by count,” said its founder, Samuel de Cham¬ plain. Champlain — Champlain is well called ‘the father of New France.’ For a quarter of a century, he held the foremost place in French ex¬ ploration and colonization. There is no more attractive figure in the early history of America than this brave, gentle, daring, self-sacrific¬ ing, capable, Christian gentleman. His visit to Lake Champlain [1609]. — Champlain made friends with the Algonquins, his Indian neighbors along the St. Lawrence. The summer after Quebec was founded, he 3MV3Q SCALE OF MILES O 200 400 600 800 1000 Columbus ♦ ♦o + + 1st voyage, 1492-’93 »oo<>ock>o 2d voyage, 1493-’96 'ceccGc 3d voyage, 1498-1500 oonoooc 4th voyage, 1502-’04 Cabot, 1497-’98 oo. o-o-o Vespucci, 1499 ::::::::: De Leon, 1513 == = = = Verrazano, 1524 _Narvaez, 1535 _Cartier, 1534-35 e>.&•&•> De Soto, 1529-’42 _>_>_>_» Coronado, 1540-’41 . Drake, 1579 .* + ++ + Hudson, 1610-’ll Champlain, 1615-16 = x=x= Joliet and Marquette, 1673 _ De La Salle, 1681-’82 1609] ENGLISH COLONIES 4 i accompanied a band of them on an expedition against the Iroquois who occupied central New York. The French explorer wished to visit a region which the Indians had de¬ scribed to him, “ a large lake filled with beautiful islands, and with a fine country surrounding it.” On the western shores of this lake, now called Champlain, the Algonquins met the Iroquois in battle. Champlain with his musket aided his friends, and the Iroquois, who had never before seen firearms, fled in terror from ‘ the stick ’ which sent forth noise and smoke, wounds and death. But it was a costly victory for Champlain and his nation. From the time he fought beside the Algonquins, the fierce Iroquois tribes of the Five Nations were the deadly enemies of the French. Except for this quarrel with the Iroquois, the French were on good terms with the natives. They adapted them¬ selves to Indian character and customs, and often adopted native dress. French traders seeking furs and French missionaries teaching the Christian religion went in and out of the wigwams, as friends and brothers. Virginia Company [ 1606 ].—Two years before the French founded Quebec, an English company, called the Virginia Company, was formed for the purpose of coloniz¬ ing the middle Atlantic coast. Their victory over the Great Armada made Englishmen more inclined than ever to disre¬ gard Spain’s claims to the New World. So they planned to take possession of part of it, hoping to find gold mines and expecting great profits from a trade with settlers and Indians. The Virginia Company obtained from King James I. a charter giving it permission to establish colonies in America. The country to be settled was so extensive and so many men shared the enterprise, that the Virginia Company was divided into two parts. One part was called 42 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1606 the Plymouth branch because it was composed largely of men from Plymouth; to this was granted the right to settle the land from latitude 41 0 to 45 0 , — that is, from Long Island to Nova Scotia. The other part was called the London branch because it was composed largely of men from that city; to the London Company was granted the land from 34 0 to 38°, — that is, from Cape Fear to the mouth of the Potomac River. The strip of land between the two grants was open to both companies and was to belong to the one which first settled colonies there. Both companies sent out colonies soon after the charter was obtained. Popham Colony [ 1607 ]. — The Plymouth Company sent to North Virginia a colony, called from one of its leaders ‘the Popham Colony.' The settlers, landing in summer on the Kennebec River, were pleased with the country and climate as they then appeared. But disappointment and despair followed. During the long severe winter, the Englishmen suffered terribly from cold, famine, and sickness. They returned home with such dismal tales of the “ cold, barren, moun¬ tainous, rocky desert,” that it was years before another attempt was made to settle there. Summary [1579-1609]. — Toward the end of the sixteenth century, the English tried to establish colonies on the middle coast of America, which they called Virginia. The leader in this effort was Sir Walter Ralegh. After several unsuccessful attempts, he resigned the undertak¬ ing to a company. This Virginia Company organized two branches, the Plymouth and London. Meanwhile, the French were carrying on a fur trade with the Indians in Canada. They established trading posts and a colony at Quebec. The leader of the French colonists was Champlain. ENGLISH COLONIES 43 1606] 2. The Jamestown Colon? Colony sent by London Company [ 1606 ].— The attempt of the London Company to make a settlement was more successful than that of the Plymouth Company. A band of colonists was sent out in three small ships,— The Good Speedy the Sarah Co 7 istanty and the Discovery. These colonists meant to land on, or near, Roanoke Island, but they were driven northward by storms. They entered Chesapeake Bay and sailed up a river which they called James in honor of their king. Weary of the long months on shipboard, they viewed with delight the broad stream with its banks gay with blossoming dogwood and redbud, and fair with meadows and forests. “ The low shores were covered with flowers of divers colors; the goodly trees were in full foliage and all nature seemed kind.” Landing at Jamestown [May 13 , 1607 ].—The colonists decided to settle about fifty miles from the mouth of the river. This situation was safer than one on the coast which was apt to be visited by foes, French and Spanish. On May 13, 1607, the little band landed and laid the founda¬ tion of a town called Jamestown. This little English settlement was the beginning of our great nation. Colonists.—There were a hundred and five men to make a colony ‘and not one woman to make a home/ Half the number were registered as ‘gentlemen,’ — men of good birth “ that never did know what a day’s work was.” They came to enjoy a life of adventure, seeking gold and a water-way to the west, and they were ill fitted for the rough labor of planting a colony. The other col¬ onists were men of more useful sort, — tradesmen and mechanics. All were ignorant of the soil, climate, and conditions of the new land. These things they had to learn by slow and painful degrees. 44 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1607 Government. — The colony was governed by a council, one member of which was elected president. The settlers were to have the same rights and be ruled by the same laws as their fellow-citizens at home in England. For five years, however, they were to use the ‘ common-stock ’ sys¬ tem,— that is, land and supplies were to be held in com¬ mon, instead of being owned by individuals. This seems a bad plan since it made the idle and the industrious share alike, but at first all had to depend for food and clothes on the supplies brought from England. First church. — One of the first things provided was a church. Captain Smith, one of the colonists, described it thus: “We did hang an awning (which is an old sail) to three or four trees, to shadow us from the sun, our walls were rails of wood, our seats unhewed trees till we cut planks, our pulpit a bar of wood nailed to two neighboring trees. . . . This was our church till we built a homely thing like a barn.” First year at Jamestown. — Soon after the English landed, they were attacked by Indians, “ creeping from the hills like bears, with bows in their mouths.” They were driven off, but for years the colony had to be on guard against them. There was, too, the fear of the Spanish, who claimed the whole coast. Any day they might come to destroy the English colony in Virginia as they had destroyed the French one in Florida. The Spaniards wished, indeed, to “ drive these villains out and hang them ” ; but, remember¬ ing the fate of their Great Armada, they feared to renew the war with England and did not go beyond threats. The little colony had more serious troubles than Indian attacks and fears of Spaniards. The settlement had been made in a marshy, mosquito-infested, unhealthful place, and there was much sickness. The colonists suffered, too, from lack of food. At one time, they had only “ half a ENGLISH COLONIES 45 1607] pint of wheat and as much barley boiled with water for a man a day, and this . . . contained as many worms as grains.” The first summer, famine and disease destroyed half the colony. There were not enough well men to care for the sick and to bury the dead. Bodies were “ trailed out of their cabins like dogs to be buried.” Captain John Smith.—The ability and energy of one man probably saved the colony from ruin. This was Captain John Smith, one of the councilmen appointed to govern the colony. _________ about years old He was thirty and had led a roaming, eventful life. As a lad, he fought with the Dutch against the Spaniards; then he wandered east to fight the Turks and to travel in many countries. He came home to England, with wonderful tales of his adventures by land and sea, just in time to join the expedition to Vir¬ ginia. He was Captain John Smith vain and boastful, but able and energetic, “ brass without, but gold within.” He led the colonists in planting crops, felling trees, and building huts. He made friends with the Indians and persuaded them to trade corn and game 46 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1607 for beads, bells, knives, and cloth. He explored many of the streams flowing into Chesapeake Bay and made maps of the coast. Pocahontas. — In an expedition up the James River, Captain Smith was made prisoner by the Indians. He was carried before a great war chief called the Powhatan, an old man “ well beaten with many cold and stormy winters.” Captain Smith tells us that he was sentenced to death and that the war club was raised to kill him. Then Pocahontas, the little daughter of Powhatan, threw her arms around the white man and begged his life. At her request, he was spared; later, he was allowed to return to his friends at Jamestown. Such is Captain Smith’s story. The Indian maiden became the faithful and helpful friend of the English. More than once when food was scarce “the dear and blessed Pocahontas,” as the English called her, came with attendants bringing baskets full of corn. She came also, “ by stealth in the dark night through the wild woods,” to warn the English of an intended attack by her countrymen. “ Shee, next under God, was the instrument to preserve this Colonie from death, famine, and utter con¬ fusion,” says an old historian. Second year at Jamestown. —The second year found the ENGLISH COLONIES 47 1608] Jamestown colony in a sad condition. There was still much suffering from sickness and want of supplies. New colonists had come over, among whom were some work¬ men and many ‘ gentlemen’. Captain Smith wrote home to the Company: “When you send again, I entreat you rather send thirty carpenters, husbandmen, gardeners, fishermen, blacksmiths, and diggers-up of roots, well pro¬ vided, rather than a thousand of such as we have.” By the vessel which carried this letter, Captain Smith sent a manuscript, the True Relation of Virginia . It was a description of the country, which he had written in the intervals of tree cutting, house building, trading, and ex¬ ploring. This was the first English book written in the United States. In the autumn, Captain Smith was made president of the colony. Under his wise, vigorous government affairs improved. He made idlers work, saying, “You must obey this now for a law : He that will not work shall not eat.” The ‘gentlemen’ labored heartily, though the axes “blistered their tender fingers.” Strict order was kept. At night, a can of cold water was poured down the sleeve of each man for every oath that he had uttered. American colonies in 1608 . — The winter of 1608 found the English one of three European nations occupying the northern part of America. Far to the north at Quebec in Canada or New France were the French; at St. Augustine in Florida and at Santa Fe in New Mexico were the Spanish; between the French and the Spanish was the little Eng¬ lish colony at Jamestown in Virginia. No one could say which nation would finally control the great continent; the chances seemed in favor of Spain. Smith’s return to England. — The next year, several hundred colonists came to Virginia, and Captain Smith returned to England. For two years and a half, the 48 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1609 “ dear noble captain and loyal hearte,” as his men called him, had played his part bravely and wisely at Jamestown. He never came back to that colony, but a few years later he explored the northern coast to which he gave the name New England. He described its wealth in fur, fish, and lumber, and made a map of the coast. After this, he remained quietly in England, writing books about his adventures and the countries he had visited. Hudson’s first two voyages.— Not long before Captain Smith left Jamestown, he wrote a letter about America to Henry Hudson, a fellow-Englishman. In this letter, he expressed his belief that north of the James River there was a waterway leading to the western ocean; in proof of this, he sent a map which he had made of the region. This letter was of great interest to Hudson. In the year that Captain Smith went to Jamestown, Hudson had ex¬ plored the coast of Europe in search of a northeast passage to Asia. On this and on a second voyage, both undertaken for English merchants, Hudson was turned back by bar¬ riers of ice. Hudson’s third voyage [ 1609 ]. — He was asked to make a third voyage for the Dutch East India Company. Holland sent out more trading vessels than all the other countries of Europe, and most of these vessels were under the control of the great East India Company. They brought tea, coffee, spices, silks, and other merchandise from Asia and the East Indies. On their long, roundabout voyage south of Africa, they passed and repassed their enemy, Spain, and their trade rival, Portugal, in constant danger of attack from both. So the Dutch merchants sent Hudson ‘ to find an easier route to the Spice Islands.’ Hudson was again baffled by the ice barriers off the northern coast of Europe. Instead of returning home, he determined to go in search of the western passage men- i6og] ENGLISH COLONIES 49 tioned by Captain Smith. With one little ship, the Half Moon, manned by about twenty Dutch and English sailors, he struck out boldly across the Atlantic. He sailed along the northern coast of America, examining bays and rivers. He discovered the Delaware River and explored a beautiful river, now called Hudson in his honor. The country The Half Moon on the Hudson River seemed to him “ as fair a land as was ever trodden by the foot of man” and the natives a “sensible and warlike people.” These were Iroquois Indians whose friendship Hudson won by giving them biscuit and rum; in return E 50 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1609 they brought him tobacco, wampum, venison, and furs. Only a few weeks before, Champlain had made the Iroquois his enemies by joining an Algonquin war party against them. New Netherland.—The Dutch claimed the country which Hudson had explored, and called it New Netherland. They established trading posts and bought furs from the Indians, giving in exchange beads, knives, hatchets, and The Dutch Colony of New Amsterdam gay-colored cloth. The first Dutch settlement was a fort and trading post on Manhattan Island [1613]. Around this, there gradually grew up a “little group of huts.” This village became a town, called New Amsterdam ; now, it is the great city of New York. Hudson’s fourth voyage. — The spring after his Dutch voyage, Hudson was sent out again by English merchants, this time in search of a northwest passage to Asia. He explored the northern coast of America and entered the bay and strait which bear his name. That autumn, his ship was shut in by ice and the crew suffered severely from cold, famine, and sickness. The next summer, he l6og] ENGLISH COLONIES 51 wished to continue his explorations, but his men were re¬ solved to return home. They mutinied and put Hudson, his little son, and some sick men in a small boat. The boat drifted off on the summer sea and was never heard of again. An old Dutch legend says that the castaways came safe to shore and made their home in the fair land which Hudson had discovered. Meanwhile, how were affairs at Jamestown ? Starving Time in Virginia [1609-1610].—When Cap¬ tain Smith left the colony, it seemed securely established. It contained over fifty houses and about five hundred people. But affairs were badly managed and the colony was soon in sore straits. By unwise dealings, the Indians were made unfriendly, and they refused to sell corn to the white men. The colonists were reduced, says one of their number, to feed on “ roots, herbs, acorns, walnuts, berries; now and then, a little fish . . . yea, even the very skins of our horses.” They ate more loathsome food, — rats, snakes, and even dead bodies. With famine came sick¬ ness. At times, there were not more than five or six men able to work. During the terrible months called the Starving Time, the colonists were reduced from five hundred to sixty. Delaware saves the colony. — The survivors resolved to leave Jamestown and go to the Newfoundland fisheries, whence they could get passage home. They embarked, but on their way down the James River they met ships bringing supplies and colonists. The commander, Lord De la Warre, or Delaware as the name came to be written, persuaded the colonists to return to the abandoned settle¬ ment. When he landed at Jamestown, he fell upon his knees and thanked God that he had come in time to save the colony planted for the “ welfare of the kingdom of God and the kingdom of England.’* 52 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1612 Governors Gates and Dais. — Lord Delaware remained in Virginia two years and then left the colony to be gov¬ erned by Sir Thomas Gates and Sir Thomas Dale. They were severe but able and energetic rulers. Idlers were flogged, and death was the penalty for robbing a garden of flowers or vegetables or for killing a fowl or domestic animal. The common-stock system was put aside. Each man had land assigned him and owned all his crop, except two and a half bar¬ rels of corn which he was required to contribute to the common granary. Tobacco-growing in Virginia. — Dur¬ ing these first five struggling years, the Virginia colonists experimented with many things, trying to raise rice, olives, silk, and other Old World crops. At last, a profitable native crop was found. This was tobacco. Tobacco had been introduced into England from Ralegh’s colony on Roanoke Island, and its use had spread rapidly throughout Europe. The weed was supposed to have a medicinal value, and its use became a fashionable habit. At first, tobacco was obtained only from the Spanish settlements. John Rolfe, one of the Jamestown settlers, observed that the plant was raised by the Virginia Indians, and he thought that it might be cultivated as a market crop by the colonists. The experi¬ ment was made. The tobacco grew well, was of good quality, and commanded a high price. Prosperity of colony. — In spite of the Company’s efforts Tobacco Plant ENGLISH COLONIES S3 l6l2] to keep them secret, tidings of the colonists’ hardships had reached England. Tales of famine, of fevers, of Indian attacks, of the terrible Starving Time, of the stern rule of Gates and Dale, were told and lost nothing in the telling. It was difficult to get settlers to go to the colony. Some¬ times men sentenced to be hanged for theft or other petty offenses, according to the severe English law of the day, refused pardon when it was offered on condition that they go as servants to Virginia. But now there was a change. Tidings crossed the seas of the profits in raising tobacco and of the growing pros¬ perity of the colony. Hoping to make their fortunes, people came to Virginia and took up plantations. At first, only men came. They found the country pleasant and the tobacco crop profitable; they began to regard Virginia as home and brought over their families. To provide wives for unmarried men, the Company sent out a ship¬ load of young women of humble birth but good character. These became the wives of colonists who paid their pas¬ sage— not with money, but with tobacco. Coin was sc&rce and tobacco was the currency of the colony; with it men paid debts and salaries, and bought food, clothes, and tools. Great Charter [1619]. —Up to this time, Virginiahad been a trading colony, governed by rules made by the Virginia Company. Now the Company granted it a new charter, called the Great Charter. This said that, in addition to the governor and council appointed by the Company, Virginia was to have an assembly of its own to make its laws. This assembly was to be composed of members chosen to represent the different settlements, or ‘boroughs,’ as they were called. First General Assembly. — On Friday, July 30, 1619, there met in the church at Jamestown the first elected law-making body in America. That little assembly was 54 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1619 the parent of our great national Congress. Each of the eleven Virginia boroughs sent two burgesses, as represent¬ atives to the assembly, — hence it was called the House of Burgesses. Introduction of slavery. —The year that the first House of Burgesses met, Jamestown was the scene of another event that was of widespread importance, but this one was the beginning of evil and trouble. “The last of August,” says Rolfe, “ there came in a Dutch manne of war that sold us twenty negars.” These negro slaves were savages from the west coast of Africa, where the people worshiped devils, fought like wild beasts, and ate or enslaved their captives. These savages were very imitative and were easily taught some civilized habits, and trained to work in the fields. They proved useful servants. Dutch and English vessels brought shipload after shipload of them to Virginia and to other English colonies as others were settled. Life in the colony. — For the time, Virginia prospered and many people came to make homes there. P'ifteen years after the colony was established, it had over twelve hundred settlers. There were few villages; Jamestown was the only town in the colony. Most of the people were engaged in the cultivation of tobacco and lived on farms and plantations along the streams which served for highways. Each plantation had its own * landing,’ or wharf, to which ships came to bring goods and to get cargoes of tobacco. The colonists obtained from Eng¬ land most of their clothing, household goods, tools, and other supplies. They were too busy raising tobacco to take time to make such things for themselves. Massacre of 1622. — P'or years, the colonists were on friendly terms with the natives. They traded together, and the red men went freely in and out the white men’s houses and towns. But at heart the Indians were hostile. They re- 1622] ENGLISH COLONIES 55 sented being treated as inferiors by the English ; they re¬ sented the clearing of the forests where they were accustomed to hunt, the occupying of the meadows where they were ac¬ customed to camp and fish. They feared that the English, who were increasing in numbers and power, would become masters of the country. Opecancanough, who had suc¬ ceeded the earlier Powhatan as chief, resolved to destroy them. Several Indian tribes united in planning a general massacre. After four years of preparation, the blow fell and fell as from one hand. On the same day and at the same hour, an attack was made on all the Virginia settlements; at sunset, three hundred and fifty white men, women, and children lay dead. After this, there was distrust, hate, and war between the two races. Year by year, the English drove the savages farther back, up the streams, into the forests, across the mountains. At every opportunity, the Indians attacked the English and destroyed unprotected families and border settlements. Company’s charter withdrawn [1624]. — At the end of fifteen years, the English colony was firmly planted, but it was rooted in graves ; famine, disease, and massacre had destroyed four-fifths of its settlers. The ill fortune of the colony gave King James an excuse to interfere in its affairs. He accused the Virginia Company of mis¬ managing matters, and its charter was withdrawn. King James took control of the colony, promising that it should enjoy all its former rights. The chief change was that the governor and council were appointed by the king instead of by the Company. The colony continued to elect its assembly to make its own laws. This assembly claimed the power of taxation, declaring,' “ The governor shall not lay any taxes .. . .. 56 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1624 otherwise than by the authority of the General As¬ sembly.” What the Jamestown colony accomplished. — Our nation rests to-day on the foundation laid three hundred years ago by the handful of capable, liberty-loving Englishmen who settled Jamestown. For thirteen years, Jamestown The Church at Jamestown, showing in the Foreground the Tower built in 1642-1645 was the only English colony in America. Its people “brake the ice and beat the paths” in the wilderness. They underwent many hardships while they were learning to adapt themselves to conditions in the New World, but they built their colony on firm foundations; it had a profit¬ able industry and a free government. Farms, plantations, villages, iron works, churches, and a law-making assembly were established and a university was planned. Summary [1607-1624]. — The first permanent English settlement in America was made, in 1607, at Jamestown in Virginia. The colony suffered much from famine, sickness, and mismanagement. 1620] ENGLISH COLONIES 57 Tobacco became the main crop and proved so profitable that the colony built up steadily. The chief events in the early history of Virginia took place in 1619; these were the introduction of slavery and the establishment of a general assembly, a law-making body elected by the people. Two years after Jamestown was founded, Henry Hudson in a Dutch ship explored the coast between the Delaware and Hudson rivers. The Dutch called this country New Netherland, and established posts there to carry on a fur trade with the Indians. 3. New England Colonies Religious conditions of seventeenth century. — About the time that Jamestown was founded, the people who were to make the second English settlement in America went from England to Holland. These were the members of a church, or congregation, who moved about so much that they came to be called Pilgrims, — that is, people who travel, usually from religious motives. Religious conditions in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were very different from those of our time. We have religious freedom,—that is, a man may believe and teach what he pleases, go to church or stay at home as he chooses, and pay or not pay to support a minister. Three hundred years ago, religious freedom was almost unknown. Nearly every country had its established church, or form of religion, and all people were required to attend and sup¬ port this church. It was thought that to let people believe and worship as they pleased would destroy all law and order. In England, there was a national church called the Church of England. People were required to submit to its govern¬ ment, just as they were required to submit to the government of the state. Some men were dissatisfied with the Church of England. They wished to free it — or purify it, as they said — of certain forms and doctrines. These men 58 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1620 were called Puritans. Others went farther. They so dis¬ liked the forms and doctrines of the established church that they were unwilling to remain members of it, and they formed religious congregations of their own ; because they separated themselves from the Church of England, they were called Separatists. These Sepa¬ ratists were fined and imprisoned for refusing to attend and support the established church. Pilgrims. — To escape this harsh treatment, a little band of Separatists, called Pilgrims, went to Holland where people were allowed more religious freedom than in any other country of Eu¬ rope. Most of these Pilgrims were tradesmen and mechanics; they were sober, earnest, hard-working people and got on well with the thrifty, industrious Dutch. Other English Separatists joined them until their band had several hun¬ dred members. But they were not contented in Holland. Though they were kindly treated, they were strangers in a strange land. They loved their English speech and cus¬ toms, and wanted their children to grow up English and not Dutch. Good reports were now coming from the English colony at Jamestown. So the Pilgrims decided that they would go to the New World and make a settlement where they could establish their own church. They obtained from the Virginia Company a grant of land on the coast of New Jersey. They were so poor that they had to borrow money for the expenses of their expedition. As they could not afford to carry all their congregation, a part remained ia Holland. The Puritan ENGLISH COLONIES 59 l62o] Voyage of Mayflower [1620]. — One hundred and two men, women, and children set sail for America in a single small vessel, the Mayjloivcr. One of the band was Cap¬ tain Myles Standish, who was not a member of the congre¬ gation but who liked the Pilgrims so Well that he went with them. He became their mil¬ itary leader and served them as bravely and faith¬ fully as Captain John Smith had served James¬ town. After a long, stormy voy¬ age, the Pilgrims approached land far north of that Th z Mayflower for which they had a grant; they wished to turn southward, but the weather was bad and the surly captain was unwilling to make a longer voyage. The Pilgrims, therefore, decided to establish their colony on the coast of Massachusetts. Their grant did not apply to this territory. So, before landing, they drew up an agreement to make and obey such laws as they needed. First year at Plymouth. — On December 21, 1620, the men landed at Plymouth on a bleak, ice-bound coast. One of their number says: “They fell upon their knees and blessed the God of heaven, Who had brought them over the vast and furious ocean. . . . For the season it was winter and . . . what could they see but a hideous and desolate wilderness, full of wild beasts and wild men ? ” The first work was to build a large log house, called the 6o SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [i6ai Common House ; as soon as this was finished, the women and children came ashore. During the first winter, the Pilgrims suffered terribly from cold, famine, and illness. Over half the little band died. At one time, only seven men were well enough to work. These men, rough soldiers like Standish, nursed the sick, cut firewood, cooked, washed, and did all the other work, “and all this willingly and cheerfully.” Fortunately, Indian attacks were not added to other hard¬ ships. Massasoit, the chief of a neighboring tribe, made with the white men a “ treaty of friendship ” that was kept as long as he lived. Friendly natives taught the colonists how to catch fish and to raise Indian corn. The Mayflower returned to England in the spring. In spite of the hardships of the winter, not one of the Pilgrims went back. They were busy building cabins, planting gar¬ dens and fields, fishing and hunting to obtain food, — estab¬ lishing homes in the wilderness. In the autumn, they celebrated their harvest and the end of the year in America by a feast — the first Thanksgiving. Year after year, this festival was observed, and it came at last to be a national holiday. Plymouth settlement. — At first the Plymouth settlers, like those at Jamestown, owned land, goods, and live-stock together. In both colonies, this common-stock plan was a failure. After a few years, the Pilgrims abandoned it and divided land and property, so that each man might have the reward of his own labors. After this, the colony was more prosperous. The people found out what sort of crops to raise and how to raise them on the poor, stony soil; they established fisheries along the coasts and trading posts among the Indians. Ships that brought supplies and col¬ onists from England were sent back laden with lumber, salt fish, and furs. 1627] ENGLISH COLONIES 61 A Dutch visitor described the Plymouth colony when it was seven years old. He said that the houses of good hewn plank stood in little gardens along the streets. At the top of a hill, there was a square, strong building in which the Pilgrims held their church meetings and their town meetings about the business and government of the colony; on the top of the house, there were six cannon so placed as to command the country and the harbor. When Pilgrims going to Church the Pilgrims went to church or town meeting, they carried with them their matchlock or flintlock guns. These were very unlike the firearms in use to-day. The powder in the matchlock had to be lighted from a burning fuse; the flintlocks had flints which struck fire by hitting against a piece of steel and so set fire to the powder. Other settlements. — In ten years, the Plymouth colony had about three hundred people. Meanwhile, Englishmen settled at other places on the northern coast. There were little bands of timber cutters, fur traders, and fishermen on the Kennebec River in Maine, at Dover in New Hampshire, and at Brattleboro in Vermont. 62 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1622 Two Englishmen, Sir Ferdinando Gorges and Captain John Mason, obtained a grant to the land between the Kennebec and Merrimac rivers. They divided it. Gorges took the eastern part, which he called Maine, and Mason the western part, which he named New Hampshire. Settle¬ ments were established, but they grew slowly. Massachusetts Bay Company. — Meanwhile, affairs in England were in bad shape. The Puritans got on badly with vain, self-willed King James I. and worse with his son, King Charles I., who ruled with little regard for his subjects’ rights. Many Puritans became discouraged with the state of affairs at home and decided that there was “no place left to fly unto but the wilderness.” There was a great emi¬ gration to New England. In ten years, 20,000 colonists came over, most of whom settled in Massachusetts. The Massachusetts Bay Company, formed by Puritan merchants and country gentlemen, bought a large tract of land around the Charles and Merrimac rivers. This tract was to extend westward to the Pacific Ocean, which was supposed to be not far from the Hudson River. King Charles gave the Bay Company a liberal charter [1629], saying that it was to be managed by a governor and a council elected by its members ; these were to make any laws they pleased which did not conflict with the laws of England. The king was not sorry to have the Puritans go to America. They annoyed him at home, and they would be useful in America, keeping the French and Dutch ^way from the territory claimed by England. The Bay Company promptly sent out settlers who founded Salem, Boston, and other towns. Most of the settlers came over in the summer; they found the coast very un¬ like the bleak, ice-bound shore on which the Pilgrims had landed. One of the Bay colonists wrote in his journal, f< What with fine woods and green trees by land, and these 1 1630] ENGLISH COLONIES 63 yellow flowers painting the sea, made us all desirous to see our new paradise of New England.” The second summer, there came ships, bringing a thou¬ sand colonists. One of these ships brought the governor, Mr. John Winthrop, a ‘narrow¬ minded but ever large-hearted ’ gentleman. It brought also the charter of the Massachu¬ setts Bay colony. Nothing was said in the charter about the place of the Company’s headquarters. The king took it for granted that it would be in England. But the Puritans knew that at home they would be exposed to the king’s inter¬ ference. If they displeased , . -r-r• ru / , , , John Winthrop him, King Charles would not hesitate to withdraw their charter, as King James had withdrawn the London Company’s charter six years be¬ fore. Therefore, the officers of the Company went to America and took their charter with them. Snowshoes Early days in Bay colony. —The Bay colonists, like those of Jamestown and Plymouth, suffered many hard- 64 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1630 Moccasins ships at first. Want and the severe climate caused much sickness. Some of the colonists became discouraged and returned to England, but there remained a band of sober, steadfast men. “ God sifted a whole na¬ tion that He might send choice grain out into this wilderness,” said one of their preachers. Until they could raise crops for them¬ selves, the colonists had to depend on supplies from England and on such scanty stores as they could obtain from the Indians. Sometimes they were “ forced to lengthen out their own food with acorns.” At one time, just as Governor Winthrop was dividing his last handful of meal with a needy neighbor, a ship laden with food entered the harbor. Soon matters improved. The cod fisheries off the coast fur¬ nished food and a valuable ex¬ port. Gardens were planted, fruit trees set out, fields cleared and cul¬ tivated, and crops of wheat, rye, and Indian corn were raised. The native grain became the chief dependence, because it A Garrison House at York, Maine, built in 1676 1630] ENGLISH COLONIES 6 5 would grow on rough, half-cleared land where wheat did not flourish. The colonists followed the Indian custom of planting beans and pumpkins in their cornfields. They learned to fish and to hunt in the Indian fashion, and to use canoes, moccasins, and snowshoes, like the natives. They had no domestic animals except the horses, cattle, and hogs brought from England. These were scarce and valuable. In the early histories, the death of a cow or a goat is recorded as duly as the death of a person. Life in New England. — Each New England town had a blockhouse, a strong log house, of which the second story usually projected over the lower one. This served as a fort and a place of refuge from Indian attack. One of the first buildings erected in each settlement was a meeting house, used for religious and business assemblies. The minister was the leading man of the settlement, and only members of the Puritan churches were allowed to hold office or even to vote. Men who spoke against the church or state government were fined, whipped, or banished. 66 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1635 The Puritans had come to America, not to establish a place of religious freedom, but to found a colony governed ac¬ cording to their own views. Opinions about government. — They did not always agree among themselves about matters of government. A party led by Governor Winthrop and Rev. John Cotton thought that most men were so unfit to govern that they ought not to be allowed to vote, and that all power ought to be in the hands of a few. “ The best part is always the least,” Gov¬ ernor Winthrop said, “ and of that best part the wiser part is always the lesser.” Rev. Thomas Hooker and other liberal men thought that all people should have a voice in •the government. Mr. Hooker asserted that “the founda¬ tion of authority is laid in the free consent of the people.” Religious customs. — The Puritan colony had many strict religious customs. No meals were cooked on Sunday, and the people all went to the meeting house — which was unwarmed in the coldest weather—to listen to long hymns, long prayers, and long sermons. It was thought sinful to gather flowers on Sunday or to walk in the fields for rec¬ reation. People who traveled on that day were arrested and fined. Boys bringing home the cows were told to ‘ let the bars down softly as it was the Lord’s day.’ Under its stern rule, the Bay colony became “a model place of steady work and clean living. Nowhere else in the world would you hear so few oaths uttered, or see so few idle or drunk or begging.” Schools. — A school was established in Boston a few years after it was founded [1635], anc ^ soon each settle¬ ment had a school. These were for boys only; girls might learn at home to read and write, but they were expected to spend most of their time in housework. The first college in the colonies was Harvard [1636], named after Rev. John Harvard who left it his books and half his ENGLISH COLONIES 1636] 67 estate to educate the “ youth of this country in knowledge and godliness/’ Harvard College Trouble about charter. — King Charles was willing to have the Puritans settle in America, but he did not wish a strong Puritan state to be built up there. His law courts decided that the Massachusetts Bay Company’s charter should be withdrawn and that the colony should be made a royal province, like Virginia. The magistrates at the Bay were so unwilling to give up their charter that they re¬ solved to resist by force of arms. Fortunately for them, other affairs and disputes at home kept the king from sending troops against his unruly subjects in America. For some years, the colony went on undisturbed, governing itself according to its charter. Settlement of Connecticut [1636]. — In course of time, the Puritans made settlements in other parts of New England. So many of these were made by people from Massachu¬ setts that this colony is called ‘the mother of New 68 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1636 England.’ One of the first bands of settlers from Massa¬ chusetts was led by Rev. Thomas Hooker. These settlers drove their cattle and carried their children and household goods to the fertile Connecticut Valley. It took ten days to make the ninety-mile journey through the pathless, tan¬ gled forest, steering their course by a compass. They settled at Hartford near a Dutch fort. There they had good meadow lands and a chance to carry out their views about government, which were disapproved by the ruling party at the Bay. They adopted a written constitution [1639], which allowed freemen to vote who were not church members. About the time that Hartford was founded, several bands of colonists came from England to Connecticut. One of these was a Puritan congregation which made a settlement at New Haven. This was ruled by laws even stricter than those of Massachusetts. Only church members were allowed to vote and to hold office. No law was recognized but the Bible ; trial by jury was not used because it was not a part of the law of Moses. Roger Williams. — The year that Mr. Hooker went to Hart¬ ford, the Bay colony was rid of another dissenter, — that is, one who disagreed with the ruling party. This was Roger Williams, a Salem preacher. He said that the land be- Roger Williams ENGLISH COLONIES 6g I636) longed to the Indians, and that neither the king of Eng¬ land nor any one else had a right to grant it away from them ; the settlers ought to buy it from the natives. He said, too, that every man ought to be allowed to vote, and that sensible, upright men ought to be chosen for magis¬ trates without regard to their church membership. He asserted that it is wrong to compel people to attend a certain church or to tax them for its support. The laws of the country, he urged, should prevent and punish crime, not direct religious matters; for their religious views, men should answer only to God and their own consciences. These views seem reasonable to us to-day, but they seemed foolish and wicked to most people then. To keep Williams from spreading these opinions in the colony, the Massachusetts magistrates resolved to send him back to England. Not wishing to return to the motherland, he fled from Salem in the depth of winter and hid with Indians in the forest. Settlement of Rhode Island [1636]. — Afterward, he went with a few companions to the country of the Narragansett Indians, south of the Bay colony. The Narragansett chief gave him a tract of land. Here Williams established the first settlement in Rhode Island; he called it Providence, saying, “ I desired it might be a shelter for persons dis¬ tressed in conscience.” It was to be free to “ Baptists, Protestants, Jews, or Turks, to all men of all nations and countries.” Quakers. — Rhode Island was the only colony in which the people, called Quakers, or Friends, were not persecuted. The Quakers were a religious sect that thought people should lead pure, simple lives. They wore bonnets or broad-brimmed hats and sober-colored clothes, used ‘ thee,’ ‘ thou,’ and ‘ thine,’ instead of ‘ you ’ and ‘ yours,’ in speak¬ ing to one person, and refused to take off their hats as a SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1637 token of respect. The Quakers said the Bible ought to be the only rule of government for people and churches. They thought that it was wrong to take oaths in law courts, to serve in the army, or to pay taxes to support the established church. For refusing to do these things, they were severely punished, — whipped, fined, imprisoned, branded with hot irons, even put to death. Pequot War [1637]. — Not long after Roger Williams settled Rhode Island, he rendered a great service to the colony which had driven him out. At the request of the Pequot Fort Bay magistrates, he went to the council fire of the powerful Narragansetts and persuaded them not to join a war league against the English. This league was planned by the 1637] ENGLISH COLONIES 7i Pequots, a warlike tribe of Connecticut, who urged the neighboring tribes to go with them on the warpath. The Indians, who at first had been friendly, had grown jealous of the increasing numbers and power of the New England settlers. Finally the war whoop took the place of their early ‘ wel¬ come ’; they attacked settlement after settlement. At last, the colonists made an expedition against the Pequot strong¬ hold, a collection of wigwams surrounded by a log stockade, or fence. They guarded the two entrances and threw lighted torches over the stockade to set fire to the wigwams within. The inmates were burned or killed as they tried to make their way out. Of over four hundred Indians, only five escaped ; most of the remaining members of the tribe were shot or captured and made slaves. By this severity, the other Indian tribes were overawed. For forty years, there was peace in New England. Union of four New England colonies [1643]. — Soon after the Pequot War, the colonies of Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, and New Haven formed a union, called the “ United Colonies of New England,” which lasted forty years. Each colony kept charge of its own affairs, but acted with the others against the Indians and in other matters of common interest. Perhaps this union was suggested to the colonies by the Dutch republic, formed of free united states, where the Pilgrims had lived so many years. Rhode Island charter. — The four united colonies were, as they said, “ all in church fellowship.” They did not ask Rhode Island to join the union. The year that the confederacy was formed, Roger Williams went to England to secure a charter for his colony. He returned the next spring with a charter for “ Rhode Island and Providence Plantations.” 72 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1621 Summary [1620-1644]. — In 1620, the second English settlement in America was founded at Plymouth, Massachusetts, by the Pilgrims. They suffered many hardships, but by degrees they prospered and built up a thriving trade in lumber, salt fish, and furs. Other colonies were established along the New England coast. There were a few scattered settlements in Maine, Vermont, and New Hampshire. The most pros¬ perous New England colony was Massachusetts Bay, founded by English Puritans. Settlements were made at several places in Connecticut, — the chief ones being at Hartford by settlers from Massachusetts, and at New Haven by an English congregation. Roger Williams established the first settlement in Rhode Island and made it a place of religious freedom. The Pequot Indians made war on the New England settle¬ ments, but were defeated. Soon after this war, the colonies of Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, and New Haven formed a union for defense and common action. 4. Settlements on the Middle Coast New Netherland. — While the English were building up colonies in Virginia and New England, the Dutch were taking possession of the region that they called New Nether¬ land. Their colony grew steadily though slowly compared with their New England neighbors, to whom settlers came by shiploads and congregations. A Dutch West India Com¬ pany was organized on the same plan as the great East India Company. It established trading posts where agents were stationed to collect furs and timber. Furs were the 1626] ENGLISH COLONIES 73 money of this settlement, as tobacco was of Virginia, and they were used in the payment of debts and salaries. Wampum was used for small change. There were in the Dutch colony some great landowners called ‘patroons.’ A patroon was granted a large tract of land on condition that he bring over as settlers fifty grown persons within four years. The patroons lived in handsome style on their vast estates, served by negro slaves and surrounded by tenants. Most of the Dutch set¬ tlers were small farmers and thrifty, hard-working trades¬ men whose wives were neat housekeepers and good cooks. The Dutch built comfortable homes, and had fat cattle, well-tended gardens, and yards gay with flowers, especially tulips, lilies, and roses. They were fond of sports and brought to America their native amusements, — coasting, skating, and sleighing, — their habit of making New Year’s calls, their celebration of Christmas by the visit of Santa Claus, and of Easter with colored eggs. They were reli¬ gious, intelligent people and built churches and established schools at New Amsterdam and elsewhere. Like other people of the times, they had strict laws. There were ducking-stools for scolds, and slanderers were punished by having a red-hot iron run through the tongue. Governor Minuit. — The first governor of New Nether- land was Peter Minuit, a wise and capable man. He made friends with the Indians and paid them for the land occupied by the Dutch. For the island of Manhattan, he gave cloth, beads, knives, and hatchets to the value of twenty-four dollars. The Indians thought themselves well paid for the island which was a small part of their vast possessions. Dutch and English claims. — In the course of a few years, the English settled near the Dutch on the Connecti¬ cut River. Both nations claimed the land. The English 74 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1638 asserted that the whole coast belonged to them by virtue of Cabot’s discovery; the Dutch claimed the territory on account of Hudson’s explorations. Swedes settle Delaware [1638]. — The Swedes also occu¬ pied territory claimed by the Dutch. Led by Peter Minuit, some Swedes landed on the west bank of the Delaware River and bought from the Indians a tract of land which they called New Sweden. There they made a settlement, called Fort Christina in honor of their young queen. This was the first settlement in what is now Delaware. Lord Balti¬ more’s colony.— Meanwhile, Vir¬ ginia also had new and unwel¬ come neighbors. They were of the same race as her settlers but of a different re¬ ligion. The laws of England at that time re¬ quired all men to conform to the established church. Many Puritans who were unwilling to conform to the Church of England took refuge in New England. George Calvert, Baron Baltimore, planned to establish in America a colony where Roman Catholics might have liberty of belief and worship. 1632] ENGLISH COLONIES 75 For this purpose, he obtained from the king a grant of land north of the Potomac River. Over this territory, he was given almost absolute power. He was to pay to the king two Indian arrows every year and one-fifth of the gold and silver found in the territory. Lord Baltimore died before he could send a colony to his American estate. His sons, Cecil, the second Lord Baltimore, and Leonard Calvert, carried out his plan. Settlement at St. Mary's [1634]. — Leonard Calvert brought a band of colonists to the province which was called Maryland in honor of the queen of England. A tract of land was bought from the Indians for ‘a few hatchets and hoes and a little cloth/ and a settlement was made called St. Mary’s. The site chosen was a de¬ serted Indian settlement where there was good cleared land. The first year’s crop provided the settlers corn for their own use and a surplus to trade in New England for salt codfish. Early days in Maryland. — In its early days, Maryland was spared many of the troubles which beset the other colonies. The people had plenty of food, fairly good health, and freedom from Indian attack. The region was occupied by the mild Delawares whose good will the set¬ tlers won by justice and kindness. They had troubles, however, with their Virginia neighbors, who regarded them as trespassers. Part of the territory given Lord Baltimore belonged to the Virginia grant; on it were settlers from that colony who refused to acknowledge Lord Baltimore’s authority. The leader of these was Mr. William Clay- borne, who had established a trading post on Kent’s Island. After leading several revolts and giving the Maryland col¬ ony much trouble, he was at last suppressed. Life in Maryland resembled that in Virginia. In both colonies were few villages and many great plantations. To- 76 SHORT HISTORY Of AMERICAN REORLE [164a bacco was the staple crop and the currency, and the broad streams were used as highways. The form of government was like that of Virginia; instead of ruling as absolute lord, according to the terms of his charter, Lord Baltimore gave the colonists the rights of freemen. Religious affairs. — The chief difference between the two colonies was in the matter of religion. In Maryland, all Christian sects enjoyed freedom of belief and worship. This was secured by a law, called the Toleration Act [1649], which said that “ no person . . . professing to believe in Jesus Christ, shall from henceforth be anyways molested . . . for his religion nor in the free exercise thereof.” In Virginia, the Church of England was established by law, and all people were taxed to support it; dissenters, such as Quakers, Puritans, and Roman Catholics, were driven out. In Massachusetts, only Puritans were allowed ; people of other religions were whipped, banished, or even put to death. In Rhode Island alone, there was entire religious freedom, even Jews and unbelievers being toler¬ ated. It was many years before persecution ceased and religious freedom prevailed everywhere. Summary [1621-1649]. — The Dutch colony of New Netherland grew steadily though slowly, and carried on a thriving fur trade with the Indians. Some Swedes established south of New Netherland a settlement which they called New Sweden. An English Roman Catholic nobleman, Lord Baltimore, founded the colony of Maryland. In occupations and government, Maryland resembled its neighbor, Virginia. 5. Colonial Growth English Commonwealth [1649]. — The English people resisted King Charles’s disregard of their rights, especially his assuming the right to lay taxes, —a right which be¬ longed only to Parliament. At last, the contest between ENGLISH COLONIES 77 1649] king and people came to open war. King Charles’s army was defeated, and he was put to death by his own subjects. Instead of the kingdom, a Commonwealth was established. The head of this Com¬ monwealth was Oliver Cromwell, the leader of the Puritan army. What effect did these events at home have on the English colonies in America ? Let us see. Colonies under Com¬ monwealth.—The Great Charter of Virginia, which the king had on the whole respected, gave that colony the rights for which English¬ men at home were con¬ tending. Virginia was contented and prosper¬ ous, loyal to the king and the Church of England. It submitted, however, to the Commonwealth fleet sent to require the obedience of the colonies; back of this fleet, as the Virginians well knew, was the power which had conquered the king. English loyalists, who disliked the way affairs were man¬ aged at home, came by hundreds and thousands to settle in the colony which was known to be friendly to them. Among these refugees were the ancestors of George Washington, James Madison, James Monroe, John Mar¬ shall, and other famous men. Most of these loyalists were country gentlemen, and they settled on plantations along the rivers. Virginia grew and thrived. 78 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1649 In Maryland, the Commonwealth caused hardships. Clay- borne, who had led several revolts, again raised an insurrec¬ tion. For a while, the government was controlled by a group of Puritans. They repealed the Toleration Act, and ruled so harshly that Cromwell at last interfered and restored Lord Baltimore to power. Puritan New England sympathized with Puritan England, and promptly declared against the king. When English Puritans came to power, they naturally showed favor to their friends in America. New England prospered. Massachu¬ setts extended her authority over the settlements in New Hampshire, Vermont, and Maine, set up a mint to make small coins, and regulated church affairs more strictly than did Puritan England. Members of the Church of Eng¬ land were not al¬ lowed to vote nor even to hold their own church ser¬ vices. Affairs in New Netherland. — English affairs affected the Dutch colony of New Netherland but little. It thrived under the rule of Governor Peter Stuyvesant. ‘ Old Silver Leg,’ or ‘ Headstrong Peter,’ as he was called, was a queer figure Peter Stuyvesant 1651) ENGLISH COLONIES 79 stumping about on his wooden leg ornamented with bands of silver, but he was a brave, able, and energetic man. By force of arms, he compelled the Swedes on the Dela¬ ware River to own Dutch authority and made New Sweden again a part of New Netherland. Farms were cleared and tilled, villages were built up, trade increased. The thrifty Dutch prospered in New Netherland. The Restoration [1660]. — But changes were at hand for all the colonies. After Cromwell died, the English people restored the kingdom, and Charles II., the son of Charles I., was made king. This is called the Restoration. Tid¬ ings of it were received with very different feelings in the different colonies. Virginia promptly and gladly owned Charles II. as king. The New England colonies, on the other hand, heard with deep regret of the Restoration; most of them put off acknowledging King Charles as long as possible. The king punished New Haven for helping his enemies by making it a part of Connecticut which had acknowledged him promptly. He gave Connecticut and Rhode Island liberal charters, allowing them to make their own laws and elect their own governors. Navigation Acts. — While Cromwell was ruling the Eng¬ lish Commonwealth, Parliament passed a Navigation Act requiring that the merchandise of the colonies should be carried in English ships manned by English crews. This act was intended to shut out the Dutch and to build up English trade. As the ships and crews of the colonies were ‘ English,’ the act was no great hardship to them. But when Charles II. became king, stricter laws were passed. These new Navigation Acts required that certain products, such as tobacco, should be shipped only to Eng¬ land. Later, laws required the colonists to buy from England all their manufactured goods. 8o SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1664 Seizure of New Netherland [1664].—The colonies com¬ plained of these laws, but prospered under them. True, they were not very strictly obeyed. It was hard, if not impossible, to enforce the Navigation Acts while a Dutch colony occupied the middle coast. The Dutch sea captains were ready to aid their English neighbors and to make profit for themselves by carrying on a smuggling trade. For this and other reasons, King Charles resolved to take possession of the whole coast, which the English had never ceased to claim. He granted his brother James, Duke of York and Albany, the territory on which the Dutch settle¬ ments were situated. An English fleet under Colonel Richard Nicolls was sent to take possession of it. The fleet entered New York Bay and demanded the surrender of New Amsterdam. The Dutch and English were at peace, and the city was not prepared to resist the unex¬ pected attack. Stuyvesant, the brave old Dutch governor, was compelled to surrender. “ I had rather be carried to my grave,” he said. The name of the colony was changed from New Nether¬ land to New York, in honor of its English master. The flourishing town of New Amsterdam, in which there were 1500 of the 7000 Dutch inhabitants, became New York City. Colonel Nicolls, an able and sensible man, was made governor of the colony. All people were given equal rights in trade and religion, and the Dutch settlers became contented, loyal English subjects. This seizure of Dutch territory gave the English control of the great central harbor and water-way, and it removed the foreign wedge from between the northern and southern colonies. The long Atlantic coast, from the bleak north to the flowery south, from French Canada to Spanish Florida, was English territory. Settlement of New Jersey.— Even before he knew the i66 4 ] ENGLISH COLONIES 81 result of Nicolls’s expedition, the Duke of York granted the southern part of his province to his friends, Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. This territory was called New Jersey, in honor of Sir George Carteret who had been governor of the island of Jersey. Carteret took the eastern part of the territory and Berkeley the western part. In the course of a few years, East and West Jersey were sold to companies of proprietors. Many settlers came to them, attracted by their natural advantages and good government. Carolina grant [1663]. — Virginia had now another new neighbor, Carolina. King Charles granted to eight noble¬ men as lords proprietors “ all the region lying south of Virginia, extending from 31 0 to 36° north latitude, and westward across the continent from ocean to ocean.” In honor of the king, this region was called Carolina, from Carolus , the Latin name for Charles. The name Carolana had been given to it a hundred years before by French settlers in honor of their king, Charles IX. Albemarle settlement. — The settlement of the northern part of this territory had been begun by people from Virginia several years before the grant to the lords proprie¬ tors. The first settlement was established on Albemarle Sound. It was an unwholesome site, but there as else¬ where the settlers preferred the swampy, unhealthful coast to the fertile, wholesome interior which was shut in by forests. In spite of disadvantages, the Albemarle settle¬ ment prospered. During the next few years, other settlements were established here and there at favorable places. From these beginnings grew the colony of North Carolina. The people who came to this section were, for the most part, sturdy, energetic men who took up small farms and usually had few slaves. They raised corn, tobacco, and 82 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1670 cattle, and shipped the produce of their noble pine forests, — lumber, tar, pitch, and turpentine. By the end of the seventeenth century, the northern Carolina settlements had 5000 people. Charleston settlement [1670].—A few years after the Carolina grant was made, the lords proprietors sent out a colony. This settled in the south at Charlestown, or Charleston. The first settlers came from England ; later, there came Scotch, Irish, Germans, and Huguenots or French Protestants. At first, the Frenchmen were not given equal rights with other settlers, but they were intel¬ ligent, industrious people who won their way and aided in building up the colony. • The end of the seventeenth century found about 7000 people in the southern Carolina settlement. Instead of small farms as in northern Caro¬ lina, there were large plantations worked by slaves. About the end of the seventeenth century, the cultiva¬ tion of rice was begun. A sea captain gave a bag of seed rice to a gentleman in the colony, and it was planted as an experiment. Soil and climate favored its growth. Rice became the chief crop of the colony and was used for money as tobacco was in Virginia. Government of Carolina. -— The proprietors adopted for Carolina a form of government called the ‘Grand Model/ but the people insisted on having a voice in making their own laws, and at last their demands were granted. Summary [1649-1694]. — During the English Commonwealth, Vir¬ ginia was built up by loyalist refugees, the Maryland government was upset by a rebellion, and New England prospered under the friendly home government. Soon after the Restoration, New Netherland was seized from the Dutch; the northern part became the colony of New York; the southern part formed two colonies called East Jersey and West Jersey. The territory south of Virginia was granted by King Charles to eight noblemen and was named for him Carolina. Two distinct settlements grew up in Carolina: one in the north on Albe¬ marle Sound, and one in the south around Charleston. 6 7 6 ] ENGLISH COLONIES 83 6. Bacon’s Rebellion and King Philip’s War Governor Berkeley.—Virginia had other grievances be¬ sides the grant of the southern territory to the lords pro¬ prietors. The people were dissatisfied with their governor, Sir William Berkeley. In his young days, he had seemed a frank, high-spirited gentleman, but as years passed he showed himself self-willed and narrow-minded. He ap¬ proved high taxes and did not wish the common people to vote; above all, he opposed public education and the liberty of the press. “ I thank God there are no free schools nor printing presses,” he said, “and I hope we shall not have them these hundred years.” He and his friends got control of the House of Burgesses, and ruled with little regard for the people’s rights. Most of the Virginians disapproved Berkeley’s course, but he was their governor, and they were loyal, law-abiding people ; probably they would have gone on grumbling and submitting to him had there not arisen trouble with the Indians which he would not settle nor allow others to settle. Bacon’s Rebellion [1676]. — Fierce Indian tribes attacked the borders, laying waste plantations and killing many set¬ tlers. The House of Burgesses voted to send five hundred men against these savages, but Berkeley disbanded the force. Some people said he valued his profitable fur trade with the Indians more than the lives of the colonists ; others thought he feared that after the little army settled the disturbance on the borders, it would turn against his arbitrary government. Whatever his motive, he disbanded the force and left the frontiers unprotected. A few weeks later, news came that the Indians had attacked a plantation belonging to Mr. Nathaniel Bacon 84 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1676 and had killed the overseer and a servant. Mr. Bacon was a young Englishman, as high-spirited and resolute as the governor himself. As soon as he heard of the Indian attack, he collected a little band to pursue the savages. He sent to ask the governor for a commission. It was refused, and he marched on without it, defeated the Indians, and returned home. Berkeley would gladly have punished Bacon as a traitor because he had led an armed band without a commission, but the sympathies of the people were with the young leader. The governor had to call a new assembly and give Bacon a commission to fight the Indians. Hardly had the troops marched away, however, before Berkeley declared their leader a traitor and an outlaw and raised troops to use against him. After conquering the Indians, the little army marched against the governor. Bacon showed no desire to assume power himself; his only aim seemed to be to put an end to unjust government and to defend the rights of the people. A few weeks after he took up arms, he died of fever, and with his life the rebellion ended. Berkeley was again master of the colony. He took swift and severe revenge on his enemies, hanging more than twenty persons for having taken part in the rebellion. “ As I live, the old fool has put to death more people in that naked country than I did for the murder of my father,” exclaimed King Charles. King Philip’s War [1675-1676].—While Bacon’s Rebel¬ lion was going on in Virginia, New England was being laid waste by an Indian war. When the Indians sold land for beads, knives, cloth, and trinkets, they thought that the Eng¬ lish, like their tribes, wished only to use it for hunting and fishing. They watched with increasing anger the growth of farms, villages, and towns. Year by year, the white men and the red men grew more unfriendly. The races were 1675] ENGLISH COLONIES 8 S too different to live and prosper side by side. The English settlers treated the Indians with contempt as an inferior race, and resented their disregard of property rights, their gathering grain and fruit like wild berries, their shooting cattle like deer. The Indians looked on the white people as one tribe and revenged themselves on any one of the race for the unjust acts of another. Moreover, firearms and ‘ fire water ’ were spread abroad among the savages with deadly effect. During the lifetime of Massasoit, his ‘ treaty of friend¬ ship ’ with the English was unbroken. An open outbreak came in the time of Massasoit’s son, Philip, who was a famous warrior, brave, wise, and prudent. The war is called for him King Philip’s War, but it is not known what part he took in it. One day a settler fired at and wounded an Indian who had shot his oxen. A few days later, a band of Indians attacked and burned a village. The aroused savages went from one bloody deed to another; they burned houses and villages, killed men, women, and children. The Swamp Fight.—The fierce Narragansett Indians had their headquarters on an island in a swamp. This was thought to be inaccessible, and here the women and children were assembled and food was stored. One December day, a thousand soldiers made their way to the island. In this ‘ Swamp Fight,’ most of the men, women, and children gathered on the island were killed, and the fort with its five hundred wigwams was burned. The next summer, Philip was hunted down and shot, and the remnant of his tribe was overcome. The Indians were killed, driven away, or sold as slaves in the West Indies. Among those sold as slaves were King Philip’s wife and his little son. The colonists suffered severely in this war. Many villages were destroyed, hundreds of dwellings were burned, and hundreds of men, women, and children were 86 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1684 killed. There was hardly a village or even a home in New England which did not suffer loss. Massachusetts charter withdrawn [1684]. —Soon after King Philip’s War, King Charles took from Massachusetts the territory west of Maine which it had controlled for many years; this was made into the royal province of New Hampshire. The king called Massachusetts to account for break¬ ing the Navigation Acts and for coin¬ ing money and doing other things not permitted by its charter. The charter was declared forfeited, and Massachu¬ setts was made a royal colony. It was not allowed to retain Maine which it had bought from the heirs of Gorges. Pine Tree Shilling Summary [1675-1684]. -— Bacon's Rebellion was a revolt in Virginia, led by Nathaniel Bacon against the bad government of Governor Berkeley. After Bacon's death, the rebellion was put down. About the same time, there was an Indian war in New England, called King Philip's War. Nearly half the New England settlements were destroyed and the power of the Indians was broken. Soon after this war. Charles II. made New Hampshire a royal province, took away the Massachusetts charter, and made it a royal colony. 7. The Settlement of Pennsylvania Pennsylvania grant [1681]. — William Penn’s father was a bluff English admiral who longed to see his son master of an estate and a title. Young Penn, however, turned from the gay life of the court and joined the Quakers. He and some other Quakers purchased West Jersey as a place of refuge for their sect. But Penn wished to have a colony of his own. After his father’s death, he asked King Charles to give him a tract of land west of the Delaware River, offering to take this in payment of sixteen thousand ENGLISH COLONIES 87 l68l] pounds due his father. The king was glad to grant a wilderness instead of paying gold from his treasury. He gave the young Quaker a vast territory which was called Pennsylvania, meaning ‘ Penn’s woodland.’ Maryland protested in vain against the grant to Penn of the land about the Delaware which was hers by charter. For eighty years, there were disputes about the boundary between the two colonies. It was finally fixed by two surveyors, Mason and Dixon, who ran the boundary called Mason and Dixon’s line. Penn’s colony. — The land which Penn bought from the king did not border on the ocean. In order to have a water outlet, he obtained from the Duke of York the ter¬ ritory which afterward formed the state of Delaware. Within a few months, twenty-three shiploads of colonists came to Pennsylvania. Not only English Quakers came, but also Welsh, Scotch, Irish, Swedish, Dutch, and Ger¬ man people. Penn founded a town which he called Philadelphia, ‘ the city of brotherly love.’ A year later, he could truly say, “ I have led the greatest colony into America that ever any man did upon a private credit, and the most prosperous beginnings that ever were in it are to be found among us.” Soon Pennsylvania was third in population and wealth among the colonies, being surpassed by only Virginia and Massachusetts. It was the last of the thirteen English colonies, with the ex¬ ception of Georgia which was established a half century later. Seventy-four years before Pennsylvania was founded, the first English settlement was made at Jamestown. Thus in a lifetime, we may say, twelve colonies were founded and English power was established along the Atlantic coast. There were several reasons for the prosperity of Penn¬ sylvania. It had fertile soil and other natural advantages. 88 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1683 Moreover, it had a good government; established as a place of refuge for the persecuted sect of Quakers, it was a “free colony for all mankind,” tolerating all creeds and races. Like Lord Baltimore, Penn put the control of his colony in the hands of its freemen. “You shall be gov¬ erned by laws of your own making,” he said to his colonists, “ and live a free and, if you will, a sober and industrious people.” Penn's treaty with Indians. — Penn was not satisfied with purchasing Pennsylvania from the king of England. He thought that the natives had rights which ought to be Penn’s Treaty with the Indians regarded, and he paid them also for the land. Soon after his arrival, he met the Indian chiefs in council, and a treaty of peace and friendship was formed. The red men prom¬ ised to “live in love with William Penn and his children as long as the moon and sun shall endure.” The peace pipe was smoked and belts of wampum were exchanged to con¬ firm the treaty; the belt given by the Indians to Penn is still kept. King James II. — A few years after the Pennsylvania 1685] ENGLISH COLONIES 89 grant, Charles II. died, and his brother James, Duke of York, became king. King James was a bitter, sullen man, who wished to rule according to his own will and make all people conform to his re¬ ligious views. Governor Andros. — Without regard to their charter rights or their wishes, he resolved to unite the colonies from Maine to New Jersey in one province. Andros was made governor of this ‘ prov¬ ince of New England.’ He was a rough soldier who made himself thoroughly hated. With the aid of royal troops, he tried to carry out the king’s orders, — to suppress printing presses, to execute the trade laws, to lay taxes without the consent of the people’s assemblies. Peace Pipes Wampum Belt He took away the Rhode Island charter. He demanded the Connecticut charter from the assembly at Hartford; suddenly, all the candles in the assembly room were blown out, and when they were lighted, the charter, which had been on the table, was gone. Andros stormed and de- 9 ° SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1688 manded it in vain. At last he declared the government at an end and went away. The charter, it is said, lay safe for three years in a hollow tree, called the Charter Oak. Revolution of 1688.—The English people would not long submit to King James’s disregard of their rights. Parliament deposed him and gave the throne to his daugh¬ ter Mary and her husband, William of Orange. By this act, Parliament established itself as the supreme power of England. After the Revolution of 1688, the king, instead of being master, was subject to the people’s will declared in Parliament. The colonies welcomed ‘the glorious Revolution.’ I11 New York, a popular party led by a German merchant, named Jacob Leisler, took control of affairs. This unedu¬ cated but brave and patriotic man acted as governor for over a year. When the governor sent by William and Mary came over, Leisler was hanged on an unjust charge of treason. King William’s rule. — In course of time, affairs settled down, and William of Orange ruled in his firm, orderly, business-like way. He organized a Board of Trade to oversee and direct affairs in the colonies. Connecticut and Rhode Island had their charter rights restored. Massa¬ chusetts was given a new charter [1691]; by this, Massachu¬ setts Bay and Plymouth were united in one royal colony and Maine and Nova Scotia were added to it. Men of all religions were to be allowed to vote, hold office, and have their own church services. Witchcraft delusion. — Near the end of the seventeenth century, a wave of superstition swept over New England.. At that time, most people in the Old and the New World believed in witchcraft. They thought that people called witches made bargains with the devil and obtained power to- change their shapes, to ride through the air on broomsticks. ^Tp Earl ■ of Sterling- -•^'Montreal Temaquid Temaquid L.OnUO^ •nation ATIO.N 3 /jf«rri»*ao R> Albany /j ']Jerri>i an lioBt'J'-l SteJZtf) Quebec fifurri milt s rtl Claimed / ,N .-•A jU«ss ; ,.jr?‘/ / Ti: si . 4 H3^|i is. / s of | Korfc Claimed, by Connecticut 40 - ar-V?*^ V-, / & »«i -- Vc 3 \t { '«-V 1650 1665 i* Fronte Ft 5 ?!^isJPPA-T+^P l ' Dieted ly l^/ / ST” N.V.andPl | v<\ /ofMASS.^ P _.—r^ 4 - ' f-i- T">. c' k. 5 x vi he- * Uamulain f 4 . PFI-VE-- nAT-ICN 3 V / Jj ^ Dispute l ly ! / /”" ’- \ 2 / mA»s. iaoBM^yeNs ce- 75 ' * V * Charter Colonies Proprietary Colonies ,_ Royal Colonies I to” 1688 P?'V\liYL r u 4*3? £U.S-*i^r 7 i;ilSLY WW * (16 '1%° Longitude West from Greenwi lferriinac > N N AT 1692] ENGLISH COLONIES 9 1 and to cause storms and illness. Many people in New Eng¬ land, especially ugly, friendless, old women, were accused of being witches. Hundreds of persons were thrown into prison. At Salem, Massachusetts, nineteen persons charged with witchcraft were hanged and many were tortured. Summary [1681-1692]. —The colony of Pennsylvania was founded by William Penn and was made a place of refuge for people of all creeds and races. Its natural advantages and good government soon made it third in wealth and population among the English colonies. Penn bought also the territory which afterward formed the state of Delaware. King Charles II. was succeeded by King James II., who ruled with so little regard to the people’s rights that he was deposed by Parliament, and William and Mary were made sovereigns. 8. The Colonies at the End of the Seventeenth Century English colonies. —The first permanent English settlement in the New World was made at Jamestown in Virginia in 1607 ; the end of the century found twelve English colo¬ nies firmly established along the Atlantic coast. The people in these colonies differed in many ways, but they had more points of likeness than of unlikeness. Most of them were English, but there were also many Scotch, Irish, Dutch, Germans, Swedes, and French. The colonists did not consider themselves Americans ; they were English people living in America. As they had less contact with the outside world, they had changed less during the century than their fellow-countrymen in England. The chief change was that their wits were quickened and their ener¬ gies developed by their struggles to occupy the wilderness. Though life in the new country was rough, there was less suffering for food and clothes than in Europe. Land was cheap. People who would work could always make a liv¬ ing and had a chance to improve their condition. 92 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1600-1700 Industries. — At first, people tried many new industries, endeavoring to raise silk, wine, olives, and coffee from New England to Georgia. By degrees, they learned to adapt their undertakings to conditions in the country. They cleared farms and cultivated native crop plants as well as those brought from Europe. Their tools and methods were very crude. A farmer had a few hoes and spades and perhaps a clumsy wooden plow; sometimes there was only one plow in a neighborhood, which several men used by turns. They merely scratched the surface soil, believing that Wooden Plow ‘deep plowing would poison the land.’ Cattle, hogs, sheep, and horses brought from England and Holland thrived in all the colonies. Land was seldom cleared or fenced for pastures. Animals were branded or had their ears cut wdth their owner’s mark, and were turned into the woods. On the rocky, sterile soil of the northern colonies, farming was unprofitable. New Englanders raised only needed foodstuffs and sought other sources of wealth. Their vast forests were full of excellent timber; off the coast were cod and mackerel, and the seas near Greenland were frequented by whales. Lumbering, shipbuilding, fishing, and seafaring became the chief industries of New England. Its rich men were merchants and shipowners. Lumbering, seafaring, and agriculture were carried on in the middle colonies. Wheat, corn, and cattle were shipped from the Jerseys, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. New York 1600-1700] ENGLISH COLONIES 93 Rolling Tobacco to Market was a busy little trading town from which furs, cattle, lumber, and grain were shipped. It had only a few hun¬ dred inhabitants, and pastures and grain fields occupied what are now the great streets of Fifth Avenue and Broad¬ way. In the southern colonies, the soil was fertile, the climate mild, the rainfall abundant. This section was engaged almost entirely in agricul¬ ture. Here, the planters were the rich men. In Maryland and Virginia, tobacco was the chief crop, and a man’s wealth was reckoned in the pounds of that staple which he raised. Cattle, tobacco, tar, pitch, and lumber were shipped from North Carolina. In South Carolina, the cultivation of rice was being begun. All the colonies carried on a fur trade with the Indians. Traders went into the border country with pack horses laden with goods — beads, cloth, knives, hatchets, and brandy — to exchange for the skins of bears, beaver, deer, and buffalo. The colonists made at home many things for which people now depend on factories and shops. Men made of wood many tools and utensils, such as hinges, plows, spoons, and dishes. They cobbled shoes and made furni¬ ture and harness. They raised hemp, flax, and cotton, and sheared sheep for wool. The women carded, spun, and dyed these materials, wove them into cloth, and made clothes for their families. Women made soap and candles, did their own housework, and cared for their children. It was a busy, wholesome, and usually contented life. 94 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1600-1700 Labor.—There were in all the colonies indented serv¬ ants, or redemptioners. These were bound to serve a cer¬ tain number of years, and during this, period they were bought and sold like slaves. Some sold themselves to pay their passage to America; some were criminals sentenced to service for a term of years as punishment for offenses; Priscilla Spinning some were children who were stolen and sold. Few in¬ dented servants came over after the seventeenth century. Instead, negro slaves were brought to all the colonies. In the North, they were used chiefly as house servants; they suffered too much from the severe climate to be profitable outdoor servants. Under the mild climate of the South, they thrived and proved profitable farm laborers. Few people thought that slavery was wrong, but many thought that it was a bad form of labor. A Virginia gen¬ tleman, himself a slave-owner, said of slaves, “ They blow up the pride and ruin the industry of our white people.’ 1 The Quakers and some other people in all sections con¬ demned slavery, and thought, as pious John Eliot said, 1600-1700] ENGLISH COLONIES 95 “To sell souls for money seemeth to me a dangerous merchandise.” Means of transit. — The first colonists settled near the coast so as to be in reach of the mother country for the sake of supplies and commerce. Later settlements were built up along the coast and on streams which served as roads. Great pathless forests barred the way to the in¬ terior. It was easier to go from either of the Carolinas to England than to make one’s way through the two hun¬ dred and fifty miles of wilderness which lay between the Albemarle and Charleston settlements. When it was neces¬ sary to travel across the country, people went on foot or horseback; goods were carried on pack horses. Except in New England, the colonies had little to do with their neighbors. Houses and furniture. — Most of the colonists lived in log cabins. These were often built without the use of iron or glass both of which were scarce and expensive. Wooden pegs were used instead of nails, hinges were made of wood or leather, and instead of a lock and key there was a wooden latch with a string. The cabin had one door. Often there was no window; sometimes there was one, left open or covered with oiled paper instead of glass, and protected by heavy wooden shutters. The roof was of bark, straw, or shingles on log rafters; the chimney, built of logs or stone, had a large fireplace which took up most of one side of the room. The fire logs were four or five feet long; sometimes horses were used to draw the great logs to the hearth. Wood was the fuel used everywhere ; the great coal beds of the country were unknown. The furniture of the cabin consisted of a few simple articles hewn out of logs, —bedsteads, tables, benches, and stools, and a few wooden or pewter dishes. Such were the homes of the common people. g 6 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1600-1700 Rich people lived in well-built frame, stone, or brick houses. These were of the style of architecture now called colonial. They were large and square, with wide halls, great staircases, and stacks of chimneys. They were furnished with handsome beds, chairs, chests, clocks, china, and silverware brought from England. Food. — Food was cooked on the fireplace in skillets, pots, and griddles and on spits. Among the poorer classes, corn and pork were the chief articles of food. The colonists learned from the Indians to cultivate corn, beans, and pumpkins, and to prepare corn in various ways. They pounded the dry grain into meal for bread, or made it into mush, hominy, and succotash. They used also wheat and rye bread, and their gardens supplied herbs and a few vegetables. Potatoes, now our chief vegetable, were little used. It was believed that the eating of a potato a day for seven days would kill a person. Tea and coffee were almost unknown; people drank homemade beer and cider and a great deal of wine and strong liquors. Dress. — Men wore knee breeches and long stockings ; women wore caps, close-fitting bodices, and full skirts. Poor people had coarse clothes of homespun linen and woolen or of dressed skins. Workmen were required by law to wear coarse cloth; often they were “ clothed all in leather.” Rich people followed the London fashions. Gentlemen rivaled ladies in gay and handsome dress; they wore wigs, silk stockings, fine linen, lace ruffles, clothes of silk, satin, and velvet, adorned with jewels and gold and silver buckles. Social life. —In New England, groups of families form¬ ing religious congregations lived together in villages and towns. A church and a blockhouse were the center of each settlement; around these were the houses of the minister, merchants, blacksmiths, carpenters, and farmers 1600-1700] ENGLISH COLONIES 97 In all the colonies, hunting, fishing, and other outdoor sports were the chief amusements of the people. In the middle colonies, especially in New York, dancing and spinning bees were popular. The farmers and planters of the South lived so far apart that it was said ‘no man could hear his neighbor’s dog bark.* They met at church and at the horse-races, hunts, and other sports enjoyed by English country gentlemen. In all the colo¬ nies, there were strict social dis¬ tinctions. Only the gentry were allowed to use the prefixes ‘Mr.’ and‘Mrs.’; other people were called ‘Goodman’ and ‘ Goodwife.’ People were seated in church according to their social position, and boys in college classes were arranged according to the rank of their parents. Education. — The training of children was strict. They had daily tasks and Bible lessons, and were punished severely for little faults. They were taught that industry, good habits, and “ good manners (a civil, kind, handsome, and courageous behavior) render them truly serviceable in the world.” There were free schools in some of the colonies. One H g 8 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1600-1700 of the first was established in Virginia [1634] by a colonist who gave two hundred and fifty acres of land and eight cows for the purpose. The ‘three R’s’ — reading, ’riting, and ’rithmetic — and Latin and Greek were the chief branches of study. Children went to school six days in the week and often spent eight or ten hours a day in the schoolroom. They had few holidays; there was a summer vacation of about two weeks. The idle or stu¬ pid child who failed to learn his long, difficult lessons was whipped and had a dunce cap put on his head. In the South, farms and plantations were so far apart that there were few schools. The children of southern planters were usually taught by tutors at home; sometimes these tutors were indented servants, sometimes they were scholars from English uni¬ versities. The sons of many wealthy colonists were sent to England to be educated. During the first century of colonial life, three colleges were established: Harvard in Massachusetts, William and Mary in Virginia, and Yale in Connecticut. Literature. — In early colonial days, people had few books and no newspapers. The first printing press in the United States was set up in Massachusetts [1639]; the first book printed on it was the Bay Psalm Book, made by ministers for church use. The best-known book was the New England Primer, with its quaint verses and pictures. 1600-1700] ENGLISH COLONIES 99 The first newspaper was established early in the eighteenth century at Boston. Some of the early discoverers, explorers, and colonists wrote interesting accounts of the country and of their ex¬ periences. Captain John Smith wrote at Jamestown his True Relation describing the Virginia colony. William Bradford wrote the narrative of the Pilgrims’ journeyings and their settling in the New World. John Winthrop kept a chronicle of events in the Massachusetts Bay colony. These three men wrote in a vivid, entertaining style and their books are still read with interest. Most of the colonial authors were New England clergymen who wrote books about religious doctrines, few of which are read to-day. Illustration from Plain Things for Little Folks ioo SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1600-1700 Medicine. — In colonial days, little was known about the science of medicine. There were few professional doctors. The healing art was practiced by ministers who had read some medical books or by women who had picked up a knowledge of simple remedies and of herbs which they raised in their gardens. Barbers often acted as surgeons. Quack doctors traveled about selling pills and powders of their own making, which they claimed would cure all diseases. Blood-letting was a favorite remedy; insects, such as grasshoppers and silkworms, boiled in oil or dried and powdered, were used as remedies for various diseases. Toads burned to a cinder and powdered were given as a cure for smallpox. When we consider the remedies used, we do not wonder that whole communities were laid waste by smallpox and other contagious diseases. Government. — On the whole, the colonies were much alike in government. Each had a governor and two law¬ making bodies, a council and an assembly. The council was usually composed of members appointed by the king or the proprietor; the assembly, which was the tax-laying body, was composed of members elected by the people. In every colony, the suffrage, or right to vote, was limited to men who had a certain amount of property or were members of a certain church. The laws were strict, like those of England and other countries. They decided such matters as the wages of laborers, the price of corn, and how far from the street houses should be set. There were many meddlesome laws that interfered with personal liberty. In New England, people were punished for dancing; in Virginia, they were fined for being absent from church. For theft and many other offenses, people were hanged; for smaller offenses, they were gagged, whipped, ducked, put in the stocks or pillory, branded with hot irons, or had their ears clipped. 1600-1700] ENGLISH COLONIES 101 Slaves were burned alive for killing their masters or for setting fire to houses. In only three colonies were people allowed religious freedom, — in Bap¬ tist Rhode Island, Roman Catholic Maryland, and Quaker Pennsyl¬ vania. Summary [1600- 1700]. — At the end of the seventeenth century, there were twelve Eng¬ lish colonies established along the Atlantic coast. Most of the settlements were on the seacoast and along the streams. The northern colonies were engaged in lumbering, shipbuilding, and seafar¬ ing; the middle ones in lumbering, seafaring, and agriculture; and the southern ones in agriculture. In all the colonies, there were slaves and indented servants. The New Englanders lived chiefly in villages and towns, the southern people on farms and plantations. Most people wore coarse clothing and lived in log cabins of which the furniture was homemade; rich people wore fine clothes and had in their stately houses handsome furniture brought from England. The chief branches taught in the schools were reading, writing, and arithmetic. There were three colleges: Harvard, William and Mary, and Yale. There were no newspapers ; the chief books of the time were accounts of the country by Smith, Bradford, and Winthrop, and religious treatises by New England ministers. In general government, the colonies were much alike, each having a governor and a council and an assembly. Laws were strict and regulated personal and religious affairs. CHAPTER III THE FRENCH-ENGLISH CONTEST i. King William’s and Queen Anne’s War French in America.—The king of France aided James II. in his attempt to regain the English throne, and so the Revolution of 1688 was followed by war between France and England. This was the beginning of a long contest that finally decided which of the two nations should pos¬ sess America. Eet us look back and see what the French had accom¬ plished in the New World. At first, they moved slowly. It was three-quarters of a century after Verrazano explored the coast before a permanent settlement was made in Canada. A quarter of a century later, there were only two hundred French colonists in America. Afterward, settlement advanced rapidly. When William of Orange became king, there were in America 12,000 French¬ men,— adventurers exploring the wilderness, soldiers establishing forts, traders gathering rich harvests of furs, fishermen making great hauls of cod and herring, farmers clearing settlements in the forest, missionaries teaching the natives the glory of God and the power of France. These enterprising men made their way far beyond the settlements along the St. Lawrence. Two of them, Father Marquette and his soldier comrade Joliet, went in search 102 1678] THE FRENCH-ENGL1SH CONTEST 103 of a great river described by Indians, which they thought might be the longed-for passage to Asia. They found this river, the Mississippi [1678], and de¬ scended it in birchbark canoes as far as the mouth of the Arkansas. La Salle. — A few years later — the very year that Penn came to America — brave, wise Robert de la Salle descended the Mississippi [1682] and explored the three channels by which it enters the Gulf of Mexico. He took possession of the great Mississippi Valley, extend¬ ing from the Alleghenies to the Rocky Mountains, in the name of the French king, Louis XIV., for whom he called the country Louisiana. In a letter to the king, La Salle said that the country was “ so beautiful and so fertile, so free from forests and so full of meadows, brooks, and rivers, so abounding in fish, game, and venison, that one can find there ... all that is needful for the support of flourishing colonies.” This mild, fertile region seemed to him a better place for a French colony than the bleak wilds, of Canada, and he led thither a band of settlers. They intended to settle near the mouth of the Mississippi, but the vessels went too far west and landed on the coast of Texas. The colony did not prosper. La Salle was murdered by his own men while on his way to Canada for aid, and the settlement was destroyed. New France. — It was a vast and noble country that the French claimed,—their New France which included Canada and the great Louisiana territory. But it was many-months’ journey from their homeland, and the fivers which gave access to it presented barriers also ; tbej 104 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE America Two Centuries after Discovery SOHMAIf * CO., N..rJ i68g] THE FRENCH-ENGLISH CONTEST 105 St. Lawrence was ice-bound through the long winter, and the mouths of the Mississippi were malarial swamps. By degrees, however, the French occupied the country. Traders, soldiers, and missionaries went up and down the rivers, establishing trading posts, forts, and mission- houses from the mouth of the St. Lawrence to the outlets of the Mississippi, two thousand miles away. The French found it easy to occupy the interior be¬ cause they were on friendly terms with most of the native tribes. Traders, called conreurs de bois or wood rangers, adopted Indian dress and customs, and many of them married squaw wives. Indians came by hundreds to the trading posts to exchange beaver skins for cloth, beads, and knives. Only the fierce Iroquois were the deadly enemies of the French. They never forgot nor forgave the alliance of Champlain with their Algonquin foes. Year after year, their warrior tribes, like a great wall, held the French back from the forest regions south of Lakes Erie and Ontario. French and English. — The English occupied less terri¬ tory than the French, but their colonies were closer to¬ gether and easier of access from Europe. There were two hundred thousand people on the farms and in the villages along the middle Atlantic coast. With the ex¬ ception of a few trading posts and villages in Maine, none of these settlements adjoined the French. But every year the two people were drawing nearer together on the northern borders and in the forest west of the Alleghenies. The French were pushing up the Ohio River. English traders and explorers were crossing the mountains and building huts in the wilderness; they began to realize that it was “inconvenient” to have French forts “all along from our lakes by the back of Virginia and Carolina to the Bay of Mexico.” io6 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE (1689 King William’s War [1689-1697]. — Such was the state of affairs when war began. While the French and Eng¬ lish fought in Europe, their colonies contended in America. This colonial war, called from the ruling English king, King William’s War, lasted eight years. During it, Sir William Phips of Massachusetts led a force against the French province of Acadia, and conquered and plundered it, bringing away even the governor’s spoons and wigs. Several raids were made by Iroquois allies of the Eng¬ lish and by Algonquin allies of the French. The bloody deeds of these savages made the contest horrible. Worse still, the colonists sometimes imitated the savages and scalped their enemies or gave prisoners to Indian allies to burn at the stake. The Iroquois attacked Montreal and burned their French captives at the city wall. The Algonquins came down the river valleys leading like roads from the north, and laid English settlements waste with torch and tomahawk. People were surprised at work or awakened at night by the screeching war-whoop. Houses were burned, and men, women, and children were massacred or made prisoners. Then the savages marched hastily away, taking prisoners to sell or keep as slaves or to burn at the stake. F'eeble women and children who. lagged on the march were scalped; crying babies were snatched from their mothers’ arms and killed. Such was. Indian warfare. Suppression of piracy. — After King William's War, European nations united in an effort to suppress pirates. These were especially troublesome along the Atlantic coast of America. The ‘ Brothers of the Coast,’ as these pirates called themselves, had fleets, thousands of armed seamen, and islands for strongholds. They carried on a smuggling trade; they captured and robbed ships ; they even attacked and plundered towns.. Clairne l bgCf'iryini rienj Cat necticut. Delaware bay tilaware bay w, Ov«WJ« , S^Vjk Jamestown" JaM’estowrr l 3b 30 O ibeinarle &d. \hemarle Sd. ram 1 ic.o Sd. ,t. Augustine GULF OF MEXICO b)'(- ItA\^VIAAAlA\ C'laimeil l.y Va. anil Vann. tU)'' Pfcij>S.V lA'Afli IA Claimed by Vc. f rid Conn. lela ware bay y- Delaware bay ^ 'Jani ets -SC-30- 30 'O arle Sd. 'Ijernarle Sd. \ORTH - GAltOLl\V OL’TIl Charleston ^ Port Royal v ^Tiharleston 'Port Royal / Uit. Augustine \ Charter Colonies -A-£0° 4 \ Proprietary Colonies j \Royal Colonies iSt. Augustine SOUTH ATLANTIC COAST ( 1650 - 1095 ) GULF OF MEXICO MEXICO 1095 Xon g ft u3e~"WesT reenwlcb i6g8) THE FRENCH-ENGLISH CONTEST 107 Two of the most notorious of their bold, cruel leaders were Captain William Kidd and Edward Teach or Thatch, called Blackbeard from his long, shaggy, black beard. Blackbeard had his head¬ quarters off North Carolina, and was a terror to the middle and southern coasts. Captain Kidd was a sea cap¬ tain, who was given charge of an armed ship to destroy pirates and turned pirate himself. He is said to have buried stolen treasures along the coast, and many people have searched in vain for his hidden wealth. Captain Kidd and Blackbeard were finally captured and put to death. Other pirates were hanged in chains, or killed while resisting arrest, or driven from their island strongholds. After some years, the sea-thieves were suppressed and coast travel was made safe. Queen Anne’s War [1702-1713]. — Peace between the French and English lasted only a few years. Then began the war called in the colonies Queen Anne’s War, from the ruling English sovereign. It lasted twelve years. Again the torches and tomahawks of the Indians carried terror to the northern settlements. The colonists attacked the savages in turn; but, as a watchful governor remarked, to pursue Indians in the forests was as useless “ as to pursue birds that are on the wing.” A French and Spanish expedition sailed to South Blackbeard io8 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1710 Carolina, but Charleston, though stricken by yellow fever, made a gallant defense and beat off the fleet. The most important victory of the war was in the north. The New Englanders retook Acadia, which had been taken in King William’s War and restored by treaty to the French. This time it remained in British hands; henceforth, it was called Nova Scotia. Summary [1689-1713]. —The French occupied Canada and pressed westward and southward, along the lakes and rivers. The Mississippi was partly explored by Marquette and Joliet, and was followed to its mouth by Robert de la Salle; he took possession, in the name of the French king, of the great central valley which he called Louisiana. Near the end of the seventeenth century, there began the great French and British struggle for the possession of North America. It commenced with the eight-years’ war, called by the colonists King William’s War. The chief events of this war were Indian raids and the British conquest of Acadia. Four years after King William’s War ended, Queen Anne’s War began. It lasted twelve years. During it, there were Indian raids, and Acadia, which had been restored to the French, was retaken. 2. The Settlement of Georgia and King George’s War Growth of French power. — After Queen Anne’s War, there was a thirty-years’ peace between France and Great Britain. France made use of the time to strengthen its hold on America. By the middle of the eighteenth century, it had a series of forts from Montreal to New Orleans. These forts were built on commanding sites along the rivers and the lakes. No difficulties kept back the French. The region about the mouth of the Mississippi was a swamp, subject to overflow, covered with a rank growth of cypress and willows, but the French resolved to establish a settle¬ ment to control the entrance to the great river. Pioneers THE FRENCH-ENGLISH CONTEST 1718] 109 cleared away the jungle, dug ditches, made embankments, and built a fort and some log cabins. They called this settlement New Orleans. In ten years, it had 1600 in- An Early Picture of New Orleans habitants, nearly all of whom were men. To make homes in the wilderness, the French king sent a shipload of young women who became colonists’ wives. Indian wars. — The end of Queen Anne’s War did not bring peace to the British colonies. The North Carolina settlements were attacked by the fierce Tuscarora Indians. The savages were overcome by the aid of South Carolina which sent a little army through the wilderness to aid her hard-pressed neighbor. The conquered Tuscaroras went to New York and joined the kindred Iroquois tribes; henceforth the confederacy was the Six Nations instead of the Five Nations. A few months later, the Muskhogean tribes of the Carolinas went on the warpath. A year passed, many homes and settlements were destroyed, and four hundred colonists were killed before the Indians were subdued. Governor Spotswood’s explorations. — While this Indian war was going on, the Virginia mountains were explored by Governor Alexander Spotswood, accompanied by a band of gallant gentlemen. They ascended a summit of the Blue Ridge, and beheld the fair country west of the no SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1716 mountains. Governor Spotswood urged the home govern¬ ment to establish a chain of forts beyond the mountains, in order to keep back the French from this territory; but his advice was unheeded. Colonial growth. —In spite of their Indian, French, and Spanish enemies, the British colonies grew and prospered. East and West Jersey were united and formed the royal province of New Jersey [1702]. Delaware was separated from Pennsylvania and given an assembly of its own. The King bought the rights of the lords proprietors [1729] and Carolina became two royal colonies, North and South Carolina. Their beginnings had been distinct and there had been little real connection for years before their political separation. A new colony was estab¬ lished, last of the origi¬ nal thirteen. This was Georgia, so called in honor of George II., the ruling king of Great Britain. Oglethorpe and his col¬ ony. — Georgia was the first great charity in the New World; its territory was given to proprietors “in trust for the poor.” The colony was founded by General James Ogle¬ thorpe, a noble-minded, James Oglethorpe charitable Englishman, as a refuge for poor, unfortunate people, especially poor debtors. At that time, debt was punished as a crime. If a man owed even a few pennies, he could be put into jail 17331 THE FRENCH-ENGLISH CONTEST hi and kept there till his debt was paid or till he died. All prisoners — debtors, thieves, and murderers — were herded together in filthy, disease-infested places. They suffered for lack of food and clothing. Sometimes smallpox or some other disease destroyed almost all the occupants of a prison. A colony where poor men could make a fresh start would be a benefit to the country and to indi¬ viduals. Men who were a burden at home might be¬ come self-supporting. New industries could be developed and British trade built up. General Oglethorpe planned that the colony should be a military one, occupying the region between South Carolina and Florida, to hold it against the Spaniards of Florida and against the French who were taking possession of the Mississippi Valley. Government of Georgia.—There were three rules laid down for Georgia : first, it was to have religious freedom ; second, negro slavery was forbidden; third, rum was not to be brought into the colony. The colonists were selected with as much care as possible. They were drilled as soldiers, and were supplied with powder, shot, and guns as duly as with plows and seeds. The first settlement was made at Savannah on the broad stream bearing that name [1733]. General Oglethorpe was the first governor; the religious leaders were John and Charles Wesley, and later George Whitfield, three famous English clergymen, the founders of the Methodist church. Industries of Georgia and South Carolina. — General Oglethorpe wished to make the production of silk the chief industry of the new colony. Silkworms were brought over, mulberry trees were planted, and some silk was produced. The first silk taken from Georgia to England was made into a dress for the queen. The industry did not flourish, however, and others took its place. Rice become a staple crop, and after a while negro slaves were used as laborers. 11 2 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1741 Meanwhile, the cultivation of indigo was begun in South Carolina. A young lady, Miss Eliza Lucas, planted on her father’s farm indigo seeds brought from the West Indies. The first crops were destroyed by frost and by worms, but Miss Lucas persevered, and finally a good crop was raised. Indigo and rice thrived on the swampy coast, and for over half a century they were the staple crops of South Carolina. Georgia attacked by Spaniards. —War with Spain broke out when the Georgia colony was only six years old. The Spaniards attacked one of its settlements, and General Oglethorpe marched a little army against St. Augustine, but was unable to take its fort. Two years later, the Spaniards made a sudden attack with fifty ships and 5000 men, intending to destroy the Georgia settlements and then to march against the Carolinas and Virginia. Their army was defeated and driven off by General Oglethorpe with only six hundred and fifty men. King George’s War [1744-1748].—While Georgia was fighting the Spaniards, the northern colonies were again fighting the French. This war of Great Britain against France and Spain was called in the colonies King George’s War, because George II. was then king. It lasted five years. The principal event was the taking of Louisburg on Cape Breton Island. Louisburg was a fortress that guarded the entrance to the Gulf of St. Lawrence and was a con¬ stant danger to the British fishermen visiting the New¬ foundland banks. The fort was surrounded by stone walls twenty or thirty feet high and forty feet thick; on these walls were posted a hundred cannon. Next to Quebec, it was the strongest fortress in America. The French boasted that women could hold it against an enemy ; but strong as it was, it was taken after six-weeks’ siege by a 1748] THE FRENCH-ENGLISH CONTEST ii3 little army of 4000 New England farmers and fisher¬ men, aided by four British warships. By the treaty at the end of the war, Louisburg was given back to the French in exchange for Madras, a British stronghold in India, which had been taken. The New Englanders were indignant that their conquest Louisburg, like Acadia, was returned to the French, and, like that, would have to be retaken when war broke out again. Summary [1713-1748]. — After Queen Anne’s War, there was a thirty-years’ peace. During it, the French built forts and occupied the country from Canada to the mouth of the Mississippi; Georgia, the last of the thirteen English colonies, was founded by General James Oglethorpe. Some years after Georgia was settled, the third war with the French began. King George’s War, as it was called, lasted five years. Its chief event was the capture of Louisburg, a strong French fortress, which was given back at the end of the war. 3. The French and Indian War Condition of colonies. — Peace between France and Great Britain did not last long. A few years after King George's War ended, there began the Seven Years’ War, — or the French and Indian War, as it was called in the colonies. This was the fourth, greatest, and last war be¬ tween the French and British in America, and it settled finally the question of mastery in the New World. When this war began, there were fifteen British colonists to one Frenchman, but the French occupied a vast area protected by well-placed forts. They had 80,000 colonists, most of them in Canada, some along the Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico. The British had over a million colonists, living on farms and plantations and in villages and towns, along the Atlantic coast. The thirteen British colonies formed three groups: four New England colonies — New Hampshire, Massa- SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1753 114 chusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut; four middle colonies — New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware ; five southern colonies — Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. These colonies may be divided into three other groups, according to the way in which governors were chosen: two charter colonies — Rhode Island and Connecticut — elected their own governors; in three proprietary col¬ onies — Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware — the governor was chosen by the proprietor; in eight royal colonies—Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia — the ruler was appointed by the king. In government, these thirteen little commonwealths were much alike. In them all, people claimed the right to tax themselves and to speak their minds about public matters. Ohio Valley. — The first point of conflict between the French and the British was the valley of the Ohio. This was being occupied by British colonists, chiefly thrifty Germans and hardy Scotch-Irish, who crossed the moun¬ tains to hunt, trade, and farm. About the middle of the eighteenth century, the Ohio Land Company was formed to trade with Indians and to settle the country west of the Alleghenies. This company obtained a large grant of land and established trading posts on the Ohio River. The French also claimed the Ohio Valley. It was the direct route between their posts on the St. Lawrence and their settlements on the Mississippi. They broke up the British trading posts, and built a log fort on the southern shore of Lake Erie, at the present site of Erie, and two forts on the upper branches of the Ohio River, one on French Creek and the other on Allegheny River. Washington goes as messenger to French. — Governor Dinwiddie of Virginia sent George Washington to order 1753] THE FRENCH-ENGLISH CONTEST u 5 the French “peaceably to depart” from this territory claimed by the British. Washington was only twenty-one, but he was a brave and capable youth. He had had a varied training, —in right principles by a good mother, in books in simple Virginia country schools, in frontier life as Washington’s Birthplace a surveyor in the wilderness, in business as administra¬ tor of his brother’s large estate, in arms as commander of the militia of eleven counties. With a few companions, he set forth on the long, dangerous journey of a thousand miles, following rivers and Indian trails through the wilder¬ ness to the French forts. On the return journey, the horses gave out, and Washington came back on foot with only one companion, a famous woodsman named Gist. They trav¬ eled up and down the mountains, crossed ice-blocked streams, and made their way through forests where lurked French and Indian foes. At last, they came home safe, with tidings that the French refused to give up the territory. It was necessary either to ‘drive them off by force of arms,’ or to yield the western territory. Conflict on Ohio [1754].— The British were resolved to hold the country. Governor Dinwiddie ordered a body of n6 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1754 backwoodsmen to build a fort at the forks of the Ohio, where Pittsburg now stands. Troops were gathered and sent forward as promptly as possible. While a small army of three hundred and fifty men under command of Washington was marching across the mountains, French troops came down the Allegheny River, drove away the little band of Virginians, and occupied and strengthened the fort which they called Fort Du Quesne. Instead of retreating when he learned that the French had seized the fort, Washington went forward with his troops. One May day, they met a band of Frenchmen in the forest. There was a brief skirmish in which the Vir¬ ginians were victorious. They advanced and fortified a camp which they called P"ort Necessity. There they were attacked by seven hundred Frenchmen, and, after fighting bravely all day long, they were forced to surrender. This fight in the western forest was the beginning of a great war between the French and the British. As soon as news of the border conflict reached Europe, France and Great Britain sent troops to their colonies. The four points at which the French were most open to attack were the northeastern coast, Lake Champlain, the shores of the Great Lakes, and the headwaters of the Ohio. The British planned to attack them at all these points. Braddock’s defeat [July 7, 1755].-—The troops to attack Fort Du Quesne were led by Major General Edward Brad- dock, the British commander. General Braddock was brave and able, but self-willed and ignorant of Indian warfare. The Americans warned him that the savages would lurk behind shelter and would make sudden fierce attacks at favorable times and places. But the British general refused to adapt his methods to those of his savage foes. He sent his ax- men ahead to cut a road through the forest to Fort Du THE FRENCH-ENGLISH CONTEST 117 1755) Quesne, a hundred and thirty miles away. Over this road, he marched his army with drums beating, flags flying, and men in bright uniforms and close, orderly ranks, as if he were on a battle field in Europe. Marching thus, his army came to a ravine in the forest, only eight miles from Fort Du Quesne. There it was attacked by a small band of French and Indians. The Virginia soldiers hid behind trees and fought the Indians in their own fashion. General Braddock called the colonists cowards. Openly and fearlessly he put himself at the head of his regular troops drawn up in line of battle. Their red coats were marks for the fire of their hidden foes, and they were shot down without being able to strike a blow in return. At last they broke ranks and ‘ran like sheep pursued by dogs.’ Brave, foolish General Braddock received his death wound, and nearly all the subordinate officers were killed or wounded. Colonel George Washington said, “ I had four bullets through my coat and two horses shot under me, yet es¬ caped unhurt although death was leveling my companions on every side of me.” In the face of many difficulties, he conducted home the shattered remnant of an army. The borders now lay open to the French and Indians. Hundreds of persons were butchered, and settlements were laid waste. The colonists met savagery with savagery. Even Pennsylvania the peaceful put a price on the scalps of Indians, — men, women, and children. Removal of French from Acadia. — Braddock’s papers taken in the rout made known the British plans of attack and enabled the French to defeat them. The colonists feared that the French would attempt to take their old province of Acadia, and that they would be aided by the people who were French by race and at heart. Therefore, n 8 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1755 Montcalm were separated; some were British defeats.— Dur¬ ing the first three years of the French and Indian War, one British defeat followed another. Mont¬ calm, the able French general, captured Fort Oswego and leveled it to the ground; he took Fort William Henry; with about 4000 men, he defended FortTicon- deroga against the Brit¬ ish general Abercrom¬ bie, with 15,000 men. “ I dread to hear from it was resolved to re¬ move the Acadians from the country. The 6000 men, women, and children were called together in their churches and made prisoners; weeping and praying, they were taken to the shore, put on board vessels, and distributed among the British colonies from Maine to Georgia. They suffered many hard¬ ships before they found new homes and means of living. Many families never reunited. America,” said Pitt, the William Pitt 1757 ] THE FRENCH-ENGLISH CONTEST 119 great English statesman, as month after month brought tidings of failure and defeat. British victories. — At last Pitt was made war minister, and under him ‘ a war of failure and defeat was changed into a war of victories.’ An army of 50,000 soldiers was organized; half were British ‘regulars,’ or trained troops, and the other half were ‘ provincials,’ troops raised by the colonies. Great Britain furnished most of the arms, ammunition, and generals. The ablest of the officers sent over was Gen¬ eral James Wolfe, a young Englishman with a daring, determined spirit in a feeble, sickly body. Gen¬ erals Wolfe and Amherst led an attack on Louisburg, the great French strong¬ hold. Bravely defended though it was, it had to surrender, and its great walls were leveled to the ground. Fort Oswego was retaken, and the French were forced to abandon Fort Du Quesne. The British rebuilt and garri¬ soned it, calling it Fort Pitt in honor of the great states¬ man ; the city of Pittsburg now occupies its site. The year after Fort Du Quesne was taken, Forts Niagara and Ticonderoga surrendered to the British. Montcalm lacked soldiers, money, military stores, and provisions. He appealed to the home government for aid, but he appealed in vain. France could not send soldiers to the colony. She was busy fightingat home, and, moreover, the seas were controlled by British warships. 120 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1759 flll.AMS ENb. co. # N.Y. Capture of Quebec [Sept. 13, 1759]. — Montcalm col¬ lected his forces, 14,000 disorderly troops, at Quebec. This city is situated on a bluff overlooking the St. Lawrence River. There are steep cliffs along the river several miles above the city and a high ridge extends six miles below it. North of the city was a level space called the Plains of Abraham, defended on the river side by a precipice. In 1759, Wolfe besieged the French stronghold. P"or three months, it held out against him. The long ice-bound northern winter was approaching; if he did not take Quebec soon, he would be forced to give up the siege and return to the colonies. He re¬ solved to make a last desperate effort to take the city. Dividing his army, he left half to threaten attack below Quebec; the other half was conveyed up the river. At night the troops floated down the stream and landed a mile above Quebec at the foot of a steep bluff; there was, as Wolfe had learned, a path going zigzag up this two hundred feet of bushy precipice. The British climbed up the bluff; when day dawned, about 5000 men were drawn up in line of battle on the Plains of Abraham. In the fight that followed, ‘Wolfe lost his life, but won Quebec and Canada for Great Britain.’ As he lay wounded, he heard the cry, “ They fly! they fly! ” “ Who fly ? ” he asked. “The French,” was the answer. Quebec and Vicinity The Death of General Wolfe 122 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1759 He gave some final orders and then said : “ Now God be praised. I die in peace,” and died with the shouts of vic¬ tory in his ears. Brave Montcalm, too, was mortally wounded. When told that he could live only a few hours, he said, “ Thank God ! I shall not live to see the surrender of Quebec.” The next year, Montreal yielded and all Canada was in the hands of the British. Treaty of peace [1763]. — By the treaty of peace, France ceded to Great Britain all her possessions east of the Mis¬ sissippi, except a few island fishing-stations. She had already ceded to Spain New Orleans and Louisiana, the great unexplored region from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains. Thus in two years France lost all her possessions in the New World. To-day the French names of Montreal, Quebec, St. Louis, New Orleans, and other places from the mouth of the St. Lawrence to the mouth of the Mississippi, remind us of the nation which settled that great region. By the treaty at the end of the French and Indian War, Spain yielded Florida to Great Britain ; twenty years later, it was ceded back. Results of war. — By the French and Indian War, the British colonies were freed from a dangerous neighbor and their Indian enemies were deprived of a powerful ally. The colonists were drawn together in a common cause and gained military training. There was soon to be a great contest in which this training was to prove valuable. Some people foresaw the coming contest. A shrewd Frenchman said: “ England will erelong repent of having removed the only check [the French power] that could keep her colonies in awe. They no longer stand in need of her protection. She will call on them to contribute toward supporting the burdens they have helped to bring upon her, and they will answer by shaking off all dependence.” 140 J „ 120° 110° l*W> 9Q? y()« 7 0 6 60° ***vv \^rvr^- S©®*' &*' Vi" '•>. ' d*Ct£ y CHAPTER IV FROM COLONIES TO STATES i. Colonial Discontent Some causes of colonial discontent. — The end of the French and Indian War found the colonists loyal, but growing discontented. They disliked their royal govern¬ ors and the Trade and Navigation Acts. When the colonies were young and most of the people were Englishmen or the children of Englishmen, a gov¬ ernor from the mother country seemed one of themselves. Now, when most of the colonists were American born, governors from Great Britain seemed outsiders. Some of these governors were popular because they were wise and capable men, considerate of the colonists’ rights; gov¬ ernors who were harsh and overbearing were disobeyed or driven from office. Usually, the people had their way without an open outbreak. The governor had power to veto the laws passed by the assembly, but it alone had power to lay taxes. If he refused to sign the laws that it passed, it in turn refused to vote money for his salary; this usually brought him to terms. The chief cause of colonial dissatisfaction was the Trade and Navigation Acts. It was agreed that Great Britain had a right to regulate commerce and to shut out foreign nations from free trade with the colonies; she was entitled to this for protecting them and for guarding 124 FROM COLONIES TO STATES 125 1761] their merchant ships with her navy. But the trade laws were very strict; and year by year they became stricter. The colonists were required to limit their commerce almost entirely to Great Britain. They were not even allowed to trade freely with one another. Manufactures were for¬ bidden ; they “ had not the right to manufacture so much as a nail for a horseshoe.” It must not be forgotten, how¬ ever, that Great Britain tried to help the colonies by paying bounties on some American products and by doing other things to build up their trade. As time passed and industries increased, the colonists more and more evaded and disobeyed the unpopular trade laws. Goods were smuggled to and from every port. Hundreds of New England vessels were busy with the forbidden coast trade. To aid in enforcing the Acts, the king’s officers in Massa¬ chusetts were given Writs of Assistance. These were warrants giving the king’s officers permission to search any house at any time for smuggled goods. They dif¬ fered from regular search warrants in an important partic¬ ular : instead of giving the name of a suspected person, a warrant was left blank; a custom-house officer could fill in any name he chose and search any man’s prem¬ ises. Otis’s protest.—James Otis was the king’s lawyer in Massachusetts, and as such, it was his place to support the Writs of Assistance. He thought that they were unjust and oppressive, and so he gave up his office and did all that he could against them. He made a famous speech on the subject; it was five hours long and as eloquent and patriotic as it was long. But in spite of the opposition of Otis and others, Writs of Assistance were granted, officers entered dwellings and warehouses by force, and much ill feeling was caused. CHAPTER IV FROM COLONIES TO STATES i. Colonial Discontent Some causes of colonial discontent. — The end of the French and Indian War found the colonists loyal, but growing discontented. They disliked their royal govern¬ ors and the Trade and Navigation Acts. When the colonies were young and most of the people were Englishmen or the children of Englishmen, a gov¬ ernor from the mother country seemed one of themselves. Now, when most of the colonists were American born, governors from Great Britain seemed outsiders. Some of these governors were popular because they were wise and capable men, considerate of the colonists’ rights; gov¬ ernors who were harsh and overbearing were disobeyed or driven from office. Usually, the people had their way without an open outbreak. The governor had power to veto the laws passed by the assembly, but it alone had power to lay taxes. If he refused to sign the laws that it passed, it in turn refused to vote money for his salary; this usually brought him to terms. The chief cause of colonial dissatisfaction was the Trade and Navigation Acts. It was agreed that Great Britain had a right to regulate commerce and to shut out foreign nations from free trade with the colonies; she was entitled to this for protecting them and for guarding 124 FROM COLONIES TO STATES 125 1761] their merchant ships with her navy. But the trade laws were very strict; and year by year they became stricter. The colonists were required to limit their commerce almost entirely to Great Britain. They were not even allowed to trade freely with one another. Manufactures were for¬ bidden ; they “ had not the right to manufacture so much as a nail for a horseshoe.” It must not be forgotten, how¬ ever, that Great Britain tried to help the colonies by paying bounties on some American products and by doing other things to build up their trade. As time passed and industries increased, the colonists more and more evaded and disobeyed the unpopular trade laws. Goods were smuggled to and from every port. Hundreds of New England vessels were busy with the forbidden coast trade. To aid in enforcing the Acts, the king’s officers in Massa¬ chusetts were given Writs of Assistance. These were warrants giving the king’s officers permission to search any house at any time for smuggled goods. They dif¬ fered from regular search warrants in an important partic¬ ular : instead of giving the name of a suspected person, a warrant was left blank ; a custom-house officer could fill in any name he chose and search any man’s prem¬ ises. Otis’s protest.—James Otis was the king’s lawyer in Massachusetts, and as such, it was his place to support the Writs of Assistance. He thought that they were unjust and oppressive, and so he gave up his office and did all that he could against them. He made a famous speech on the subject; it was five hours long and as eloquent and patriotic as it was long. But in spite of the opposition of Otis and others, Writs of Assistance were granted, officers entered dwellings and warehouses by force, and much ill feeling was caused. 126 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1764 Revenue bills. — A few years later, the colonists were given a new and more serious cause of discontent. The French and Indian War had left Great Britain with an enormous debt. It had also greatly increased the ex¬ penses of government; it was necessary to build forts and keep soldiers in America in order to defend it against French and Spanish attacks and against Indian risings, such as Pontiac’s War. How was the money for these purposes to be raised ? The British government thought that the colonies ought to pay part of the expenses against the enemies on their borders. The colonies agreed that it was just they should pay a share of these expenses. They thought that the needed funds ought to be raised by means of taxes laid by their own assemblies. The assemblies, however, were slow to act, and so the British government took matters in its own hands. It made the strict trade laws even stricter and passed a Sugar Act [1764], laying heavy du¬ ties on sugar, molasses, etc., brought into the colonies. This Sugar Act was a great hard¬ ship to New England traders and was vigor¬ ously opposed by them. Samuel Adams. — In Massachusetts, this op¬ position was led by Samuel Adams. Adams was a shrewd political leader ; he perfected the caucus, by which a group of citizens voted and worked together so as to control the action of a public meeting. Samuel Adams 1765] FROM COLONIES TO STATES 127 “If taxes are laid upon us in any shape,” Adams wrote, “ without our having a legal representation whefe they are laid, are we not reduced from the character of Free Subjects to the miserable state of tributary Slaves ? We claim Brit¬ ish rights not by charter only. We are born to them ! ” Stamp Act. — The British government did not stop with strict trade laws; it went further, and for the first time it laid a direct tax on the colonies. This tax, called the Stamp Act, required a stamp on deeds, contracts, and other business papers, and on all newspapers and other publi¬ cations [1765]. The money raised by it was to be used in payment of the war debt. Great Britain was using a stamp tax and the colonies also had used it, for it was easy to collect. But a storm of angry protest rose from the colonies against this particular Stamp Act. They ob¬ jected, not to the amount nor to the form of the tax, but to the fact that it was imposed by Parliament and not by their own assemblies. They declared that it was “ against the rights of Englishmen to be taxed save by their repre¬ sentatives.” Patrick Henry. — The House of Burgesses was in session when the Act reached Virginia, with the information that it was to be enforced in November. Most of the members of the House were stately gentlemen in silk knee breeches and velvet coats, with curled and powdered wigs. Among them was a country lawyer, dressed in simple clothes and wearing his own plain hair. This was Patrick Henry, ‘the trumpet of the Revolution.’ He proposed resolutions de¬ claring that the people of the colonies had all the rights of Stamp Act Stamps 128 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1765 their fellow-countrymen in Great Britain; that only the assembly in which they were represented had a right to lay taxes on Virginians, and they were not bound to obey any law to the contrary. A heated discussion followed. Henry asserted that the Stamp Act was an act of tyranny on the part of the king; then he mentioned rulers who had been charged with tyranny and put to death. “ Caesar had his Brutus,” he exclaimed, “ Charles I. his Cromwell, and George III. — ” “Treason! treason! ” inter¬ rupted several gentlemen. “ May profit by their exam¬ ple,” cried Hen¬ ry. “ If this be treason, make the most of it.” Henry’s reso¬ lutions were adopted. “Vir¬ ginia rang the alarm bell,” and the other colonies responded promptly. “No taxation without representation ” became the watchword of the liberty-loving people. Stamp Act Congress. — At the suggestion of Massachu¬ setts, the colonies sent delegates to New York to a meeting called the Stamp Act Congress. This Congress drew up Patrick Henry’s Speech 1765] FROM COLONIES TO STATES 129 papers asking the home government to repeal the Stamp Act and declaring that only their own assemblies had the right to tax the colonies. How Stamp Act was received. — The first of Novem¬ ber, 1765, the day on which the Act was to go into effect, The TIMES are €>reabful, iDifmal doleful jDoloious. and Dolla*-le»s NUMB. iu Thurfday, OOtbrr 31. 1765. [PENNSYLVANIA JOURNAL; WEEKLY ADVERTISER. EXPIRING; In Hopes ot' a RdurreUion to Like again Irvec) ihc I .fyl lorry (o be. obliged | to acquaint my Head¬ er* lhat as TheS’TAMP- Act. isfear’d to be ob ligatory upon u» after j thefirjlif Nntmb*r cn- luutg, (the/iibd^c m*r. ubhlherof this Paper unable to I bear the Burthen, has thought itexpcdientl to «ror awhile, inorder todclibciatc,whr ther any Methods can be found to elude the| Cliams forged for (is, and cfcape the infup- portable Slavery j which it is hoped, from' thelu/l Heprcfentations now made againA IhalAA. may be effefled Mean while,: I mult earneAIy Requeft every Individual ■»r my Subfcribers many of whom have | Ibeen long behind Hand, that they would (immediately Difchargc their refpective Ai '■ Irer* that 1 may be able, not only to I Ifupport niylelf dining the Interval, bull |be better prepared to proceed again with I Ithis Paper, whenever an opening for (hot [ li’urpole appears, which 1 Imjx-, will be J Ifoou WILLIAM BRADFORD. The Title-page of the Pennsylvania Journal, October 31, 1765 was a notable day in the colonies. Some people spent it in fasting and prayer; some spent it in riot and violence, destroying property and burning king’s officers in effigy, but none spent it in obeying the Act. The stamps were burned or returned to Great Britain, and people carried on business without them. Many people in Great Britain approved the course of America. Pitt said that the colonists were right to resist the Stamp Act because it was an unjust law and ought not to have been passed; he said that Parliament had a right to make laws about trade, but not to lay a direct tax K 130 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [176s on the people, “ taking their money out of their pockets without their consent.” “ You have no right to tax America,” he said in Parlia¬ ment. “ I rejoice that she has resisted.” Burke, the famous Irish statesman, said that even if Parliament had a right to pass such a law, it would be fool¬ ish to alienate 3,000,000 people for a small increase of revenue. The protest against the Stamp Act was so great that it was repealed the next spring. But Parliament still persisted in declaring that it had a right to tax the Ameri¬ can colonies. British government. — This Parliament expressed the views, not of the great, free, liberty- loving English peo¬ ple as a whole, but of the king and a group of his minis¬ ters. Let us see how this was. The British House of Commons, like our House of Represen¬ tatives, is composed of members elected from different parts of the country ac¬ cording to popula¬ tion,— one for every so many thousand George III. people. Now, tO keep representation right, changes must be made in it according to the changes 1766] FROM COLONIES TO STATES I 3 i in population. Our country has a census taken every ten years, and by this is determined the number of representa¬ tives in Congress. In George III.’s time, there had been no change of Parliament membership according to the census for over two hundred years. In some districts, population had in¬ creased ; large cities, such as Manchester and Birmingham, had grown up, and these had no representatives. In some districts, population had decreased; only a few voters were left, but they still had representatives. The national assembly, in which the people were not fairly represented, was controlled by the king — narrow-minded, stubborn, stupid George III. — and his ‘friends.’ His mother’s constant advice to him had been, “George, be king ” ; he was trying to “ be king’’ and rule by his own will at home and in the colonies. Tax on glass, etc. [1767].—The year after the Stamp Act was repealed, another tax was laid on the colonies. This was a tax on glass, tea, paper, paint, and certain other things ; its proceeds were to be used to pay the sal¬ aries of officers in America. The people objected to this. They wished to pay these salaries through their assemblies as they had always done, so as to keep the officers respon¬ sible to them. The tax caused such dissatisfaction in Massachusetts that two regiments of soldiers were sent to Boston, to aid in enforcing the laws. For the most part, the colonists did not disobey the law, and yet they destroyed its effect. They stopped using taxed articles and other goods imported from Great Britain. Trade was almost at a standstill, and British merchants begged to have the tax removed. At last this was done; only one tax was re¬ tained, that on tea. “ There must be one tax to keep up the right,” said the king. i3 2 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1770 ‘Boston Massacre/ — A month before this change was made, an incident happened which showed the people’s feelings. One evening, a mob followed the British troops along the streets of Boston, abusing them and pelting them with stones and snowballs. At last some angry soldiers fired without orders, killing and wounding several persons. The day after this street fight, some Boston freemen, with Samuel Adams as spokesman, went to the royal governor and in the name of the people demanded that the soldiers be withdrawn from Boston. To avoid trouble, the governor sent the troops to an island in the bay. Battle of Alamance [1771]. — In North Carolina, the next year, dissatisfaction broke out in open rebellion. Dis¬ satisfied colonists organized in bands called Regulators, demanded better government, and refused to pay oppres¬ sive taxes. “No reforms, no money,” they said. Near the Alamance River, a battle was fought between these Regulators and troops led by Governor William Tryon. The Regulators fought bravely until their ammunition gave out, and then retreated. Gaspee burned [1772]. — Rhode Island, too, was rebel¬ lious. A British vessel, the Gaspee, stationed off the coast to catch smugglers, was burned by a mob. The home gov¬ ernment ordered that all who took part in the affair should be arrested and sent to England for trial, but not a man was arrested. Committees of Correspondence.—Towns, colonies, and sections were drawing together in the common cause. Samuel Adams suggested that the townships in Massa¬ chusetts form Committees of Correspondence, to “ state, communicate, and publish the rights of the colonists.” At the suggestion of Virginia, intercolonial Committees of Correspondence were formed [1773] to exchange views 1773 ] FROM COLONIES TO STATES 133 and discuss matters of general interest. These intercolo¬ nial committees, uniting the colonies in a common cause, were the first great step toward Union. Tea tax. — As has been said, the king retained the tax on tea in order to carry his point that Parliament had a right to tax the colonies. A trading association, the East India Company, had been granted the exclusive right to bring tea to Great Britain ; from British ports, it was reshipped to America. Now the East India Company was given permission to send tea to America without pay¬ ing the usual British duty, so that even with the three¬ pence tax, it would be cheaper there than in Great Britain. It was thought that there would be a ready sale for it on these terms, and tea ships were sent to four cities — Charleston, Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. But the colonists were contending, not for cheap tea, but for a principle. At Charleston, the tea was stored in cellars and not a pound was sold. The ships were sent back from Phila¬ delphia and New York without being allowed to land their cargoes. In Boston, the tea was thrown overboard one night by a band of men disguised as Indians ; this is called 4 the Boston Tea Party.’ Boston Port Bill [1774]. — Instead of making terms with the colonies, stubborn, foolish King George pressed severe measures, especially against Boston. The charter of Massachusetts was suspended. General Gage, who lacked patience, tact, and good judgment where all were needed, was made military governor. The Boston Port Bill was passed, closing that harbor to all business till pardon should be asked and payment made for the destroyed tea. In those days, news came slowly across the sea, travel¬ ing on sailing vessels which waited for favoring winds and often took months to make the voyage. So it hap- 134 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1774 pened that Virginia received news of the Port Bill a month before it reached Boston. The House of Burgesses held a day of fasting and prayer, and issued a request for a general Congress of Committees of Correspondence. Rhode Island, New York, and Massa¬ chusetts issued similar requests. The liberties of all the colonies were threatened, and the others were ready to stand by Massachusetts in the common cause. As a South Carolina paper said, “ One soul animates 3,000,000 brave Americans though extended over a long tract of 3000 miles.” First Continental Congress [1774].—The Continental, or colonial, Congress met at Philadelphia. It was a notable gathering of able, earnest patriots, the picked men of twelve colonies. They drew up a petition to the king and a Declaration of Rights, and agreed that until their rights were granted they would not carry on trade with Great Britain. Virginia Convention [1775]. — The harsh laws were not withdrawn, and early the next spring the Virginia patriots met at Richmond to decide what they should do. Some suggested that they send new petitions to the king. Then Patrick Henry made a famous speech, urging the people to defend their liberties. Ten years before, he had urged resistance by words to the Stamp Act. In these ten years, the colonies had drifted and been driven far from the mother country. Now Patrick Henry urged resistance by arms. “ Is life so dear or peace so sweet,” he asked in well- known words, “ as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery ? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course others may take, but as for me, give me lib¬ erty or give me death.” Minutemen. — Still hoping that the home government THE COLONIES AT THE OUTBREAK OP THE REVOLUTION . 1775 ] FROM COLONIES TO STATES 135 would regard their rights, people thought that it would be wise to prepare to fight. The Virginia militia was organ¬ ized and put under command of Colonel George Wash¬ ington. From Maine to Georgia, fire¬ arms and ammunition were collected and troops were organized and drilled ; these were called ‘minutemen’ be¬ cause they were to be ready to fight at a minute’s notice. The resolution of the people was evident. They would not obey Parliament; they would be taxed only by their own assemblies; if necessary, they would fight for their rights. Literature. — A glance at the litera¬ ture of the time shows its spirit. The colonists were not writing chiefly chronicles and religious discourses, as in earlier days. Instead, there were pamphlets and books about public affairs, — protests against the Stamp Act, arguments against the taxing of the Americans, inquiries into the rights of the colonists, and even treatises in favor of Amer¬ ican independence. There were patriotic poems by Philip Freneau, John Trumbull, and Timothy Dwight. The elo¬ quence of James Otis, Samuel Adams, and Patrick Henry was setting fire to the tinder of popular discontent. Western settlements. — While the thirteen colonies were uniting against Great Britain, the settlement of the West was beginning. At the end of the French and Indian War, the British had set aside the region between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River as an Indian country; the colonists were forbidden to settle be¬ yond the headwaters of the streams which empty into the 136 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [177s Atlantic. In spite of this decree, pioneers pressed west¬ ward, — traders carrying goods to exchange with Indians for furs, hunters and trappers seeking game, farmers occupying the fertile land. They made the long, toilsome, dangerous journey across mountain gaps and along streams. With their knives and rifles, they held their own, supplied their simple needs, and built up homes in the wilderness. Pioneers from Virginia and Maryland went to Kentucky, the Regulators of North Carolina settled in Tennessee, and people from Pennsylvania moved into the Ohio country. Daniel Boone. — Daniel Boone was one of these western pioneers. Soon after the French and Indian War, he went from his home in North Carolina “ in quest of the country of Kentucke.” His brother returned for ammunition, and he spent the winter alone in the western wilderness. Later, with a few bold companions, he made the Fort Boonesboro first settlement there. “ Many a dark and cheerless night,” he said, “ have I been a companion for owls, separated from the cheerful society of men, scorched by the summer’s sun and pinched by the winter’s cold, an instrument ordained to settle the wilderness.” Summary [1761-1775].— The colonists were discontented with royal governors and with the Trade and Navigation Acts. Their dis¬ content was increased by the Writs of Assistance and by a direct tax, the Stamp Act. They said that, as they were not represented in Parliament, it had no right to tax them, for “taxation without representation is tyranny.” The Stamp Act was repealed, but it was followed by new taxes on tea, glass, etc. Finally, all the direct taxes were removed ex- 1775] FROM COLONIES TO STATES 137 cept the one on tea. Several shiploads of tea were sent over, but the colonists everywhere refused to receive it. The cargo sent to Boston was destroyed; in punishment for this, the Boston Port Bill was passed, closing the town to trade. The first Continental Congress met at Philadelphia the year that the Port Bill was passed. While the colonies were contending with the home government, Daniel Boone and others pioneers were settling the country west of the Appalachians. 2. The Beginning of the War of the Revolution Fight at Lexington [April 19]. — The spring of 1775 brought the clash of arms in New England. The British general, Gage, who was in Boston with 3000 soldiers, learned that the colonists had collected arms and powder 138 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [i775 at Concord, a village twenty miles away. General Gage sent soldiers to seize these. In order to surprise the colonists, the soldiers started from Boston at midnight. But the patriots were warned of the British movement. Messengers bearing the news galloped from house to house, from village to village. Bells were rung, drums were beat, muskets were fired. Patriots seized their flintlock guns, buckled on their powder-horns, and shot-bags, and assem¬ bled in little groups here and there. About sunrise, the British reached Lex¬ ington, a village a few miles from Con¬ cord ; there they found sixty or seventy men in arms. “ Disperse, you rebels ! Throw down your arms and disperse! ” commanded the British officer. The men did not obey. The soldiers fired and killed seven of the little band; the Americans fired, too, and one British soldier fell dead. Concord fight. — The British marched on to Concord, destroyed all the military stores that they could find, and then started back to Boston. A band of patriots stationed themselves at Concord Bridge, shots were exchanged, and several men were killed on both sides. Rising of colonists. — Meanwhile, news of the Lex¬ ington fight had spread abroad, and the patriots gathered in haste. The clouds “ seemed to rain rebels,” said the British. The patriots fought Indian fashion, taking shelter behind houses, trees, and stone walls, picking off the soldiers with their rifles. The British march quickened into a re¬ treat, and they hurried back to Boston, leaving three hun- British Soldier 1775 ] FROM COLONIES TO STATES m dred soldiers dead, wounded, or prisoners. The New England minutemen did not lay down their arms; they formed four little armies, that of each colony being sepa¬ rate, and camped near Boston. Powder seized in Virginia. — The night after the fight at Lexington, the royal governor of Virginia seized some gunpowder stored at Williamsburg. News was borne so slowly to the farms and plantations of the region that by the time the people as¬ sembled, the powder had been carried off on shipboard. A band of patriots, led by Patrick Henry, went to the governor and compelled him to pay the colony for it. Second Continental Congress. — Three weeks after the fighting at Lexington and Concord, Congress met. George Washington w^ent, dressed in his uniform of blue and buff, and no one needed to ask why. All felt that war was at hand. Congress sent new petitions to the king, but it also took charge of the troops assembled at Boston and called for forces from all the colonies to form a Continental army, of which it appointed Washington commander in chief. His experience in the Lrench and Indian War had prepared him for this place. Men were already aware of his prudence, energy, dignity ; courage, Old Powder-horn, Williamsburg This was the magazine from which the powder was removed. 140 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [177$ and patriotic spirit; they were yet to learn his rare patience, self-control, self-devotion, and persistence which would bring victory out of defeat. In accepting the posi¬ tion, he declined all pay except for his bare expenses. Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point. — The colonies had not waited for Congress to act. The very day that it met, a band of Vermont backwoodsmen, called Green Mountain Boys, seized Fort Ticonderoga, the “gateway to Canada.” The next day, Crown Point was surprised and taken. Both forts contained valuable military stores. Their large guns were dragged to Boston for the use of the patriot army. Whigs and Tories. — Everywhere, people were dividing into two parties,—the loyalists, or Tories, who thought that the king’s laws ought to be obeyed, and the patriots, or Whigs, who were determined to assert their rights, even if they had to disobey these laws. The patriots were the more numerous, and they drove out the royal governors and took control of affairs. Probably a third of the people were loyalists. They were most numerous in New York, Pennsylvania, Georgia, and the Carolinas. Some of them were spies and men who were seeking only their own interest; some were upright gentlemen who loved their liberties, but clung to the mother country and hoped to get their rights by peaceful measures. The Whigs and Tories were very bitter against each other. Men were whipped, tarred and feathered, deprived of property, even shot or hanged by their neighbors or their own relatives who belonged to the opposing party. Troops sent to America. — The only answer that the king made to the petitions of Congress was to send troops to the colonies. In May, there landed in Boston several thousand soldiers, led by three experienced generals, Sir Henry Clinton, Sir John Burgoyne, and Sir William Howe. 1775] FROM COLONIES TO STATES 141 Later, the king hired and sent over about 20,000 soldiers from Hesse and other German states. The sending of these Hessians made the patriots angry and more rebel¬ lious, as wise men knew would be the case. “Were I an American as I am an Englishmen,” said Pitt, “ while a foreign troop was landed in my country, I never would lay down my arms — never — never — never! ” Battle of Bunker Hill [June 17]. — Boston is situated on a peninsula in the middle of the harbor; north and south of it are two other peninsulas overlooking it. On the south are Dorchester Heights. On the north are Charlestown Heights, of which the part nearer Boston is called Breed’s Hill and that farther off is called Bunker Hill. The Americans resolved to occupy the heights com¬ manding the town on the north. Fifteen hundred patriots moved forward in the night to occupy Bunker Hill; they went on to Breed’s Hill, where they worked all night, building defenses of earth and of two parallel rail fences 142 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1775 with the space between filled with hay. The British were greatly surprised the next morning to see the little army on Breed’s Hill. General Howe ordered 3000 soldiers to cross the harbor in boats, march up the hill, and drive away the rebels. People crowded on the Boston housetops to watch the fight between the British regulars and the American farmers and backwoodsmen. “ Wait until you can see the whites of their eyes,” said a patriot leader to his men, when he saw the soldiers coming. The command “ Fire! ” rang out when the British were close at hand. The colonists fired; many of the British fell dead or wounded and the remainder retreated. But they re-formed their line and marched bravely up the hill again; again they were driven back by the close*, deadly fire. A third attack was made. The colonists’ powder was now exhausted, and brave General Warren had been killed. The patriots retreated, fighting as they went, with stones and the butt ends of their guns. Two British soldiers had fallen for every man the colonists had lost. Washington takes charge of army. — Four days after the battle of Bunker Hill, Washington started on horseback from Philadelphia to take charge of the troops at Boston. On the way, he met messengers carrying Congress news of the fight. “ Did the militia stand fire ? ” was his eager question. On being told that it did, he exclaimed, “ Thank God! the liberties of the people are safe.” If these raw troops could stand against the British regulars, the best soldiers in the world, they had the making of a good army. Still, his heart must have sunk as he stood under the great elm tree at Cambridge and looked at his army of 16,000 men. They lacked provisions, clothing, tents, arms, — above all, ammunition. They were, said Washing- 1775] FROM COLONIES TO STATES 143 ton, “ a mixed multitude of people under very little dis¬ cipline, order, or government”; but they were “active, zealous in the cause, and of unquestioned courage.” For¬ tunately for the colonists, the British troops lay quiet in Boston all that summer and fall and winter.- Washington made good use of the time, collecting supplies and drilling his troops into fighting shape. Summary [1775]. — As their petitions to the home government were disregarded, the colonists took up arms in defense of their rights. There were fights at Lexington and Concord and a battle at Bunker Hill. The second Continental Congress, which met at Phila¬ delphia, formed a Continental army, of which George Washington was made commander in chief. 3. The Events of 1776 American navy in 1776.—While the American army was being drilled and prepared for service, the little navy was busy and successful. Its most notable officers were John Barry, an Irishman, called ‘the father of the American navy,’ and John Paul Jones, a young Scotchman. Their deeds read like romances. Barry John Paul Jones 144 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1776 with twenty-seven men in rowboats captured a British ves¬ sel. He fought twenty sea battles and never once lowered his flag to the enemy. It is said that Barry was offered a large sum of money and the command of a frigate if he would join the British. He answered, “ Not the value and command of the whole British fleet can seduce me from the cause of my country.” From a six-weeks’ cruise John Paul Jones brought back sixty-six prizes. When he was promised another ship, he asked for a good one, “for I intend to go in harm’s way,” he said — and he generally carried out his intention. Most of the colonists’ sea fighting was done by privateers, — that is, vessels owned by private persons which were commissioned to attack British ships. Many sailors and fishermen had been thrown out of work by the war; they were ready to plunder British merchant vessels, thus serving their country and enriching themselves at the same time. American invasion of Canada [1776]. — During the first year of the war, two American expeditions invaded Can¬ ada. One was led by Montgomery, a brave Irishman who had served under Wolfe at the siege of Quebec. He cap¬ tured Montreal and secured much-needed provisions and am¬ munition. The other force, under Benedict Arnold, made a winter march of three hundred miles through the wilder¬ ness of Maine to Quebec, where it was joined by Mont¬ gomery’s troops. Together, they made a gallant but unsuccessful night attack on the city. The Americans hoped that the Canadians would ris£ against Great Britain, but they did not, and nothing was gained by the campaign. British evacuate Boston. — Meanwhile, the British and American troops at Boston lay quiet, month after month. Washington, having prepared his army as well as he could, made the first move and stationed troops on Dorchester Heights, which command the town on the south. 1776) FROM COLONIES TO STATES 145 Without an attempt to take the position, the British evacuated Boston and sailed away to Halifax. They took with them hundreds of New England Tories and left behind arms and stores sadly needed by the Americans. Washington goes to New York. — General Washington knew that the British army would return and try to con¬ quer the colonies. He thought that it would probably come to New York City and attack that colony first, because its position made it more important to the British than any other place in America. It controlled the Hudson Valley, leading toward Lake Champlain, the nearest and easiest route to Canada. It lay like a wedge between New Eng¬ land and the southern colonies ; if it were in British hands, the colonies would be divided into two parts which could be attacked and conquered separately. Washington, feel¬ ing sure that the British would try to take this colony, marched his army to New York City. The colonies declare for independence. — Up to this time, the colonists had been contending for their rights as British subjects. They had sent petitions to the king and to Par¬ liament, asking that these rights be regarded. Their pe¬ titions had been answered by the sending of troops, and they had taken up arms in defense of their liberties. Patriots everywhere began to urge that they should fight for their rights as American freemen, not as British subjects. In the spring of 1775, the people of Mecklenburg County in North Carolina declared in favor of independence; the next spring the Congress of North Carolina directed its dele¬ gates in the Continental Congress to “concur” with the other colonies in declaring themselves free from Great Britain. The decisive step was taken by the Virginia Convention in the spring of 1776. It directed its delegates in Congress to “ propose ” independence and it drew up a Bill of Rights organizing a state government. 146 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1776 Patriots in other colonies took the same stand. Meeting of Continental Congress. — Such was the state of affairs when the Continental Congress met in 1776. It was a notable meeting. According to the instructions of his colony, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia made the fol¬ lowing motion: “Resolved, that these United Colonies Independence Hall are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dis¬ solved.” John Adams of Massachusetts seconded this resolution. It was opposed by some members of the Congress, but was carried. Declaration of Independence [July 4]. — A committee was appointed to draw up a Declaration of Independence. This was written by Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, one of the youngest members of Congress, but already known as one of the ablest. The Declaration of Independence was adopted on the fourth of July, 1776. A month later, the members of Congress signed it, knowing they were signing Signing the Declaration of Independen i 4 8 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1776 their death sentences if the Revolution failed and they fell into the king’s hands. At first glance, the contest seemed very unequal. On the one side, there was Great Britain, a powerful nation with the best army and navy in the world, provided with military stores and supplies. On the other hand, there were the thirteen little colonies with a population of only 3,000,000 people, scattered along the Atlantic coast, with the wilderness behind and between their settlements. They had no regular army nor navy, no military supplies and no factories to provide them. But they had some things in their favor: they were fighting on their own .ground and for their rights and liberties. So they cheer¬ fully pulled down the leaden statues of King George III. and made them into bullets. Women’s part in the war. — The women were as brave and patriotic as the men. Wives urged on their husbands, mothers sent their sons to fight the battles of their country. Then the women and children set to work to care for and support the families. This army at home did as much for the cause of freedom as the army in the field. State governments. —The colonies, having thrown off the rule of Great Britain, formed governments of their own. The new governments were much like the old ones, except that the officers were elected by the people instead of being appointed by the king. In the states as in the colo¬ nies, the right to vote was limited to taxpayers and prop¬ erty owners. Each state was separate and independent. Fighting in the Carolinas. — The fighting of 1776 began in the South. In the winter, the North Carolina patriots defeated a large Tory force at Moore’s Creek. That sum¬ mer the South Carolinians beat off a British fleet and army which attacked Charleston. In expectation of the attack, the patriots had built a fort of palmetto logs on Sullivan’s 1776] FROM COLONIES TO STATES 149 Island, which commands the ship entrance to the city. This was called Fort Moultrie, from the name of its com¬ mander. During the attack, a ball from a British gun severed the patriots’ flagstaff, and the flag fell outside the fort. Amid the hail of shot and shell, brave Sergeant Jasper jumped over the wall and rescued the flag. After this unsuccessful at¬ tack on Charleston, the British sailed North ; for more than two years, there was little fighting at the South. Battle of Long Island [August 27].— As Wash¬ ington had foreseen, New York was the main place of attack. The day after Charleston was assailed, British troops began to gather in New York Bay. Sir William Howe came from Halifax with an army and was joined by his brother, Admiral Lord Howe, with troops from England. To oppose this army of 30,000 regular soldiers, Wash¬ ington had 18,000 half-trained soldiers stationed on the heights of Long Island. The troops that guarded the ap¬ proach to the heights were defeated, and the American army was in danger of being surrounded. Washington’s retreat. — Washington secretly collected boats, and one foggy night in August he withdrew from Long Island, without losing a man or a gun. The patriots Jasper Monument 150 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1776 retired into New York, stopping to fight bravely but un¬ successfully at White Plains. They then turned southward and retreated into New Jersey. Washington ordered Gen¬ eral Charles Lee, who had charge of half the patriot forces, to join him, but General Lee withdrew his troops when their aid was most needed. Washington’s army, weakened by defeat, desertion, and illness, consisted of a few thou¬ sand hungry, ragged, discouraged men. As they retreated through New Jersey, they were followed by a strong army under General Cornwallis. The two armies were nearly always in sight of each other. Washington hardly dared pause until he crossed the Delaware River with his “wretched fragment of a broken army.” As his last boats crossed, the British advance guard reached the river. Washington, with his usual foresight, had seized all the boats for miles along the stream, and the British were unable to follow. “These are the times that try men’s souls,” said a pa¬ triot. The “ summer soldier and the sunshine patriot ” deserted the cause. The war so far had been one of failure and defeat. The Americans had shown skill and courage at the battle of Bunker Hill and in the defense of Charleston. But the British had gained important advantages ; they had made themselves masters of New York and New Jersey. Battle of Trenton [December 26]. — However, the year did not close in utter gloom. One blow was struck by Wash¬ ington, who when defeated could yet fight. On a cold, stormy winter night, he crossed the Delaware River with 2500 picked men. Early the next morning, he attacked the British at Trenton ; he lost only nine men and captured 1000 of the foreign soldiers called Hessians, besides arms and ammunition. He carried his prisoners across the river, then returned to Trenton with about 5000 men. 1777] FROM COLONIES TO STATES 151 Battle of Princeton [January 3, 1777]. — Against these, Cornwallis led a force of 8000. Washington’s position was dangerous. Before him was the British army; behind him was the Delaware River, full of floating ice. Washington crossing the Delaware “ We have run down the old fox, and we will bag him in the morning,” laughed Cornwallis. But when morning came, Washington was gone. He had thrown up earthworks and kindled camp fires as if he meant to hold his position. At midnight, he marched swiftly to Princeton, ten miles away, and defeated its British garrison ; then he withdrew to the hills at Morristown. By the successful attacks at Trenton and Princeton, Washing¬ ton had regained control of New Jersey. Financial affairs.—His little army was cheered, but it was in sad condition, suffering greatly from want of supplies. Washington appealed for aid to his friend Robert Morris, a wealthy merchant of Philadelphia. Morris devoted his means and his credit to the patriot cause. He set out on New Year’s morning, roused his friends from their morn- i5 2 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1776 ing naps, and raised $50,000 to supply the most pressing needs of the army. Washington had asked Congress for help, but had asked in vain. Congress had little power and did not use that little well. The general government had no control over the states and no power to lay taxes. To pay soldiers and buy supplies, it issued paper money; this is merely a promise to pay silver or gold to the amount of its face value, and it is only as good as the government that issues it. The Continental money would be worthless if the Americans failed in their struggle for independence. Even if they succeeded, the general government would not be able to redeem its notes with coin unless the states would pay the money. People were not willing to sell goods for this Continental money nor to take it in payment of debts. Summary [1776]. — The chief event of 1776 was the adoption, on July the fourth, of the Declaration of Independence; henceforth, the War of the Revolution was for freedom. There was fighting in both the South and the North. The British were repulsed in the Carolinas at Moore’s Creek and Charleston. They evacuated Boston in the spring, and in the summer gathered in force at New York City. Wash¬ ington retreated from New York through New Jersey. He defeated the British in the battles of Trenton and Princeton, thus regaining control of New Jersey. Then he went into winter quarters at Morristown. Robert Morris 4. The Northern and Western Campaigns of 1777-1779 British plan in 1777. — The next British campaign was well planned. Its object was to conquer New York, the importance of which has been described. This was to be 1777 ] FROM COLONIES TO STATES 153 done by three armies meeting at Albany. General Bur- goyne,. with 8000 soldiers, was to come from Canada by way of Lake Champlain. Colonel St. Leger, with 2000 men, was to march down the Mohawk Valley and join Bur- goyne. Howe was to bring an army of 18,000 men from New York City up the Hudson to meet Burgoyne and St. Leger at Albany. This force of 33,000 men was to take possession of New York and cut off New England from the other states. Burgoyne’s march. — General Burgoyne started south in June, ascended Lake Champlain, took Fort Ticonderoga, and crossed over to the Hudson. His first disaster came at Bennington, Vermont, where a force of 1000 men sent to seize supplies was attacked by patriots [August 16], and only seventy escaped. Up to this time, Burgoyne had met little opposition. The patriot general, Philip Schuyler of New York, had too small an army to risk a pitched battle. All that he could do was to delay the British so as to give colonial troops time to gather. Burgoyne’s communication with Lake Champlain was cut off. The roads were blocked by felling trees and burning bridges so that his army could advance only about a mile a day. Meanwhile, the hardy back¬ woodsmen of New England were gathering to attack him. St. Leger’s march. — While Bur¬ goyne was meeting difficulties, St. Leger failed. He left Oswego in July and was joined by Tories and by Indians under Joseph Brant, a famous Mohawk war chief and missionary. They besieged Fort ^ . ,, i. T , 1 D - First United States Flag Stanwix, on the Mohawk River, which was defended by about six hundred patriots. Over this fort was raised for the first time the Stars and Stripes, SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1777 154 the national flag adopted by Congress, The Stanwix flag was made of blue jackets, white shirts, and some red cloth. General Nicholas Herkimer, marching with a few hundred pa¬ triots to the aid of Fort Stanwix, met the British troops in a wooded - ra¬ vine. Here was fought the fierce drawn battle of Oriskany [August 6]. Arnold, at the head of a volunteer force, hurried to relieve the fort, send¬ ing before him by re¬ leased prisoners a report that the whole American army was on the way. When he reached Fort Stanwix, there was no enemy to fight. The In¬ dians had deserted and had even attacked their British allies; the British had been compelled to retreat. So ended Burgoyne’s hope of aid from that quarter. Howe’s advance to Philadelphia.— But where was General Howe with his large army and his safe and easy line of advance ? By a blunder, his orders to join Burgoyne did not reach him until late in the summer. Before they came, he was engaged in an expedition against Philadelphia. He started in June to march across New Jersey; but Wash¬ ington’s troops blocked the way, and he returned to New York, put 18,000 men on transports, and took them up Ches¬ apeake Bay, — thence they were to march to Philadelphia. 1777] FROM COLONIES TO STATES 155 Washington with 11,000 men met him at Brandywine Creek [September 11], where the Americans were defeated. Though defeated, they managed to delay Howe so that it took him two weeks to march the twenty-six miles to Phil¬ adelphia. The patriots attacked the British at German¬ town [October 4], but in the foggy morning they fired on their own men; this occasioned such confusion that they were defeated. When shrewd Dr. Benjamin Franklin, the American agent in Paris, was told that Howe had taken Philadelphia, he laughed and said, “ Philadelphia has taken Howe.” Indeed, the victory was as bad as a defeat. The time and forces spent in taking Philadelphia caused the loss of the northern campaign. Instead of going to the aid of Bur- goyne, Howe had to get troops for himself from New York. The two battles of Saratoga [September 19, October 7]. — Meanwhile, Burgoyne’s provisions were almost exhausted; he could neither advance nor retreat, for all the roads were guarded by New England troops. Every day his Indian and Tory allies deserted him. Every day recruits came to the Americans who were stationed two miles from him at Bemis’s Heights. General Schuyler had planned the campaign ably and had done its work well. Just as victory was in sight, Con¬ gress removed him and put in command General Horatio Gates, a vain, incapable man. Burgoyne made a desperate attack on Gates’s army, but was ably opposed by Generals Lincoln, Morgan, and Arnold; the battle raged all day, and when night separated the combatants, neither side could claim the victory. In a second battle, the patriots had the advantage. Gates, who won the credit of both battles, took no real part in either of them. Burgoyne’s surrender [October 17]. —To avoid being sur- 156 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1777 rounded, Burgoyne withdrew toward Saratoga. He sent word to Sir Henry Clinton that he could not hold out more than a week longer. The time passed, and no aid came; Clinton, indeed, had left New York with his troops and was on the way up the Hudson. But he had started too late. Burgoyne could hold out no longer, and he surren¬ dered his army of 6000 men. This victory greatly encouraged the patriots, and it sup¬ plied arms and ammunition which they sorely needed. It had other important results. For over a year, Benjamin Franklin had been urging France to make a treaty witji the colonies. It hesitated, fearing that the Americans could not hold their own against Great Britain and not wishing to espouse a losing cause. After the American victory over Burgoyne, France made a treaty, acknowledging the independence of the colonies and agreeing to furnish them money and a fleet. About the same time, the British Parliament granted all that the colonists had asked three years before; the tea tax was repealed, and it was promised that no tax should be laid without the people’s consent. But the Americans refused these terms; independence was now in sight, and they were resolved to win it. Winter at Valley Forge. — News of the French treaty did not reach America until the spring after Burgoyne’s defeat. That winter was a gloomy time for the patriots in the Middle States. After being defeated at Brandywine and at Germantown, Washington’s army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge near Philadelphia. The men were worn out with marches and defeats; they lacked food, clothes, blankets, and supplies of all kinds. Washington wrote: “To see men without clothes to cover their nakedness, without blankets to lie upon, with¬ out shoes (for want of which their marches might be traced 1777] FROM COLONIES TO STATES 157 by the blood from their feet), and almost as often without provisions as with them, marching through the frost and snow, and at Christmas time taking up their winter quar- Washington and Lafayette at Valley Forge ters without a house or a hut to cover them till they could be built, and submitting without a murmur, is a proof of patience and obedience which in my opinion can scarce be paralleled.” Conway Cabal. —A party, called from one of its leaders the Conway Cabal, wished to remove Washington and put Gates in charge of the army. This plan was exposed and aroused such general indignation that it was dropped. Foreigners in American service. — During the winter at Valley Forge, the patriots were drilled by Baron von Steuben. He was an able German officer, one of the for- 158 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1777 eigners who came over to aid the American struggle for in¬ dependence. Others were the brave German Baron Kalb, two Polish patriots, Kos¬ ciusko and Count Pulas¬ ki, and best known of all, the P'rench Marquis de Lafayette. This French nobleman, a youth of nineteen, fitted out a ship at his own expense, came to America, and asked Congress to allow him to serve without pay in the patriot army. He was wounded in the battle of Brandywine and shared the dark days at Valley Forge; Lafayette by his influence in his native land, he secured troops and supplies for the patriots. Evacuation of Philadelphia.—When Sir Henry Clinton, who had succeeded General Howe in chief command, heard of the French treaty, he evacuated Philadelphia, fearing that the French fleet would come up the Delaware and blockade that city. Battle of Monmouth [June 28, 1778].—On his march through New Jersey, he was attacked by the Americans, and a fierce battle was fought at Monmouth. General Charles Lee was ordered to lead an attack; instead, he began a retreat, and came near turning the battle into a defeat for the Americans. The day was saved by the prompt courage of Washington, Lafayette, and other pa¬ triots. Afterward, General Lee was dismissed from the army; it is now known that he was a traitor who was en¬ deavoring to aid the British cause. 1773] FROM COLONIES TO STATES 159 Capture of Stony Point. — Clinton hurried on to New York City, followed by Washington who took up a posi¬ tion at White Plains. The campaign for the possession of the Middle States ended where it began. The British drove the Americans from New York; the Americans drove the British back to New York. Then, for nearly three years, the two armies remained inactive. Clinton lay quiet in New York City, and Washington could not attack him there without the aid of a fleet. Now and then, the British made a sudden raid to pillage and burn ; but as soon as the patriot army advanced, they returned to New York. One of the British strongholds was a fort at Stony Point on the Hudson. One summer night [July 15, 1779,] General Anthony Wayne with 1200 patriots took this fort by a bayonet charge and destroyed it. Massacres at Wyoming and Cherry valleys [1778].— While armies moved to and fro in the East, Tories and Indians waged war on the western borders. The south¬ western settlements were attacked, and the settlers put a price on Indian scalps, as on wolves’ heads. Tories, aided by the tribes of the Six Nations, attacked Wyoming Valley in Pennsylvania. They burned houses, destroyed crops, and massacred men, women, and children. In the fall, a similar attack was made on Cherry Valley in New York. Sullivan’s campaign [1779]. — The next summer, an American force under General Sullivan made a campaign in retaliation for these massacres. They marched through the forest country inhabited by the Six Nations, de¬ feated the Tories and Indians, burned forty villages, and destroyed the crops. Clark’s campaign. — The most important blow in the West was struck by a daring young Virginian, George Rogers Clark. With the authority of the governor of Virginia, he planned an expedition from ‘ the county of Kentucky ’ 160 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1779 against the British forts and trading posts which dotted the northwest territory. Clark had neither soldiers nor money, but he secured the aid of a hundred and eighty backwoods riflemen. Leaving Pitts¬ burg in June, these dar¬ ing men floated a thou¬ sand miles down the Ohio in flatboats, marched a hundred miles across the country, and without the loss of a man took Kas- kaskia and other British posts in the northwest. Most of the inhabitants of this country were French; when they learned that France was aiding the colonies, they willingly submitted. That winter, a band of British and Indians marched south from Detroit to retake the posts that Clark had seized. Clark made a wonderful winter march [February 7-25, 1779] with his little army from Kaskaskia to Vincennes, across a hundred and forty miles of pathless forests and flooded lowlands, defeated the British, and made himself undisputed master of the country. 1779] FROM COLONIES TO STATES 161 It was due to Clark’s conquest, that when peace was made, the British boundary line was drawn at the Great Lakes, instead of the Ohio River. This region north of the Ohio, from the Alleghenies to the Mississippi, was or¬ ganized by Virginia as ‘ the county of Illinois.’ It included the present states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota. Battle between Serapis and Bon Homme Richard Paul Jones. — The British controlled the seas, and little was accomplished by the French fleet from which so much M 162 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1779 had been expected. The Americans, however, made some brilliant sea fights. One of the most notable was by John Paul Jones, in Bon Homme Richard , an old merchant vessel refitted as a warship. Jones attacked a British frig¬ ate, the Serapis [September 23, 1779], lashed it to his ves¬ sel, and engaged in a desperate three-hours’ fight. Jones’s ship was on fire, riddled with shot, and seemed sinking. He drove his prisoners to the pumps and made them work for their lives. When the British captain ordered him to surrender, he answered, ‘ No; that if he could do no better, he would sink with his colors flying.’ Jones came off victor. The ships “ shot each other to pieces ” and both sank within forty-eight hours. Summary [1777-1779]. — The first plan of the British was to take New York, thus dividing the colonies into two sections to be conquered separately. It was planned that three armies, under Burgoyne, St. Leger, and Howe, should invade New York and unite at Albany. St. Leger was checked at Oriskany and Fort Stanwix, and forced to retreat. In¬ stead of going to Albany, Howe occupied Philadelphia, defeating Wash¬ ington’s forces at Brandywine and Germantown. After fighting the two battles of Saratoga, Burgoyne was forced to surrender. This suc¬ cess encouraged the colonists and led France to make an alliance with the Americans. The British evacuated Philadelphia and returned to New York; Washington followed and the fierce drawn battle of Mon¬ mouth was fought. In retaliation for Indian and Tory raids on the western borders, General Sullivan laid waste the country of the Six Nations. George Rogers Clark, aided by a few backwoodsmen, made a wonderful campaign in the Ohio country and conquered the northwest territory. 5. The Campaign in the South British plans. — During the first years of the revolution, most of the fighting was in the North. The main object of the British was to occupy New York and conquer the colonies by sections. They failed in this. Then they 779] FROM COLONIES TO STATES 163 changed their plans and resolved to attack and conquer the colonies one by one. They began with the South, where the population was scattered and there were many slaves and Tories. Conquest of Georgia [1778, 1779]. — The first colony attacked was Georgia. Savannah, defended by only six hundred men, was assailed by land and sea and forced to surrender. Georgia was overrun by British troops. Marion visited in Camp by a British officer Conquest of South Carolina [1780].— After Georgia was conquered South Carolina was attacked. A British fleet passed Fort Moultrie and attacked Charleston from the front, while troops made an attack from the rear. The city was taken, and General Lincoln’s army of 3000 men was captured. South Carolina was overrun and conquered. Partisan bands. — The British troops were aided by parties of Tories, forming what were called ‘partisan 1 64 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1780 bands.’ The patriots, too, formed partisan bands of men who were not regular soldiers, but were good horsemen, excellent marksmen, and fearless fighters. The most famous of the patriot partisan leaders were Marion, called ‘ the swamp fox,’ Sumter, ‘ the game cock,’ and Pickens. Their bands were not strong enough to fight pitched battles ; instead, they lurked in woods and swamps and made sudden attacks and night marches. Gates takes charge in South. — Having conquered Geor¬ gia and South Carolina, Clinton returned to New York with half the troops, and Cornwallis was left with the other half to control the South. The very month that Clinton sailed North, Congress appointed General Gates to com¬ mand the southern patriots. Gates, with the army pre¬ pared by Schuyler and led by Lincoln, Morgan, and Arnold, had won the greatest victory of the war. Many people regarded him as the ablest officer in the army and some even wished to have him replace General Washington as commander in chief. In the South, he was to show his real lack of ability. Battle of Camden [August 16]. — At Camden, South Carolina, Gates with 3000 soldiers met Cornwallis with 2000. The raw colonial troops broke before the charge of the British regulars, and Gates, ‘the hero of Saratoga,’ led the flight. Kalb, with one-third of the army, held back the British and died, sword in hand. Camden was the worst defeat suffered by the patriots during the Revolu¬ tion. A British official said when he heard of the battle, “ We look on America as at our feet.” But it was a gen¬ eral and not a people that had been defeated, as was to be proved. Arnold’s treason. — These were dark days. Defeat was followed by treason. Benedict Arnold was an able, bril¬ liant officer, and he resented bitterly the fact that his ser- 1780] FROM COLONIES TO STATES 165 vices were slighted by Congress and inferior officers were promoted over him. His Tory wife urged him to join the British army, and at last he resolved to do so. He had charge of West Point, an important fort which controlled the Hudson Valley. He agreed to give it up to the British. For this treason, he was to receive a large sum of money and be made a British general. The British sent Major Andre in disguise to West Point to arrange the matter. On the way back, Andre was stopped and searched by three patriots, and the papers revealing the plot were found in his stocking. He was hanged as a spy, but Arnold escaped to the British. “ Arnold is a traitor and has fled to the British. Whom can we trust now?” said Washington, and sobbed aloud, — the only time that he was seen to give way to grief or despair. Financial affairs. — To defeat and treason were added hardships caused by lack of money. The patriots obtained / TPH IS BILL entitles the Bearer to i) receive STW& W'STty Sjurutf m/PS) l i 0 Jil or the Value thereof^ in QoCd or SiPi/er, according to the Refo* ( f 'lutions of the (B0 < W(S i Jl6 held at V 1 775* 0; $ <0 some supplies and money by privateering; some funds were raised by the states; some money was borrowed by Congress from France and Holland; but all these means i66 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1780 failed to supply funds needed to carry on the war. Both Congress and the states issued paper money which de¬ creased in value till it was almost worthless. A man would give a hundred and fifty dollars of it for one gold dollar. A soldier could hardly buy a bushel of wheat with a month’s pay. Many poor, discouraged soldiers deserted the patriot cause. Battle of King’s Mountain [October 7]. — But better times were at hand. A few days after Arnold’s treason was discovered, the patriots won a victory in the South. From that time, the tide turned in their favor. After the British overran the southern coast, Major Patrick Ferguson went as far as the mountains, drove off cattle, and plundered and burned some settlements. This aroused the hardy backwoods¬ men of the western Carolinas who up to this time had taken little part in the war. They gathered with their rifles and surrounded Ferguson’s band of 1200 men at King’s Mountain. Fighting Indian-fashion from behind trees and rocks, they killed, wounded, or captured every man of the British force. Ferguson died sword in hand, fighting bravely. The victors lost only twenty-eight men; they disbanded and were safe in their mountain homes before troops could gather to attack them. Greene takes charge in South. — Soon after this fight, General Nathanael Greene of Rhode Island was sent to take 1 *.1 General Nathanael Greene 4 1780] FROM COLONIES TO STATES 167 command of the “ shadow of an army ” in the South. It lacked guns, powder, and shot; the soldiers were hungry and ragged, often shoeless and hatless. Opposed to them was a well-equipped army under a skillful general. But the patriots had now able commander, and he was aided by the bold partisan lead¬ ers already mentioned, •—Marion, Sumter, and Pickens, — and by brave General and daring #Pff called “ Light Horse Harry.” Battle of Cowpens [Janu- ary 17, 1781].— Greene divided his little army. Morgan with nine hundred men was sent into South Carolina to take the posts held by the British. Reckless, boastful Tarleton with 1100 men pursued Morgan and was defeated at Cowpens, losing in killed, wounded, and prisoners, 800 men ; the Americans lost only seventy-three men in the battle. Then Morgan was pursued by Cornwallis, but he hurried north and joined Greene, Greene’s Carolina Campaign 168 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1781 Greene’s retreat — The patriots withdrew before the advancing British. In order to escape, they must cross three rivers, — the Catawba, the Yadkin, and the Dan. If the British could overtake and attack the little army where a river cut off retreat, it could easily be defeated and destroyed. This Cornwallis tried to do. The patriots tried to keep a river between them and the enemy. The march thus became a race for the rivers, — a hurried journey through rain and snow, over muddy or frozen roads. The Catawba and the Yadkin were passed in safety ; Cornwallis hastened to the fords of the Dan, where he thought Greene would go, but Greene collected boats and crossed the river lower down. The race of two hun¬ dred and fifty miles was ended; the patriots were safe. In the vain chase, Cornwallis had sustained greater losses than in battle. “ Greene is as dangerous as Washington,” he said ; “ he is vigilant, enterprising, and full of resources.” Battle of Guilford Courthouse [March 15]. — Greene re¬ ceived reenforcements and then marched back to Guilford Courthouse, now called Greensboro in his honor. There a battle was fought. The militia fired and then retired in dis¬ order ; the regulars opened their ranks, let the militia pass, kept up the fight as long as they could, and finally retreated in good order. Though the patriots were defeated, they remained in control of most of North Carolina. Instead of returning south after the battle of Guilford Courthouse, Cornwallis marched north into Virginia, leaving Lord Rawdon in charge of the troops in the Carolinas. Battles of Hobkirk’s Hill [April 25] and Eutaw Springs [September 8]. — Greene was defeated at Hobkirk’s Hill and he fought a drawn battle at Eutaw Springs. “ We fight, get beat, rise, and fight again,” he wrote to a friend. FROM COLONIES TO STATES 169 1781] By courage and perseverance, the patriots got control of North and South Carolina and of Georgia. The British were driven to the seaports, — Savannah, Charleston, and Wilmington,—where they were protected by their ships. The South was again in the hands of the patriots. Summary [1779-1781]. — Failing in their plan to occupy New York and conquer the colonies by sections, the British resolved to attack and conquer them one by one, beginning at the South. Savannah was taken and Georgia was overrun. Charleston was taken and South Carolina was conquered. The only patriot forces left in the South were partisan bands led by Marion, Sumter, and Pickens. Gates, sent South to com¬ mand the patriot forces, was defeated at Camden. This was a gloomy time. The patriots were in sad need of money and supplies. Arnold turned traitor and joined the British. The patriots, however, won a victory at King’s Mountain. Soon after this battle, Greene took charge of the southern army. He made a masterly campaign, and though he won few victories he regained control of the South. 6. The End of the War Cornwallis in Virginia. —Vir¬ ginia now be¬ came the seat of war. Arnold went there with a British force and was joined bv Cornwallis. W ashington sent Lafayette with 1200 New England sol¬ diers to aid the Virginians. Lord Cornwallis 170 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1781 “The boy cannot escape me,” said Cornwallis, when he learned how small a force the young Frenchman had. But the ‘ boy ’ kept out of the way skillfully until he was too strongly reenforced for Cornwallis to risk battle. Cornwallis expected Clinton to send a fleet to his aid, and, in order to be in reach of this, he took up a position at Yorktown. Up to this time, the British had controlled the sea. Now at last the French fleet was to do good service. It entered Chesapeake Bay, forced the British fleet which came to Cornwallis’s help to retire to New York, and shut in Cornwallis on the east. Lafayette’s force, in¬ creased to 5000 men, was on the other side. Meanwhile, by threatening to attack New York, Washington prevented Clinton’s sending aid to Cornwallis. Cornwallis’s surrender [October 19, 1781]. — Leaving a small force on the Hudson, Washington marched South with 6000 men so secretly and so rapidly that Clinton did not suspect his pur¬ pose till he had passed Philadelphia and pursuit was vain. By a hurried march of four hundred miles, he joined Lafayette. The patriot lines drew closer and closer around the little British army, and at last, in October, 1781, gallant Cornwallis, the ablest of the British com¬ manders in America, was forced to surrender. Clin¬ ton, with a large fleet and Washington’s March to Yorktown army, started from New The Surrender of Cornwallis 172 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1781 York to Virginia the day of the surrender. He had repeated the mistake of the New York campaign of 1777, and been too slow in giving aid to Cornwallis as to Bur- goyne. The result was disastrous to the British. Messengers galloped to Philadelphia, bearing to Con¬ gress tidings of Cornwallis’s surrender. The citizens were roused by the watchman’s cry, “Two o’clock and Corn¬ wallis is taken.” The next day, Congress marched to church and gave thanks to God for saving the country. After five years of hard fighting, the patriots had made good their Declaration of Independence and the colonies were in fact “free and independent states.” Clinton, indeed, wished to continue the war. He knew that the Americans were weak and had a small army of unpaid, ill-fed, poorly-clothed men. He told the home government that if it would send him 10,000 soldiers, he could and would conquer the colonies. But Great Britain was in no condition to continue the struggle. India was in rebellion; France, Spain, and Holland were waging war against her; Russia and other northern states of Europe were unfriendly. The 10,000 soldiers were not sent to America. Instead, a treaty of peace was agreed on. Articles of Confederation [1781].— It was with a united country that the treaty was made. In 1781, the states agreed to the Articles of Confederation proposed nearly four years before. By this, the thirteen states formed a Confederation, a “ firm league of friendship ” for common defense and welfare; each one preserved “ its sovereignty, freedom, and independence.” Maryland was the last state to sign the Articles of Con¬ federation ; fearing that the states which had western * back lands ’ would gain too much power and control the others, it refused to sign the Articles until the states which claimed these * back lands ’ gave them up to the Confeder- r a>:ies Bay 'Lake oj JVooS dSanlt Montreal Oswe; mass', i \%r k n.v i‘/✓ IportstnontM TT iBoston J1 l S S A Columbia , which at once became a popular national song. America prepared for war. An army was organized and Washing¬ ton was appointed its commander in chief. Ships were built, and the navy was made a separate department in¬ stead of a division of the War Department. Peace with France.—War was not declared against France, but Americans were authorized to attack French vessels. This they did, and a frigate was captured. As a patriot said, ‘America gave France the only tribute we would yield — shot and shell.’ About this time, Napoleon Bonaparte gained supreme power in France. He had European wars on his hands, and preferred to keep on friendly terms with the United States. So the French government expressed its disapproval of the X Y Z affair and the conflict — war in all but name — was ended. Naturalization, Alien, and Sedition Acts [1798]. — Dur¬ ing the excitement of the time, Congress passed the Natural¬ ization, Alien, and Sedition Acts. The Naturalization Act increased the period of residence required for citizenship from five to fourteen years. The Alien Acts gave the president power to send out of the country foreigners whom he thought dangerous to the government. The Sedition Act said that persons who ‘ wrote, printed, uttered, or pub- 1708 ) THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 195 lished ’ anything calculated to bring the president or Con¬ gress “into contempt or disrepute,” were to be fined and imprisoned. People in all parts of the country objected to the Alien and Sedition Acts, saying that they took away the rights of free speech and trial by jury. Virginia and Kentucky issued resolutions of protest [1798, 1799]. These resolu¬ tions said that the Constitution was a compact or agree¬ ment formed by the states which delegated to the general government certain powers. If it assumed powers not delegated, its acts were unlawful and could be set aside by the states. Jefferson elected president. — In the next election, the Democratic-Republican candidates were elected by a large majority. According to the law at that time, the person who received the most electoral votes became president and the one who had the next highest number became vice president. Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, the candidate for president, and Aaron Burr of New York, the candidate for vice president, received the same number of votes. The House of Representatives had to choose one of the two as president. The House was controlled by the Federalists who disliked Jefferson so much that they were tempted to set aside the will of the people and to give the first place to the man intended for the second one, but, after thirty- six ballots, Jefferson was elected. In order that such a case might not occur again, the Twelfth Amendment was passed, requiring votes to be cast for president and vice president separately. Summary [1797-1801]. —John Adams of Massachusetts, the second president, served one term. The chief event of his term was hostility with France. On account of this, the unpopular Naturalization, Alien, and Sedition Acts were passed. 196 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [170^1800 4. The Republic at the End of the Eighteenth Century The American republic. — The eighteenth century had brought many changes to America. During it, the British had overcome the French in the New World ; the colonies had been estranged by the government of a foolish, self- willed king, and had fought a war which secured their independence ; the thirteen independent states had united in a republic under one general government. Population [1800].—The second census showed that in ten years the country’s population had increased from First Fire Engine used in Brooklyn, 1785 nearly four millions to over five millions, of which about one-sixth were slaves. The business and profits of slavery were shared by all sections. The trade was carried on by THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 1700-1800] 197 New England vessels; the slaves were worked chiefly in southern fields. There were only a few cities in the country. These were dirty and undrained; fevers, smallpox, and other diseases were common and deadly. There were no police¬ men; instead, citizens served as watchmen or hired men to serve in their places. These watchmen walked about the streets, carrying lanterns and calling out the hour and the weather. Industries. — The end of the eighteenth century found all the sixteen states ‘ more forest than field, more wilder¬ ness than plotted ground.’ The vast natural sources of the country’s wealth—fertile soil, valuable forests, and rich mines — were hardly touched. Labor and capital were needed to develop these. America was the land of op¬ portunity. Every man who could use his head or his hands to advantage could make his way there. Three-fourths of the people in the country were engaged in agriculture. It was an important industry in the Middle States and almost the only one in the South. The Southern States produced chiefly rice, indigo, cotton, tobacco, and naval stores,—tar, pitch, and turpentine. The Middle States shipped naval stores and exported grain, cattle, and furs. New England had some manufactures and kept hundreds of ships busy with its trade and fisheries. Agricultural methods were bad and wasteful. A gentle¬ man of the time said: “ When the forest was first cleared, laying bare the rich, deep, black, virgin soil, the slow accu¬ mulation of ages of growth and decay, tobacco was grown for five successive years. That broke the heart of the land, and it was allowed to rest for awhile. Then tobacco was raised again until the crop ceased to be remunerative ; and then the fields were abandoned to nature. They sowed wheat in the virgin soil among the stumps, next year corn, 198 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1700-1800 then wheat, then corn again; and maintained this rotation as long as they could gather a harvest of five bushels of wheat or ten bushels of corn to the acre; after which nature was permitted to have her way and new lands were cleared for spoliation.” Means of transit. — Water was still the chief and most convenient highway. Most of the travel on land was done in private carriages or on horseback. There were stage An Old Stage Coach lines between some cities. Soon after the French and Indian War, a stage coach called ‘the flying machine’ made in two days the trip between New York and Phila¬ delphia : usually the journey, which now takes two hours by rail, occupied three days. The coaches started early in the morning and traveled until late at night. They 1700-1800] THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 199 jolted over stones and stumps, forded small streams and crossed large ones in ferryboats. When the ruts were deep, the driver would call “ To the right! ” or “ To the left! ” and people would lean in the direction named to keep from being overturned. Sometimes, men would have to get out and put their shoulders to the wheels and prize the coach out of a mudhole. It was no unusual thing for horses to be drowned and wagons sunk on the highway. There was more danger in traveling from Boston to Charleston than there is now in a journey around the world. Settlement of West. — One might suppose that the difficulty of getting about the country would keep people at home, but it did not. When the first census was taken, nine-tenths of the people in the United States lived east of the Allegheny Mountains. Already, the building up of the country beyond the mountains was beginning. Pioneers, with their families and cattle, were going west into the wilderness. These pioneers — daring, hardy, rough, independent men — lived like the first colonists. They built log houses or ‘half-faced camps,’—log sheds open on the south side. Usually they formed settlements for protection against Indians. A group of cabins was surrounded by a stockade and had blockhouses for defense and refuge. The settlers cleared land and raised corn, wheat, hemp, cotton, and tobacco. They carried their firearms to the field, and a party of men at work was protected by a watchman, gun in hand. In any thicket there might lurk Indians, bent upon killing the hated white men who were seizing their hunting grounds. The contest between the races was especially bitter in Kentucky, called “the dark and bloody ground.” Goods brought by packhorses or boats from the distant settlements were high in price. Salt, for instance, sold 200 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [170^1800 for ten dollars the pound. The pioneers learned to raise or make most things that they needed, and bought little except powder and shot, guns and knives. They obtained salt by boiling down the water of salt springs. Piles of skins were used for beds and bedding. Furniture consisted of a few tables and benches made with ax, auger, and saw. The men wore buck-skin hunting shirts and leggings, moccasins of deer-skin or buffalo hide, and ‘coon-skin’ caps. They were seldom seen without their long-barreled rifles. The western settlers had no convenient markets. Usu¬ ally, they carried their furs and farm produce in flatboats to New Orleans and returned home by land. The trip took three or four months and was dangerous as well as long and toilsome. Spain, which owned New Orleans and the Louisiana territory, did not wish the Americans to use the river. But the pioneers persisted, meeting hardship and danger cheerfully. They held their own against Spaniards, Indians, and wild beasts, and built up the great West. Life in East. — Life in the East was less rough and dangerous than in the West, but the century since the French and Indian War had brought few changes in the manner of living. Each family or neighborhood depended largely on itself. It grew its own food, spun and wove its own cloth, and made all its own clothing. For fuel and lights, people still used chiefly wood and candles. Food. — People ate plain food and had little variety. They had wheat and corn bread, salt fish, pork, game, and a few vegetables raised in their own gardens. Travelers said even then that southern people were fond of hot breads, and that baked beans were a favorite Sunday dish in New England. Much liquor was drunk, and rich men imported wines and brandies. Tobacco was generally used ; men and women smoked pipes and used snuff. 1700-1800] THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 201 Dress. — Poor people dressed in coarse homespun; wealthy ones wore rich fabrics brought from Europe. The dress of men was very unlike that of to-day. A man of fashion wore a cocked hat, a velvet coat, silk waistcoat, ruffled and embroidered shirt, satin or cloth knee breeches, and long silk stockings. He wore his hair long, curled and powdered, and he carried a sword and a gold or silver snuff box. Ladies had dresses of heavy satin and beautiful brocaded silk, made with long waists, and full skirts draped over huge hoop- skirts. Their hair was dressed high and pow¬ dered. Tools and inven¬ tions. — People lacked many things that we regard as necessities. They had no friction matches, cooking stoves, nor sewing machines. Farmers plowed their fields with wooden plows drawn by horses or oxen, they sowed or planted their seed by hand, worked their crops with hoes, cut grain with sickles and threshed it with flails. Almost the only American labor-saving invention of the century was the cotton gin. James Watt, a Scotchman, had invented the steam engine and it was being used in England to run machinery. Two Americans had experi- 202 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [170^1800 mented with steamboats, and both had made successful trips, — John Fitch on the Delaware River, James Rumsey on the Potomac, — but neither of the in¬ ventors had money and influence to make his invention a practical success; people laughed at them when they said that steam¬ boats could travel up and down rivers and even cross the Atlantic Ocean. Architecture. —111 both the North and the South, there were some handsome, well-fur¬ nished houses. In the North, these were usu¬ ally the homes of wealthy merchants; in the South, of great planters. Most of these houses were of the simple, dignified style used in England during the reigns of the Georges. Many of these old houses are still standing; two fine examples are the Longfellow Home in Massachusetts and Westover in Virginia. Art. —The halls and parlors of most of these mansions were adorned with family portraits. Photography had not yet been invented, and most well-to-do people had their portraits painted in oils. Artists found portraiture the most popular and profitable branch of painting. America produced in the eighteenth century three skillful artists,— Benjamin West of Pennsylvania, John Copley of Massa¬ chusetts, and Gilbert Stuart of Rhode Island. All three were good portrait painters, and West’s historical pictures, are well known. Lady and Gentleman in the Dress of the End of the Eighteenth Century I 7 oo -I ^oo) THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 203 were the chief studies. Longfellow’s Home at Cambridge The first state uni¬ versity established was that of Pennsylvania, the beginning of which was an academy founded by Franklin [1771]. Education. —For most people, education was still limited to reading, writing, and arithmetic. In New England, some of the public schools were begin¬ ning to admit girls. There were a few colleges in the coun¬ try, of which the best known were Harvard, William and Mary, Yale, and Princeton. At these institutions, Latin and Greek An Old Virginia Mansion, Westover, in Charles City County 204 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE 11700-1800 There were two medical schools in the country, — the one at Boston, the other at Philadelphia; in these schools, students were taught to prepare as well as to prescribe medicines. Each doctor mixed his own drugs and prepared his powders, salves, and pills. William and Mary College, Williamsburg, Virginia. The second college in the United States, founded in 1693. Literature. — Most of the American writings of the eighteenth century were books and papers, now little read, on the subjects of history and politics. Colonel William Byrd, a Virginia gentleman, wrote an entertaining account of his travels. Jonathan Edwards of Connecticut was a deep thinker who wrote ably about theology and philos¬ ophy. His chief work was On the Freedom of the Will. Few of us will read it, but it will be well for all of us to remember Edwards’s two resolutions: “To do whatever I think to be my duty” and “To live with all my might while I do live.” The Federalist letters by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay formed an able, well-written statement and defense of the Constitution. Wise, witty Benjamin Franklin was the foremost author of the Middle States. 1700-1800] THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 205 He wrote about politics, science, and other subjects in a clear, shrewd way. His Autobiography is a charming book. Every year for twenty-five years, he published Poor Rich¬ ard's Almanac , the best of the popular periodicals contain¬ ing weather forecasts, jokes, and advice. During the closing years of the eighteenth century, there were born four men who were to be our first great men of letters. These were Cooper, Irving, Bryant, and Prescott. Customs and laws. —The customs and laws of the country were still harsh. Children, servants, and slaves were severely beaten for small offenses. Insane persons were chained and whipped. Criminals were herded together in prison and often cruelly treated. Men were imprisoned years for a small debt. Kind, just treatment of the unfor¬ tunate and criminals was a matter of slow growth. There had been a great advance in religious matters. In all the states, people had religious liberty and were free to worship as they pleased. This right was secured to them by the Constitution. In many of the states, the laws about the observance of Sunday were very strict. Once when President Washington was going through Connecti¬ cut, he missed his way, and in order to attend the church where he was expected he had to drive several miles on Sunday morning. His coach was stopped by a tithing man, an officer whose duty it was to enforce the law, and the president was not allowed to proceed until he explained the circumstances which made it necessary for him to travel on Sunday. Summary [1700-1800]. — At the end of the eighteenth century, the Americans had won independence and established a republic. Nearly nine-tenths of the people lived east of the Allegheny Mountains, but the building up of the West had begun. In the manner of living, there had been few changes during the century. The cotton gin was the only important labor-saving invention in America; in England, the steam 206 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE Ix8oi engine was coming into use. During the eighteenth century, America produced three popular artists, — West, Copley, and Stuart; and two notable authors, Jonathan Edwards and Benjamin Franklin. In many respects, customs were still harsh and laws severe, but people now had religious liberty. 5. Jefferson’s Terms [1801-1809] Democratic-R epublican Washington City. — Jefferson was the first president in¬ augurated in Washington City. The seat of government was first New York City and next Philadelphia. Then City of Washington in 1800 the capital was moved to the District of Columbia on the Potomac River, and a noble city was laid out. When Jef¬ ferson became president, however, Washington City existed only on paper; there were a few buildings scattered here and there in fields and woods. Chief Justice Marshall. — The oath of office was admin¬ istered to Jefferson by John Marshall of Virginia, a famous Federalist lawyer, whom Adams had appointed chief jus- THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 207 1801] tice of the Supreme Court. Marshall held this office for over a third of a century. He was a quiet, simple-mannered gentleman who might be seen any Saturday walking home with his market basket in his hand. Marshall, like Hamilton, be¬ lieved in a strong central govern¬ ment, built up by the use of ‘implied powers.’ In his deci¬ sions of the cases brought before him, the chief justice set forth his views of the Constitution, and did so much to direct the course of government that he is called ‘ the second maker of the Constitution.’ President Jefferson.—Jeffer¬ son resembled Marshall in his unassuming habits, but their views about government were very different. The presi¬ dent thought “that government is best which governs least,” and he wished to have a ‘ simple, inexpensive, un- meddlesome ’ government. Although he was by birth a member of the rich planter class, he was ‘ the comrade and work fellow of the common people.’ “I am persuaded that the good sense of the people will always be found the best army,” he said; “ they may be led astray for the moment, but will soon correct themselves.” Like Franklin, Jefferson was a ‘many-sided man,’ — in¬ ventor, scientist, scholar, author, philosopher, and states¬ man. He was an expert horseman, an excellent shot, and a skillful player of the violin ; he was fond of outdoor sports and of books; his slender body was as active as an Indian’s and his mind was energetic and well-trained. 2 o8 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1803 Partisan appointments.—Jefferson’s predecessor, Adams, was a Federalist, and he had appointed men of his own party to office. Jefferson was urged to follow the plan of political parties in New York and some other states and turn out officehold¬ ers to make room for men of his own party. Then, as later, there were few vacancies in government offices, — “those by death are few,” said Jef¬ ferson ; “ by resig¬ nation, none.” He said that he would remove Federalists and appoint Demo¬ cratic-Republicans till the officeholders of the two parties were about equal in number, after which he would “ return with joy to that state of things when the only question concerning a candidate shall be, ‘ Is he honest ? Is he capable? Is he faithful to the Constitution?’” Ohio admitted to Union [1803]. — While Jefferson was president, Ohio, the first state formed from the Northwest Territory, was admitted as a state of the Union. Louisiana Purchase. — The year that Ohio became a state, the size of the United States was more than doubled by the purchase of Louisiana. The United States had tried to purchase from France, to which this territory had Thomas Jefferson » “ * / Lonlltude 100' Wwt frora Of) Greenwich THE UNITED STATES IN 1803. 1803] THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 209 been ceded by Spain, a strip of coast including New Orleans, so as to secure the mouth of the Mississippi River as an outlet. Napoleon refused to sell a part of the French possessions in America, but offered to sell the whole. He was preparing for war with Great Britain; this sale would supply the funds that he needed, and would rid France of territory which would be hard to defend against the British. The Americans accepted his offer, and the Louisi¬ ana territory was bought, in 1803, for $ 15,000,000. Many Federalists opposed buying “an unmeasured world beyond the Mississippi,” with rivers leading trade from the east to the south. Most people, however, approved the purchase, thinking that the United States, which controlled a part of the Mississippi River system, ought to control the whole. The exact boundaries of Louisiana were not given, but it was understood to extend from the Gulf of Mexico to Canada and from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains. Out of this territory were formed, in course of time, the states of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, Montana, North and South Dakota, and Okla¬ homa, and parts of Minnesota, Kansas, Colorado, and Wyoming. When it was purchased by the United States, its population consisted of some Indian tribes and about 40,000 white people settled chiefly along the Mississippi and Red rivers. New Orleans was a flourishing city. The eastern part of the territory was known to be fertile and well-watered. Jefferson foretold that the great Mississippi Valley “ will erelong yield more than half of our whole produce and contain more than half our inhabit¬ ants.” Of the northern and western parts of the Louisi¬ ana territory, little was known. People still hoped that the Missouri River would furnish a water-way to the Pacific. Wonderful tales were told of the unexplored regions. It was said, for instance, that some distance up the Missouri p 210 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1804 River there was a great mountain of pure salt, white and glittering, nearly two hundred miles long and about fifty miles wide, from which flowed streams of salt water. Lewis and Clark’s expedition [1804-1806].—A band of men was sent to explore the northwestern country. The party consisted of about thirty brave, sensible, energetic men. They were led by Captain Meriwether Lewis and Captain William Clark. They left St. Louis, then a little “ frontier town of’log cabins,” ascended the Missouri River, following first its south fork and then its western branch, until they reached its source and stood on the Great Divide of the continent. Less than a mile from the source of the Missouri, they found a westward-flowing stream, a branch of the Columbia River. After eighteen months’ travel, they reached the mouth of the Columbia and “ saw the waves like small mountains rolling out in the sea,” — that is, the Pacific. The Columbia River had been discovered a few years before by a Boston ship captain who gave it the name which it now bears. The American explorers spent the winter, on the Pacific coast, and then returned home. They had traveled 8000 miles through a region which had never before been visited by white men. Their journals give interesting descriptions of the country, its minerals, plants, animals, and Indian tribes. Among other things, they described prairie dogs, antelopes, and grizzly bears before unknown to white men. First war with Barbary States [1801-1805].—While this expedition was exploring the northwest, a small American fleet was making war on Tripoli. For hundreds of years, the Barbary States — Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco — had made a business of piracy, seizing ships and cargoes, and killing or enslaving their crews. The United States and other countries were in the habit of paying these pi- 1801-1805] THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 211 rates not to molest their vessels. A larger tribute was de¬ manded from the Americans, and when this was not paid, Tripoli declared war. The American fleet soon brought the robber-states to terms. Again the safety of American commerce was secured by shot and shell instead of by tribute. British ‘Orders’ and French ‘Decrees.’—During the early years of the nineteenth century, Europe was swept by wars. Napoleon made himself Emperor of the French and conquered most of western Europe. Great Britain almost alone contended against him. Its chief strength was its navy, and it tried to use this so as to cut off sup¬ plies from Napoleon. It issued ‘ Orders in Council,’ for¬ bidding neutral ships to go to ports belonging to the French or friendly to them. Napoleon, in turn, issued ‘ Decrees,’ forbidding neutral ships to trade with Great Britain and its colonies. These ‘ Orders ’ and ‘ Decrees ’ were a great hardship to Americans. It was not safe to send goods in vessels belonging to nations engaged in war for fear they would be seized by the enemy. As most of the countries of Eu¬ rope were taking part in the war, the trade of the world was carried on chiefly in American vessels. The United States protested to France and Great Britain that the ‘Orders’ and ‘Decrees’ were contrary to our rights as a neutral state. The protest was disregarded. Warships attacked our merchant vessels that went to the forbidden ports. Within a few years, Great Britain seized nearly a thousand American ships and France seized over five hundred. “ England seems to have become a den of pirates and France a den of thieves,” complained Jefferson. Impressment. —The British continued to search Ameri¬ can ships and impress sailors. Many of these men really 212 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1807 were deserters; when Great Britain needed every one, seamen were leaving her service by hundreds and thou¬ sands and shipping on American vessels. But many of the men impressed were American subjects by adoption or by birth. Embargo Act [1807]. — It seemed that America must fight for her rights or must abandon the seas. She was still too weak to fight, if it could be avoided. Presi¬ dent Jefferson thought that it would be better to abandon the seas for awhile, hoping that the injury to French and British trade would cause these nations to make terms. Ac¬ cordingly, an Embargo Act Caricatures of Jefferson and the Embargo Was passed, for¬ bidding ships to leave America for foreign ports. Trade was at a standstill. Northern ships and sailors were idle, instead of plowing the sea which was ‘ New England’s farm.’ The wheat and THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 213 1807] live stock of the Middle States, shut out from market, fell to one-half their value. The South not only had no sale for its crops of tobacco, rice, and cotton, but had its hosts of slaves to support as in times of prosperity. All parts of the country suffered from the Act, but dis¬ content was greatest in New England. There secession from the Union was threatened unless the Embargo Act was repealed. It was repealed. In its place, a Non-inter- course Act was passed [1809], which forbade trade only with France and Great Britain. The hardships of this time were not without benefit. The stopping of foreign trade encouraged home industries. Manufacturing was established, especially in New England. Means of transit. — These foreign affairs occupied sev¬ eral years. Meanwhile, two steps were taken to improve Conestoga Wagon means of transit: a great western highway was planned and the steamboat was invented. At first, pioneer travelers sought water-ways ; then as it became necessary to cross the land, they followed Indian trails and buffalo roads. The Indian trails were mere 2! 4 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE (i&o 7 tracks,a few inches wide, along which the savages traveled single file; they usually followed the divides between streams and the gaps in mountains. West of the Appa¬ lachians, the buffaloes were the great roadmakers, travel¬ ing in vast herds from one feeding ground to another and choosing with unerring instinct the best routes through the mountain gaps and along the watersheds. Cumberland Road.—The government planned a high¬ way along the old Indian trails, to the common estate in the West. In course of time, a good road with a hard surface, easy grades, and substantial bridges was built from Cumberland in Maryland to the Ohio River. No railroad of to-day is of so much importance as was this highway, for it was the only good, safe route to the West. The Clermont Fulton’s steamboat [1807]. — About this time, a success¬ ful attempt was made to apply steam to water navigation. Robert Fulton invented a steamboat with side-wheels THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 215 1807] turned by machinery. His vessel, the Clermont , looked “ like a backwoods sawmill mounted on a scow and set on fire.” But this clumsy little vessel could travel against wind and tide, and was the parent of our great steam¬ ships which make the “ once-dividing sea a silver bridge.” The Clermont made in thirty- three hours the hun- dred-and-fifty-mile trip from New York City to Albany which took sail¬ ing vessels several days. Jefferson retires to private life. — Jefferson, like Washington, was urged to accept a third term; like Washington, he refused. The example of these great presidents has established a cus¬ tom, as strong as law, that no president shall serve more than two terms. Summary [1801-1809]. — Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, the third president, served two terms. While he was president, Ohio was ad¬ mitted to the Union; steps were taken to improve transit by land and water, by building a highway to the West and by Fulton’s invention of a steamboat. Louisiana, the vast territory between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains, was purchased from the French. A brief, successful naval war was waged against the Barbary States. On account of French and British attacks on American ships, the Embargo Act was passed, forbidding foreign trade; it was so unpopular that a Non-intercourse Act was substituted for it. 6. Madison’s Terms: The War of 1812 [1809-1817] D cm ocra tic-Repub lican President Madison. — James Madison of Virginia, ‘the father of the Constitution,’ succeeded Jefferson as presi- Monticello, the Home of Thomas Jefferson 216 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1812 dent. Madison was a scholarly, patriotic, peace-loving gentleman, with grave, modest, courteous manners. His wife, ‘ Dolly ’ Madison, was a famous social leader. New states. — While Madison was president, two new states were admitted to the Union, Louis¬ iana [1812] and Indiana [1816]. Louisiana was the first state formed from the Louisi¬ ana Territory; this province was slave-holding ter¬ ritory and Louis¬ iana was admitted as a slave state. Indiana was formed from a part of the Northwest Territory in which slavery was prohibited and it was a free state. War declared against Great Britain [June, 1812].— Like Jefferson, Madison wished if possible to avoid war. The Non-intercourse Act was repealed, so that friendly relations with France and Great Britain might be re¬ sumed if they would stop interfering with American trade. Napoleon publicly repealed his ‘Decrees.’ Secretly, how¬ ever, he instructed officials to pay no attention to the public orders; American ships, sailing to ports thought to be open, were seized with their cargoes. While France pretended friendship, Great Britain re¬ mained openly hostile. She refused to repeal her ‘Orders,’ 1812] the AMERICAN REPUBLIC 217 asserting very truly that Napoleon had not really with¬ drawn his ‘Decrees.’ Impressments continued. A British sloop, Little Belt , fired on an American frigate, the Presi¬ dent, and was fired on in turn. To protect the rights of American seamen, war was de¬ clared against Great Britain. The United States were weak and unprepared for war. The regular army con¬ sisted of only 7000 men; the navy was composed of seven frigates and a few smaller vessels ; the government income was only $10,000,000. The Federalists, especially in New England where was most of the money of the country, were opposed to war and were unwilling to furnish money or troops. Indian wars. — The difficulties of the time were increased by Indian risings. Tecumseh, a Shawnee chief, and the Prophet, his twin brother, attempted, like Pontiac, to unite the tribes of the Northwest against the white settlers. The Indians led by the Prophet were defeated by General Harrison at Tippecanoe, an Indian village on a branch of the Wabash River. Two years later, the Creeks, a warlike southern tribe, rose against the whites. They attacked Fort Mims near Mobile and killed five hundred persons, sparing neither women nor children. Andrew Jackson of Tennessee led the militia of Tennessee and Georgia against the Creeks and defeated them in several battles, winning a final vic¬ tory at Horseshoe Bend on the Tallapoosa River. Invasion of Canada [1812]. —The War of 1812 was fought on the borders, — first along the northern frontiers, then on the eastern shores, and at last on the southern coast. At the beginning of the war, the Americans planned an invasion of Canada. This was to be undertaken by three armies,—the first coming from Detroit, the second 218 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1812 crossing Niagara River, and the third advancing by way of Lake Champlain. They were to unite at Montreal and conquer Canada. The Army of the Northwest was the first to advance. With about 2000 men, General William Hull left Detroit, the most important town of the Northwest, and entered British territory. General Brock with 3000 men, aided by Indians under Tecumseh, advanced to meet him. Instead of fighting, General Hull retreated to Detroit, which he Scene of the War in the North surrendered without attempting its defense. This gave the British control of the Northwest. Hull was tried for cowardice and sentenced to death, but was pardoned by the president out of regard to his age and his services in the Revolution. That fall, part of the second army which was to invade Canada crossed Niagara River and took Queenstown Heights. The militia, which composed the remainder of the forces, refused to go to the aid of their comrades, say¬ ing that they were not required by law to serve out of the state. The troops at Queenstown had to surrender. The third army did not even attempt to enter British terri¬ tory. Thus the planned invasion came to nothing. THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC -* > The Constitution 220 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE Ii8i* Naval battles. —While the Americans were unsuccessful on land, their navy surprised the world. It had only twelve warships, and Great Britain, ‘ the mistress of the seas,’ had a thousand. But the American ships were excellent and their crews were brave men, skillful sailors, and good gun¬ ners. They had some able captains, too, who had gained experience in the War with the Barbary States. Their ships frequented the trade highways of the ocean and attacked British vessels. Of eighteen ocean duels during the war, America won fifteen. This was a new record for Great Britain. During twenty years’ fighting with France, she had taken hundreds of ships and had lost only five. A great London newspaper, the Times , said of the American ships: “ If they fight, they are sure to conquer; if they fly, they are sure to escape.” The most famous vessel in the American navy was the Constitution, called ‘Old Ironsides.’ Her first success was one of seamanship. She was chased by a British squadron for three days and nights; more than once the British were within cannon shot but the vessel succeeded in getting away. Later, commanded by Captain Isaac Hull, she attacked the British frigate Gnerrttre in the Gulf of St. Lawrence [August 19]; after a gallant fight of about half an hour, in which the British vessel was almost shot to pieces, the Guerrikre was captured. This was the first British frigate which had been captured by a frigate for thirty years. One of the ships lost by the Americans the second year of the war was the frigate Chesapeake , commanded by Captain James Lawrence. It was captured near Boston Harbor by the British frigate Shannon [June 1, 1813]. Captain Lawrence was mortally wounded; as he was carried off the deck, he called, “ Don’t give up the ship,”— words which have become the motto of the American navy. THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 221 1813] Campaign of 1813. — The second year of the war, the Americans again planned to invade Canada. For this purpose, they put three armies in the field: the Army of the North near Lake Champlain, the Army of the Center between Lakes Ontario and Erie, and the Army of the Northwest on the west shore of Lake Erie. The Army of the Center crossed Lake Ontario, took York, — now Toronto, — burned its parliament house, and destroyed the military stores collected in the town. A part of the Army of the Northwest, which was commanded by General Harrison, was defeated at the River Raisin near Detroit by the British and Indians [January 22]; the wounded and prisoners were murdered by the savages. As soon as tidings of this massacre reached the western settlements, the hardy frontiersmen of Kentucky and Ohio Perry at the Battle of Lake Erie this, it was necessary to get control of Lake Erie. Young Captain Oliver Perry of Rhode Island was sent to Lake 222 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1813 Erie to fight the British fleet. First, he had to build a fleet of his own. Nails, ropes, sails, tools, guns, and ammunition were carried by boat up streams and hauled overland in ox wagons. Captain Perry worked with won¬ derful energy, and in a few months he had at Erie a little fleet which, as he said, ‘ was growing in the woods the spring before.’ This fleet attacked a British fleet of about equal strength [September 10]. Perry’s flagship was destroyed; he went in a rowboat to another vessel, and in this he broke through the British line, firing right and left. After a three-hours’ fight, the British were defeated; it was the first time that a British squadron ever surrendered. Perry announced this famous victory in a dispatch to General Harrison: “We have met the enemy and they are ours,— two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop. Yours with great respect and esteem, O. H. Perry.’’ Battle of the Thames.—After the battle of Lake Erie, the British left Detroit and retired into Canada. They were followed by the American army under General Har¬ rison which, in the battle of the Thames [October 5], won a decisive victory over the British and their Indian allies. Tecumseh was killed and his followers surrendered to General Harrison. This battle ended the war in the Northwest. General Harrison resigned, and the next year younger generals — Brown, Scott, and Ripley — took the field. Campaign of 1814.— Again Canada was invaded. General Jacob Brown, aided by Colonel Winfield Scott, crossed Niagara River, took Fort Erie, invaded Canada, and did some good fighting. A battle was fought at Chippewa [July 5]; the British fell back, but were reen¬ forced, and at Lundy’s Lane near Niagara Falls a stub¬ born drawn battle was fought [July 25]. The Americans THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 223 1814] retired to their own territory, and the campaign ended without either side having gained any real advantage. Napoleon had now been defeated, and Great Britain was able to send larger forces against the Americans. It planned to pursue the war with vigor, invading the states by the Lake Champlain route with a large army and fleet, and attacking New Orleans with another army and fleet. The northern campaign was undertaken first. Battle of Lake Champlain.—Twelve thousand soldiers were sent down the western shore of Lake Champlain to attack the American militia at Plattsburg. First, however, it was important to get control of the lake, on which both the British and the Americans had small fleets. The British were superior in ships, guns, and men, but after a hard- fought battle of less than three hours, the little American fleet, commanded by young Captain Thomas Macdonough of Delaware, won the victory [September 11 ]. The British surrendered some of their vessels and withdrew the others. Their army retreated to Canada, and the planned invasion was aban¬ doned. British attacks on Atlantic coast. — British ships swarmed along the Atlantic coast and plundered and burned towns along the undefended coast from Maine to Virginia. Washington City was attacked, and the Capi¬ tol and some other buildings were burned. From Wash¬ ington, the British squadron sailed to Baltimore, but it was repulsed by Fort McHenry which commands the harbor. During the battle, an American, Francis Key, was de¬ tained on a British vessel. When the firing ceased, he British Campaign against Washington, 1814 224 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1814 was ignorant of the result of the fight, and he watched impatiently till daylight revealed the star-spangled banner floating above Fort McHenry. Then he expressed his patriotic joy in a well-known poem, The Star-spangled Banner. Hartford Convention. — Despite the successes of the year, New England’s dislike of the war increased. War taxes, the attacks on the coast, and the injury to trade seemed to her to overbalance a few victories by land and sea. Delegates from Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut met at Hartford and passed resolutions which amounted to saying that if the war was continued, New England would withdraw from the Union. Treaty of peace [December 24]. —While this convention was in session, a treaty of peace was signed at Ghent. Great Britain, burdened with a war debt and heavy taxes, was ready to come to terms. Nothing was said in the treaty about impressment; but the end of the French war and the proved ability of Amer¬ ican seamen to defend their rights had put an end to that grievance. Battle of New Orleans [Janu¬ ary 8, 1815]. — The war which began with defeat ended with a brilliant victory. Two weeks after peace was made, before the slow sailing-ships brought news of the treaty, a great battle was fought at New Orleans. This city was attacked by a British fleet bearing 12,000 men, many of whom were veterans of European wars. It was defended by General Andrew Jackson with about 6000 men, chiefly French Louisianians and militia from Tennessee and other states. New Orleans and Vicinity THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 225 1815] General Jackson was cool, brave, and skillful,—the ablest American general from the time of Washington and Greene to that of Grant and Lee. “ Our watchword is victory or death,” he said to his men. “We will enjoy our liberty or perish in the last ditch.” He stationed his troops a few miles below New Orleans, in a place defended on the left by a swamp and on the right by the Mississippi River; the front he protected by earthworks and a ditch. In this strong position, the Ameri¬ cans were attacked by the British under General Edward Pakenham. The British were driven back, but advanced again and again to the attack. Finally, they were repulsed with a loss of 2600 men, including brave General Paken¬ ham himself. The Americans lost only eight men killed and twelve wounded. This was the worst defeat ever sus¬ tained by a British army. Results of war. — In the War of the Revolution, the Americans won political independence of Great Britain; in the War of 1812, they won commercial independence. Q 226 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1816 Up to this time, the United States had not been ranked among the first-class powers of the world, but the naval exploits of this war gave the republic a new standing. In order to help pay the war expenses, the Bank of the United States was reestablished; its charter, which had expired a few years before, was renewed for twenty years. American manufactures. — The Embargo Act and the War of 1812 had stopped American trade and shut in American produce; they had also shut out foreign goods. Labor and capital, especially in New England, where both were most plentiful, were turned from foreign trade to manufactures and domestic trade. In a few years, the value of the cotton, woolen, and iron articles produced at home rose from thousands to millions of dollars. Factories were started for weaving cotton, wool, flax, hemp, and even silk. The power loom, run by steam or water instead of by hand, had been lately in¬ vented and was used in British factories. An American learned enough about its work to make one, and power looms were established in New England. A Massachu¬ setts factory received raw cotton in bales; carded, spun, and wove it, and sent it out as cloth. It was the first factory in the world to do this. Tariff. — After the War of 1812, British manufacturers sought to regain their old markets in the United States and sent over cargoes of goods which sold readily. Labor was cheaper and more abundant in Great Britain than in America; and now that Great Britain was again at peace and free to devote its energies to trade, there seemed danger of its controlling the markets of the United States and injur¬ ing or destroying their young industries. American manu¬ facturers asked protection,—that is, they wished a tariff or tax put on goods brought into the country, so that the foreign goods, with this tax added to their cost, would have THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 227 1816] to be sold at a price that would not prevent profits by home manufacturers. Such a tax is called a protective tariff. After some discussion, a protective tariff of about twenty per cent was put on cotton and woolen goods and some other articles [1816]. Second war with Barbary States [1815]. — Soon after the War of 1812, Algerian pirates attacked American ships to collect tribute. The United States promptly sent a Calhoun, Webster, and Clay small fleet against the pirate states in northern Africa, forced them to release American prisoners, to pay for captured vessels, and to make a treaty agreeing not to molest American ships. The United States never again paid tribute to the pirates. Three famous statesmen. — While Madison was president, there entered Congress three statesmen who were to lead public affairs during the next forty years. These were Henry Clay of Kentucky, John C. Calhoun of South Caro- 228 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1816 lina, and Daniel Webster of New Hampshire. Webster was an able statesman and an eloquent orator, with a person as “impressive as a cathedral.” Calhoun was a man of high principle and commanding talents, unsurpassed as a clear, powerful reasoner. Clay possessed great ability and remarkable personal charm. He was Speaker of the House, and under him that office became next to the president’s in power. He managed the two hundred members of the House as a skillful coachman manages his team; on the whole, he managed them for the good of the country. He lived up to his saying, “ Government is a trust and the officers of the government are trustees; and both the trust and the trustees are created for the benefit of the people.” Summary [1809-1817]. — James Madison of Virginia, the fourth president, served two terms. During this time, two new states were admitted, Louisiana and Indiana. The War of 1812 was fought against Great Britain in defense of the rights of American seamen. The war began in 1812 with an unsuc¬ cessful attempt to invade Canada. A British fleet on Lake Erie was defeated by Perry; then Canada was invaded by General Harrison, and the battle of the Thames was fought. The British attempted to invade New York by way of Lake Champlain, but their fleet was de¬ feated by the Americans under Macdonough. The Constitution and other American ships won brilliant victories. British squadrons attacked towns on the Atlantic coast and burned the Capitol at Wash¬ ington. In the third campaign against Canada, the Americans, under Generals Brown and Scott, invaded British territory, and stubborn battles were fought at Chippewa and Lundy’s Lane. Peace was made in 1814. Before news of the treaty reached America, a battle was fought at New Orleans, in which the Americans under Jackson won a great victory. About the time of the War of 1812, there were Indian risings, which ended in the defeat of the northern and southern Indians. In a second war with the Barbary States, the United States finally defeated the pirates. THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 1817] 229 7. Monroe’s Terms [1817-1825] Democratic-Republican President Monroe. — James Monroe of Virginia, who succeeded Madison as president, was a tall, broad-shoul¬ dered, fine-looking man ; he had fought at Trenton, Brandy¬ wine, Germantown, and Monmouth, and liked to wear his Revolutionary uniform of blue coat, buff small clothes, and cocked hat. In manners he was cour¬ teous, dignified, modest. Jefferson said, “ If his soul were turned inside out, not a blot could be found upon it.” In a steady, reasonable way, he defended the rights and interests of the United States. Political affairs. — Dur¬ ing the terms of the first four presidents, most of the questions which occupied America dealt with foreign matters,—Jay’s treaty, ‘the X Y Z papers,’ British ‘ Orders,’ French ‘ Decrees,’ impressment, the Embargo Act, and the War with Great Britain. After Napoleon was finally defeated at Waterloo [1815], there was peace in Europe for the first time since the colonies became a republic. Foreign affairs ceased to disturb the United States, and there was deeper interest in domestic affairs. In the course of time, these divided the people more than foreign questions had ever done. James Monroe 2$0 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1*1 1 As a result of the War of 1812, the Federalist party which opposed it went to pieces and the Democratic- Republican was the only party left. Monroe’s term is called the ‘Era of Good Feeling’ because all people be¬ longed to the same party ; during it, however, an issue took definite shape which was to cause sectional dissension. This was the question of slavery. Settlement of West. —The question of slavery was brought forward by the growth of the country. Steadily, from co¬ lonial days, the frontier moved westward. First, it lay along the coast; it moved up the streams to their head¬ waters, leaped across the mountains, and passed from the eastern branches of the Mississippi to the western ones. A steady stream of pioneers made their way to the pub¬ lic lands west of the Alleghenies. They went down the water-ways or traveled along the Cumberland Road. When they found places that pleased them, they built cabins, set beaver traps, and cleared and cultivated fields. The chief trade of the West was carried on first by flat- boats, then by steamboats which went up and down the Ohio, Tennessee, Missouri, and Mississippi rivers. The flatboats were often floating stores, carrying cloth, knives, pow¬ der, shot, and other goods to sell or barter for prod¬ uce,— pork, lum¬ ber, flour, grain, cotton, tobacco. The boats, laden with produce, dropped down the Mississippi River to New Orleans. There they An Ohio Flatboat a Hundred Years Ago i 8 i 7 l THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 231 and their cargoes were sold, and the crews returned through the country or came up the river on steamboats. A Mississippi River Cotton Steamer of To-day New states.—As the country built up, new states were formed. In six years, six states were admitted to the Union, — Indiana [1816], Mississippi [1817], Illinois [1818], Alabama [1819], Maine [1820], and Missouri [1821]. Slavery. — The admission of Missouri brought up the question of slavery. This had now become a sectional question; it had been almost entirely abolished in the states north of Mason and Dixon’s line and was practiced in the states south of it. The Constitution gave the general government no au¬ thority over the system of slavery; it was a question for each of the original states to decide for itself and settle by its own laws. The general government had, however, pro¬ hibited slavery in the Northwest Territory; therefore, the states formed from it — Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin — entered the Union as free states. Slav¬ ery was allowed in the Southwest Territory, and from it SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1820 slave states were formed. The Ohio River was the bound¬ ary between free and slave states east of the Mississippi. F'or the original territory, the question was settled. Missouri Compromise. — But new territory and the mak¬ ing of new states brought the question up again. What about the vast Louisiana Territory? Under the French and the Spanish, it was a slave-holding region. Were the states formed from it to be slave or free ? Its first state was Louisiana in the extreme south, and that was admitted with slavery. Its next Missouri, far to the north, had been settled chiefly by southern men, and it wished to come in as a slave state also. Northern members of Congress opposed this. Southern members said that unless Mis¬ souri was admitted as a slave state, they would not agree to admit Maine, which was also applying for statehood. Missouri was not a question merely of the future of one state, but of the balance of power between the two sec¬ tions. There were twenty-two states, of which eleven were slave and eleven free. The sections had equal power in the Senate; in the House the North and Northwest had the majority. Unless slave states were formed west of the Mississippi, the South would soon be outnumbered in the Senate as it was in the House, and the free states would control affairs. After long and bitter discussion of the matter, each sec¬ tion yielded something and, in 1820, the Missouri Com¬ promise was agreed on: Missouri was admitted as a slave state; out of the remainder of the Louisiana Territory, north of the parallel of 36° 30', free states were to be formed ; south of this line, slave states were to exist. This compromise gave the South the first state in question, but it gave the North advantage in the future, as three-fourths of the Louisiana Territory lay north of 36° 30'. This decision satisfied, however, neither the North which wished \ V » *• % THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 1821I 233 to close the whole territory to slave-holders, nor the South which wished to open it all to them. Florida Purchase [1821]. — Slave territory was extended by the purchase of Florida. This territory, which included parts of Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, as well as the present state of Florida, was bought from Spain. For it the United States paid $5,000,000 and ceded Spain their claims to Texas, as a part of the Louisiana Territory, accepting the Sabine River for their boundary on the southwest. Monroe Doctrine. — About this time, several of the Span¬ ish provinces in Central and South America declared their independence and formed republics. The United States, sympathizing with their desire for liberty and wishing to trade freely with them, recognized them as independent states. It was feared that other European nations would aid Spain to recover the revolted provinces. The United States were uneasy, too, lest Russia, which owned Alaska, should attempt to occupy the western coast of North America. To prevent these European monarchies from gaining a foothold on the American continents, President Monroe, in 1823, asserted what is called the Monroe Doctrine. This says: first, that the United States will not interfere with the affairs of European nations; second, that the United States will resent any attempt by European nations to interfere with any independent American government; third, that no more European colonies are to be estab¬ lished in North or South America. “The American continents, by the free and independent conditions which they have assumed and maintained, . . . are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European power.” At the beginning of the young republic’s life, Wash- 234 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1823 ington declared, in his Proclamation of Neutrality, the principle of non-interference in foreign affairs. Monroe announced formally the principles which had guided the republic from the first:— that it avoided entanglement in European politics and it claimed and would keep its place as the chief power of the western continent. Lafayette’s visit. —Near the close of Monroe’s second term, the United States were visited by Lafayette, ‘the adopted son ’ of the American republic. He who had come, young, rich, and noble, to aid our struggle for inde¬ pendence, was now old, broken by imprisonment, deprived by the P'rench Revolution of wealth, estates, and title. He traveled through all the states, and was received everywhere as an honored guest. Congress gave him a grant of money and of land. On the fiftieth anniversary of the battle of Hunker Hill, he laid the cornerstone of a monument on the battleground. What wonderful changes had taken place in the half century since that battle was fought! By two wars with the mother country, the American states had won independence and established themselves as a world power. William Cullen Bryant Washington Irving Literature. — In art and literature the young country had not as yet made much progress. A clever British writer THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 1823] 23 S asked sneeringly, “ In the four quarters of the globe, who reads an American book ? ” Three Americans were beginning to write books that were worth reading. These were William Cullen Bryant, Washington Irving, and James Fenimore Cooper. Irving and Cooper were born in New York, and Bryant made it his adopted home. Bryant wrote Thanatopsis, Ode to a Water Fowl , and other beautiful poems. Irving wrote many charming books. One of these was Knicker¬ bocker s History of New York , a humorous ac¬ count of the Dutch col¬ ony. His most popular work was the Sketch- Book, containing Rip Van Winkle , Legend of Sleepy Holloiv , and other tales and sketches. Later, Irving wrote histories and biographies, chiefly about Spanish subjects. All young people enjoy Cooper’s vivid, wholesome sea tales and stories of pioneer and Indian life. The scenes of three of the best of these— The Spy , The Deerslayer , and The Last of the Mohicans — were laid in the state of New York near Cooper’s own home. John Quincy Adams elected president. — At the end of Monroe’s second term, there were four presidential candi¬ dates, all of whom were called Democratic-Republicans. General Andrew Jackson received most votes and John 236 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1824 Quincy Adams had the next highest number, but the votes were so scattered that no candidate received a majority; a second time, the House of Representatives had to choose the president. Clay and many other public men thought that Jackson was only “an able military chief,” unfit for the presidency; they voted for Adams and he was made president. Summary [1817-1825]. — James Monroe of Virginia, the fifth presi¬ dent, served two terms. This period is known as t the Era of Good Feeling 1 ; about this time, however, there came forward the question of slavery which was to cause strife. The discussion as to whether free or slave states should be formed from the Louisiana Territory was settled by the Missouri Compromise ; Missouri was admitted as a slave state, and it was agreed that the Louisiana Territory north of 36° 30' should be free and south of that line should be open to slavery. While Monroe was president, five new states were admitted, — Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama, Maine, and Missouri. Florida was purchased from Spain for $5,000,000. The president announced the Monroe Doctrine, declaring that the United States will not interfere in European affairs nor allow any European power to interfere in America. Literature was being developed in America; Bryant, Irving, and Cooper were writing poems, sketches, and stories. 8. John Quincy Adams’s Term [1825-1829] Democratic-R epublican President J. Q. Adams. —John Quincy Adams was the son of President John Adams. He was a gentleman who had had every advantage of education and training. He was able, honest, and hard-working, but his manners were formal and reserved, and he lacked the gift of winning friends. In the country at large, he was not popular; people thought that Jackson, who had received most votes, ought to have been made president. Deaths of John Adams and Jefferson. — The year after 1826] THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 237 John Quincy Adams became president, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson died, both on the fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of Indepen¬ dence. Jefferson’s work for education. — During the last twenty years of his life, Jefferson did a work hardly second to that which he accomplished as president. He laid out a system of education, extending from common schools where boys and girls were to be taught free of charge, to a great university not ruled by any church or creed. He said that the schoolhouse ought to be in reach of every man’s door, John Quincy Adams Rotunda of the University of Virginia 238 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1826 for “True knowledge and freedom are indissolubly linked together.” On Jefferson’s tombstone were inscribed, as he requested, the three things by which he wished to be remembered, — not his offices and honors, but that he wrote the Declaration of Independence and the Virginia statute for religious liberty and founded the University of Virginia. Erie Canal [1825]. — While Adams was president, the Erie Canal was completed. Extending from Buffalo to Albany, it makes water connection between the Great Lakes and the Atlantic. Before the Erie Canal was opened, it cost a hundred dollars to carry a ton of freight from Albany to Buffalo; soon after it was opened, it cost one-fifth that sum, and the price fell till it was only three or four dollars. The crops of the section brought better prices because it was easier and cheaper to send them to market. So much freight was carried down the canal and shipped from New York City that vessels, sure of cargoes of grain, lumber, etc., came there in preference to other ports ; New York became the largest and richest city in the Union. The Erie Canal gave a new highway to the West. Up to this time, the chief route had been the southern one through Cumberland Gap ; now, a route was opened at New England’s back door, and its hardy, energetic people sought new homes in the West and Northwest. Steam railways. — The year that the Erie Canal was finished, the first steam railway was built in England. George Stephenson, an English miner, had a few years before invented a locomotive, or “ traveling engine,” as he called it. Few people thought that it would ever furnish a useful means of conveyance, but Stephenson said : “ Railways will become the great highway for the king and all his subjects. The time is coming when it 1830] THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 239 will be cheaper for a working man to travel on a railway than on foot.” America with its great distances was prompt to adopt the invention and use ‘ steam coaches ’ and 4 steam wagons ’ An Eirly Railroad Train to carry passengers and freight. Five years after the first English railway, short lines were built in Maryland and in South Carolina [1830]. The first railroads had wooden rails to which strips of iron were fastened by spikes; these were usually laid on stone sleepers. The iron strips often came loose and curled up, causing accidents. Most of the first cars were drawn by horses and the steam cars ran only fifteen miles an hour. But, crude as they were, these railroads were a great benefit. They reduced the cost of travel and of carrying freight and united the sections of the country. Democrats and National Republicans. — During John Quincy Adams’s term, two parties were formed from the four factions into which the Democratic-Republicans had been divided in Monroe’s term. Two combined factions formed the Democratic party and the other two formed the National Republican party. Both parties disclaimed any kinship with the Federalists, but their views about the Constitution were held by the National Republicans and 240 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1828 by the northern branch of the Democratic party. At that time, party ties were loose, and the northern and southern branches of the same party were often very far apart. As a rule, northern men favored a protective tariff, the Bank, and internal improvements — such as building roads and canals and improving rivers and harbors — at national expense; like the Federalists, they gave the Elastic Clause of the Constitution as authority for their views. Most southern men, like Jefferson, interpreted the Elastic Clause strictly; they opposed the policies mentioned above and approved a low tariff “for revenue only,” — that is, only high enough to pay the expenses of the government. Tariff. —The protective tariff passed after the War of 1812 was supposed to be a temporary measure. Instead of proving so, a new tariff act was passed a few years later, and then another which put higher taxes on woolen and cotton goods, iron, and other articles. This last act, nicknamed ‘the tariff of abominations,’ raised rates to nearly fifty per cent. Protests against it came especially from the South. Naturally, a protective tariff was favored by the northern states, which manufactured and sold goods. The southern states, which bought most of their manufac¬ tured goods, wished to buy them as cheap as possible and wanted a low tariff. Doctrine of Nullification. — Calhoun — in the name of his native state, South Carolina, and of the other southern states that were also by “ soil, climate, habits, and peculiar labor ” agricultural — protested against the high tariff. By “ the tyranny of the majority,” he said, it took money out of farmers’ pockets and put it into manufacturers’ pockets. If Congress passed a law which sacrificed the interests of a state, Calhoun said the state could nullify that law, — that is, forbid it to be executed within its limits. If three-fourths THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 241 1828] of the states assembled in convention should declare that the law was constitutional, the objecting state must submit or leave the Union. Calhoun did not think that a state could continue to nullify a law and remain in the Union. Nullification, in his view, was an appeal to the supreme power of the states. This Doctrine of Nullification was no new one. It had been proclaimed by Kentucky against the Alien and Sedition Acts, and by New England in the Hartford resolutions against the War of 1812. But it was so clearly set forth by Calhoun and so vigorously acted upon by South Carolina that it has come to be regarded as the peculiar doctrine of that statesman and that state. Summary [1825-1829]. — John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts, the sixth president, served one term. The passage of the high tariff, called i the tariff of abominations, 1 led Calhoun of South Carolina to bring forward the Nullification Doctrine, asserting that a state could nullify a law which it considered unjust. 9. Jackson’s Terms [1829-1837] Democratic President Jackson. — South Carolina had declared but not acted upon the Doctrine of Nullification when a new president came into office. This was Andrew Jackson, the hero of the battle of New Orleans. All the presidents be¬ fore him had been educated, high-bred gentlemen, and trained statesmen from the East. Jackson was the first man of the common people to attain that place; he was a backwoodsman who made his way upward and onward by force of will, character, and intellect. The son of a poor Irish emigrant, he was born in a log cabin in the Carolina backwoods, and when a boy of only thirteen, he fought in Marion’s band against the British. 242 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [ifcg He emigrated to Tennessee and rose step by step, — farmer, lawyer, judge, general. At sixty*two, he became president. ‘Old Hick¬ ory,’ as his soldiers called him, was as notable in person as in character. Tall and slender, he bore him¬ self with dignity, even stiffness. His eyes were keen steel-blue; his face was long, nar¬ row, and sharp fea¬ tured ; his sandy red hair was growing white. Hot-tempered, stub¬ born, self-willed, preju¬ diced, he was, as his friends did not deny; even his enemies owned Andrew Jackson that he was fearless, patriotic, honest, honorable, pure in public and private life. ‘Kitchen Cabinet.’ — Jackson’s cabinet was composed of prominent public men, but they were mere figureheads; he called them together, not to ask counsel, but to inform them what he intended to do. When he wished advice, he turned to a group of personal friends, nicknamed ‘the Kitchen Cabinet.’ Spoils System. — Jackson represented new views, a new order of things. The country, especially the strong young West, had grown more and more democratic. People were in favor of ‘rotation in office,’ especially in the putting out of office politicians who had been in a long time. Jackson THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 243 1829] removed low and high officials, and put his friends in their places. He meant to carry out what he called “ the task of reform,” and he always claimed that no man was removed without just cause; but his friends easily persuaded him From “Historic Towns of Southern States,” used by permission of Messrs. G. P. Putnam’s Sons. Andrew Jackson’s Birthplace there was reason for removing men from desired offices. From the time of John Adams, the first party leader who became president, offices were filled with men belong¬ ing to the party in power, and it more and more came to be the custom to turn out opponents in order to make places for party men. This is called the Spoils System from the saying of a New York politician: “To the victors belong the spoils of the vanquished.” This practice of regarding and using public offices as the ‘victors’ spoils,’ rewards of party service instead of public trusts, has done more than any other one thing to corrupt American public life. The system is being checked by laws to reform civil service. Removal of Indian tribes to West. — About this time, several states east of the Mississippi took possession of 244 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1828-42 lands occupied by Indian tribes. The Creek chiefs of Georgia agreed to cede their lands and move to a reserva¬ tion in the West; but the tribesmen were so opposed to leaving their homes that they killed the chiefs who had signed the treaty. The Cherokees, also, refused to give up their lands. The federal court decided that the states had no right to take the land granted the Indians by govern¬ ment treaties, but President Jackson upheld the states and would not enforce the court’s decision. The tribes had to submit. They were moved to Indian Territory, some peace¬ ably, some by force. Cherokees still tell pitiful tales of the ‘ great removal,’ when, like the Acadians, they were taken from their homes and carried to a strange region. A few escaped or made their way back to their old homes, where their descendants still live. The Sacs and Foxes refused to leave their homes in Wisconsin, and were moved West. Many returned, led by Black Hawk, their chief, but they were defeated and driven away. About fifty Seminole ‘braves’ of Florida, led by their chief, Osceola, retreated to the tangled swamps called everglades, and for seven years held their own against the power of the United States. The war to subdue the Seminoles cost twenty million dollars — four times the cost of the Florida territory. All the Indian tribes east of the Mississippi were finally moved to reservations in the West. Hayne-Webster debate. —While Jackson was president, two contrary views of the Union were set forth in a nota¬ ble debate in the Senate. The first speaker was Robert Y. Hayne of South Carolina. He said that the Constitu¬ tion was a compact, or contract, and the Union a free partnership from which any state could withdraw when it pleased. 1830] THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 245 Daniel Webster made a famous speech in reply to Hayne. Webster denied that the Constitution was a mere compact and the Union a partnership that could be dissolved. He said that the Union was a sovereign government which only revolution could dissolve and that the Constitution was its “ instrument of government.’’ He pleaded eloquently for “liberty and Union, now and forever, one and insepar¬ able.” Relations of states to Union. —The Virginia and Ken¬ tucky Resolutions against the Alien and Sedition Acts and the New England threats of secession when Louisiana was purchased and during the War of 1812, had been protested against as narrow, unwise, selfish. But no one had called them treason. No one of the statesmen who had aided to form the Constitution denied the sovereign power of a state nor claimed that the general government had supreme authority. Concession was made to reasonable demands, wise patience was shown with unreasonable ones, and so the Union was preserved. To the South, the Constitution and the Union were the same that they had been to all the states at first, — a compact and a partnership. The sovereign states had created the Union ; southern statesmen held that these states were still sovereign and supreme. But the view of the rest of the country was changing. By sentiment, by growth, by interest, by agreement, a new spirit had risen. In the western states, carved out of the public lands, the spirit of nationality was strong. These states naturally regarded the general government which had formed them as greater than themselves. In the North, too, a spirit of nationality was growing as the country was being bound together by railroads and united by wide¬ spread business and industrial interests. At a banquet in Washington, these two views were ex- 2 4 6 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [183a pressed in a few words. President Jackson gave as his toast, “The federal union: it must and shall be preserved.” Calhoun offered the next toast, “The Union, next to our liberty the most dear ”; after a pause, he added, “ May we all remember that it can only be preserved by respect¬ ing the rights of the states and by distributing equally the benefits and burdens of the Union.” South Carolina’s Ordinance of Nullification [1832]. — The South thought that the tariff laws passed near the close of J. Q. Adams’s term distributed these benefits and burdens unequally. All the southern states protested against this high tariff. When no relief was obtained from the Demo¬ cratic Congress after Jackson became president, South Carolina made a notable protest. It held a convention that issued an Ordinance of Nullification, declaring the tariff acts “ null and void and no law, nor binding ” on the state. Jackson issued a proclamation declaring: “The laws of the United States must be executed. . . . Disunion by armed force is treason.” He sent naval forces to Charleston and ordered the army to be ready for service. Thereupon the governor of South Carolina called out the state militia. Compromise tariff of 1833. — Statesmen who thought the Union supreme and those who thought the state sovereign now united in efforts to avert the threatened conflict between a state and the federal .government. Henry Clay had been the great champion of the protective tariff, but he thought that, for the sake of harmony, the rates ought now to be lowered. He was told that if he favored lower rates he would lose the votes of men who wanted a high protective tariff and would lessen his chance of being elected president, — his life-long ambition. “ I had rather be right than be president,” he answered. A compromise was carried [1833], which was to lower rates so as to reach in ten years a 20% rate and form a 1833] THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 247 tax for revenue only. Thereupon, South Carolina repealed its Ordinance of Nullification. Bank of United States.—The twenty-year charter of the Bank of the United States was now about to expire. Many public men wished to renew the charter, because the bank gave the country a uniform currency and the gov¬ ernment a convenient agent for transacting its business. Among the friends of the bank were ‘ the great trio/ — Clay, Calhoun, and Webster. Jackson was bitterly opposed to the bank; he did not think that the Constitution gave Congress the right to establish it; he feared that it was not sound, and that it was or would become a political machine and control public affairs by means of money. Congress passed a bill renewing the bank’s charter, but Jackson vetoed it. He was the first president to make use of the veto power, in order to carry out his views in opposition to Congress. He ordered the public funds to be withdrawn from the Bank of the United States and distributed among state banks. For this he was censured by the Senate, but later the vote of censure was removed from the records of Congress. New states. — While Jackson was president, the country grew and prospered. Two new states were admitted, Arkansas [1836] and Michigan [1837]. Prosperity. — The debt of the republic was paid; the tariff brought in more money than the government needed for its expenses and the surplus was divided among the states. The United States were winning the respect of the world. A clever young Frenchman, De Tocqueville, who came over to examine American prison systems, wrote a famous book, Democracy in America. In it he said, “It is true that in the United States the people govern themselves and they govern well ”; he thought that one great cause 248 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1829 of their prosperity was that “ among the Americans all honest callings are honorable.” Inventions. — About this time, many useful inventions and labor-saving improvements were made. One of these was the friction match [1829]. Before matches were in¬ vented, it was so much trouble to start a fire with flint and tinder that people tried to keep fire in their houses all the time. Coals were covered with ashes in the fireplace; if these went out, often a child was sent to a neighbor to “borrow a shovelful of fire.” Another important invention was McCormick’s reaping machine drawn by horses [1834]. Up to this time, grain had been cut with a sickle or scythe, gathered in bundles and tied by hand. This was slow and tiresome work. By McCor¬ mick’s invention, horses and machin- McCormick’s First Reaper ery did the work of many human hands. At first, it was hard to persuade farmers to use the reaper, and for several years not one was sold. By degrees, people saw its ad¬ vantages, and now hundreds of thousands are used every year. Wonderful improvements have been made; there are great machines which cut, thresh, and bag grain ready for the mill. Mowing machines are used to cut hay, and horse-rakes and hayforks handle it and save much time and labor. Two important inventions were made a little later by which the work of women was lightened. One of these 1840] THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 249 was the iron cooking stove [1840] ; the other was the sew¬ ing machine, the ‘ iron needle woman/ invented by Elias Howe [1846]. The important part of his invention was putting the eye in the point of the needle, thus enabling a machine to replace the work of the hand. In the invention, manufacture, and use of improved tools, America has led the world. About this time, a Frenchman made an invention which has been the source of much pleasure and useful informa¬ tion. This was a way of taking pic¬ tures by exposing a sensitive plate to the sun. Many improvements have been made in the methods of photography, and they have been so simplified that even a child can use them. By means of photographs, we are made familiar with the people, buildings, and scenery of all parts of the world. Summary [1829-1837]. — Andrew Jackson of Tennessee, the seventh president, served two terms. While he was president, two new states were admitted, Arkansas and Michigan. Two Indian wars, the Black Hawk and the Seminole, were caused by the removal of Indian tribes to western reservations. South Carolina, dissatisfied with the high tariff, passed an Ordinance of Nullification; President Jackson threatened to enforce the law by arms, but Congress lowered the tariff rates, and this compromise avoided conflict between the state and federal governments. 10. Van Buren’s Term [1837-1841] Democratic President Van Buren. — Martin Van Buren, who suc¬ ceeded Jackson, was our first president born an American, not a British subject. He was a ‘ slender little gentleman, Howe’s Original Sewing Machine 250 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1837 always courteous, always placid,’ with ability and firmness under a bland, gentle manner. Panic of 1837. — The year that Van Buren became presi¬ dent, the country suffered the worst financial panic it has ever known. There had been a period of great prosperity. The West was being developed rapidly, and many railroads were being built. People carried on business on credit and by means of paper money issued by state banks. So many of these banks were unsafe that President Jackson, near the end of his second term, issued a ‘ specie circular,’ ordering gov¬ ernment agents to take only coin in payment for public lands. This circular was “ the pin which pricked the bubble of speculation.” People everywhere followed the government’s example and demanded gold and silver instead of paper money. Banks did not have coin to pay their notes, and so had to shut their doors; among those that failed were many ‘pet banks’ in which government money was deposited. Men could not collect money due them nor pay their own debts. Mills and factories closed. Thousands of people were out of money and out of work. A poor crop year, making provisions scarce and high, added to the wide¬ spread distress. The poor suffered for food, and there were bread riots in New York City. Even states were bankrupt; and the general government, which not long before had been dividing money among the states, now needed funds for its own expenses. Many people thought that the government could help THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 1&37) 2St matters by issuing paper money and reestablishing the Bank of the United States. But President Van Buren thought that the government would do harm by meddling, and that the only real relief would be that which would come by degrees from the use of sound business methods. Gradually matters improved and prosperity returned. Independent Treasury plan. — One good result of the panic of 1837 was that government money was removed from private banks. By Van Buren’s Independent Treas¬ ury or Sub-treasury plan, the government took charge of its own funds. Instead of being deposited in banks, these funds were kept in the treasury at Washington and in branches called sub-treasuries in other cities. Mormons. — About this time, a religious sect called Mormons, or Latter Day Saints, attracted serious attention. It was founded by Joseph Smith of New York, who said that an angel appeared to him and told him where to find a golden plate containing a revelation from heaven, the ‘ Book of Mormon.’ Later, Smith said that he was in¬ spired to tell good Mormons that they might practice polygamy, — that is, have several wives at once. The Mormons laid out a city in Illinois and built a temple. The sect was disliked by the people of the neighborhood ; it was attacked by a mob and ‘ Prophet ’ Smith was killed. The Mormons resolved to move West and make a settle¬ ment of their own,. where polygamy could be practiced. Their leader was Brigham Young, one of their ‘ Twelve Apostles.’ They went West in bands, crossing the prairie and the arid plains from which people had been held back by lack of wood, water, and food. They crossed the Rocky Mountains — then the western boundary of the United States — settled on territory which belonged to Mexico, and founded Salt Lake City. They irrigated the land and made the desert a garden. 252 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1B41 Religious revivals. —This was a period of great religious revivals throughout the country. Most of these were led by earnest, uneducated men who urged people to make ‘ per¬ sonal peace with God,’ and live better lives. Sunday schools, missionary societies, Young Men’s and Women’s Christian Associations, and other religious unions were organized. Harrison elected president. — Many men in as well as out of President Jackson’s party disapproved his policies, especially his action about the United States Bank; his proclamation against nullification and secession drove from his party many southern States’ Rights men. A new party called Whig was formed, composed of men unlike in views and policies, but united in their opposition to Jackson. The Whigs could not agree upon measures and nominated and elected without a platform William Henry Harrison, a hero of Indian fights and of the War of 1812. Summary [1837-1841].—Martin Van Buren of New York, the eighth president, served one term. The chief events of his term were the financial panic of 1837 and the adoption of the Independent Treas¬ ury plan by which the government took charge of its own money. 11. Harrison and Tyler’s Term [1841-1845] Whig Harrison’s death [April4,1841].—President Harrison died one month after his inauguration, and was succeeded by John Tyler, the first vice-president to hold the office of president. Tyler was one of the men who had left the Democratic party on account of its policy under Jackson. He believed in States’ Rights and disapproved a high tariff and the Bank of the United States. The faction of the Whig party which wished to pass a protective tariff and to re¬ establish the Bank of the United States was strong enough in Congress to pass these measures, but Tyler vetoed them. The Whigs succeeded, however, in passing an act which 1842] THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 253 upset the Compromise Tariff made ten years before; instead of being reduced to twenty per cent, as had been agreed, the duty was raised to thirty-five per cent. Dorrs Rebellion [1842]. — While Tyler was president, there were insurrections in Rhode Island and in ill! New York. According to the Rhode Island law, only property-owners could vote. This caused dis¬ satisfaction and finally a rebellion led by Thomas Dorr. The re¬ bellion was put down, but soon afterward a new constitution was adopted, extending the suffrage. Anti-rent Riots [ 1844]. — In New York, tenants refused to pay rents to the patroon owners. These rents were usually small, — some fowls, a few days’ work, a few dollars for each hundred acres of land. At last, the land¬ lords sold their claims, and the old patroon system came to an end. Maine boundary [1842].—The boundary between Maine and Canada had been in dispute ever since the Revolution. It was settled during Tyler’s term by a treaty in which both America and Great Britain made compromises. Oregon Country. — The western boundary was still un¬ settled. Both Great Britain and the United States claimed the region called the Oregon Country, lying between Mexico and Alaska. For about twenty-five years, the John Tyler 254 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1842 Oregon Country was held as neutral ground. People in the eastern states knew little of this region. The maps of the time called the western country ‘ the Great American Desert,’ because it was thought to be a barren waste, like the Desert of Sahara. Webster asked, “ What do we want with this vast worthless area, this region of savages and wild beasts, of deserts of shifting sands and whirlwinds of dust, of cactus, and prairie dogs?” But settlers, with their rifles, axes, and plows, went to the Oregon Country, made homes there, and claimed the The Oregon Trail whole region for the United States. The popular cry was “fifty-four forty or fight,” — 54 0 40' being the southern boundary of Alaska. Florida admitted to Union [1845].—While Tyler was president, Florida was made a state, and Texas asked to be admitted into the Union. Texan War for Independence [1836]. — Texas had been Spanish territory, but it rebelled against Spain and became a state of the Mexican republic. Thousands of American i8 3 6 ] THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 255 emigrants went to the fertile, well-watered country and settled there to trade, raise cotton, and herd cattle. Find¬ ing the government of Mexico harsh and unjust, they de¬ clared their independence and formed the Republic of Texas. Samuel Houston, a brave, able, adventurous man, was made president of the young republic. A Mexican army of several thousand men took the field to crush the revolt, and attacked the Alamo, a fortified convent near San Antonio. The Alamo was defended bravely by two hundred Texans until only six were left ; these were killed after they surrendered. At Goliad, five hundred Texans were massacred after they had given up their arms. Instead of being daunted by this severity, the Texans were roused to desperate resistance. “Remem¬ ber the Alamo” was their fierce cry in the battle of San Jacinto. In this battle, eight hundred Texans, armed with rifles and bowie knives, defeated a Mexican army of 1600 men. They killed or wounded over half the Mexicans, and took prisoner the others, including the general, Santa Anna. The Texan loss was only six killed and twenty- five wounded. Soon after this battle, the independence of Texas was acknowledged by the United States and by European nations. Texas annexed to United States.— The Texans were really only ‘Americans across the border,’ and they asked to have their ‘ Lone Star State ’ made one of the United States. The South was in favor of granting this request; it did « Lone star" Flag not wish the vast fertile country to form a separate republic in the southwest; it wished to add it to the Union as a slave state to balance northern free territory. The North opposed the admission of Texas, because it was a slave state and because its annexa- teisi 256 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1844 tion would probably cause war with Mexico which refused to acknowledge its independence. The question about Texas was made the chief issue in the next presidential campaign. The Democrats declared in favor of annexing Texas and of occupying the Oregon Country. Their candidate, James Knox Polk of Tennessee, defeated the Whig candidate, Henry Clay, and Texas was annexed. Invention of telegraph. — The tidings of Polk’s nomina¬ tion was the first news message sent by telegraph. Samuel Morse had been working many years to utilize as a news car¬ rier the force of electricity which passes almost instanta¬ neously along copper wire. Through ridicule, discourage¬ ment, and poverty, he perse¬ vered, and at last he made the wire carry a message and in¬ vented an instrument to receive it. He secured from Congress an appropriation of $30,000 for a telegraph line between Baltimore and Washington. Morse’s First Instrument Many people opposed this ; one Congressman said that they might as well appropriate $30,000 to construct a rail¬ road to the moon. The line was put up [1844], and it worked perfectly. Side by side with the railroad, the telegraph extended over the country, carrying news, pro¬ moting trade, binding sections together, increasing the growth and prosperity of the Union. Other inventions and reforms. — This was a period of advance in many ways. The rotary printing press was THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 1847 ] 257 invented, by which the number and cheapness of publica¬ tions were greatly increased. One of the world’s greatest medical discoveries was that of anesthesia; rendering persons insensible to pain, anes¬ thetics relieve and prevent suffering and have made pos¬ sible the wonderful modern advance in surgery. It had been known for some time that ether could produce insen¬ sibility, but Dr. Crawford Long was the first physician who used it [1842] to prevent the pain of an operation. Laws were made less harsh. People were indignant at the hardships caused by the laws against poor debtors; for instances, a Revolutionary soldier was kept in jail seven years for a debt of a few dollars, and in his old age the patriot Robert Morris was thrown into a debtor’s prison. One state after another passed laws releasing debtors who could not pay. The condition of jails and penitentiaries was improved. Homes were established for the deaf, dumb, and blind. A noble woman, Dorothea Dix, persuaded people that it was their duty to care for the insane in hospitals instead of confining them in jails. Temperance and total abstinence societies were formed. The Maine law was passed, forbidding the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors in that state. The condition of workmen was improved. In mills and factories, the working day had been fourteen, fifteen, or even sixteen hours long. A ten-hour system was adopted, first in Baltimore, then in other places. Education. — Many improvements were made in the public schools established to teach and train the children who were to control the future of the republic. Horace Mann of Massachusetts and Henry Barnard of Connecticut were two leaders in this work for education. They urged the building of good schools and the establishing of normal schools to train teachers. s 258 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1847 Immigrants. — This time of prosperity in America was a period of distress in many parts of Europe. There were crop failures and revolutions. People came by thousands and hundreds of thousands to seek food and freedom in America. These immigrants were chiefly from the north of Europe, — Irish, Germans, Swedes, Norwegians,— people of the same stock as the Americans. Few of these immigrant laborers went to the South, where they would have had to compete with slave labor. Instead, they settled in the cities of the North and on the farms of the West, where they found good work and good wages. They learned the language and habits of our people, loved their adopted country, and became good citizens. To them, the Union was one country like their native nations, and they aided to build up the spirit of nationality. Summary [1841-1845].—William Henry Harrison of Ohio, the ninth president, died one month after his inauguration. The tenth president, John Tyler of Virginia, was the first vice-president who became president. During his term, Florida became a state, and Texas, which had won its independence from Mexico, was annexed to the Union. The dispute with Great Britain about the Maine boundary was settled by compromise. There was a rebellion, called Dorr’s Rebellion, in Rhode Island and Anti-rent Riots in New York. This was a period of invention and reform. The electric telegraph was perfected, the rotary printing press was invented, hospitals and insane asylums were established, temperance societies were formed, and schools were im¬ proved. Immigration to America greatly increased. 12. Polk’s Term: The War with Mexico [1845-1849] Democratic Oregon boundary. — When Polk became president, he faced the prospect of two wars: with England over the Oregon Country and with Mexico about.Texas. The first was avoided by a treaty in which both countries made i8 4 6 ] THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 259 concessions. It was agreed [1846] that the parallel 49 0 , which was the boundary between American and British territory from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Moun¬ tains, should be the boundary westward to the Pacific. This gave to Great Britain the northern part of the dis¬ puted territory; it gave to the United States the southern part, from which have been formed the states of Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and parts of Wyoming and Montana. War with Mexico. — War be¬ tween the United States and Mexico followed the annexation of the southern republic. Mexico refused to acknowledge the independence of Texas. Moreover, there was a bound¬ ary dispute; Texas claimed the Rio Grande River as its southern line, Mex¬ ico said that the Nueces River was the boundary. Mex¬ ico was in no condi¬ tion to fight. Its affairs were in dis¬ order ; it had an empty treasury and James K. Polk 260 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1846 poor generals. Its soldiers were brave, but they were un¬ trained, “poorly clothed, worse fed, and seldom paid,” ob¬ served a young American officer, Lieutenant U. S. Grant. Taylor’s campaign. —When American troops under Gen¬ eral Zachary Taylor were sent to occupy the disputed territory between the Rio Grande and Nueces rivers, the Mexicans, too, sent forward troops, and a skirmish took place [April 26, 1846]. As soon as news of this fight reached the American government, war was declared against Mexico. Meanwhile, two battles had been fought near the Rio Grande. The Americans won a victory on General Taylor at the Battle of Buena Vista the plains of Palo Alto [May 8] and another the next day in the ravine of Resaca de la Palma [May 9]. Then General Taylor crossed the Rio Grande and gained control of the northern part of Mexico. 1847] THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 261 Battle of Buena Vista.—Troops were withdrawn from General Taylor’s army for a southern campaign, and he was left at Buena Vista with about 5000 men. General Santa Anna marched against him with an army of 20,000 men and summoned him to surrender. “ General Taylor never surrenders,” was the answer. The little American army was skillfully placed on broken ground, protected by cliffs on the one side and ravines on the other. For two days [February 22, 23, 1847] the Mexican army attacked the little force, but was beaten off. The gallant charge of the Mississippi rifles led by Colonel Jefferson Davis, aided by the artillery under Captain Bragg and Lieutenant Sherman, compelled the Mexicans to retreat. Seizure of New Mexico and California [1846]. — The campaign in northern Mexico was followed by two others: one in the Southwest, the other in the heart of Mexico. General Stephen Kearny made an eight-hundred-mile march from Kansas to Santa Fe, and without firing a shot took possession of New Mexico in the name of the United States. He then went on to California. This had already been wrested from Mexico by a few hundred Americans who had settled there, attracted by the fertile soil, mild climate, and fine harbor. As soon as these men heard that war was going on, they formed the Bear Flag Republic and declared themselves independent of Mexico. They were aided by a little American fleet, and by Captain John C. Fremont who had been sent West to explore the passes of the Rocky Mountains. The vast, thinly-settled country along the Pacific coast was seized for the United States. March to Mexico [1847]. — An American army of 10,000 men under General Winfield Scott made a brilliant cam¬ paign in Mexico. It began by taking the city of Vera 262 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE (i«47 Cruz [March 29]. Santa Anna’s army was strongly posted in the mountain pass of Cerro Gordo. Two young Ameri¬ can engineers — Colonel R. E. Lee and Lieutenant G. P. Beauregard — opened a road through the mountains, along which the army marched and attacked the Mexicans from the rear [April 18]. The Mexicans were defeated and retreated, and for some weeks there was no more fighting. Then the Americans climbed the mountains and made their way across the hilly table-land, through the heart of the enemy’s country. There were so many forts along the highway that the Americans turned aside and cut new roads across the rough country. In August, they came to a height of the Cordilleras and looked down on the valley of Mexico, surrounded by mountains with peaks shining snow-capped in the distance. In this beautiful valley lies the City of Mexico. It occupies a strong natural position on an island in what was once a lake but is now a great marsh; the marsh is crossed by narrow causeways, the entrances to which are protected by for¬ tresses. When the Americans were about ten miles from the City of Mexico, fighting began again. From the middle of August to the middle of September, victory followed victory, — Contreras, San Antonio, Churubusco, Molina del Rey, Chapultepec. Two days after the commanding fortress of Chapultepec was taken, the American army entered the capital city [September 13]. Results of War with Mexico. — The United States dic¬ tated their own terms of peace to their defeated neighbor [1848]. Mexico agreed to the Rio Grande as the boundary of Texas and ceded to the United States for the sum of $18,500,000 the territory that they had seized. This terri¬ tory was almost equal in extent to the great Louisiana tr CC B « a, H «? ^ S 22 o 5 * c? s 6 o 2 Hj *3 - r g 2 O 5 H * ca S cs £ a H 1848] THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC 263 Territory; out of it were formed Texas, California, New Mexico, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming. Among the young officers who gained military experience and training in the War with Mexico, were Lieutenant U. S. Grant, Lieutenant W. T. Sherman, Captain George Mc¬ Clellan, Captain J. E. Johnston, Colonel Albert Sidney Johnston, Colonel Robert E. Lee, and Colonel Jefferson Davis. Alas! these Americans, fighting so bravely side by side, were a few years later to fight as bravely against each other, in the great War of Secession. New territory brought forward the old question of slavery. While the War with Mexico was going on, David Wilmot of Pennsylvania urged in Congress a measure called the Wilmot Proviso [1846]. This forbade slavery in all the territory acquired from Mexico. The proviso was not carried, and for some time the question was un¬ decided, the North contending that the newly-acquired territory should be free and the South desiring it to be slave territory. New states.—While Polk was president, three new states were admitted,—Texas [1845], Iowa [1846], and Wisconsin [1848]. There were now fifteen free states and fifteen slave states. Summary [1845-1849]. — James Knox Polk of Tennessee, the eleventh president, served one term. While he was president, three new states were admitted, — Texas, Iowa, and Wisconsin. The annex¬ ation of Texas caused war with Mexico. The Americans made three successful campaigns: first, General Taylor marched against northern Mexico and defeated the Mexicans in several battles; second, General Kearny seized New Mexico, and California was taken possession of; third. General Scott marched from Vera Cruz to the City of Mexico, winning brilliant victories on the way. By the War with Mexico, the United States gained a vast increase of territory and the control of the Pacific coast. For the ceded territory, it paid Mexico $18,500,000. CHAPTER VI DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR i. Taylor and Fillmore’s Term [1849-1853] Whig President Taylor. — The next president was General Zachary Taylor. ‘Old Rough and Ready,’ as he was nicknamed, was a pop¬ ular soldier who had never taken any part in politics. “ I have no private purpose to accomplish,” he said, “ no party proj¬ ects to build up, no enemies to punish, — nothing to serve but my country.” In the campaign in which Tay¬ lor was elected, neither of the great parties took a decided stand on the slavery question. But events forced its prompt consideration in connection with the organization of the Mexican cession. Discovery of gold in California [1848]. — The month that the treaty of peace with Mexico was made, gold was dis- 264 (gt , . '• *|*. V I V 7v * • *. . - : : v- ■* • Zachary Taylor i8 4 9.i DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 265 covered in California. It was found by an American laborer who was digging a mill race on a branch of the Sacramento River. The news spread like wildfire through the adjoining country, and there was a rush to the gold regions. Farm¬ ers left their fields, tradesmen their shops, sailors their ships, to dig for gold. The news reached the eastern states late that fall. Early the next spring, thousands of men started to Cali¬ fornia. It was a long, toilsome, dangerous journey. There was not a mile of railroad west of the Mississippi River; there were not even roads across the continent. Some adventurers followed by ship the long route around South America. Some crossed the fever-infested isthmus of Central America and made their way by land or water up the coast. Others — on foot, on horseback, in wagons — crossed the arid plains and the steep mountains occupied only by wild beasts and hostile Indians. Many were killed by these foes or perished for lack of food and water. In spite of all difficulties, about 80,000 men reached the gold fields that year. Of these famous ‘ Forty Niners/ as they are called, some gained great fortunes and many died in poverty. Vast quantities of gold were obtained in dust and nuggets. Some of these nuggets were as large as an acorn, a walnut, or an egg. Ore, or * dust/ was used for money; miners carried scales and paid their debts with gold at the rate of sixteen dollars an ounce. Food was less plentiful than gold. Potatoes and eggs sold readily for one dollar each, flour was a hundred dollars a barrel. After the surface gold was exhausted, mining companies were organized. In course of time, men turned to agri¬ culture, and developed the rich resources of the region. Pony express. — A pony express was established to carry mail from Missouri to California, charging five dollars 266 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1849 for each letter or small package. The trip from St. Joseph to San Francisco, 2000 miles away, was made in ten or even in eight days. A man on a stout pony raced from one station to another fif¬ teen miles away. There the bag was slung on a fresh horse, and in two minutes the rider was galloping on his way to the next station, where another man on a fresh horse took charge of the bag. In sunshine, in storm, across the plains, over the mountains, the pony express sped on its way. California applies for statehood. — Before Congress de¬ cided on what terms to organize the territory of California, its settlers were numerous enough to wish to form a state. President Taylor advised them to draw up a constitution and apply for admission. They promptly did this and asked to be admitted as a free state. The North wished to admit California on these terms. The South opposed it, urging that, since much of California lies south of 36° 30', this would set aside the Missouri Compromise. Northern attitude to slavery. — Slavery was a moral and political question on which the North and the South honestly differed. There was growing, especially in New England, a strong feeling against slavery in the South. Within a few years, 2000 northern societies were formed for the abolition of slavery. Pony Express i8so] DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 267 The leader of the Abolitionist party was William Lloyd Garrison, the publisher of a paper called the Liberator. Garrison thought that slave-owners were no better than so many robbers and murderers. He proposed that Massachusetts should lead a movement of the free states to withdraw from the Union and to form a republic sepa¬ rate from the slave states. Because the Constitution recognized slaves as property and protected the owners of this property, Garrison publicly burned it, calling it “ a covenant with death and an agreement with hell.” There was a more moderate party, called anti-slavery men; they thought that outsiders had no right to interfere with slavery in the states where it was established, but they wished to prevent its spread in the territories. In the free states, there was a growing disposition to disregard or evade the Fugitive Slave Law which re¬ quired that runaway slaves be returned to their masters on demand. For years, individuals had more or less openly disobeyed this law. There was an organization of several thousand persons who received and hid slaves, passing them by night from one place to another into free states and even into Canada. Thousands of' slaves escaped by means of this “ underground railroad,” as it was called. Southern view. — The southern people considered slaves lawful property and regarded the Abolitionists’ plans to free them as men to-day would regard plans to deprive them of their land. Men who disagreed with Garrison in everything else thought that it would be well for the free and the slave states to separate. Calhoun said in his last speech in the Senate, “ If you who represent the stronger portion cannot agree to settle the great questions at issue on the broad principles of justice and duty, say so; and let the states we both represent agree to separate and depart in peace.” 268 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1850 Slavery was an evil, but it was not without redeeming features; the negroes were trained in habits of industry, taught trades, and governed firmly but not unkindly. There were some cruel masters, but as a rule the negroes were better fed and clothed than the laboring classes in most countries, and the sick, children, and aged were cared for. A northerner who examined the system care¬ fully said: “ On principle, in habit, and even on grounds of self-interest, the greater part of the slave-owners were humane in the treatment of their slaves, — kind, indulgent, not over-exacting.” Most people who looked at the matter without passion or prejudice thought that slavery was a disadvantage to the South. It seemed impossible to establish manufactures or to introduce improved methods of agriculture, requiring expensive tools and machinery, where the laborers were ignorant, unskilled slaves. The South’s natural resources were neglected, its trade and manufactures passed into other hands. In wealth and population, it fell behind other parts of the country. Immigrant laborers avoided it and flocked to the free states. Some other civilized peoples had re¬ cently abolished slavery, and if let alone the South would, of its own accord, have put an end to the system, prob¬ ably by degrees. Compromise of 1850. — It was evident that only by steering between extremes would it be possible to preserve the Union in peace. Clay, now a feeble old man, left his Ken¬ tucky home and returned to public life to make a final effort to keep peace between the sections. For the third time, he suggested compromise measures, urging both sec¬ tions to make concessions in order to settle the slavery question and preserve the Union. He was aided by Cal¬ houn and Webster. For the last time, * the great trio ’ met in Congress and labored to secure the country’s welfare. 1850] DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 269 Calhoun pleaded for the preservation of the Union ; he urged the North to “cease the agitation of the slavery question.” Webster said that according to the Constitution it was the right of southern states to hold slaves as property and the duty of northern ones to surrender fugitive slaves. If the North disregarded the Constitution, the South could not be expected to obey it; a bargain cannot be broken by one side and still bind the other. For seven months, compromise measures were discussed in Congress, and at last ‘the Compromise of 1850’ was adopted. The slave trade in the District of Columbia was abolished, and California was admitted as a free state. On the other hand, it was agreed that two territories, Utah and New Mexico, should be formed out of the re¬ mainder of the Mexican cession, which should be open to slavery; the Fugitive Slave Law was to be enforced by Federal officers. Death of notable men. — While these compromise measures were being dis¬ cussed, death removed two of the foremost public men of the country, Calhoun of South Carolina and Presi¬ dent Taylor. Taylor was succeeded by the vice pres¬ ident, Millard Fillmore of New York. Two years later [1852], there passed away the last great states¬ men of the compromise period, Clay and Webster. Into the place of the old leaders stepped younger men, many of whom were animated by strong sectional feeling,— 270 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1852 Salmon P. Chase of Ohio, Jefferson Davis of Mississippi, William H. Seward of New York, Charles Sumner of Massachusetts. Personal liberty laws. — It was soon evident that the Compromise of 1850 settled nothing. Attempts to enforce the Fugitive Slave Law in the free states caused disputes and riots; officers and slave-owners were attacked and killed, and slaves were set free. Many northern states passed laws, called ‘ personal liberty bills,’ to protect run¬ away slaves; southern states complained that these laws really nullified, or set aside, the law of the Constitution. Uncle Tom's Cabin. — The very year that Clay, the great peacemaker, died, there was published a book which did more than the writings of Garrison to excite hostility against slavery and the Fugitive Slave Law. This was Uncle Tom s Cabin , by Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe. Hun¬ dreds of thousands of copies were sold in the United States, and it was translated into many languages. It was a romance, full of humor and pathos, about slave life. It was accepted by Abolitionists as a true picture of negro life and character and of the system of slavery. In vain temperate men on both sides pointed to the facts in the case, and showed that the story did not truly represent these. Summary [1849-1853].—Zachary Taylor of Tennessee was the twelfth president. The year that California was ceded to the United States, gold was discovered there. People rushed to the gold fields, and the country was soon populous enough to apply for statehood, requesting to be admitted as a free state. After much discussion, the Compromise of 1850 was adopted. The slave trade in the District of Columbia was abolished, and California was admitted as a free state; the remainder of the Mexican cession was left open to slavery, and the Fugitive Slave Law was to be enforced by Federal officers. While this compromise was being discussed, President Taylor died. Millard Fill¬ more of New York was the thirteenth president and the second vice president to hold the office. DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 271 1853] 2. Pierce’s Term [1853-1857] Democratic Franklin Pierce. — Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire, the next president, was an earnest, hard-working man of attractive manners, but without great ability. Treaties with China and Japan. — While Pierce was president, Commodore Matthew Perry made an expedition to Japan and secured a treaty [1853], by which American ships were allowed to enter two ports of Japan. Some years before [1844], a treaty had been made with China, by which five Chi¬ nese ports were opened to American trade. Gadsden Purchase [1853]. — While trade and power were being extended, new territory was being added. In order to settle a boundary dispute, the United States bought from Mexico a tract of land south of the Gila River, containing about 45,000 square miles. Ten million dollars was paid for it. This is called ‘ the Gadsden Purchase’ from the name of the statesman who negotiated the transaction. Kansas-Nebraska Bill [1854]. — The question of slave and free territory was being discussed with ever-increasing bitterness. Most people approved the Missouri Compro¬ mise. The Abolitionists disliked it because they wished the government to prohibit slavery everywhere. Some states¬ men disapproved the Missouri Compromise because they thought it contrary to the law of the Constitution; as the Constitution recognized slave property, they said, the gov- 272 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1854 ernment had no more right to shut slaves out of territories than to forbid men to carry watches or any other property. Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois suggested that slavery be settled by popular sovereignty, or ‘squatter sovereignty,’ as it was called. According to this plan, communities would deal with slavery as they now, through local option, deal with the liquor question; this had been practically done in the case of California. Douglas proposed that the prairie region, called ‘the Platte Country,’ should be organized into two terri¬ tories, Kansas and Nebraska, and that the people of these territories should decide for themselves the matter of slavery. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill was passed. Many men ob¬ jected to it because it set aside the Missouri Compromise and opened to slavery territories north of 36° 30'; others said that the Missouri Compromise was really set aside when California, much of which lies south of 36° 30', was admitted as a free state. Contest in Kansas. — Nebraska was so far north and so thinly settled that slave-holders made little effort to estab¬ lish themselves there; but Kansas at once became a scene of contest. Abolitionists contributed money and sent bands of immigrants to make it a free state. Slave-holders settled there to make it a slave state. Men of one party tried to drive out men of the other. There were quarrels, fights, and riots; houses and towns were burned; people were murdered in their own homes. The motto of the lawless men on both sides was “ War to the knife and the knife to the hilt.” New political parties. — While this struggle was going on in ‘ bleeding Kansas,’ a presidential election took place. Two new parties put forward candidates. One was the American party that wished to keep the ballot and offices from foreigners; its members, when asked about its plans, so often answered “ I don’t know,” that it was called the 1856] DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 273 Know Nothing party. The other new party was the Re¬ publican ; its main principle was opposition to the intro¬ duction of slavery into the territories. The Democrats declared in favor of ‘ popular sovereignty,’ — that is, of letting the people of territories decide the question of slavery for themselves, — and elected their candidate, James Buchanan of Pennsylvania. Summary [1853-1857]. — Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire, the fourteenth president, served one term. While he was president, the Kan- sas-Nebraska Bill was passed, by which the Missouri Compromise was set aside and the decision of the question of slavery was left to the people of the territories. A tract called ‘ the Gadsden Purchase’ was bought from Mexico for $10,000,000, in order to settle a boundary dispute. 3. Buchanan’s Term [1857-1861] Democratic Panic of 1857. — The spring that Buchanan became president, all parties united in Congress to reduce the tariff. Before the new rates could take effect, there was a serious business depres¬ sion. As before the panic of 1837, a period of pros¬ perity had led to speculation and reckless credit. A re¬ action came. Banks sus¬ pended payment, railroads failed, thousands of busi¬ ness men were bankrupt, trade and manufactures were at a standstill. Natural resources. — Prosperity returned by degrees. Crops were abundant and there could not be long-continued T, James Buchanan 274 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1857 hard times in a country so rich in natural resources and energetic people. The gold mines of California continued to yield vast wealth, and gold was discovered in Colorado and in Montana. Rich deposits of silver were found in Nevada and later in Colorado, Utah, and Arizona. There were valuable lead, coal, and copper mines in the West. The rich coal and iron mines of the East were worked. Oil wells were sunk in Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, and West Virginia. These wells produced daily thousands of barrels of petroleum of which kerosene is a refined form. Later natural gas was discovered and used extensively for lighting and heating. Atlantic Cable [1858]. — Commodore Matthew F. Maury, ‘the pathfinder of the sea,’ thought that an under-ocean telegraph could be established by laying a cable on the flat ocean bed between Ireland and Newfoundland. At his suggestion, Cyrus Field undertook to lay this Atlantic cable. After repeated failures, the task was accomplished, and Queen Victoria and President Buchanan exchanged telegraphic greetings. The cable soon ceased to work and again failure followed failure. Mr. Field devoted his time and money to the attempt to perfect the ocean-tele¬ graph and at last succeeded. Now, by means of these cables, the nations of the world are bound together in one community. Literature. — It was not only in material ways that America was advancing. This was ‘the golden age’ of its literature. During the middle of the nineteenth century, Irving, Bryant, and Cooper were still living, and many younger writers were at work. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, our best-known and best-loved poet, wrote Evangeline , Hiawatha , and many other popular poems. John Greenleaf Whittier, the Quaker poet who loved nature, books, and freedom, wrote chiefly about New England life 1857] DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 275 and scenes; his best long poem, Snow-Bound , is a picture of New England country life in winter. James Russell Lowell was essayist and critic as well as poet, with a wide range of thought and subject, from the beauti¬ ful Vision of Sir Launfal to the witty Biglow Papers. Ralph Waldo Emerson was a thinker who by his lec- Henry Wadsworth Longfellow tures and essays sounded the chord of self-reliance. Nathaniel Hawthorne wrote exquisite stories and ro¬ mances, many of which de¬ scribe old Puri¬ tan life; besides the Scarlet Let¬ ter and other romances, he wrote Tangle- James Russell Lowell Wood TClleS and Ralph Waldo Emerson 276 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1857 other charming books for children. Edgar Allan Poe, whom Tennyson called the chief literary glory of America, wrote The Raven and other mu¬ sical, imaginative poems and vivid, powerful stories. Sidney Lanier was a poet musician whose Marshes of Glynn and other poems have musical “ tone color ” as well as great originality, beauty, and loftiness of thought. Henry Timrod and Paul Nathaniel Hawthorne T , TT Hamilton Hayne were two other Southern poets who, amid hardships and disease, pro¬ duced some beautiful short poems. George Bancroft spent a half century of labor on a great History of the United States. John Lothrop Motley wrote an interesting history of the Rise of the Dutch Republic. William Hickling Pres¬ cott, bearing with cheer¬ ful courage his affliction of blindness, told in a clear, vivid style the history of Spain in America, in his Con- Edgar Allan Poe DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 277 1857] quest of Peru , Conqjiest of Mexico , and other books. Later Francis Parkman, in spite of ill health and failing eye¬ sight, gave, in the vol- ____’ umes of his great history, France and England in North America , the story of the contest of the two nations for supremacy in the New World. America produced noteworthy scientists as well as poets, novelists, and historians. The bot¬ anist Asa Gray wrote about plant life, John James Audubon described the birds and animals of America, Louis Agassiz, Sidney Lanier a Swiss-American, wrote about natural science, and Matthew Fontaine Maury studied and charted the winds and ocean currents. New states.—While Buchanan was president, three new states were ad¬ mitted to the Union, — Minnesota [1858], Oregon [1859], and Kansas [1861], — all three free states. There were now nineteen free states and only fifteen slave states; the balance of power between the two sections was finally upset. [1857]. — The whole country listened with Interest t® the Dred Scott decision. Dred Scott was a negrro slave. His master, an army surgeon, carried Dred William pickling Prescott Dred Scott exse 278 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1857 to Illinois and Minnesota and then brought him back to Missouri. Dred claimed that his freedom was secured by residence in a free state and a free territory. His case was carried from one court to another; finally, the Supreme Court of the United States decided against him. The decision went on to say that, according to the Consti¬ tution, slaves were not citizens but property, and that their owners might carry them about, like any other property. Like the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, this decision set aside the Missouri Compromise as contrary to the Constitution. Most northern men disapproved this decision, saying that it would open all the country to slavery, and many said that they would not accept it as binding. Most southern men were pleased with it and said that it only protected their property rights. John Brown’s raid [1859]. — Two years later, an event took place which the South thought threatened greater danger than the North had foreseen from the Dred Scott decision. This was John Brown’s raid.. John Brown of Connecticut was an Abolitionist who had gone to Kansas, rifle in hand, to aid in making it a free state, and had taken bloody part in the lawless work there. After the Kansas question was decided, he settled near H irper’s Ferry, Vir¬ ginia. One Sunday night, with eighteen followers, he attacked the arsenal at Harper’s Ferry, hoping to secure weapons and establish a camp for runaway ^ftgroesdri the mountains of Virginia. He was captured, tried, "onvicted of murder and treason, and hanged. His> raid shewed, m a notable way, how widely the South and the No. h now differed. The southern people regarded John Bro' ; n as a murderer who was trying to incite the black men against the white; in many places in the North, bells were tolled and flags were lowered on the day of his execuion, and he was called a martyr to the cause of freedom. 1859] DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 279 Southerners began to fear that the North would arm slaves to attack their masters and would attempt to free the negroes by force. John Brown’s raid recalled the * Bloody Monday ’ of Nat Turner’s insurrection, a slave-rising in Virginia [1831]. In this insurrection, sixty white men, women, and children were killed in their homes, as in old Indian wars. Such massacres and worse were feared, if the negroes were urged on by men like Brown. Lincoln elected president. — While the North was still excited over the Dred Scott decision and the South over John Brown’s raid, there was a presidential election in which the slavery question was the chief issue. The north¬ ern and southern Democrats were divided ; some of them even voted with a third party, calling itself the Constitu¬ tional Union party. Its brief platform avoided disputed questions and urged only “ the Constitution of the country, the union of the states, and the enforcement of the laws.” Abraham Lincoln, the candidate of the Republican party which opposed the extension of slavery, was elected. He received a large majority of the electoral votes, but less than half the popular vote. Abraham Lincoln was an able man from the middle West who described himself as belonging “ to what they call down South the scrubs,” or poor whites. He was born in Kentucky; when he was seven years old, his father, a poor, shiftless, ignorant man, moved to Illinois. The family lived a year in a ‘ half-faced camp,’ before a rude cabin was built. In the West, Abraham Lincoln grew up and lived the life of the rough, vigorous frontiers¬ man. He went to school “ by littles,” as he said, less than a year in all. But he learned to read, write, and cipher, and he read and studied at home. His big, bony hands were familiar with hard work. He cut wood, 2 8o SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [i860 plowed, cut grain with a sickle and threshed it with a flail, felled trees, split rails, and did rough carpenter work. By common sense, patience, and wisdom, and by force of in¬ tellect, will, and character, Lincoln made his way to the front. He studied law and became an able public speaker and a brilliant debater. He was shrewd, full of quaint humor, and ready with a joke. He was opposed to the extension of slavery, but he thought that the government had no right to interfere with it where it was established and that the states ought to obey the Fugitive Slave Law. The South did not know much about Lincoln, but it knew that he hated slavery and it thought that he wished to destroy the system; in a famous debate with Senator Douglas, he had said, “A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this country cannot endure half slave and half free. I do not expect the house to fall, but I expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing or all the other.” Secession of Cotton States [i860, 1861]. — The North had now control of both the Senate and the House. Many people in the South feared that this power would be used to their disadvantage. True, the Constitution protected slavery in the states. But John Brown’s raid made people feel that there were men ready to break the laws of the land in order to destroy slavery. Some states resolved to leave the Union, in which there was now discord instead of harmony. Soon after Lincoln was elected, the seven southern states, called the Cotton States, seceded from the Union. South Carolina was the first to take this step. In December, i860, it called a convention which passed an Ordinance of Secession, declaring the union between South Carolina and the other states dissolved. Soon after¬ ward, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas seceded. i86i] DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 281 Secession. — Before beginning the story of the great war in which the South contended for and the North against secession, let us consider this doctrine and the reasons why the South seceded. You will understand these better if you review what you have learned about the formation of the Constitution (pages 175-181), the Alien and Sedition Acts (page 195), Chief Justice Marshall (pages 206-207), the sectional contests about the tariff (pages 240-241, 246) and slavery (pages 231-232, 266-270, 277-279), and the contrary views about the Union declared by Hayne and Webster (pages 244-246). The North, as a whole, had come to feel more and more strongly that the states formed an indissoluble Union, making a nation which no one could leave without being guilty of treason and rebellion. It held that the Constitu¬ tion was an “ instrument of government ” and that it and the acts of Congress were the supreme law of the land. According to this view, states’ rights must be subordinate to Federal rights, in case of conflict, and there was no right of secession, for that meant the destruction of the Union. The South, as a whole, held the States’ Rights doctrine that the Union was a partnership of independent states. After the Revolution, Great Britain recognized each of the thirteen states as “free, sovereign, and independent.” The Union had only the rights which these states had given to the central organization in order to form a nation ; no state had ceded the greatest, the fundamental right of a sovereign state, the allegiance of its citizens; instead of being ceded, this right was reserved in the Constitution, which spoke of the “ citizens” of each state. Three states— Virginia, New York, and Rhode Island—reserved the right of secession when they adopted the Constitution, and this res¬ ervation of course gave, the same right to all their partners. Why did the southern states in i860 put in practice *>? .. ?'-• Jefferson Davis DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 283 1861] this States’ Rights doctrine and secede from the Union? The seceding states claimed that the Union was under sectional control, hostile to their institutions and interests, and that it was best to withdraw and establish a government safeguarding their Constitutional rights. The South was set apart from other sections, its industries were almost entirely agricultural, and it had the institution of slavery. The North and the West had grown more rapidly than the South in wealth and population and they now had political dominance. This gave them the power to control legislation, and increasing sectional bitterness—largely due to the agitations of the Abolitionists — tended to cause them to use that power to the injury of the South. Already, that section complained, federal and state legislation was unfair to it. The burdens of federal taxation — particu¬ larly the results of high protective tariffs — bore with great severity upon its agricultural interests. Some of its Con¬ stitutional rights were being violated, in many northern states, by bills which nullified the Fugitive Slave law. Now a president had been elected who did not receive a single electoral vote in the South and whose party was founded on hostility to slavery. The growing inequality and bitterness between sections made the outlook gloomy. While nearly all southern men thought that a state had a right to secede, many thought that it was unwise to use this right. They loved the government which their fore¬ fathers had helped create and make great and glorious, and they thought that the questions which divided the sections could and should be settled in the Union. Still, most of them regarded the state’s claim as first and foremost. When their native states seceded, southern men withdrew from cabinet, Senate, House, army, navy, and civil service, returned home, and offered their services to their states. Peace convention. — Many men, North and South, still 284 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE L&61 hoped that the Union could be saved by compromises. Compromise measures were proposed in Congress, and at the request of Virginia a peace convention was held, to which twenty-one states sent delegates. But these efforts failed. It was too late for such measures. Formation of Confederate government [1861]. —The very day that the peace convention met, delegates from the se¬ ceding states assembled at Montgomery, Alabama, to form a new government, the Confederate States of America. Later, when Virginia seceded, Richmond was made the Confederate capital. Jefferson Davis of Mississippi was chosen president and Alexander Hamilton Stephens of Georgia was elected vice president. President Davis was a resolute, energetic man, and an extreme secessionist. In the War with Mexico, he proved himself a brave officer. After¬ ward he filled with honor high civil positions. He was a year older than President Lincoln and was born in Kentucky less than a hundred miles from Lincoln’s birthplace. Vice president Stephens was a brilliant statesman who believed that states had a legal right to secede, but that secession was ‘ the height of madness and folly.’ When Georgia seceded, he “bowed to the will of the people” and went with his state. The Constitution of the Confederate States was much like the Constitution of the United States, but it stated clearly what southern people believed to be the meaning of the Federal Constitution about slave property and state sovereignty. It forbade a protective tariff. It said that the president was to serve six years, and could not be reelected; he could remove officials only for dishonesty, unfitness for office, or neglect of duty. President Buchanan looked on with regret at the seces¬ sion of the states. He thought that they ought not to secede, but he did not think the Constitution gave the DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR iSoiJ 285 Capitol of the Confederacy, showing Washington Monument in Foreground general government any authority to compel them to stay in the Union. Summary [1857-1861]. — James Buchanan of Pennsylvania, the fif¬ teenth president, served one term. While he was president, three new free states were admitted, — Minnesota, Oregon, and Kansas. The North was angered by the Dred Scott decision, in which the Supreme Court declared the Missouri Compromise unlawful and said that slave¬ owners could carry slaves like other property into territories. The South was alarmed by John Brown’s raid, the attempt of an Abolitionist to free slaves by force. During this excitement, Abraham Lincoln was elected president. The Cotton States — South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas — seceded from the Union and formed a new government, the Confederate States, of which Jefferson Davis of Mississippi was elected president. 4. Lincoln’s Presidency : The Beginning of the War of Secession Lincoln’s attitude toward secession. — With sad face and anxious heart, Lincoln took his place as president of the 286 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1861 United States. He regarded the secession of the southern states as a big riot. “ I hold that . . . the union of these states is perpetual,” he said, and he was resolved to pre¬ serve it, ‘peaceably if he could, forcibly if he must/ His first efforts were to save the Union without war. In his inaugural address, he assured the southern states that their rights would be safe in the Union. “I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the states where it exists,” he said; “ I believe I have no lawful right to do so; and I have no inclination to do so.” “We are not enemies, but friends. We must not be enemies. Though passion may have strained, it must not break our bonds of affection.” Capture of Fort Sumter [April 14]. —The seceded states no longer regarded themselves as members of the Union. They took posses¬ sion of the Federal property within their limits, — post offices, custom houses, forts, and arsenals. They said that they were entitled to their share of the common property and that they were willing to assume their share of the common debt. They demanded the surrender of the few southern forts which remained in the possession of the United States. One of these was Fort Sumter, on an island in the channel of Charleston, which had a garrison of seventy men under command of Major Robert Ander¬ son. Lincoln refused to surrender Fort Sumter and sent supplies and troops to its aid. The Confederates then Fort Sumter before the Bombardment DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 1861I 287 attacked the fort and took it, after a bombardment of thirty-six hours. Not a man was killed on either side. The capture of Fort Sumter was the bloodless beginning of a bloody war. Each side claimed that the other was the aggressor. The North asserted that the South began the war by firing on the fort over which floated the Federal flag. The South said that the attempt to send armed men to a fort in the territory of a seceded state was an act of war. Call for troops [April 15].— The day after Fort Sumter sur¬ rendered, President Lincoln issued a proclamation calling on the state govern¬ ments for 75,000 men to suppress what he regarded as an insurrection in the South; in three days, more than the required number enlisted. President Davis called for troops to oppose the invaders, and the response was as prompt and eager as in the North. Course of border states. —The border states did not wish to secede ; but most of the people in them believed in States’ Rights and thought that the Federal government had no authority to use force against the seceded states. Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina refused to send troops at Lincoln’s call and joined the Confederacy. Mary¬ land, Kentucky, and Missouri were divided in sympathy; Union sentiments or forces were strong enough to prevent formal secession, but Confederates organized governments. 288 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1861 A Confederate Flag Cause of war. — Congress passed a resolution declaring that the war was not waged to overthrow or interfere with an established institution of the southern states — that is, slavery — but “to preserve the Union with all the dignity, equality, and rights of the several states unimpaired.” The great question, then, which the war was to decide was the right of a state to secede. Was the Union supreme or was each state free and independent ? Which had the first claim on a citizen’s obedience ? The North said ‘the Union,’ the South said ‘the state.’ The North appealed to the love for the Union and for the flag, the symbol of glory and nationality. The South appealed to the love for the state and for the right of self-government. Both sides thought that the war would be brief, and most of the soldiers enlisted for only three months. Instead, there followed a great four-years’ war in which hundreds of battles were fought and hundreds of thousands of lives were lost. We can follow only the main lines and give a bird’s-eye view of the conflict. Condition of two sections. — The two sections arrayed against each other were very different. The South was rich in natural advantages, — fine water-power, good sea¬ ports, navigable rivers, fertile soil, valuable forests, rich deposits of metals and minerals ; but most of these resources were undeveloped. It was engaged almost entirely in agriculture, raising a few crops for market, — tobacco, rice, sugar, and, above all, cotton, of which it produced the world’s supply; with these crops, it bought clothes, tools, guns, powder, shot, medicine, — nearly all the articles that it used. It had a few cotton mills and woolen factories, Abraham Lincoln 290 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1861 but only one-fortieth of its cotton was manufactured at home; the remainder was sent to the North and to Eng¬ land. All the manufactures of the eleven Confederate States were less in value than those of the one state of Massachusetts. The case was hardly overstated when it was said : “ From the rattle with which the nurse tickled the ear of the child to the shroud for the dead, everything that the southerners used came from the North.” The North was a great manufacturing region. It had many mills, factories, and machine shops. It had a great trade, too, with all the world, and it had the credit of an established government. In population, as in wealth and resources, the North excelled the South. In the twenty- three states of the Union, there were 22,000,000 people; in the eleven states of the Confederacy, there were only 9,000,000, of whom 3,700,000 were slaves. The South had only one-fourth as many fighting men as the North, and throughout the war, the Union soldiers outnumbered the Confederates in every campaign and in nearly every battle. The southern soldiers, however, had certain great advan¬ tages; they fought, in the main, on their own ground a defensive campaign; most of them were accustomed to outdoor life, and were fearless horsemen and skilled marksmen. Many northern men who enlisted in the army had to learn to load and fire a gun. In courage, in devotion to the cause they thought right, northerners and southerners were equal. Blockade proclaimed. — When President Lincoln called for troops, he proclaimed a blockade of the southern coast. Ships were collected as rapidly as possible to blockade the southern coast from Chesapeake Bay to the Rio Grande River, so as to keep the Confederates from carrying on trade and getting guns and other supplies from abroad. The Confederacy had no navy and small facilities for building ^Xpruonf3’jvi a? y*Wfc >'W > V ''< 1 ,. .V' .>;>'"!•.>!///,,i .*?fl Vi 'f'/u i >-\\T ' Snd Tc c .tfMjg, 5“ - *ty •'i^. ..iii'//. ?»S a> £ (? *=> . £ 291 i86i] DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR ships; but under difficulties some good vessels were con¬ structed. Confederate frontiers. — The South was naturally well defended along most of its frontiers. Its eastern and southern coasts were easily fortified, and the western coun¬ try was still a wilderness. The northern boundary between the Union and the Confederacy followed the Potomac River; leaving this river, it passed through Cumberland Gap and crossed Kentucky and Missouri. East of the mountains, the Confederacy was protected against attack from the North by swamps and forests and eastward-flow¬ ing rivers. West of this region, the rough, thickly-wooded Appalachian Mountains formed a natural defense for the Confederate frontiers. West of these mountains, however, the Federals had geographical advantages. The country was level and open ; the Mississippi and its branches led, like roads from the North, into the southern states. Task of invasion. — As the North was trying to bring the South back into the Union, it had to take the offensive and invade the country. An invading army must keep communications open behind it in order to receive supplies, and this the Union troops found often a difficult task. Moreover, the fact that the North was the attacking party made sentiment stronger in the South; southern men flocked to the army to defend their native states. First battle of Manassas [July 21]. — The troops on both sides were eager for battle. The northern cry was, “ On to Richmond! ” and Confederate troops were sent northward to meet the invading Federal forces. The first real battle of the war took place at Manassas, a railroad junction, about twenty-five miles south of Washington. The Union troops under General McDowell advanced and attacked the Confederates, under Generals Beauregard and Joseph E. Johnston. The raw, undisciplined troops 292 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1861 fought bravely, and for awhile the result seemed in doubt. Then General Thomas Jackson checked the Federal ad¬ vance with a bayonet charge. “There are Jackson and his Virginians standing like a stone wall,” said one of the Confederates, and from that day the great general was known as Stonewall Jackson. The Union troops retreated in disorder through the pouring rain to Washington, having sustained heavy loss in killed, wounded, and captured. Treatment of prisoners. — The Union government had refused to acknowledge the Confederate government. It regarded the war as a big riot and said that it would treat southern seamen as pirates and southern soldiers as crimi¬ nals who had murdered Union soldiers. Now the Con¬ federate government threatened to retaliate on the prisoners taken at Manassas. To protect these, the Federals finally agreed to treat captives as regular prisoners of war. Fighting along borders. — With the exception of the battle of Manassas, the fighting during the first year of the war was confined to skirmishes and contests for the possession of the border country. In the mountains of western Virginia and eastern Tennessee, most of the people were opposed to secession. The Union general, McClellan, secured control of western Virginia by the battle of Rich’s Mountain. Federal troops occupied most of Kentucky and Missouri also. Trent affair [November 8]. — An event took place in the autumn which threatened to bring on war between the United States and Great Britain. At the beginning of the war, France and Great Britain declared their neutrality. The Confederate government, hoping to secure these coun¬ tries as its allies, sent James M. Mason of Virginia and John Slidell of Louisiana as commissioners to them. These gentlemen went from Charleston to the West Indies DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 293 1861] and took passage on a British steamer, the Trent. It was stopped by an American warship, commanded by Captain Charles Wilkes ; Messrs. Mason and Slidell were taken off and carried as prisoners to Boston. Wilkes’s action was contrary to the law of nations, but the North generally approved of it. Great Britain, however, protested against the act as an insult to her flag, and ordered troops to Canada to be ready to enforce the protest. President Lincoln admitted that Captain Wilkes was in the wrong, and released Messrs. Mason and Slidell. Confederate cruisers. — Great Britain did not declare in favor of the Confederacy, but its attitude was friendly. The Alabama , Shenandoah , and several other ships were built in England for the Confederacy. These cruisers captured many merchant vessels and did much damage to northern commerce. The most noted of them was the Alabama , commanded by Captain Semmes, which captured sixty-nine vessels in its two-years’ cruise. Summary [1861]. — Before Abraham Lincoln of Illinois, the six¬ teenth president came into office, seven southern states seceded from the Union. President Lincoln was resolved to preserve the Union. He attempted to reenforce Fort Sumter, whereupon the Confederates attacked and took the fort. Lincoln then called for troops to invade the South. Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina refused to send troops and joined the Confederacy. There began the great four-years’ War of Secession to determine whether the Union was su¬ preme or the states were sovereign, a question which the contest over slavery had rendered acute. The North was superior to the South in wealth, resources, and population. The South had the advantage of fighting on its own ground against invasion. The first great battle of the war, Manassas, was a Confederate victory. The Trent affair came near involving the Union in war with Great Britain. 294 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1862 5. The Events of 1862 Points of Federal attack. — During the first year of the War of Secession, both sides were occupied chiefly in preparing for the contest; there were no regular cam¬ paigns. The next spring, there came the clash of arms along the frontiers of the Confederacy. The Federals had three main objects : first, to get control of the Mis¬ sissippi River, which would give them a great highway and cut the Confederacy in two ; second, to blockade the South’s coast and capture its Seaports, so as to shut it from the outside world; third, to capture Richmond, the Confederate capital. Capture of Forts Henry [February 6] and Donelson [Feb¬ ruary 16].— General Halleck commanded the Union forces in the West. Under him were some able officers, — Gen¬ erals Pope, Grant, Thomas, and Buell. The Union troops moved southward along the valleys, supported by fleets of gunboats on the rivers. Commodore Foote took Fort Henry on the Tennessee River. A few days later, Gen¬ eral Grant attacked Fort Donelson on the Cumberland River. The Confederate garrison asked what terms Grant would give. He answered, “ No terms except an unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted.” The Confederates surrendered on these hard terms, and from that time Grant was known by the nickname of ‘ Un¬ conditional Surrender.’ General Grant. — Ulysses S. Grant was, like Lincoln, ‘one of the plain people.’ He was educated at West Point and served with honor in the War with Mexico. Later he left the army. For awhile, he lived in a log cabin on a little farm which he called ‘ Hardscrabble ’; then he became a clerk in his father’s leather shop. At General Ulysses S. Grant 296 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1862 the beginning of the war, he entered the army and was put in command of Illinois troops. Grant was a quiet, re¬ served man, prompt and firm in action, and with the power of handling great masses of men; he possessed the ability to form a good plan and then to stick to it, in spite of dis¬ couragement and defeat, until he was successful. Lincoln soon learned his value, and said, “ I can’t spare this man; he fights.” \ / lyV E N N s Y l. YAN * * , , „ „ . , o 11 ho /J\\ u VES T ^ * Sir. NkAv- \m™y r L^€A\\- .^Louisville s /-a -y iU»oriCJ-4@fc)rU !V. d ‘- \ \ L ... > Aooldsboro^* [Faye ttev ille ^ 0 m. ^ t" bI,UH'„ B'»d Orana Qul,4,->~ S* / <0 I A* I IP*" M Ip^V V Vp^“ \ge\oRG\IA' ' Montgomery Anderson\Ule Igj S-Lja ^ rensaoola A-V-A. y. JaoksonvillS 'Charleston ROUTES OF INVADING ARMIES Main Union Army West* — • — Second Union Army West -- — Confederate Armies — Minor Raids _ SCALE OF MILES 0 50 100 200 BORMAV ENG. CO., N.Y. Fighting in West.—The capture of Forts Henry and Donelson gave the Federals control of the Tennessee River which, like a road, leads through Tennessee into Mississippi and Alabama. The powerful northern armies and fleets advanced along this highway into southern terri¬ tory. The Confederates were forced back, till their line of defense extended from Memphis to Chattanooga. There were sharp conflicts in Missouri and in Arkansas. The 1862] DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 297 battle of Pea Ridge broke up the Confederate army west of the Mississippi. Battle of Shiloh [April 6, 7]. — General Grant marched toward Corinth, a railway center in northern Mississippi, expecting to be joined on the way by troops under General Buell. General Albert Sidney Johnston, one of the ablest of the southern commanders, hurried north with his army, in order to engage Grant in battle before he was reen¬ forced. The two armies met near Pittsburg Landing, one Sun¬ day morning. A fierce battle was fought in the woods around Shiloh Church, and the Union troops were forced back to the river. But Confederate success ended with the day. General Johnston was killed in the battle, and night brought General Grant large reenforcements under Buell. The next day, the battle was renewed, and for six hours the Confederates, led by General Beauregard, fought bravely. Then they were forced to retreat. The Federals followed, and General Beauregard had to abandon Corinth and move southward. Vicksburg and Port Hudson. —The Federals took Mem¬ phis, thus gaining control of the Mississippi River down to Vicksburg, Mississippi, a natural stronghold, which was held by the Confederates. From the Ohio, the Mississippi pursues a winding course to the sea, with a fall of a little over three hundred feet in its thousand-mile course. The surrounding country is covered with a network of swamps, channels, and streams. These lowlands are bordered on the east by bluffs which draw near the Mississippi at Vicksburg and Port Hudson. At Vicksburg, the river bends and almost doubles on its course, leaving a tongue of land about a mile wide and three or four miles long. Vicksburg is situated on bluffs two hundred feet in height, out of reach of the guns of ships on the river; it is sur- 298 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1862 rounded by rough country broken by ravines and a net¬ work of streams. Port Hudson, Louisiana, two hundred and fifty miles lower down the river, is almost as strongly situated as Vicksburg; it also was occupied by the Confed¬ erates. Between the two, the Red R.iver empties into the Missis¬ sippi. This was a great road, on which men and supplies came from the western to the eastern part of the Con¬ federacy. After the Con¬ federates aban¬ doned Corinth, they fell back to a line extending from Vicksburg to Chattanooga. They made unsuccessful attempts to take Louisville and to retake Corinth. On the other hand, Generals Grant and Sherman tried in vain to capture Vicksburg. Farragut’s fleet. — Meanwhile, a Union fleet was forcing its way up the Mississippi. Captain Farragut entered the river with fifty vessels, the strongest fleet that had ever sailed under the American flag. Seventy-five miles below New Orleans w.ere two strong forts, nearly opposite each other. Below these forts, the Confederates had stretched chains across the river; above the forts, they had a small fleet. Map of Vicksburg General' Stonewall ’ Jackson General J. E. B. Stuart General Robert E. Lee General J. E. Johnston General A. S. Johnston CONFEDERATE COMMANDERS 3 °° SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1862 After bombarding the forts five days and nights and failing to take them, Farragut cut the chains, passed the forts [April 25], destroyed the little Confederate fleet, and took New Orleans. General Butler was left in con¬ trol of the city which he ‘ ruled like a conquered prov¬ ince.’ Farragut forced his way up the river as far as Port Hudson. Blockade runners. — Union fleets blockaded the Confed¬ erate coast and almost destroyed its commerce. Its crops were shut in from the markets of the world ; the value of the cotton exported fell in two years from $200,000,000 to $4,000,000. Some trade was carried on from southern ports by small, swift vessels called blockade runners. These were painted dull gray and burned hard coal so as not to make much smoke ; on dark nights, they slipped past the blockading vessels. They carried cotton and other stores from Confederate ports to the West Indies, and brought back guns, powder, salt, medicine, and other supplies. Many blockade runners were captured, but the profits of the trade were so great that two successful trips would pay for a vessel. Federal success in West.—At the end of the year, the F'ederals had been successful in two of their three objects. They had established a strict blockade of the coast, and they had gained control of the Mississippi except between Port Hudson and Vicksburg. But they had failed in their third object, —the capture of Richmond. In this attempt, they had been checked at every turn by able Confederate generals who made skillful use of the natural defenses of the region. Merrimac and Monitor [March 8]. — In the spring of 1862, a contest took place which changed the sea fighting of the world. This was the battle between the Monitor and the Merrimac or Virginia . The frigate Merrimac had 1862] DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 3 01 been fitted up by the Confederates as an ironclad vessel; it was covered with plates of iron and fitted with an iron beak. This floating fort attacked the Union fleet of five wooden battleships near Fortress Monroe. Their shot and shell glanced from it ‘like so many peas.’ Its beak crushed like, an eggshell the sides of the sloop Cumber¬ land , which went down with its flag flying. The frigate Battle between the Monitor and the Merrimac Congress surrendered and was burned. The destruction of the other vessels seemed only a question of a few hours, when at nightfall the Merrimac paused in its deadly work. This battle proved that wooden ships are helpless against iron ones. That night help came to the Federal fleet. The Moni¬ tor arrived in Hampton Roads. This was an iron-plated vessel, invented by John Ericsson, a Swedish engineer making his home in America. The Monitor looked like 302 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1862 “a cheese box on a raft”; it had a low, flat body, only a foot or two above the water, and a revolving turret con¬ taining two immense guns. There took place in Hampton Roads a notable battle between these ironclad vessels. For hours, they fired at each other volleys which would have destroyed wooden vessels, but which glanced harmless from their iron sides. A man on the Merrimac said, “ After two-hours’ incessant firing, I find that I can do about as much damage by snapping my thumb at her [th e Monitor] every two minutes and a half.” After five-hours’ fighting, the Monitor retired out of range of shot and the Merrimac withdrew to Norfolk. Realizing the value of ironclads, the Union authorities promptly began to build other vessels on the order of the Monitor. Now the warships of the world are ironclad. General McClellan. — The first year of the war, General George McClellan was put in command of the Union forces. He was a brave, honorable man, and in many respects an able general, but he was very cautious and fearful of failure. He never liked to attack unless he was sure to win, and he was apt to overestimate his oppo¬ nent’s strength. General McClellan took charge of an army made up largely of civilians who had never handled guns; he spent the winter drilling them, and by the spring of 1862 he had an excellently-equipped army of 185,000 well-trained men. Peninsular Campaign [April-July]. — What route should he pursue in his advance toward Richmond ? He thought that it would be unwise to march directly forward because the country between Richmond and Washington, broken with rivers, swamps, and forests, presented many difficul¬ ties to an invading army. So McClellan made what is called the Peninsular Campaign. He took his troops down Chesapeake Bay to Fortress Monroe, thence up the 1862] DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 303 peninsula between the James and York rivers. The army was protected in the rear by the fleet in Hampton Roads; on both sides, there were rivers up which came gunboats and supply ships. General McClellan had trained his army well, and made an excellent plan of campaign. If he had advanced promptly up the peninsula, he might have made his way to Richmond before the Confederates could collect troops to oppose him. But at the beginning of his campaign, he was held in check a month at Yorktown by a small Confederate force. The Confederates had about one man to McClellan’s four, and they had so few guns that they put ‘ Quaker guns,’ mere painted logs, on their fortifica¬ tions to deceive the Federals. Battle of Seven Pines, or Fair Oaks [May 31, June 1].— While McClellan lingered, the Confederate force increased from a handful to an army. It was still smaller than the Union army, but the Federals were in a swampy region and their troops were divided by the Chickahominy River. The Confederate general Joseph E. Johnston attacked and defeated the troops on the south side of the river, at Seven Pines, or Fair Oaks, a few miles below Richmond. General Lee. — In this battle, General Johnston was wounded, and General Robert E. Lee took charge of the Confederate army. General Lee was the son of ‘ Light- horse Harry’ Lee of the Revolution. He had been edu¬ cated at West Point, had distinguished himself in the War with Mexico, and was now to prove himself one of the world’s great captains. In ability to accomplish much with small means, he resembled Washington. He had done signal service in the old Union army, and at the be¬ ginning of the war, he was offered command of the Union army; he declined because he did not believe that the general government had a right to use force against the 304 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1862 southern states and he thought that his first duty was to his native state, Virginia. “ Though opposed to secession and deprecating war,” he said, “ I could take no part in an invasion of the south¬ ern states.” An English officer described him thus: “ General Lee is the handsomest man of his age that I ever saw. He is The Lee Mansion, Arlington, Virginia tall, broad-shouldered, — a thorough soldier in appearance. His manners are most courteous and full of dignity. He is a perfect gentleman in every respect. He has none of the small vices, such as smoking, drinking, chewing, or swearing, and his bitterest enemies have never accused him of any of the greater ones. His only faults arise from great amiability.” Stonewall Jackson. — McClellan was now so near Rich¬ mond that he could hear the ringing of its bells. He waited to attack the city until he should receive reenforce- DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 305 General Robert E. Lee X 306 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1862 ments under McDowell. Meanwhile, a Confederate gen¬ eral made a brilliant campaign in the Shenandoah Valley and prevented the sending of these reenforcements. This general was Jackson, who on the battle field of Manassas had won the name of Stonewall. He was a shy, grave man, with a solemn, steadfast face. Like Grant, he was ‘ a man of the plain people/ with wonderful military ability. He was firm and prudent, energetic and daring. He was as noted for piety as for skill in fighting; his bulletins after battle usually said, “God gave us victory.” His motto was, “ Do your duty and leave the rest to Provi¬ dence.” Jackson’s Valley Campaign [March-June].— By a series of marches—so swift and sudden that his little band was called * Stonewall’s foot cavalry ’ — Jackson drove the Fed¬ eral troops out of the Shenandoah Valley. The Shenan¬ doah Valley opens from the southwest toward Washington, and the Union authorities were afraid that Jackson would come through this ‘ back door * and attack their capital. Instead of going to the help of McClellan, McDowell was recalled from Fredericksburg to attack Jackson. The Con¬ federate general slipped between two divisions which united could have crushed him, and attacked and defeated them separately; then he joined Lee near Richmond. With 15,000 men, he had kept 60,000 busy in the valley. In thirty-two days, he had marched nearly four hundred miles, fought five battles against superior forces, and come off victor with many prisoners and large stores. This campaign is studied in military schools as a remarkable instance of handling a small force so as to make it effec¬ tive against a larger one. The Seven Days’ Fighting [June 25-July 1]. — General Lee took advantage of General McClellan’s inaction to strengthen his army and his position. General J. E. B. 1862] DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 307 Stuart, with a small body of cavalry, was sent to find out the exact position of McClellan’s forces. He rode around the Union army and brought back stores and prisoners as well as the desired information. Then, instead of the looked-for McDowell, came Jackson. Lee and Jackson attacked McClellan in daily battles called the Seven Days’ Fighting. The Confederates and Federals both lost heavily, but the Confederates succeeded in defending their capital. The Union troops were forced to fall back to the James River where they were protected by their gunboats. Change of generals and plans. — McClellan had not ac¬ complished as much as had been expected with his great army. So Halleck, the commander of the victorious army in the West, was called East and put in charge. General Pope was given command of the Union army in Virginia. Second battle of Manassas [August 29, 30]. — Instead of taking a roundabout course like McClellan, Pope tried to advance directly to Richmond, so as to attack it and pro¬ tect Washington at the same time. He went as far as the field of Manassas, the scene of the first great battle of the war. There he was met and defeated by Lee and Jackson. Battle of Antietam [September 16, 17]. — After the battle of Manassas, Pope withdrew toward Washington. Jackson marched his ‘ foot cavalry ’ north and took Harper’s Ferry ; then he rejoined Lee who had crossed the Potomac into Maryland. At Antietam Creek, near Sharpsburg, they met the Federal forces which had again been put in charge of McClellan. A great drawn battle was fought. The advance of the Confederates was checked, and they re¬ crossed the Potomac and withdrew into Virginia. Two weeks later, President Lincoln visited the battle field of Antietam, and looking at the long lines of graves, he said sadly, “ Brave men all—and both sides Americans.” 308 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1862 Battle of Fredericksburg [December 13].—After Antietam, General McClellan was again removed. General Ambrose Burnside was put in command, and promptly proved him¬ self the wrong man for the place. With over a hundred thousand men, he attacked a much smaller Confederate army strongly posted at Fredericksburg, on the heights Battle of Antietam south of the Rappahannock River. The Federals were repulsed with a loss of 13,000 men; the Confederate loss was only 4000. The second year of the war ended with Union victories in the West balanced by defeats in the East. Hardships caused by blockade. — At sea, the Federals had the advantage. By the end of this year, most of the Confederate vessels were captured, and the great Union fleet lay like a wall along the southern coast. As the 1862] DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 309 blockade grew closer, it became more and more difficult for the South to get supplies. Parched wheat and other grains were used as substitutes for coffee; sage and rasp¬ berry leaves took the place of tea. Looms long unused were brought out and homespun clothes were made. Car¬ pets were cut up for blankets. People went barefoot or wore wooden clogs or shoes made of old felt hats. Soldiers had scanty rations of coarse food; many of them were ragged, tent¬ less, hatless, shoeless; as in the days of the Revolu¬ tion, the line of march was marked by blood from the soldiers’ bare feet. At home and in the field, the sick suffered for lack of medicines. Women’s part in war. — In the South and in the North, the women at home did a noble part in helping carry on the war. They sent blankets from their own beds to the soldiers, they made bandages and clothing, knitted socks, collected food, — working hard and denying themselves the comforts of life in order to send supplies to camps and hospitals. Summary [1862]. — The second year of the war, the Federals attempted to do three things : first, to get control of the Mississippi River ; second, to blockade the Confederate coast; third, to capture Richmond. They gained control of the western country and the Mis¬ sissippi River as far down as Vicksburg, and the fleet under Farragut An Army Nurse 3 io SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1863 took New Orleans and moved up the river to Port Hudson. A block¬ ade of the coast was established. A notable event was the fight of the Monitor and the Merrimac , the first battle between ironclad warships. The Federals were unsuccessful in their attempts to take Richmond, which was protected by able Confederate generals, — Johnston, Lee, and Jackson. McClellan was defeated in the Seven Days 1 Fighting, Pope in the second battle of Manassas, and Burnside at Fredericksburg. Lee and Jackson marched into Maryland, and a fierce drawn battle was fought at Antietam. 6 . The Events of 1863 Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation [January 1, 1863]. — At first, the North was doubtful what position to take about slavery, or even what to do about runaway slaves who came to the Union camps. One of the rules of civi¬ lized war is that private property must not be taken with¬ out paying for it. As slaves were private property, the southerners said that runaways ought to be given up. General Benjamin F. Butler, a sharp lawyer who was in command of Fortress Monroe, refused to return runaway negroes, saying that as they were useful in building forts, etc., they were ‘contraband of war,’ like guns and powder. This was a shrewd way out of the difficulty, and most of the Federals treated slaves as ‘contraband.’ Some officers went so far as to declare them free, but President Lincoln said that this must not be done. The Constitution allowed slavery, and neither he, the president, nor any one else had a right to abolish it. He declared in a public letter: “ My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or to destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave, I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves, I would do it.” At last he decided that it was “ a fit and necessary war measure ” for him, as commander in chief of the army, to x86 3 ] DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 311 emancipate the slaves in the seceded states. So he issued an Emancipation Proclamation, declaring the slaves in the seceded states free. This proclamation did not free the slaves in the border Union states nor abolish the sys¬ tem of slavery anywhere. Exchange of prisoners. — After the Emancipation Proc¬ lamation, regiments of negro soldiers were formed. The South refused to recognize the Emancipation Proclamation or the right of the North to enroll negro soldiers, many of whom were runaway slaves. It refused to exchange negroes, and the North insisted that all prisoners must be on the same footing. The Union government had at first refused to exchange prisoners; and soon after it began to make exchanges this dispute put a stop to them. Captured soldiers were crowded by thousands in prisons, and many died from disease and hardships. The prisons on both sides were badly managed. The Confederate government had for its own soldiers only scanty rations of coarse corn meal and bacon. It was unable to care for its captives; well men suffered for lack of food and sick ones died for lack of medicine. At last, the Confederates were reduced to such straits that they offered to exchange negroes like other prisoners, but the offer was refused. The North, with its large population and abundant means, could replace its lost men; the South could not, and each man that the Confederates lost weakened their army and brought them a step nearer defeat. Formation of West Virginia. — The year that the Eman¬ cipation Proclamation was issued, Congress admitted as a separate state, called West Virginia, the western counties of Virginia which opposed secession. The Constitution of the United States forbids the division of a state without its own consent, but Congress accepted the theory that these counties represented the state of Virginia. 3 12 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1863 Draft Acts. —At first, the army ranks on both sides were filled by volunteers, but as time passed it grew more diffi¬ cult to get soldiers. Instead of depending on volunteers, both governments passed Draft Acts, requiring men to serve in the army. In the South, the age limit was extended time after time until it included boys of sixteen and men of seventy; General Grant said that the Confederates “ robbed the cradle and the grave ” to get soldiers. Lincoln’s orders for drafting troops caused great excite¬ ment and even resistance. In New York City, there were Draft Riots. Several hundred persons were killed and wounded; millions of dollars’ worth of property was destroyed. For days, the city was almost at the mercy of mobs. Troops intended for southern service had to be called on to suppress the riots. By degrees, order was restored and the act was enforced. Battle of Chancellorsville [May 2, 3]. —After Burnside’s defeat at Fredericksburg, the command of the Army of the Potomac was given to General Hooker. ‘ Fighting Joe,’ as he was called, fared worse even than his prede¬ cessors. He did not attempt to attack the Confederates, still strongly posted on the Fredericksburg heights; in¬ stead, he crossed the river with an army of about 95,000 men and halted in the woods near Chancellorsville. Although Lee had only about 45,000 men, he divided his army and sent Jackson to make a fifteen-mile march through the woods and attack the Union flank while he attacked the front. The Confederates won a brilliant vic¬ tory, but they sustained a far greater loss than that of many battles. General Jackson, who had advanced at nightfall between the lines to examine the Union position, was shot by mistake by his own men and died a few days later. General Lee well said to the wounded officer, “You 86 3 ] DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 313 have lost your left arm; but I, in losing you, have lost my right arm.” Battle of Gettysburg [July 1, 2, 3]. —After defeating and driving back Hooker, Lee crossed the Potomac and advanced into Pennsyl¬ vania. He gave strict orders that private property should not be molested and advanced in orderly march as far as Gettysburg. There he was met by the Federals under brave General George Meade and a great battle was fought. The Union troops were strongly posted south of Gettys¬ burg on Cemetery Ridge, a fishhook¬ shaped rocky ridge about two miles long. The Confederates occu¬ pied Seminary Ridge nearly opposite. On the open ground between the hills, the troops met in battle during the first three days of July, 1863. On the first day, the Confederates attacked one end of the Federal line without gaining any real advantage. On the second day, they attacked the other end, and the Union troops were forced back, but delay in obeying General Lee’s orders to attack gave the Federals time to strengthen and hold their position. The last hope of the Confederates was to break the Federal center; on the third day, they 314 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1863 attempted to do this. ‘ Pickett’s charge ’ is world-famous. As his division advanced, supported by troops under Petti¬ grew and Trimble, men fell before the Union guns like grain before the reaper, but the ranks closed, and the troops marched up the ridge. Their daring charge broke the Union line, but they could not hold the position and fell back, — a shattered remnant. In this bloody battle, the Federals lost one-fourth of their 88,000 men and the Confederates one-third of their 75,000. Lee withdrew his army into Virginia. At Gettysburg, the tide of war turned in the East against the Confederates. Surrender of Vicksburg [July 4].— Meanwhile, Federal success continued in the West. The day after the battle of Gettysburg, Vicksburg surrendered. For months, General Grant had been attempting to take the city. Plan after plan of attack had been tried and had failed. At last, Generals Grant and Sherman gained control of the surrounding country and their army drew a line, fifteen miles long, around Vicksburg. As the besieging army came closer, shot and shell rained in the city so that people left their homes and took refuge in caves dug in the bluffs. Provisions were scarce. People had scanty rations of corn meal mixed with pea meal; they had no meat except rats and * mule steak.’ After a six-weeks’ siege, the garrison, reduced by sickness and starvation, surrendered to the Federals. Surrender of Port Hudson. — Five days later, Port Hud¬ son was surrendered. This gave the Federals control of the Mississippi River, and cut off Louisiana, Arkansas, and Texas from the eastern states of the Confederacy. To the end of the war, however, Confederate troops made their way across the river, in spite of the blockade. Fighting in Tennessee and Georgia.—While fleets and armies were fighting for the control of the Mississippi, a i86 3 ] DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 315 struggle was going on for the possession of Tennessee and northern Georgia. At Murfreesboro, the Confederates, under General Bragg, were repulsed by the Federals under General Rosecrans [December 31, 1862-January 2, 1863], and compelled to retreat. In the autumn, General Bragg retired toward Chattanooga; he remained in that neigh¬ borhood several months; then he abandoned the city and met the Union army in the open field. Battle of Chickamauga [September 19, 20]. —At Chicka- mauga Creek, in northwestern Georgia, there was fought one of the most fiercely- contested battles of the war. In the second- day’s fight, the Union line was broken; the Confederates pushed forward into the gap and drove back the right and center. Only the left held firm. With defeat around him and disorder behind, Gen¬ eral Thomas, ‘the rock of Chickamauga,’ held his men steady and with the bayonet forced back the Confederates. His firm courage kept the defeat from being a disastrous rout. Gen¬ eral Rosecrans retreated to Chattanooga, followed by General Bragg. Fighting around Chattanooga. —Chattanooga, ‘ the south¬ ern gateway in the Appalachian wall,’ is on the east bank * 7*1 General W. T. Sherman General George B. McClellan General U. S. Grant Admiral David G. Farragut General George Thomas UNION COMMANDERS DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 317 1863] of the Tennessee River. Chattanooga Valley, two miles wide, lies between the city and a steep, narrow mountain, called Missionary Ridge; on the other side of Mission¬ ary Ridge is Chickamauga Valley, the scene of the battle already described. Three miles south of Chattanooga is Lookout Mountain. Bragg’s army extended in a semi-circle Battle of Lookout Mountain on the hills from Missionary Ridge to Lookout Mountain and cut off supplies from the city. The most important task before the Federals in the autumn was the relief of the hard-pressed forces shut up in Chattanooga. This was undertaken by a great army led by Grant who had been put in charge of the Army of the West; he was aided by three other famous general,— Sherman, Thomas, and Sheridan. To dislodge Bragg, it was necessary to capture Lookout 318 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1863 Mountain and Missionary Ridge. This was done in three- days’ fighting [November 23-25]. Under cover of a thick fog, the Federals stormed the heights of Lookout Moun¬ tain ; this battle is often called ‘ the battle above the clouds.’ Then the Federals pressed up steep Missionary Ridge, obstructed by rocks and fallen timber, lost one-fifth of their number, but never faltered, and took the ridge. These victories at Chattanooga gave the Federals control of east¬ ern Tennessee; Bragg withdrew into Georgia. State of affairs. — By the end of the year, it was evident that the South was losing ground. Gettysburg, Vicks¬ burg, Chattanooga, all told the same tale. In the West, the Confederates had been forced back everywhere, resist¬ ing stubbornly but in vain. The whole southern coast was blockaded by northern fleets. In the East, Lee still kept back the Federal army, and it seemed as far as ever from its goal, Richmond. But every day the Union army grew larger and the Confederate smaller. The North had abundant men and means. The South was nearing the end of its resources. Nine-tenths of the southern men were in the army; there were not men at home to replace the killed, wounded, and captured. Summary [1863]. — In January, President Lincoln issued his Eman¬ cipation Proclamation, declaring the slaves free in seceded states. A few months later, the western counties of Virginia were formed into a state called West Virginia. In the East, the Confederates held their ground. The Federals under Hooker were defeated in the battle of Chancellorsville, where Jackson was killed. Lee then marched into Pennsylvania, and after a great battle at Gettysburg retreated to Vir¬ ginia. In the West, Federal successes continued. Vicksburg and Port Hudson were taken, giving the Federals control of the Mississippi. Several fierce battles were fought in Tennessee and Georgia, at Mur¬ freesboro and Chickamauga and around Chattanooga, which secured Tennessee for the Federals. 1864] DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 319 7. The Events of 1864 Grant in command in East. — Grant, the victorious leader of the Union armies in the West, was made lieutenant- general and given command of all the Federal troops. He took the field at the head of the Army of the Poto¬ mac against Lee in command of the Army of Northern Virginia. A final struggle was at hand between the two great generals. Both had veteran troops, seasoned by battles and campaigns. Lee had 62,000 men and could get no more; his ragged troops lacked not only military supplies, but often bread and meat. Grant had 122,000 men and could get as many more as he wanted; his army was well equipped and was followed on its march by a wagon train, fifty miles long, bearing supplies. Battle of the Wilderness [May 5, 6]. — Grant advanced into the swampy, wooded region south of Fredericksburg, called the Wilderness. Near the field of Chancellorsville, there was a bloody two-days’ battle. Where the fight was fiercest, dead and wounded men lay in heaps. The forest caught fire, and many wounded men were burned alive. From this field of horror, Grant sent a dispatch, saying, with grim resolve, “ I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer.” Lee’s retreat. — The Union and Confederate armies marched south on parallel lines. By pressing forward on the flank, Grant compelled Lee to fall back in order to protect Richmond. Lee retreated, handling his army so that the march was like a long battle or a moving siege. At favorable places, he made a stand and gave battle. Sheridan, at the head of a body of cavalry, made a famous raid [May 9-24], riding around Lee’s army and destroying supplies and telegraph and railroad lines; in two weeks, he rejoined Grant. 320 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1864 Battle of Spottsylvania [May 10]. — At first, Grant tried to win victories by vigorous fighting, as he had done in the West; but Lee managed his army so skillfully that this ‘ hammering ’ plan did not succeed. There was a hard- fought battle at Spottsylvania Courthouse ; at ‘ the bloody angle’ the fighting was so fierce that trees were cut down by shot and shell. Grant was repulsed, but his purpose was not shaken. He ordered the army to advance. Formerly the Federals had fallen back after defeat; now as the troops were ordered South, cheers greeted Grant’s resolve to ‘ fight it out.’ Boys in battle. — The most famous of the minor battles was that at New Market [May 15], known as ‘ the battle of the boys.’ The cadets from Virginia Military Institute joined the small Confederate force sent to repel the Federals in the Valley of Virginia. These schoolboys advanced like veterans, charged, and took the Federal guns. Without faltering they bore heavy losses and won the battle. :86 4 ] DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 321 Battle of Cold Harbor [June 3]. — At Cold Harbor, fifteen miles from Richmond, Lee occupied a strong position, de¬ fended by swamps and thickets, and again gave battle. In an hour, the Federals lost 10,000 men. But after victory as after defeat, the Confederates had to fall back. By November, Grant had lost 80.000 men, — more than Lee had to begin with,—but others had taken their places, and the Union army moved forward with full ranks. Siege of Petersburg. — Richmond was so well protected on the north and the east that Grant resolved to attack it from the south. He attempted to take Petersburg, twenty- two miles south of Richmond. Petersburg was an im¬ portant Confederate stronghold through which passed railroads to the south and west; it was defended with des¬ perate valor. In order to protect Richmond and Peters¬ burg, Lee’s little army had to form a line twenty-five miles long; it was necessary to place the men far apart so as to cover this distance, and they had to be constantly on guard against attack. The great Federal army was drawn up beyond them, in a line thirty-five miles long. The Federals dug a mine near Petersburg and attempted to blow up the Confederate works [July 31]; but the Crater, as it was called, proved a death trap ; about 4000 Federals were killed or taken captive, and the charge was repulsed. Grant resolved not to sacrifice more lives in attacks like the Crater and Cold Harbor. His army built earthworks and settled down opposite the Confederates in a nine-months’ siege. Campaign in Shenandoah Valley. — Meanwhile, there was fighting in the Shenandoah Valley which had been the scene of Jackson’s masterly campaign. During the spring, there were several skirmishes and battles. In the summer, a Confederate force under General Jubal Early was sent to make a campaign in the valley and threaten Washington, y 322 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1864 It was hoped that this would draw off Grant from Peters¬ burg. Early’s troops marched in sight of the Capitol at Washington and burned Chambersburg, Pennsylvania. Grant, however, did not loosen his grip in Virginia. General Sheridan was sent with troops against General Early. The Confederates were defeated in the battle of Winchester [September 19] and retreated up the valley. Sheridan followed. He found the fertile valley a scene of harvest plenty, its barns heaped with grain and hay, its pastures full of sheep and cattle. He burned mills, houses, and tools, destroyed crops, drove off stock, and left the valley “a barren waste,” so that “ crows flying over it . . . will have to carry their provender with them.” Sheridan wished to deprive Confederate soldiers of supplies; in order to do this, he reduced to want all of the Valley people, most of whom were helpless women and children. Campaign in West. — While Grant was marching through Virginia, a Union army of over 100,000 men under com¬ mand of General Sherman was going through Georgia. The day that Grant began his march to Richmond, Sher¬ man started from Chattanooga to Atlanta [May 4]. At¬ lanta was an important place for several reasons: it was a great railroad center; from it supplies of all kinds were shipped, and in its shops and foundries war materials were manufactured. The Confederates had about 70,000 men in Georgia under General Joseph E. Johnston, who had replaced Bragg after the defeat at Chattanooga. General Johnston was a brave, prudent, and able gen¬ eral, who, like Lee, could use a small force with good effect against superior numbers. He realized that with his small army his only hope of victory was in waiting until the Federals were far from their sources of supplies and in choosing his own ground for attack. Avoiding all Sherman’s attempts to force a decisive engagement, he 86 4 ] DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 323 made a skillful, cautious retreat through northern Georgia, fighting almost daily battles in favorable places. Johnston replaced by Hood.—The Confederate govern¬ ment grew impatient of Johnston’s course and removed him. General Hood, a brave officer who lacked Johnston’s cautious judgment, was put in charge. Instead of pursu¬ ing a guarded retreat, Hood fought several battles in which he was outnumbered and defeated. Sherman finally threw part of his army south of Atlanta, and Hood had to abandon the city in order to avoid being shut up there. He moved north into Tennessee, hoping by cutting off Sherman’s sup¬ plies to force the Federals to follow. But Sherman’s army was so large that he left Thomas with troops to outnum¬ ber and fight Hood, and continued his southward march. Hood was defeated at Nashville [December 15]. This defeat practically ended the war in the West. Sherman’s march to the sea. — Sherman took Atlanta, destroyed its mills, foundries, factories, railroads, and tel¬ egraph lines, and made the city a military garrison. When protests were made against this ‘cruelty,’ he answered, “War is cruelty, and you cannot refine it.” With an army of 60,000 men, Sherman left the smok¬ ing ruins of Atlanta and started to the southern coast. Instead of depending on the North for supplies, he foraged on the country. Like Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley, he treated the whole country as ‘contraband of war.’ He reported that on this march his army used property worth $20,000,000 and destroyed property to the value of $80,000,000. He was followed by thousands of negroes and by lawless stragglers called ‘ Sherman’s bummers.’ On the march of three hundred miles, a belt of fertile country sixty miles wide was laid waste. Houses were robbed and burned, crops and supplies were consumed or destroyed, railroads were torn up. The country was filled SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1864 3H with hungry women and children who had fled from their burning homes. A few days after Hood was defeated at Nashville, Sherman entered the city of Savannah [Decem¬ ber 22], where he was joined by the fleet. Sherman’s March to the Sea Capture of coast cities. — Before Sherman entered Savan¬ nah, the fleet had gained control of nearly all cities on the southern coast. The summer before, Admiral Farragut had taken Mobile [August 5]. Knowing that the harbor was defended by mines, he lashed his ships together in pairs, so that if one were disabled it might have help at hand. The first vessel which entered the harbor was sunk by a torpedo. Instead of hesitating or drawing back, Farragut signaled “go ahead,” entered the harbor, and took the city. After Mobile was captured, Charleston, South Caro¬ lina, and Fort Fisher, which defended the approach to Wilmington in North Carolina, were the only important ports in the hands of the Confederates. Through these, a few daring blockade runners brought arms, clothing, and medicine to the Confederacy. Fort Fisher was taken after i86 5 ] DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 325 a bloody struggle early the next year, and Charleston was occupied by the Federals a few weeks later. Summary [1864]. — General Grant was given charge of the Union armies. He took the field in the East and advanced with a large army toward Richmond, being opposed on the way by an army under General Lee. Several bloody battles were fought, — the Wilderness, Spottsyl- vania, and Cold Harbor, — and then Grant began a nine-months’ siege of Richmond and Petersburg. General Sherman marched southward from Chattanooga with a great army. He was opposed, first, by General Johnston who led a skillful retreat; then, by General Hood who en¬ gaged in battle, was defeated, returned to Tennessee, and was finally defeated at Nashville by General Thomas. Sherman took Atlanta, then marched to Savannah, laying waste the country. Mobile was taken by the fleet, and a few months later Charleston and Fort Fisher were taken. 8. The End of the War Peace Conference [February 3, 1865]. — Early in February, President Lincoln met some Confederate officials at Hamp¬ ton Roads to discuss terms of peace. The Confederates demanded the recognition of their government and Lin¬ coln’s first requirement was that the seceded states should return to the Union, — so nothing was accomplished by the conference. Sherman’s march through Carolinas. — That same month, Sherman started with his army from Savannah to join Grant in Virginia. It was a long, difficult march of several hundred miles, through swampy, wooded country. Roads had to be cut and bridges built on the way. In the Carolinas as on the march through Georgia, Sherman’s army left ruin behind it. Columbia, the capital of South Carolina, was taken and burned. Until North Carolina was reached, there was practically no fighting. There the Federals encountered an army under Johnston. He fought stubbornly and managed his small force skillfully, 326 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1865 but he could not check the march of Sherman’s great army. Lee’s retreat from Richmond. — In Virginia, Lee, who had been made general in chief of the Confederate forces, still confronted Grant. His army, wasted by disease and battle, consisted of 57,000 men. Among Lee’s losses was A Pontoon Bridge the death of his able lieutenant, General A. P. Hill. Early in April, the line which had so long protected Richmond was broken, and the Confederate government had to aban¬ don its capital. Hoping to unite with Johnston’s army, Lee attempted to march toward Danville. But supplies were sent past the point he had ordered them, and he had to wait to get food for his soldiers. This gave the Federals time to cut off the southern route. Lee turned toward Lynch¬ burg, only to find Sheridan’s cavalry between him and that place. In the rain and mud, his hungry, tired, heroic men 1865] DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 327 kept up a running fight for fifty miles. The Confederate army was reduced to 27,000 men ; the Federals had 125,000. To continue the hopeless contest would be a useless sacrifice of life. “There is now but one course to pursue,” said General Lee. “We must accept the situation ; these men must go home and plant a crop; and we must proceed to build up our country on a new basis.” Lee’s surrender [April 9]. — On the ninth of April, 1865, General Lee met General Grant at Appomattox Court¬ house to arrange terms of surrender. It was a courteous, grave interview. Honorable terms were granted. The Confederate soldiers were to go home, and Grant said that they were “not to be disturbed by the United States au¬ thority so long as they observed their parole and the laws in force where they reside.” They were allowed to keep their horses, “because,” Grant said with kindly thought¬ fulness, “they would need them for the spring plowing and farm work.” When Lee said that his soldiers had no food except parched corn, Grant promptly agreed to supply them rations. Lee drew up his troops and bade his soldiers farewell: “ Men, we have fought through the war together,” he said ; “ I have done my best for you.” Johnston’s surrender [April 26]. — Two weeks later, Johnston in North Carolina surrendered to Sherman. The end had come. The great Union army of a million men was disbanded and returned home, amid the rejoicings of victory ; the little Confederate army of fewer than 200,000 men, saddened by defeat, turned homeward to a country ruined by war, which had to be built up “ on a new basis.” Results of war. — The War of Secession settled forever two questions which had long been sources of dissension: secession as a right of states, and slavery. The seced- 328 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1865 ing states had been forced back into the Union by the majority which said that a state had no right to leave the Union. Henceforth, there might be questions as to the exact powers of a state, but there was no longer any question as to secession. After the War of Secession, the Union was an ‘indestructible union of indestructible states/ Slavery, so long a source of discord between the sections, was abolished. The slaves in the seceded states had been freed by Lincoln’s Emancipation Procla¬ mation. Near the close of the war, Congress adopted and submitted to the states the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, abolishing slavery forever in the United States. These ends had been gained at frightful cost. Nearly a million lives had been sacrificed in battle, prison, or disease. Thirty thousand Union soldiers died in Confed¬ erate prisons; about the same number of Confederate soldiers died in Union prisons. Condition of South. — That the war lasted so long, in spite of the South’s inferiority in population, wealth, and resources, was due to its able generals and to the devoted efforts of its people. ‘The North spent freely of its abun¬ dance, but the South gave all that it had.’ One-fourth of ihe men of the South gave their lives for the ‘ Lost Cause.’ The country was laid waste, and people were reduced to desperate straits. Railroads, bridges, mills, houses, and farm tools were destroyed. Crops, stock, and supplies of all kinds were used by the southern armies or seized by the northern ones. A southern woman told a Union soldier that ‘she herself drew the plow while her feeble old husband held it to prepare the soil for all the corn they raised.’ Throughout the war, most of the slaves proved faithfui and devoted servants. They planted, tended, and gath- :86 5 ] DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 329 ered the crops, and cared for the women and children. A slave-rising would have destroyed the Confederacy, for every southern man would have turned from northern battle fields to defend his home. But no slave-rising came. The private and public means of the South were spent to raise and support armies. The Confederate government issued bonds and notes, and heaped up a great war debt. The value of its paper money steadily decreased as it be¬ came more and more probable that the government would never be able to redeem it with coin. During the last year of the war, a Confederate paper dollar was worth only one cent and a half in coin. A newspaper sold for a dollar, a barrel of flour cost $1500, and a pound of butter twenty dollars. A few days before Lee retreated from Peters¬ burg, a boy came to that city bringing on his arm a basket containing a few newspapers and some apples and pea¬ nuts; he spld them for $14,000 in Confederate money. 330 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1865 Condition of North. — During the war, the North ad¬ vanced in wealth and population. Agriculture flourished, and trade and manufactures increased. Thousands of miles of railway were built, and over four million acres of public land were occupied. Immigrants were attracted by a new Homestead Act [1862], under which a tract of land was given to the head of each family that would settle on it. New states. — During the war, two new states were admitted to the Union : West Virginia was formed [1863], and Nevada was admitted [1864]. Nevada, the third state formed from the Mexican cession, was settled rapidly after the discovery of its silver mines, which are among the richest in the world. Financial affairs. — During the war, the Federal govern¬ ment laid income, stamp, and other taxes to raise money, ‘ the sinews of war.’ Tariff rates were raised. Money was borrowed on government credit, by issuing bonds, — in¬ terest-bearing notes promising payment at a certain time. Paper money, called ‘ greenbacks’ from the color, was issued and was made legal tender,—that is, it must be accepted if offered in payment for debts. Its value de¬ clined, at one time, to less than half its face value, and for many years it was worth less than ‘ hard money,’ or specie. Specie almost went out of circulation ; people who had gold and silver coins kept them, being unwilling to exchange them for paper money of varying and doubtful value. National banks were formed which bought United States bonds and issued, on the security of these bonds, notes that, like greenbacks, had behind them the credit of the government. At the end of the war, the United States had a debt of three billion dollars. Many people thought that the gov¬ ernment would never pay this vast sum, the interest on which was $150,000,000 a year. But its payment was i86sl DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 331 begun the year after the war ended and every dollar of this war debt has been settled. Cost of War of Secession. — It is estimated that in money this great war cost the North about $10,000,000,000, and the South twice as much; both sides had armies to sup¬ port, and the South was deprived of its slave property and impoverished, and laid waste by Federal forces. Think what it would have meant in the advancement of the country if the vast sums spent to support armies had been devoted to the progress of peace! In addition to war-time expenses, billions of dollars have been paid in pensions to soldiers and their families. The Federal pension system has become so wasteful, so corrupt, so burdensome to the nation that it is condemned by the best men, North and South ; but it continues and flourishes. Besides the tremendous cost in money, the war cost nearly a million lives. That means that hundreds of thousands of the country’s best — for it is the brave, able young men that war claims as its victims — lost their lives; that nearly a million homes were made desolate by their deaths ; that the physical, mental, and moral upbuilding of the nation was checked by the loss of so many of its best citizens. Nor does the cost of this great war end here. As we read, in the story of the following years, about unjust sec¬ tional legislation, about dishonest ‘rings’ controlling cities and business, and about corruption in high places, let us remember that these, too, were a part of the cost of war. During those four years of strife, law and order were set aside and there followed a demoralization of which wicked men took advantage and by which weak men were cor¬ rupted. From this terrible conflict, let us learn that differences between states and nations, like those between individuals, 332 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1865 ought to be decided according to the principles of law and justice and that peace should be the constant aim and demand of every civilized nation. Lincoln assassinated.—While Grant was facing Lee at Richmond and Sherman was marching northward through the Carolinas, President Lincoln began his second term. One month later, in Ford’s Theater in Washington, the president was shot and he died the next day [April 15]. The assassin, John Wilkes Booth, an actor, escaped for the time, but was overtaken and shot. Four persons, in¬ cluding one woman, who were suspected of having been engaged in a conspiracy with him were hanged. The death of Lincoln was a great loss to the country. He had guided the United States in troubled times with tact, moderation, firmness, wisdom. His loss to the South was even greater than to the North, for his supreme desire was to have peace and harmony in the restored Union. The words of his second inaugural address yet echoed in men’s ears : “ With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation’s wounds ... to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations.” He believed that a state had no right to leave the Union, and so he regarded the seceded states as in the Union but controlled by rebellious persons. Thus, he thought, the ‘proper relations’ of the state to the Union were destroyed. As the end of the war drew evidently near, he was planning to restore these ‘ proper relations.’ He offered pardon and restoration to citizenship and property to all except a few classes of persons if they would take the oath of loyalty to the Union; he invited these to reorganize the governments of their states. : 86 S ] DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 333 The negro question Lincoln considered settled by the Thirteenth Amendment, of which he said, “ It winds the whole thing up.” Davis’s imprisonment [1865-1867]. — The president of the fallen Confederacy, too, was a victim to the excited passions of the time. Mr. Davis was confined two years in Fortress Monroe on a charge of treason, and then was released without being tried, although he and his friends desired his trial in order to bring into court the legal ques¬ tion of secession and States’ Rights. His high character and ability and the fact that he was imprisoned as the representative of their ‘ Lost Cause ’ endeared him to the southern people. Summary [1865]. — Sherman marched from Savannah through the Carolinas to join Grant. He met no resistance, except in North Caro¬ lina from a small Confederate army under Johnston. Lee’s lines around Richmond were broken, and he retreated westward ; but he was hemmed in, and at Appomattox Courthouse, on April 9, 1865, he surrendered to Grant. Two weeks later, Johnston surrendered to Sherman. The War of Secession settled the questions of secession and slavery; it cost nearly a million lives and billions of dollars. Five days after General Lee surrendered, President Lincoln was assassinated. CHAPTER VII NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT i. Johnson’s Term [1865-1869] Republican President Johnson. — When Lincoln died, Andrew John¬ son of Tennessee became president. Johnson was a self- made man, able, honest, and resolute, who belonged to the class called in the South ‘ poor whites.’ As a child, he went from a North Caro¬ lina cabin to a workshop. He learned to read by study¬ ing at night after doing his day’s work as a tailor ; after he was married, his wife taught him to write. Like Lincoln, this unschooled, untrained man made his way in public life by his own energy and ability. There the resemblance ended. Rising from humble place to high position, Lincoln gained breadth and wisdom at every step. Johnson was a self-willed m&n who made enemies where he should have gained friends. Spirit of times. — Never was a great, wise man more needed at the head of the government than now. Sec- 334 Andrew Johnson i86 S ] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 335 tional feeling had blazed higher and higher during the four long years of war, and was made more intense on the one side by defeat and on the other side by victory and by Lincoln’s tragic death. Could the opposing flames be united and made to burn with the spirit of patriotism and national unity ? The greatest men of both sections believed that this could and should be done. “ We are all one country now. Dismiss all sectional feeling,” said General Lee. “ I am satisfied the mass of thinking men in the South accept the present situation of affairs in good faith,” said General Grant. “ The questions which have hitherto divided the sentiment of the people of the two sections — slavery and state rights — or the right of the state to secede from the Union—they regard as having been settled forever.” Southern state governments. — Southern men set to work to build up their communities “ on a new basis,” as free states. They formed state governments on the plan adopted by Lincoln; they repealed their secession ordi¬ nances ; they ratified the Thirteenth Amendment, freeing the slaves ; they elected senators and representatives to Congress. In addition to the disorder caused by war, there was the disorder caused by 4,000,000 newly-freed slaves, “a laboring, landless, homeless class,” as Lincoln described them. The old course of their life was upset, and they could not at once adjust themselves to a new one. They roamed about the country, refusing to work and supplying their needs by begging or stealing. To check idleness, which was breeding want and crime, several southern states passed strict labor and vagrancy laws. Attitude of Congress. — Such was the condition of affairs when Congress met after eight-months’ recess. Congress 336 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE fi866 disapproved the presidential plan of dealing with the seceded states, formed by Lincoln and being carried out by Johnson. It resolved to take control of southern affairs and regulate them according to its own will. Fourteenth Amendment [1866].— The names of the rep¬ resentatives and senators elected by the southern states were omitted from the roll call of Congress. Before the southern states were restored to a share in the government, Congress wished a new amendment added to the Constitution. This, the Fourteenth Amendment, said that all persons born or naturalized in the United States should have equal rights under its laws, and that all persons who had held state or Federal office and had taken part in secession should be excluded from office. It gave the negro freedmen all the rights enjoyed by white men, except the ballot. The Republican congressmen who offered this amend¬ ment said that, in order to keep the negroes from being reenslaved by their former masters, it was necessary to make the freedmen citizens of the United States. They asserted that the southern labor and vagrancy laws — which were much like those of some New England states — were plans to reenslave the negro. They did not stop to con¬ sider that if the southern people were foolish enough to make such plans, they would be powerless to carry them out; all affairs concerning the negroes’ work, contracts, homes, and schools were in the hands of the Freedmen’s Bureau, a branch of the War Department. The northern states, one after another, accepted the Four¬ teenth Amendment; the southern states, one after another, rejected it. Many people at the North thought, like the people of the South, that the ignorant, untrained negroes were as unfit for citizenship as so many children. Why, then, did they vote to give the freedmen citizenship ? Some believed that the negroes could soon be educated to 1867] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 337 fulfill their duties as citizens; the radicals were animated by a bitter desire to “ put the white South under the heel of the black South ” ; the politicians desired negro citizen¬ ship because they thought that it would give their party control of the South,— for it was supposed that every negro would always adhere to the party which gave him civil equality. Reconstruction Acts [March-July, 1867]. — The rejection of the Fourteenth Amendment by ten southern states only made Congress more determined to carry out its measures. It passed a series of Reconstruction Acts for the govern¬ ment of the southern states whereby they were deprived of statehood and were grouped in five military districts, under command of military governors. By a strange contra¬ diction, Congress held that the southern states were not out of the Union—but that they had to come back into it; that they had no share in the United States gov¬ ernment— yet their votes were counted in adopting the Thirteenth Amendment, and they were required to accept the Fourteenth. The leader in reconstruction measures was Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania. He wished to confiscate the estates of ‘ rebels ’; to give each negro forty acres of this land and to use the balance to pay the war debt. He proposed that South Carolina be divided between North Carolina and Georgia, so as to blot from the map the state which led in secession. Impeachment of President Johnson [1868]. — President Johnson opposed the reconstruction plans of Congress. Like Lincoln, he said that no state had a right to leave the Union and that ‘the Union was unbroken ’; he held that the president, to whom the pardoning power belongs, could restore secessionists to their rights as citizens, and that these citizens could form state governments and elect 338 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1868 members to Congress. He said that if Congress refused to receive these members, it had no right to make laws for the unrepresented southern states. Johnson vetoed the acts of Congress and it ‘ vetoed his veto ’ by passing bills in spite of his opposition. It went farther. It passed an act saying that the president must not remove civil officeholders — as all the presidents before him had done — without the consent of the Senate. Johnson refused to obey this act, and dismissed the Secretary of War. The president was impeached by the House, — that is, he was accused of having disobeyed the laws and was tried ; if found guilty by the Senate, he would be removed from office. Only one vote was lacking of the two-thirds necessary to convict him. Nebraska admitted to Union [1867].— While Johnson was president, Nebraska, a fertile farming state, was ad¬ mitted to the Union. Alaska purchase. -— By purchase and by protest, the Monroe Doctrine was upheld. Alaska was bought from Russia for $7,200,000. People at the time complained that the purchase was “ a waste of money on rocks and ice fit only for a polar-bear garden.” We now think that $7,200,000 were well spent to acquire this territory which contains a half million square miles of land, is rich in gold, coal, furs, and timber, and has valua¬ ble seal, cod, and salmon fisheries. Revolution in Mexico.—The year that Alaska was bought, there was a revolution in Mexico. During the War of Secession, the Emperor of France sent troops to Mexico and established an empire there. The United States protested against this interference with an American republic, but the protest was unheeded. After the war, when the United States was able to enforce its protest by arms, it informed the French that it would be “ gravely NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 339 1867] inconvenient ” for the army to remain in Mexico. France yielded and withdrew its troops. A revolution took place, and the Mexican republic was reestablished. Summary [1865-1869]. — Andrew Johnson of Tennessee, the sev¬ enteenth president, was the third vice president to hold that office. During his presidency, Nebraska was admitted to the Union. Alaska was purchased from Russia for $7,200,000, and the French were re¬ quired to withdraw from Mexico. Congress ruled the South by means of severe Reconstruction Acts; ten southern states were divided into five districts under military governors. President Johnson was im¬ peached by Congress because he opposed its reconstruction plans, and only one vote was lacking of the number necessary to convict him. 2. Grant’s Terms [1869-1877] Republican President Grant. —Johnson was succeeded as president by General Grant, the great soldier who had led to success the army of the Union. Grant was an honest, straight¬ forward, simple-hearted man; he had had little experience in politics, and he was influenced and sometimes misled by shrewd and corrupt men. “ Let us have peace,” he said, weary of sectional strife after the war was over; but the radicals continued to control Congress, and there was no real peace nor harmony. Fifteenth Amendment [1870]. —The Fifteenth Amend¬ ment was passed in order to give the negro the right to vote, — the only civil right not given to him by the Fourteenth Amendment, — and to secure this right by making it a part of the Constitution. This amendment said that “ the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.” 340 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1870 Lee’s death. —The year that the Fifteenth Amendment was passed, General Robert E. Lee died at Lexington, Vir¬ ginia. After the war, he refused high-salaried positions, be¬ came the president of a small college, now Washington and Lee University, and devoted himself to training youths for capable, useful manhood. He urged the men of the South to do their duty as citizens in the restored Union. “ Duty,” he said, “ is the sublimest word in our language. Do your duty in all things, like the old Puritan. You cannot do more, you should never wish to do less.” ‘ Carpetbag ’ rule in South. — After ratifying the Thir¬ teenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth amendments, according to the requirements of Congress, the seceded states were readmitted to the Union. The radical reconstruction plan had now been carried out. What was the result ? There was distress and disorder throughout the South. Acts of Congress required every officeholder to take the ‘ iron-clad oath,’ saying that he had not taken part in seces¬ sion. This shut out nearly all native white men, except the lowest class called ‘ scalawags.’ Most of the voters were ignorant, untrained negroes. They were under the control of the ‘ scalawags’ and of ‘ carpetbaggers,’ — men from the North who came South to get political power. Important and profitable offices were held by these scalawags and carpetbaggers. Many small offices were held by negroes who could not read nor write. The carpetbag governments passed bad laws and wasted or stole the public money. People impoverished by war were burdened with heavy taxes, and vast state debts were piled up. During carpetbag rule in South Carolina, taxes increased tenfold. In Mississippi, about six hundred and fifty thousand acres of land — one-fifth of the state—were sold for taxes. Less than five years of this rule cost Louisiana over a hundred million dollars. Reconstruction 1870] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 34 i misrule welded all men, all parties, all states together, and formed the ‘solid South.’ The greatest harm done was to the negroes, the inferior race which was dealt with as an equal. The ignorant, credulous freedmen were told by the scalawags and carpet¬ baggers that the property of their former masters would be divided among them, and they were assured that if southern white men returned to power, they would be made slaves again. Expecting to be supported whether they worked or not, the negroes became idle and disorderly; crime increased rapidly. Old kindly relations between them and the white people were destroyed, and feelings of distrust, dislike, and hate were excited. The race just emerging from savagery and bondage was arrayed against the race which has back of it the civilization of a thousand years. Ku Klux Klan. — Southern white men resolved to rid themselves by any means of the. incapable, extravagant, corrupt carpetbag governments. Denied public rights, they used private means. The Ku Klux Klan, formed first as a secret social club, widened into a secret police force. Bands of armed, masked men rode abroad at night on horses draped in white. These night riders frightened, whipped, drove away, or eveft murdered mischief-making negroes and whites. Other societies on the order of the Ku Klux Klan were formed. Their purpose was to put down disorder and crime, and to protect the oppressed. When they were controlled by good men, they accomplished a valuable work; when they were directed by reckless, mischievous men, they added lawlessness and violence to the evils of the time. Severe laws enforced by Federal troops crushed these secret organizations, but did not bring peace. Alabama claims. — During the war, several vessels for the Confederates had been fitted out in British ports. 342 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1872 The United States regarded this as a breach of neutrality, and presented claims for the damage done by the cruisers. These are called the * Alabama claims,’ from the name of Driving the Last Spike in the Transcontinental Railway the most famous of the vessels. After years of discussion, the United States and Great Britain agreed to settle the matter by arbitration. The arbitrators awarded the United 1872] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 343 States $15,500,000 damages [1872]. More valuable than the damages, was the example set by the two great coun¬ tries of settling disputes by arbitration instead of by war. Railway across continent [1869]. — A noteworthy event during Grant’s presidency was the completion of the first railway across the continent, the Union Pacific Rail¬ road. On it, men could cross the great continent in less time than it took a century before to travel from New York to Boston. The Union Pacific was followed by two other transcontinental railroads, the Northern and the Southern Pacific. Along these railroads came crowds of emigrants seeking homes in the great West. Buffalo grounds gave way to wheat farms and cattle ranches. Copper, silver, and gold were discovered and mined. Forts and trading- stations became villages and towns. The states along the railroad built up rapidly; territories began to look forward to statehood. Credit Mobilier. — The building of a railroad across the continent was a vast and expensive undertaking. As these roads were useful to the government as well as to the gen¬ eral public, government aid was asked. Congress gave them financial aid and immense grants of public land. Many men thought that the Union Pacific Railroad was given more than was necessary or just. It was charged and proved that, in return for help in securing these ap¬ propriations, public men were given stock in the Credit Mobilier, the corporation formed to carry on the business of the railroad. Salary grab [1873]. —For many years, Congress had gone far and often beyond what thoughtful men regarded as its proper limits according to the law of the Constitu¬ tion. Good men were demoralized by this course, weak men were corrupted, bad men were made bold. Congress passed an act increasing the salaries of its members; 344 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1873 the act was made to apply to the past two years as well as to the future. This ‘ Salary Grab/ as it was called throughout the country, aroused such general indignation that it was repealed. Panic of 1873. —The year of the ‘Salary Grab,’ there was a financial panic. Some people said that it was caused by an act of Congress—later called ‘the crime of ’ 73 ’ — which dropped the silver dollar from the list of authorized coins. Up to this time, both gold and silver had free coin¬ age, — that is, either metal could be taken to the treasury and exchanged for an equal weight of coin. If a man wished, he might get gold coins for his silver or silver coins for his gold, at the rate of sixteen ounces of silver to one of gold. This is called ‘ coinage at the ratio of sixteen to one/ Other people said that the panic was the natural result of speculation, credit business, and extensive railway build¬ ing. There was not enough money in the country to carry on the vast business undertaken, and people used notes, bonds, and mortgages. When they were called on to pay ‘ hard money,’ they could not do so. Whatever the cause, the panic came. Failure followed failure ; for many years, business felt the effects of that winter of panic. ‘Whisky Ring’ [1875]. — Panic was followed by new public scandals. A ‘ Whisky Ring ’ in the West was brought to light. Manufacturers of whisky were bribing government officials, and selling liquor without paying the government tax, thus robbing the government of millions of dollars. About the same time, the Secretary of War was accused of selling the privilege of trading at army posts, and he avoided investigation by resigning his office. Chicago and Boston fires. — Cities were growing rapidly, and their affairs were badly managed. They had poor NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 345 1871] police and fire departments. A great fire swept the heart of Chicago [1871], making 100,000 people homeless and destroying many lives. The next year, there was a great fire in Boston. Safer and more beautiful buildings went up promptly in place of those destroyed, but improvements in city governments were slow. 4 Tweed Ring’ [1869-1872]. — Taxes were high, and public officials grew rich, while cities had poor pavements, inadequate water supply, and bad sewerage systems. A notorious instance of mismanagement was New York City. Tweed Ring Cartoon For three years, it was ruled by a gang of corrupt men who took plunder to the amount of $100,000,000. ‘ Boss’ Tweed, the leader of the gang, openly defied those who protested. “ As long as I count the votes, what are you going to do about it ? Say ! ” he asked. 346 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [187 Samuel Tilden and other able, honest citizens showed him. They exposed the ‘ Tweed Ring,’ broke up the gang, and sent Tweed to prison. Affairs in South. — Meanwhile, reconstruction rule con¬ tinued in the South. Federal troops were used to uphold the carpetbag governments, but as the ‘ironclad oath 7 was relaxed, southern white men came back into power. They were resolved to rule their states. Fair means seemed powerless against the force of arms and the number of ignorant and hostile voters. By various means — persua¬ sion, bribery, threats, fraud, and force — they gained and kept control of their state affairs. Government was re¬ formed, taxes were lessened, expenses were reduced. Woman’s Christian Temperance Union. — In these troubled times, a great reform was spreading through¬ out the country. This was the anti-liquor move¬ ment. Frances Willard and other earnest women formed the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union [1874], now the largest organization of women in the world. It secured laws against liquor, and it insisted on having literature put into school textbooks to warn children of the injurious effects of alcohol. Centennial Exhibition of 1876. — In honor of the hun¬ dredth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, a Centennial Exhibition, or World’s Fair, was held at Phila¬ delphia. For America, this had been a busy, hard-work- 1876] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 347 ing century. When leisure and wealth came, naturally the New World was far behind the Old in the beautiful arts. The exhibits from Europe were object lessons in beauty to millions of visitors to the Philadelphia Exposition. From this time, art and architecture were appreciated and cultivated in America as they had never been before. Colorado admitted to Union [1876].— During the centen¬ nial year, Colorado was admitted to the Union. A few years before, it had been a wilderness. It was settled rapidly after railroads were constructed and its rich de¬ posits of gold and silver were discovered. Indian wars.—Westward growth caused at each step new trouble with the Indians. They were crowded from their hunting grounds by the steadily-increasing number of immigrants, — cattlemen, miners, and farmers. During the War of Secession, there was a rising of the Sioux tribes in Minnesota, Iowa, and Dakota; a thousand white settlers were killed and thousands were driven from their homes before the savages were defeated. Ten years later, the Modocs fiercely but vainly resisted removal from Cali¬ fornia to a reservation in Oregon. The centennial year was darkened by war with the Sioux tribes of Dakota. Gold was discovered in the Black Hills, a part of their reservation, and white men pushed into the country and thrust aside the red men. The tribes rose under Chief Sitting Bull and defeated three bodies of troops sent against them. Brave General Custer and his troops were surrounded near Big Horn River in Montana and every one of the two hundred and fifty soldiers was killed [1876]. After months of fighting, the Indians were overcome. The settlement of the West went on unchecked. Tilden-Hayes contest. — While the Sioux War was going on, there was a presidential election. Other parties put forward candidates, but the real contest was between the 348 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1876 Republican candidate, Rutherford Birchard Hayes of Ohio, and the Democratic candidate, Samuel Jones Tilden of New York. Tilden received the votes of all the southern states, and of enough northern and western ones to give him one hundred and eighty-four electoral votes. Only one hundred and eighty-five were required for election. There were twenty votes in dispute, — one contested vote in Oregon and nineteen in Louisiana, Florida, and South Carolina, which were still under carpetbag rule. Only one of the twenty disputed votes was needed to elect Tilden; all of the twenty were needed to elect Hayes. How was the matter to be decided ? There was no hope that the Democratic House and the Republican Senate would agree. Finally Congress appointed an Electoral Commission to decide the matter. The commission con¬ sisted of five senators, five representatives, and five judges of the Supreme Court. Of these, seven were Democrats and seven Republicans ; it was expected that the fifteenth would be an independent, but instead a Republican was chosen. By a strictly party vote, — eight Republicans to seven Democrats, — every one of the twenty contested votes was given to Hayes, and he was declared elected. Summary [1869-1877].^-Ulysses Simpson Grant of Illinois, the eighteenth president, served two terms. While he was president, the Union Pacific Railroad was completed, a Centennial Exposition was held at Philadelphia, Colorado was admitted to the Union, and there were two Indian wars, — with the Modocs in California and with the Sioux tribes of Dakota. The Alabama claim was settled, the United States being awarded $15,500,000 damages. There was a business panic and several public scandals, — the Credit Mobilier, the Salary Grab, the Whisky Ring, and the Tweed Ring. Reconstruction rule continued, and the southern states suffered from the corrupt ‘carpetbag 1 govern¬ ments. By degrees, southern white men regained control of state affairs. Great excitement was caused by the disputed Tilden-Hayes election; it was finally decided by an Electoral Commission in favor of Hayes. 1877] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 349 3. Hayes’s Term [1877-1881] it';" Republican End of reconstruction. — Mr. Hayes was an upright, public-spirited man. “The president . . .’* he said, “should strive to be always mindful of the fact that he serves his party best who serves his country best.” He squared his actions with his words. He made reforms in government and with¬ drew Federal troops from the South. The carpetbag governments of Louisiana, Florida, and South Caro¬ lina were put aside. Reconstruction was over. For twelve years, the seceded states had been ruled by the abso¬ lute authority of Congress. In the twenty years following the recon¬ struction period, the Supreme Court decided, in one case after another, that Congress had exceeded its powers under the Constitu¬ tion and had assumed powers belonging to the states ; one after another, the acts passed during that period were put aside, and the citizens and states of the South regained their rights. Strikes [1877].— During the first summer of Mr. Hayes’s term, there were serious labor troubles. On account of hard times, many employers lowered the wages of their workmen. Thousands of coal miners and railroad men struck, — that is, they refused to work for the wages offered. The mine owners and railway officials tried to hire other men, and the strikers endeavored by persuasion and by force to prevent these laborers from taking their Rutherford B. Hayes 350 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1877 places. There were riots in which many men were killed and wounded, and millions of dollars’ worth of property was destroyed. Troops were called out to restore order. Organization of capital and labor. — These strikes were the beginning of a great struggle between capital and labor, or employers and workmen. Business men were forming corporations and trusts, — that is, combinations to control certain products and industries. Their object was to make larger profits by reducing expenses in various ways and by getting better prices through control of markets. While Grant was president, the Standard Oil Company, under John D. Rockefeller, was organized [1872]. It became rich and powerful, gained control of the oil trade, and drove many of its rivals out of business. Similar trusts were formed to control sugar, tobacco, and other prod¬ ucts. Laboring men, on the other hand, united to advance their interests ; they formed trades unions and labor unions. Through these, they sought to make better terms with their employers, demanding higher wages and shorter hours for a day’s work. First men of the same occupa¬ tion drew together; then men of different occupations came into line; later a great Federation of Labor was formed. Financial affairs. — Many people thought that the coun¬ try would be more prosperous if changes were made in the currency system and more silver coins were issued. Accordingly, the Bland Silver Act was passed [1878], re¬ quiring the coinage each month of not less than two million and not more than four million dollars’ worth of silver. For seventeen years, the government had paid its debts with paper money. Specie payments had been stopped during the war, because the government did not have coin to redeem the notes that it issued. This caused the paper 1879 ] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 351 money to fall in value. At last, the government was able to resume specie payments, — that is, it began to redeem its greenbacks in silver and gold [1879]. People could get coin for greenbacks whenever they wished, and they willingly took the convenient paper money at its face value. For the first time for seventeen years, a paper dollar was equal in value to a gold dollar. Growth of the country. — In spite of hard times, the country steadily advanced in population, in agriculture, in manufactures, in commerce. The tenth census [1880] showed that in ten years, population had increased thirty per cent and wealth had increased about forty-five per cent. The South had a wonderful share in this growth. Negroes and white people worked better in the ‘free’ South than under the system of slavery. Crops were improved by the use of better tools and wiser methods. Larger crops of cotton were raised than before the war, and other things were produced, — corn, hay, meat, vegetables for market. Other industries besides agriculture were built up ; lumber was shipped, mines were developed, factories were established. Eads’s jetties [1877]. — As merchant vessels increased in size, shoals and sandbars in the Mississippi and other rivers interfered more and more with navigation and com¬ merce. Large vessels were unable to go to New Orleans on account of the sandbars formed by the sediment dropped by the great, slow stream. Captain James Eads devised a way to remove these sandbars. He constructed jetties, or piers, which narrowed the river; thus the current was made swifter, and it carried the sediment to the sea and deepened the river channel. The jetties made the main channel of the Mississippi twenty feet deep and opened the harbor of New Orleans to large ocean steamers. 352 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1881 Summary [1877-1881]. — Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio, the nine¬ teenth president, served one term. Reconstruction rule in the South came to an end, specie payments were resumed, and, in spite of hard times and strikes, the country advanced in wealth and prosperity. 4. Garfield and Arthur’s Term [1881-1885] Republican Garfield assassinated [July 2, 1881]. — James Abram Garfield of Ohio succeeded Hayes as president. The incoming president was beset by greedy parti¬ sans, clamoring for office. Public offices had come to be regarded as party spoils. Even the floor scrubbers of public build¬ ings were changed with each election. Congress¬ men expected and even demanded that appoint¬ ments in their states should be made according to their wishes. Garfield James A. Garfield refused to submit to this dictation. The two senators from New York resigned because he would not make the appointments which they desired. The country watched with disgust the scramble for office, but in the summer disgust was changed to horror. The president was shot by Charles Jules Guiteau, a half-crazy office-seeker, who had failed to obtain the place he sought. After lingering for weeks between life and death, Garfield passed away. President Arthur. — Vice president Chester Alan Arthur NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 353 1881] of New York became president and performed with dignity and ability the duties of the high office which had come to him in so tragic a way. Merit system. — The president’s assassination drew the attention of the country to the great and growing evils of the spoils system. While Garfield was on his deathbed, a National Civil Service Reform League was organized. Public opinion was so strong that it forced Congress to make reforms. Democrats and Republicans united in passing an act to re¬ form public service [1883]. This act required that persons should be chosen for clerkships and other small offices by means of competitive examina¬ tions, and it forbade the removal of these persons for po¬ litical reasons. The tendency of this ‘merit system’ is to make office-holders the faithful and capable servants of the government, instead of the pets of politicians. Panic of 1884. —Speculation, credit business, and reck¬ less railroad building again caused hard times. One of the New York firms which went down in ruin and disgrace was Grant and Ward, in which General Grant was a partner. In business as in politics, shrewd, dishonorable men had used him and had made his honest name cover dishonest dealings. The great soldier met reverses bravely; suffering from a painful and incurable disease, he wrote his Memoirs as a means of support for his family. Inventions. —This was a period of many inventions and improvements. The force of electricity was utilized in various ways. Electric railways took the place of street Chester A. Arthur 354 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1883 cars drawn by horses. The electric telephone which enabled persons far apart to carry on conversation came into use. Standard time [1883].—As people traveled more and as transit became more rapid, confusion was caused by running timepieces according to sun time. The watches of a hundred persons meeting in a railway station in a central city, such as St. Louis, might all be correct accord¬ ing to the owners’ home time, and yet no two would agree. They would vary by seconds, minutes, or even hours. To avoid confusion, the railways of the United States adopted a standard time by which their timepieces were set and their trains run. The United States was divided into four sections — Eastern, Central, Mountain, and Pacific, each including 15 0 of longitude, using the same time in all parts of it, and each section being an hour behind the section east of it. Standard time proved so convenient that soon it was generally adopted. Summary [1881-1885]. — James Abram Garfield of Ohio, the twen¬ tieth president, was assassinated four months after his inauguration by a disappointed office-seeker. Chester Alan Arthur of New York was the twenty-first president and the fourth vice president to hold that office. During his presidency, an act was passed to check the spoils system by making many civil service appointments according to the merit system. About this time, the telephone came into use and standard time was adopted. 5. Cleveland’s First Term [1885-1889] Democratic President Cleveland.—Grover Cleveland of New York was the first Democratic president who had been elected for twenty-eight years. He was elected by the Democrats and independent voters nicknamed ‘ Mugwumps,’ from an Indian word meaning ‘ chief,’ which has a local meaning in NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 355 1885] New England of ‘a person who has a high opinion of him¬ self.’ The Mugwumps supported Cleveland because, as mayor of Buffalo and governor of New York, he had worked for reform and had lived up to his ex¬ pressed opinion that public affairs “ should be conducted as far as possible upon the same principle as a good business man manages his private concerns.” Cleveland was a public- spirited man with a strong will and a high sense of duty and right. As president, he held fast his belief that “pub¬ lic office is public trust.” He was a great advocate of civil service reform, and used with moderation his power to confer office. Indeed, his moderation seemed too great to many of his party which, having been out of power so long, was “ very hungry and very thirsty.” Legislation. — The House was Democratic and the Senate was Republican; this made it impossible for any party measure to be carried. Several important non¬ partisan measures were passed. The Presidential Succession Act was passed in order to remove all danger of the government’s ever being left without a head. This act provided that in case of the death of the president and vice president, the office of chief executive should devolve on the cabinet members in the order that their offices were established. The Electoral Count Act was passed in order to prevent Grover Cleveland 356 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1887 a disputed presidential election, like the Tilden-Hayes one. This act said that each state should determine for itself by its own law any contest in it about a presidential elector. The Interstate Commerce Act was passed to regulate rates on railway lines extending through more than one state, so as to give equality of treatment to shippers and communities. This was the beginning of government reg¬ ulation of railways for which there was a growing popular demand. At first, railways had seemed only blessings, reducing the expense, toil, and danger of travel and opening new regions to market. But people found that they might cause hardships. Sometimes railroads disregarded the law that a common carrier must haul all men’s goods on the same terms ; they made special freight rates to big dealers, thus putting small shippers and manufacturers at a dis¬ advantage. By differences in freight rates, some sections and industries were built up at the expense of others. Sometimes rates were so high that they destroyed profits and shut certain crops and products from market. Immigration laws. — At the wish of the Pacific states, an act was passed to exclude Chinese laborers, who had come by hundreds of thousands to these states. They were thrifty men who could live on a scanty ration of rice and prosper on lower wages than white laborers could live on. The United States was taking a new attitude toward white immigrants, also. During the early years of the republic, its doors were wide open to the world. Then its immigrants were chiefly from the north of Europe,— thrifty, enterprising men of the same stock as the people who settled America. Later there began an immigration of people of a different stock, from Hungary, southern Italy, and Russia. Among these were lawless men who used bombs instead of ballots to secure measures they im] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 357 wished. It was felt necessary to protect the United States against such persons. A small tax was laid on each immi¬ grant entering, the country, and laws were passed to shut out convicts and idiots; later contract laborers were excluded; afterward laws were passed to exclude polyg¬ amists, diseased persons, paupers, and anarchists. Every year, thousands of persons are turned from our shores as ‘ undesirable citizens.’ Cleveland’s vetoes.—Cleveland had been nicknamed the ‘ veto mayor.’ He might well have been called the veto president, for he vetoed over three hundred bills — more than double the number that had been turned down by all the presidents before him. Many of these were pension bills. President Cleveland thought that only poor or disabled persons ought to receive pensions and that to give them merely for service in the Union army was a misuse of public money. Tariff.—After being for many years secondary to other matters, the tariff question was again coming to the front. From the formation of the government, there had been two opinions on this subject. The Federalists, the Whigs, and the Republicans in turn wished a high tariff to protect American manufactures. The Democratic- Republicans and the Democrats wished a low tariff ‘ for revenue only,’ claiming that a high tariff favored a few manufacturers at the expense of many consumers. Finally, a moderate tariff was agreed on, and this was not greatly changed until the War of Secession. Then, to raise needed funds, tariff rates were greatly increased. After the war, they were not lowered; duties were even raised on wool, steel, and some other things. President Cleveland thought that the high tariff was at the root of the trouble between capital and labor; any advantage to laborers from high wages, he said, was over* 358 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [i 887 balanced by the greater cost of living. In a message about the tariff, he used the famous words, “ It is a condition which confronts us, — not a theory,” — a condition, he said, in which the tariff was piling up a surplus in the treasury, while consumers were carrying a burden of taxes. Harrison elected president. — In the next election, the tariff was made the chief issue, — the Democrats favoring a lower tariff and the Republicans supporting the high protective tariff. Cleveland was a second time the Demo¬ cratic candidate. The Republican candidate, General Benjamin Harrison of Indiana, the grandson of President William Henry Harrison, was elected. Summary [1885-1889].—Grover Cleveland of New York was the twenty-second president. The chief events of his first term were the passing of the Presidential Succession, Electoral Count, and Interstate Commerce acts. The tariff question was again brought forward, the Democrats favoring and the Republicans opposing the reduction of tariff rates. 6. Harrison’s Term [1889-1893] Republican Oklahoma opened [1889].—-By this time, settlements extended from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and there was little new land to be occupied. The government purchased from the Indians a part of Indian Territory, called Okla¬ homa, ‘ the beautiful land.’ This was opened to settlers. At noon one spring day, a bugle was sounded. Fifty thousand persons who had camped on the boundary lines rushed forward and settled the territory in a day. At noon, Guthrie was prairie land ; at night, it was a town with 10,000 inhabitants. How different this was from the slow, laborious growth which had marked the settlement i88 9 ] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 359 of Virginia or even of the early border states, such as Kentucky! New states. — The year that Oklahoma was opened [ 1889], four new states were ad¬ mitted, — North Dakota and South Dakota in the great wheat belt, Montana, a rich mining country, and Washing¬ ton on the Pacific coast. The next year [1890], two new states were admitted, — Idaho and Wyoming, rich grazing and mining regions which a generation before were mere wilderness. Wyoming was the first state in which women were allowed to vote and hold office on an equality with men. Later women were given the suf¬ frage in several other western and middle states; in many A View of Oklahoma City as it appeared April 22, 1889 other states, they were given the right to vote about schools and some other matters. A steadily-growing party in all states demands for women equal voting rights with men, on the ground that they are citizens, taxed to sup¬ port the government, and subject to its laws. Benjamin Harrison 360 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1890 Legislation. — During Harrison’s term, the Sherman Anti-trust Act was passed to regulate manufacturing and trading companies that do an interstate business. The purpose of this act was to keep trusts from controlling markets and oppressing the people. A View of a Part of Oklahoma City to-day The Bland Silver Act was repealed and the Sherman Silver Act was passed, requiring the government to pur¬ chase 4,500,000 ounces of silver each month; for this, it issued treasury notes which were to be redeemed in either gold or silver. The McKinley Tariff Act was passed, increasing duties, especially on silk, woolen, and cotton goods, making the average rate of duty about fifty per cent. In this act, the principle of reciprocity was brought forward; lower rates of duty on certain articles were given to countries the tariff rates of which favored the United States. Australian ballot system.—There was a steady move¬ ment toward better government for cities and states. The Australian ballot system was adopted in one state after another; now some form of it is in use in almost every state. In this system of voting, the names of all candidates for each office are printed on a list. A copy of the list is given to each voter, and in a booth, alone, he marks the NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 36 ! 1890] names of the candidates that he prefers; thus no one can know how he votes nor direct his voting. This method of private voting has done away with much bribery and unfairness at elections. Southern state constitutions. — Several of the southern states drew up new constitutions; under these, by tax and educational qualifications, ignorant voters were ex¬ cluded. Other sections saw the South put aside the evils of unlimited negro suffrage and did not try to interfere. A better understanding between sections was growing up. ‘Billion Dollar Congress.’ — The Fifty-first Congress spent more money than had ever been spent by any Congress before; it was called ‘ the Billion Dollar Congress ’ because its appropriations amounted to that sum. Cleveland reelected president. — In the next election, the tariff was again the chief issue between Democrats and Republicans. The Republicans put forward Harrison for a second term and the Democrats nominated Cleve¬ land a third time. The decision of the former election was reversed. Harrison was defeated and Cleveland was elected. For the first time for thirty-two years, the Democrats controlled all three branches of the govern¬ ment. Summary [1889-1893]. — Benjamin Harrison of Indiana, the twenty-third president, served one term. While he was president, Oklahoma was opened for settlement and six new states were ad¬ mitted,— North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Washington, Idaho, and Wyoming. The Sherman Anti-trust Act, the Sherman Silver Act, and the McKinley Tariff Act were the chief legislative acts during Harrison’s term. 362 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1893 7. Cleveland’s Second Term [1893-1897] Democratic Currency question. — President Cleveland heartily fa¬ vored the low tariff desired by the Democratic party. But he disagreed with the majority of his party on the currency question ; it wished a double standard, using both gold and silver as the standard of our money system, whereas the president approved the single, or gold, standard. The Democrats elected him in spite of this difference of opinion, thinking that the first work of the party was to reform the tariff. But the currency question forced itself to the front. By the Sherman Silver Act, the government had agreed to buy a certain amount of silver every month. It issued notes for this, and when the notes were presented, it had to redeem them in either gold or silver. As the silver dollar was worth only about fifty cents in gold, gold was usually demanded. The government supply of the yellow metal was being exhausted, and it was piling up larger and larger un¬ used heaps of the white one. Unless something was done to relieve the situation, the government would soon be un¬ able to pay its notes in gold. The president thought that it ought to stop buying silver and issuing new notes. He called an extra session of Congress, and asked the repeal of the Sherman Act requir¬ ing the purchase of silver. After weeks and months of delay, this act was repealed. Meanwhile men were not sure of the value of the paper money that they handled, not knowing whether it would be redeemed in ‘ cheap ’ silver or ‘ dear ’ gold. They did as little business as pos¬ sible. Trade and manufactures were at a standstill. Failure followed failure. Wilson Tariff Act.—This was a bad time in which to 1894] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 3 6 3 make tariff changes, but the Democrats felt bound to make good their promises of reform. Congress passed the Wilson Act, extending the free list and lowering rates of duty. The Senate put in so many protective duties that Cleveland would not sign the bill and allowed it to become a law without his signature. Income tax. — As the government income was lessened by lowering the tariff, it was necessary to raise money by other means. An income tax was passed. This laid a tax of two per cent on incomes of over $4000. Income taxes had been laid before, and the Supreme Court had said that they were lawful, but now it declared that they were con¬ trary to the Constitution. The setting aside of the income tax left the government without sufficient money for its expenses. Financial distress.—The business depression grew deeper. The South suffered from the low price of cotton. The West suffered from the decline in value of its wheat and its silver. Droughts and crop failures deepened the distress. Even a year which brought a bountiful supply of wheat did not relieve the situation in the West. The world’s wheat crop was huge, and the price fell in the United States to forty-nine cents a bushel. Times grew harder and harder. Cities were crowded with people out of work, face to face with starvation. People in fertile farming regions did not have money to buy clothes; they wore garments made of grain bags and wrapped rags around their shoeless feet. ‘Armies of the unemployed’ came to Washington City from the western plains and even from the Pacific coast, to beg relief. In these hard times, the wages of workmen were low¬ ered, and there were strikes in many places, — at the Homestead Iron Works near Pittsburg, in Pennsylvanian coal mines, and at the shops of the Pullman Car Com- 364 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1894 pany near Chicago. The strikers tried to keep other men from working in their places, and there were riots in which many persons were killed. The mine strikes caused a short- Ruins after the Pittsburg Riot age of fuel. This stopped many factories, and hundreds and thousands of people were thrown out of work. People’s Party. — It seemed to many people that the farming, mining, and cattle-raising states of the South and West were at a disadvantage with the Northeast, the money center of the country. Its capital, its banks, its railroads, controlled markets and prices. The People’s Party, called by the newspapers the Populists, urged that the govern- NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 1893] 365 ment ought to pass an income tax, control railroads, and restore the coinage of silver. Expositions. — Even in this time of depression, great ex¬ positions were held in different parts of the country. There was a World’s Fair in Chicago [1893] to celebrate the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America. It was remarkable for the excellence and variety of its exhib¬ its and the beauty of its buildings. Two years after the Chicago fair, there was a great exposition at Atlanta. It showed that the South had made a wonderful advance since the war. Buildings designed, built, and furnished by negroes bore witness to the industrial progress of their race. Utah admitted to Union [1896]— During Cleveland’s second term, Utah was admitted to statehood. Its admis¬ sion had been delayed because polygamy was practiced there by the Mormons. The government thought that this was contrary to the good morals and welfare of a state ; Utah was admitted with a pledge in its constitution that it would henceforth not allow polygamy. Foreign affairs. — Several important foreign matters came up during Cleveland’s second term. The queen of the Hawaiian Islands had been deposed and a republic formed which asked to be annexed to the United States. American citizens had taken such a promi¬ nent part in the insurrection that Cleveland thought it was unfair to the native government to uphold the revo¬ lutionists. Therefore, he opposed annexation. For years, Great Britain had been engaged in a dispute with Venezuela about the boundary between Venezuela and British Guiana. It seemed impossible for them to come to terms, and Great Britain refused to arbitrate the matter. Finally President Cleveland said that if Great Britain refused to submit the matter to arbitration, it would 366 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1895 be necessary for the United States to inquire into the merits of the case and to insist upon the acceptance of just terms. This was a new and vigorous assertion of the Monroe Doctrine. Great Britain yielded, and the dispute was submitted to arbitration. The year that Cleveland took this stand about the Vene¬ zuelan matter, the Cubans began a rebellion against Spanish misrule. From its settlement by Spaniards early in the sixteenth century, the island had been regarded merely as a source of revenue to Spain, not as a part of the nation. It was burdened with heavy taxes and unfair trade laws. Soon after the War of Secession, the Cubans raised a revolt that lasted ten years; Spain promised to make reforms, but did not keep the promise. The Cubans revolted again and demanded “ independ¬ ence or death.” The war was conducted on both sides in savage fashion. Sugar plantations were destroyed, houses and villages were burned, prisoners and wounded men were shot. General Weyler, the Spanish military governor, formed ‘camps of concentration’; these were fields surrounded by ditches and barbed wire fences, with guardhouses at intervals. In these camps, men, women, and children were herded together like cattle, and died by thousands of disease and starvation. Americans watched with growing impatience the misery at their doors, thinking that it was ‘not war but barbarism.’ President Cleveland expressed the feelings of the people when he said that there would be “a limit to our patient waiting for Spain to end the contest.” Spain heeded this warning and recalled General Weyler. Still the struggle continued, and America took no part. But its protest had been made to the world. Sooner or later, if Spain did not come to terms with Cuba, the United States would intervene. 1896] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 367 Discovery of gold in Alaska [1896]. — For many years, Alaska was regarded by most people in the United States as “ nothing but an iceberg with a few seals roosting on it.” This opinion was changed by the discovery of gold in the Klondike, on the border between British and Ameri¬ can territory. The deposits were of wonderful richness. Preparing to climb ‘ the Golden Stair ’ and Peterson’s Trail, Chilkoot Pass, Alaska , Nuggets were found weighing many ounces; some weighed several pounds. As soon as the news reached the states, there was a rush to Alaska like that to California a half century before. Many persons were discouraged by the dangers and diffi- 368 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1896 culties of the way and turned back; many were lost in the wilderness and fell victims to the bitter cold of the climate which often registers thirty degrees below zero. The most direct route to the Klondike was by Chilkoot Pass, up a moun¬ tain so steep that it had to be climbed on foot by steps cut in the hardened snow. Up this ‘golden stair,’ there pressed for months a line of weary, toiling, hopeful men. They carried their sup¬ plies on their backs, and no one was allowed to descend the nar¬ row, crowded stair. If a man’s strength and courage gave out, he used his pack as a sled and tobogganed down the mountain. Thousands of hardy adventurers made their way to the Klondike by one route or another, and millions of dollars’ worth of gold dust and nuggets were obtained. Boundary dispute. — After the discovery of gold in the Klondike, there arose a dispute between the United States and Great Britain as to the exact boundary of Alaska. William McKinley 1897] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 369 The United States claimed that the boundary followed the mountain range at a certain distance from the bays and harbors; Great Britain claimed that it cut across the bays and followed the headlands. Finally the matter was submitted to arbitration, and the greater part of the terri¬ tory in question was awarded to the United States. McKinley elected president. — The next election turned from the tariff to the currency issue. The Republicans declared against free coinage of silver, except by agree¬ ment with the leading commercial nations of the world. They said that the world is one commercial community and that the United States must fall into line with the great European nations and adopt a gold standard. The Democrats thought that the United States ought to have its own standards of value. They declared in favor of “ the free and unlimited coinage of both gold and silver at the present legal ratio of sixteen to one, without waiting for the aid or consent of any other nation.” The Demo¬ crats nominated for the presidency William Jennings Bryan of Nebraska. The Republicans nominated and elected William McKinley of Ohio, and secured control of both the Senate and the House. Forest reserves. — One of Cleveland’s last public acts was to withdraw forest lands from settlement and to form reservations in several western states. This was the begin¬ ning of the policy of conserving national resources. Summary [1893-1897]. — Grover Cleveland of New York, the twenty-fourth president, was reelected and served a second term. While he was president, Utah was admitted to the Union, Congress passed the Wilson Tariff Act and laid an income tax which was set aside by the Supreme Court. There was a financial panic which was followed by long-continued business depression; hard times were in¬ creased by crop failures. A revolution took place in Hawaii and a republic was formed, which asked to be annexed to the United States. Through the influence of Cleveland, a boundary dispute between Vene¬ zuela and Great Britain was submitted to arbitration. 370 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1897 8. McKinley’s First Term : The War with Spain [1897-1901] Republican Dingley Tariff Act [1897].-—The Republicans, having again control of the government, proceeded to carry out their tariff and currency plans. They passed the Dingley Act, raising tariff rates. Later an act was passed making gold the single standard [1900]. Steel Trust [1897]. —The month that McKinley was in¬ augurated, a great steel trust was formed with a capital of over a billion dollars. It united under one management mines to supply iron, plants to produce steel, railroads and steamship lines to carry its products to the markets of the United States and of the world. It was claimed that the object of the trust was to reduce expenses, — by production on a large scale, by cutting out unnecessary expenses, by using by-products, by checking ‘cut-throat’ competition. Its wealth and organization gave it power to control the markets and prices of the product which was becoming the chief building material of the world. War declared against Spain [April 25, 1898]. — At last, the day came of which Cleveland had warned Spain, — the day when the United States lost patience with the course of affairs in Cuba. This was hastened by a tragic incident. A United States battleship, the Maine , had been sent to Cuba to protect American citizens there. The Marne was blown up in Havana Harbor [February 14,1898], and nearly three hundred lives were lost. Examinations of the wreck have convinced most experts that an outside ex¬ plosion caused the Maine's magazine to explode. There was no evidence that Spanish officials were responsible for the disaster — but within two months Spain and the United States were at war. The Maine incident was like a spark to powder, firing popular desire for war. 1898] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 371 The president sent a message, asking Congress to inter¬ vene in Cuba. “ In the name of humanity, in the name of civilization, in behalf of endangered American interests, which give us the right and the duty to speak and act, the war in Cuba must stop,” he said. Two weeks later, war was formally declared against Spain, and a fleet was sent to blockade the Cuban ports. The American navy was small, but it had first-class vessels and well-trained crews. There were only 28,000 men in the regular army, but the ranks were soon filled with vol¬ unteers. In a few weeks, over 200,000 men were enrolled. Southerners came forward eagerly. Old Confederate offi¬ cers volunteered and were given charge of troops. There was a new sense of union as north¬ ern and southern men marched side by side under the old flag. Battle of Manila [May 1]. — The first blow was struck. by the navy far out in the Pacific. The Pacific squadron, consist¬ ing of six battleships under Commodore Dewey, was in Chinese waters. As soon as war was declared, Dewey was ordered to go to the Philippines, Spanish islands near the Asian coast, and “ capture or destroy ” the fleet under Admiral Montojo. This fleet was in Manila Harbor. Dewey entered the Bay of Manila by night, crossing the mines in its channel as in boyhood he had sailed with Far- ragut over the mines in Mobile Harbor. Early the next morning, he attacked the Spanish fleet, which was superior to the American in number of vessels but inferior in quality. Dewey ordered his ships to move Admiral Dewey 372 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1898 slowly up and down the line of Spanish vessels, raking them with a deadly fire. By noon, the work was finished. The Spanish ships were all sunk, burned, or abandoned; the Americans had not lost a man nor a boat. Cervera’s fleet. — The battle in Pacific waters was soon fol¬ lowed by fight¬ ing on the At¬ lantic side. The Spanish squadron under Admiral Pascual Cervera entered the har¬ bor of Santiago de Cuba. There Philippine Islands k shut in b Y hills > nearly tw ° weeks before the Americans dis¬ covered its whereabouts. Then a squadron under Com¬ modore Schley blockaded the port; three days later, Rear Admiral Sampson, the commander in chief, brought up his vessels. To enter the long, narrow channel, protected with mines, com¬ manded by forts and bat¬ teries on the surrounding heights, would have been a useless waste of life. The Operations around Santiago de Cuba Americans waited for an army to land on the island and aid them by taking Santiago and the batteries around it. 1898] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 373 In order to prevent the escape of the Spanish fleet, a young naval offi¬ cer, Lieutenant Rich¬ mond Pearson Hobson of Alabama, made a daring attempt to block the har¬ bor by sinking a coal ship in the channel [June 3]. He and the seven men with him were taken pris¬ oners by the Spaniards, but were afterward ex¬ changed. Battles of El Caney and San Juan Hill [July 1]. — A few weeks later, an American army was landed near Santiago to help take the town and the Spanish fleet. Be¬ tween the landing-place and the city lay several miles of rough country, broken by steep hills, with narrow, miry roads winding through dense, tropical forests. Spanish troops occu¬ pied El Caney, about seven miles east of Santi¬ ago. This strong natural position was protected by a stone fort. South of Santiago Harbor and City 374 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1898 El Caney was San Juan Hill, a height surmounted by a fort and protected by tangles of barbed wire. To attack El Caney and San Juan Hill, the Americans had to march in the open, exposed to the fire of protected foes. They advanced gallantly and took the fort and th’e hill after several hours of severe fighting. The next day, the Span¬ iards made a b^ave but unsuccessful attempt to retake these places; the Americans held their own and advanced their lines. Cervera’s fleet destroyed [July 3].—Admiral Cervera now feared that he would be caught between the American fleet and army. He put to sea, not to fight but to escape, hoping to slip out of the harbor unseen or to break through the blockading fleet. But the Americans attacked promptly, each captain aiming at the vessel nearest him. Within four hours, every one of the Spanish ships was taken or destroyed. Several were set on fire, and at the risk of their lives the victors saved the crews of the burning ships. “ Don’t cheer, boys; the poor fellows are dying,” said one gallant American captain to his men. The Spaniards lost their entire fleet; several hundred men were killed in the fight or drowned and the survivors were taken prisoners. Not one American ship was injured. Cuba and Porto Rico taken. — After a brief siege by the fleet and the army, Santiago was surrendered. Then Major General Miles went with a small force to Porto Rico and took possession of the southern and western portions of the island. Soon after this, terms of peace were agreed on [August 12]. Capture of Manila [August 13]. — The war ended where it had begun. The city of Manila was taken the day after peace was agreed on, before news of it reached the city. 1898] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 375 Results of war.—The War with Spain lasted only four months. It cost the United States about $300,000,000 in debt and taxes. By the treaty of peace, Spain gave up its island possessions in the New World, which it had held since the days of Columbus. Control of Cuba was to be granted to the Cubans. The Americans were to retain Porto Rico and Guam, and also the Philippines for which they were to pay Spain $20,000,000. The American republic acquired colonial possessions by annexation, also. Soon after the war began, the Hawaiian Islands were annexed [July, 1898], and two years later Philippine Natives and Cattle they were organized into a territory. The Hawaiian and the Philippine Islands are fertile tropical countries, and they are convenient trading stations on the way to Asia. The War with Spain marked a new period in the history of the United States. Before this time, several great addi¬ tions to territory had been made. But they were all on the American continent, and all, with the possible excep¬ tion of Alaska, were expected to become organic parts of the Union, occupied as well as controlled by people of our nation. There was much discussion about how the Philip- 376 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1900 pines should be governed, and finally a new kind of govern¬ ment was established. This was by means of a commission appointed by the president. Judge William Howard Taft of Ohio was put at the head of the first commission [1900]. Aguinaldo. —While Dewey was waiting in the Philippines for an American army to come to the aid of his fleet, he made use of native allies. The leader of these was Emilio Agui¬ naldo, only twenty-nine years old, yet already a man of note as leader of a rebellion against Spanish misrule. The Filipinos expected that at the end of the war they would be given control of the Philippines as the Cubans were of Cuba. Soon after peace was declared, they formed an in¬ dependent government with Aguinaldo as president. Con¬ gress, however, voted to make the islands a colony of the United States. This seemed to the Filipinos merely an ex¬ change of masters, Spanish for American. For three years, they kept up the struggle for independence. At last, they were defeated, and their leader Aguinaldo was captured. Affairs in China. — Soon after the War with Spain, the attention of the world was turned to China. A party called Boxers, which was opposed to the presence and influence of foreigners, raised a revolt, took the city of Peking, killed many foreigners, and threatened to massacre them all. The United States and European nations protested against these outrages and sent troops to protect their citizens. The Hague Conference. — About this time, there began a great world-movement in favor of peace. Delegates from twenty-seven countries, including the United States, met at The Hague and agreed to settle disputes by arbitration instead of by war, whenever it was possible. McKinley reelected president. — In the next presidential election, eleven parties put forward candidates. William Jennings Bryan was again the Democratic candidate; William McKinley, the Republican candidate, was reelected. 1800-1900] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 377 Summary [1897-1901]. — William McKinley of Ohio was the twenty-fifth president. The year after he became president, war was declared against Spain. This war, which lasted four months, was marked by two brilliant naval victories, — one by Dewey over Montojo at Manila, and the other by Schley and Sampson over Cervera at Santiago. An American army landed in Cuba, won victories at El Caney and San Juan Hill, and took the city of Santiago. The city of Manila was taken by an American army and fleet. The treaty of peace granted Cuba to the Cubans, and gave to the United States Porto Rico and Guam and the Philippines for $20,000,000. The Filipinos, led by Aguinaldo, declared their independence, but were subdued by the Americans. The chief domestic events during McKinley’s term were the passage of the Dingley Tariff Act, and the adoption of a gold coinage standard for the United States. 9. The Nation at the End of the Nineteenth Century American nation. — Daring the nineteenth century, the American nation made enormous advances. Starting as a struggling young republic, it became one of the great nations of the world. Its territory was increased in several ways. By purchase, it acquired the great Louisiana Territory from France, Florida from Spain, the Gadsden Purchase from Mexico, and Alaska from Russia; by occupation and by treaty with Great Britain, it obtained the Oregon Country; by annexation, it gained Texas and the Hawaiian Islands; and by war, it won vast territory from Mexico and the Philippines and other islands from Spain. America’s increase in population was even more rapid than its increase in territory. During the nineteenth cen¬ tury, there were few great wars, and people learned much about preventing and controlling diseases; therefore, the world’s population increased more rapidly than in any previous century. Our country shared this general advance; moreover, it gained largely from other nations. 378 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1800-1900 During the century, there came to the United States over 20,000,000 immigrants. One-fourth of the whole Scandi¬ navian race sought homes in America, and people of this stock — Germans, Swedes, and Norwegians — settled great regions of the Northwest. As steamships took the place of sailing vessels and ocean travel became cheaper and speedier, hosts of immigrants came from Russia and the countries of southern Europe. When the twelfth census was taken [1900], the United States had 76,000,000 peo¬ ple, — twenty persons for every one at the time of the first census. When the first census was taken, only three per cent of the people of the United States lived in cities. At the Chicago in 1832 end of the nineteenth century, one-third of the Ameri¬ can people lived in cities, one-sixth was in villages and small towns, and only about one-half of the population was in the country. New York City contained almost as many people as were in the United States when the first census was taken. . . 1 . . fetih y t lloiostonp Wsputcrf' h ijloxJcd ami i 2'Grccawich liiT IlS-Laat iron. 1 ; SCALE OF MILES MlNDOR negr< PALAWAN/, TJATW ■'BORN I. (British .ATTU I. SCALE OF MILES ™ ISLANDS Greenwich (The different Scales used should be noted with particular care.) . 1800-1903] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 379 Cities did not always improve in government as they increased in size. They had to wrestle with problems about lighting, drainage, schools, water systems, sewerage, and of transit by means of surface, elevated, and subway railroads. City after city suffered from ‘boss ’ rule ; public funds were misused and public interests neglected by officials who regarded government as “ a cow to be milked.” One abuse after another was corrected. Industries.—The country which only three hundred years before was a wilderness, inhabited by half-naked savages, had become a great, wealthy nation. Its rich re¬ sources were being developed. It produced all the raw materials needed by a great nation, — wheat, corn, cotton, lumber, coal, oil, iron, gold, silver, and other things. Many of these products were manufactured so as to increase their value. The raw and manufactured products were used at home and shipped to all parts of the world. A clever Frenchman said truly: “The United States is not only the richest country in the world in coal, in iron, in copper, but also in human energy.” America made wonderful advances in agriculture, which is the basis of the prosperity of a great industrial nation, since without it no other business can exist. The govern¬ ment took a hand in agricultural education. It established in every state colleges to train farmers in better methods. A Department of Agriculture was organized, and its secre¬ tary became the eighth member of the president’s cabinet. Farmers learned to make their brains help their hands; they increased crops and reduced expenses by the use of fertilizers, improved machinery, and good farming methods. Former waste products were utilized. Cotton seed, for¬ merly thrown away, was made into feeds, bread stuffs, fertilizers, and oil, and brought farmers more money than the whole cotton crop was worth fifty years before. In- 380 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [180^1900 stead of raising only one crop, such as cotton or tobacco, farmers raised, in addition to their market crop, grain, A Hatvester hay, and meat for home use. Truck farming was found profitable along the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts; cabbage and lettuce for northern markets brought more Steam Plow money to South Carolina every year than it received for rice when that was the staple crop. Most of the old southern plantations were divided into 1800-1900] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 381 small farms, worked by their owners. The great farms of the country were chiefly in the thinly-settled regions of the West; some Dakota wheat farms and Texas ranches had miles of land inclosed in one field. On the grassy plains from Texas to Montana were great herds of cattle and sheep. These were sent by rail to Chicago and other cities to be slaughtered and shipped to all parts of the world. The fertile Northwest became the great wheat farm of the country. A small force of laborers, using gang plows and reaping machines, was able to raise and save its huge crops. Improvements and inventions. — Improved tools and machinery, which relieved farm life of much of its drudgery, raised its standards. It requires more intelligence to use and care for machinery than to work with a hand hoe and a plow. Country life was made pleasanter, too, by tele¬ phones, better roads, free delivery of mails, and many home comforts. In all pursuits and trades, improved tools and labor-saving machines were more and more used. The powers of steam and elec¬ tricity were utilized in many ways. Wonderful advances were made in methods of heating and lighting houses and of traveling and of carrying news. Instead of wood fires, candle people used coal stoves, hot-air furnaces, hot-water pipes, electric radiators. Tallow candles and whale-oil lamps gave place to kerosene lamps, gas, and electric lights. In place of goose-quill pens and hand presses, there were typewriters and cylinder Lamp printing presses. Instead of traveling in sail or row boats and on horseback or in coaches, people went about in boats and cars propelled by steam or 382 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1800-1900 electricity. By means of railroads and steamships, the products of distant sections and countries were exchanged. Refrigerator cars cooled with manu¬ factured ice delivered fresh fruits and vegetables in perfect condition thousands of miles from the fields Gas Bracket . ,, r- i r where they grew. Speedy, safe mail systems, the telegraph, and the telephone took the place of old, slow methods of communication. Early in the twentieth century, cables were laid across the Pacific and telegraph communication was established around the world. A message made the circuit of the globe in twelve minutes; a century before, it would have taken many months. War was made more prompt and deadly by the invention of steel battleships, high explo¬ sives such as dynamite and Max¬ imite, and improved firearms. One of the modern guns which fires several hundred shots a min¬ ute is equal to a little army in the days of the Revolution. Education. — Great improve¬ ments were made in education. The public-school system was extended all. over the country and equipped with better methods and better-trained teachers. In the schools of the United States, there were gathered at the end of the nineteenth century over 17,000,000 children with nearly 500,000 teachers. More and more attention was being paid to industrial edu- Linotype Machine i 8 oo-iqoo] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 383 cation and to fitting young people for the duties of life. The average American now spends over a thousand days in school, whereas his grandparents spent fewer than a The Flatiron Building, a Steel Frame Building in New York City hundred. Moreover, periodicals, books, libraries, and museums put knowledge within reach of all people. Great colleges and universities in all parts of the country offered men and women advantages for higher education. In these institutions, people read less Latin and Greek and learned more science than did their college-bred forefathers. 384 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1800-1900 Science. — In many branches of science, Americans did botanist Asa Gray, the ornithologist John James Audubon, the zoologist Louis Agassiz, the geographer Mat¬ thew Fontaine Maury, and other American scientists made valuable contributions to the world’s fund of knowledge. The most widely-known American inventor at the end of the nineteenth century was Thomas Edison; like Franklin, he investi¬ gated the force of electricity and invented methods of making it useful. He improved electric lights, invented a phonograph, a moving-picture machine, and many other things which add to the comfort and pleasure of millions of people. Medicine. — During the latter part of the nineteenth century, there was greater advance in the science of medicine than during all former centuries. American physicians took rank among the best in the world, doing a noble work to reduce pain and disease. Two great steps in medical advance were the discovery of what is called the germ theory of disease and of the agency of insects in carrying diseases; flies spread the ‘ filth disease,’ typhoid fever, and mosquitoes convey malaria and yellow fever. Louis Pasteur, a French chemist, discovered the germ theory of disease, and Robert Koch, a German physician, carried on Pasteur’s work and discovered the germ of cholera and the bacillus of tuberculosis. The germs that convey many other diseases have been discovered and physicians are learning to prevent, control, and cure many maladies once regarded as incurable. “ It is in the power of man,” said Pasteur, “ to cause all infectious diseases to notable work. The Thomas A. Edison 1800-1900] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 3 «s disappear from the world.” Hydrophobia is curable when taken in time, and antitoxin relieves most cases of diph¬ theria, formerly one of the most fatal diseases of children. Tuberculosis, ‘the great white plague,’ which claims as its victims in the United States 160,000 persons every year, has been proved to be a preventive and transmissible disease. It is curable in the earlier stages by fresh air, good food, and rest. All civilized people are joining in the war against this scourge, and its ravages are being greatly lessened. For over a century, yellow fever was one of the most dreaded of diseases. Time after time, it laid waste cities and communities, especially in the South. A Cuban phy¬ sician who studied the disease advanced the theory that yellow fever is transmitted by mosquitoes. Some brave Americans set to work, at the risk of their lives, to test the truth of this theory. One of these men, Dr. Jesse Lazear, was bitten by an infected mosquito, developed yellow fever, and died a martyr to science and humanity. By means of many experiments, it was proved that yellow fever is trans¬ mitted from one person to another only by the bite of a certain species of mosquito. By destroying the breeding places of these mosquitoes and by keeping fever patients screened against insects, the pestilence has been practically stamped out. Literature. — In the first third of the nineteenth century, Irving, Bryant, and Cooper were the chief American authors. The second third of the century is often called ‘the golden age ’ of literature in America on account of its host of brilliant writers — poets, novelists, essayists, and his¬ torians— Longfellow, Whittier, Poe, Lanier, Lowell, Haw¬ thorne, Holmes, Emerson, Bancroft, Motley, Prescott, Parkman, and others. As these passed away, younger authors came forward. It 386 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1800-1900 Samuel Clemens (Mark Twain) is possible to name here only a few of the authors notable during the last third of the nineteenth century, most of whom are still at work. John Fiske and Woodrow Wilson relate the history of America with charm of style and scholarly ability. Samuel Clemens, better known as ‘Mark Twain,’ wrote with vigor and shrewd humor on many subjects; Huckle¬ berry Finn and other stories picture vividly life in the Middle West. Bret Harte wrote vivid tales of the ‘ Forty- Niners’ in California, Winston Churchill is the author of The Cross¬ ing and other popular historical novels, George W. Cable describes the Creoles of Louisiana, Margaret Deland, in Old Chester Tales and other stories, tells about village life in Pennsyl¬ vania, W. D. Howells and Mary Wilkins Freeman depict New England scenes and character. Joel Chandler Harris won world-wide fame by his Uncle Remus tales and other stories about Georgia negroes, and Thomas Nel¬ son Page describes, with rare fidelity and power, life in Virginia before and during the War of Secession and in reconstruction days. Progress in arts. — In useful in¬ ventions, America led the world, but it was behind older nations in the fine arts, — music, painting, and sculpture. In those, however, it was making notable progress. Good work was done by Amer¬ ican painters and sculptors, — Edwin A. Abbey, John S. Sargent, J. McNeill Whistler, Elihu Vedder, William M. Thomas Nelson Page i 8 oo-igoo] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 3^7 Chase, and John La Farge, and by Frederick Macmonies, Augustus St. Gaudens, and Daniel French. After pho¬ tography was invented, other branches of art became more popular than portrait-painting. Landscape painting was developed, and scenes from history and mythology were favorite subjects for the pictures for which there was growing demand as noble public build¬ ings and handsome residences were erected. Many of these buildings were de¬ signed by Ameri¬ cans. Two noted American architects were Henry Richard¬ son and Charles Me Kim. They created no new styles, but used European ones and Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N.Y. . . . Toel Chandler Harris (Uncle Remus) adapted them to American conditions. Home makers throughout the country tried to unite beauty and comfort in their buildings. They learned to give houses the setting of attractive grounds, beautified by the skillful use of natural features and native plants. Much of this improvement was due to two landscape gardeners, A. J. Downing and Frederick Law Olmstead, who laid out beautiful public and private grounds. Conservatories of music were established, and music 388 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [iSoc^igoo lovers took pride in the work of John K. Paine, the composer, and of Theodore Thomas, the conductor, whose orchestral concerts made thousands of people familiar with good music. Race problems.—As the country advanced, it faced at each step new problems. Some arose from the presence of other people besides the ruling white race. Of the copper- colored people called Indians, whom Europeans found in possession of the American continent, there were at the end of the nineteenth century about 250,000 in the United States, not including Alaska. Most of these were on res¬ ervations set aside for them by the general government. Some of the tribes were civilized and had schools and churches ; others were wandering bands of savages. All were ‘ government wards,’ ruled like children and not recog¬ nized as citizens unless they left their tribes. At.the end of the nineteenth century, there were about eight million negroes in the United States. After the War of Secession, the freedmen were given the suffrage for which they were unfit. By degrees, suffrage in the South was limited, by tax and educational requirements; these excluded most negroes. Slowly the evils of slavery and reconstruction were put aside, and the negro race began to advance in the only possible way, — through its own efforts,, by means of industry and morality. In the indus¬ trial training of his race, Booker Washington has taken a foremost part by his writings and by means of a model industrial school at Tuskegee in Alabama. With the Indian and negro problems on hand, at the end of the nineteenth century, the United States cheerfully took up another race problem, bringing under its rule Malay races of the Pacific, to whom it gave good schools and reli¬ gious freedom. Is the Declaration of Independence to apply to white people and to favored black ones, and not to red and brown l 8 oo-igoo] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 389 races ? Are all men or only a selected part to share the government ? These questions remain to be answered. But more and more, the suffrage is coming to be regarded as a privilege rather than a right. Trusts. — During the last quarter of the nineteenth cen¬ tury, business men, by the power of capital and organiza¬ tion, began to control markets and prices in a way hitherto unknown. John D. Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegie, Edward H. Harriman, and other great ‘ captains of industry ’ gained control of oil, steel, railways, and various other products and public services. Most of these men started life as penniless boys, and by their genius for finance acquired vast fortunes. Laboring men complained that the corpo¬ rations and trusts which built up the fortunes of these multi-millionaires did so by unfair control of markets and prices. It was proved that some of these organizations were using dishonest methods and were breaking the laws of the land, and public opinion began to demand govern¬ ment investigation and control of trusts. American laws and ideals. — It is a grave question as to how laws are to protect at once the interests of *he poor and the rights of the rich. Americans believe that this can be done. They believe that it must be done, and that all men, rich and poor, must have fair dealings and must share the burdens and the opportunities of the nation. The ques¬ tions before the country must be decided, not in the inter¬ ests of one section nor one class, but in the interests of the whole people. As compromises were necessary in order to form the government, compromises are necessary to carry it on. True patriots see to-day, as Washington saw, that men, states, and sections must sometimes sacrifice their wishes and even their interests to the welfare of the whole country. Americans have faith in their govern¬ ment founded on the principles of liberty, equality, and 3Q0 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1800-1900 fraternity, and they believe that during the twentieth cen¬ tury as during the nineteenth the history of the nation will be one of progress and of noble achievement. Summary [1800-1900]. — During the nineteenth century, the United States advanced rapidly in many ways. By purchase, by treaty, by an¬ nexation, and by war, it extended its territory. By growth and by im¬ migration, it increased in population. Its resources were developed, many useful inventions were made, and it increased in material wealth. An excellent system of free schools was extended over the country and many colleges and universities were established. Good work was done by American authors, scientists, artists, architects, and musicians. The end of the nineteenth century found serious problems before the country, but with faith in its educational and political institutions, America faced the twentieth century. 10. McKinley and Roosevelt’s Term [1901-1905] Republican McKinley assassinated [September 14, 1901]. — The policies of McKinley were approved by his party, and he was reelected. The autumn after he began his second term, he went to an exposition at Buffalo, New York. A man approached as if to shake hands, and shot the president, inflicting a wound which proved fatal. The murderer, Leon Czolgosz, was an anarchist, the son of a Polish immigrant. President Roosevelt. — Vice president Roosevelt suc¬ ceeded McKinley. Roosevelt, although only forty-two years old, had had varied experiences of life. He was a member of an old Dutch family and his home was New York City; he had lived on a western ranch, and had written books about hunting and about American history. He was appointed Assistant Secretary of the Navy during McKinley’s first term, but resigned to organize a volunteer cavalry regiment in the War with Spain. This regiment, known as Roosevelt’s Rough Riders, did good service in the battle of San Juan Hill. After the war, Roosevelt was igoi] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 391 elected governor of New York and he took an active interest in politics, proving shrewd, resolute, vigorous, and aggres¬ sive. Politicians were in favor of making the active young reformer vice president, thinking he would be safely bottled up in an honorable position of little in¬ fluence. By a turn of fate, he became chief executive. Strikes. — Soon after Roosevelt be¬ came president, there was a great strike of coal miners in Pennsylvania. The strike lasted several months. Coal was scarce and high, and thousands of poor people suf¬ fered for want of fuel. By the con¬ sent of employers and employees, the president appointed a commission which settled the strike. This was extend¬ ing the power of arbitration in a way to secure the best interests of the country. Conservation of national resources. — By degrees, there was being made an organized effort to conserve the re¬ sources of the country, — to save forests, reclaim deserts, improve water-ways, and use them to advantage. Year by year, people are realizing more clearly the importance of this work, and individuals, states, and the national gov¬ ernment are trying to use and improve instead of destroy¬ ing our natural resources. Theodore Roosevelt 392 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1901 Forests are important to the welfare of a country. They not only supply lumber, but they prevent soil waste and regulate the flow of streams so as to make them more valuable for water power, navigation, and agriculture. The National Forest Service was organized in order to check the destruction and waste of American forests. Instead of leaving all the country open to men who wish to take up claims, Congress set aside forest reserves around the headwaters of streams. The forest reserves, national parks, and Indian reservations are largest and most numer¬ ous in the thinly-settled western states where most of the land is still owned by the government. More than half the territory of Idaho and over one-fourth of several other states are included in reservations. By the beginning of the twentieth century, most of the well-watered, fertile public land had been settled. There were in the arid and semi-arid regions of the West several hundred million acres of land which needed only water to make it highly productive. The work of irrigating these regions was too vast to be undertaken by individuals or even by states. Congress devoted the money paid for cer¬ tain public lands to the purpose of building reservoirs and canals to supply arid regions with water. This money was afterward to be repaid by the sale of irrigated lands. For three-quarters of a century, the government had been appropriating large sums of money for the improve¬ ment of rivers and harbors; but little permanent benefit was gained on account of lack of system in planning and executing the work. Now plans were made for the system¬ atic improvement of American water-ways. Among the schemes suggested were a deep water-way from Chicago to the Mississippi River, the improvement of the Ohio, Missouri, and Mississippi rivers, and the construction of an inland water-way along the Atlantic from Maine to Florida, 1902] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 393 Panama Canal. — During Roosevelt’s first term, the American government engaged in an enterprise of world¬ wide importance. This was the construction of a canal across the isthmus between North and South America. A French company had undertaken to build a sea-level canal across the Isthmus of Panama. After spending eight years and $260,000,000 in the attempt, the company failed. The War with Spain made the United States feel more than ever the need of a water-way through the isth¬ mus. When the war began, the battleship Oregon was at Map of the Panama Canal Zone San Francisco, and it had to come 13,000 miles to join the Atlantic squadron. The United States resolved to build a great canal which would shorten by 8000 miles the water route from New York to San Francisco. It purchased the 394 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOTLE [1902 French company’s property and canal rights for $40,000,000 and paid the republic of Panama $ 10,000,000 for a ‘ Canal Zone’ ten miles wide. Across this the Americans con¬ structed a great lock canal which they agreed should be open to all nations of the world on equal terms. Work on the canal was prosecuted with such vigor that it was finished in ten years [1914]. Colonel George Goethals was in charge of the canal construction. The two chief engineering tasks were the great Gatun Dam, a mile and a half long, and the Culebra Cut, half a mile wide and five hundred feet deep, through the mountain system which is the ‘backbone of the continent.’ The sanitation of the Canal Zone was almost as great an undertaking as these engineering feats. The French failure to construct a Panama Canal was due largely to the unwholesome conditions of the hot, wet, fever-stricken region, which for four centuries had been known as ‘ the white man’s grave.’ The first work that the Americans undertook was the sanitation of the Canal Zone. Under the direction of Surgeon-General W. C. Gorgas, the country was cleaned, swamps were drained, sanitary methods of living were adopted, and the isthmus was rendered a wholesome home for the army of 50,000 workmen. The death rate, which had been 170 to the 1000 under French rule, was reduced to 9 to the 1000. The Panama Canal will have great and far-reaching effects not only in the United States but throughout the world. The sea distance from the east to the west coast of the United States is cut in half, and the efficiency of our navy is practically doubled by making it possible to unite the Atlantic and Pacific squadrons promptly so as to use them together. The routes from Europe to western America and the islands of the Pacific are greatly lessened. In fact, the canal changes and shortens the trade routes of 1903] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 395 the world. This means, of course, a great saving of time and money. The southern states will be especially bene¬ fited by their nearness to this new highway of the world’s trade. There will be increased demand at better prices for their products, their industries will thrive and become more varied, their ports and cities will grow. American ships.—The War with Spain and the acquir¬ ing by the United States of island possessions led to the building up of the American navy. Appropriations were made for mammoth warships having, in addition to other batteries, twelve-inch guns so arranged in turrets that all can be fired in a broadside. Within a few years, the navy was doubled in size and strength. The growth of the American merchant service did not keep pace with the increase in naval power. Early in the nineteenth century, the United States had ships which carried on nine-tenths of the country’s export trade. At the beginning of the twentieth century, less than one-tenth of the exports were carried in American ships. Department of Commerce and Labor. — During Roose¬ velt’s first term, a new department was established [1903], including bureaus or divisions, dealing with questions about transportation and labor. The Secretary of Commerce and Labor became the ninth member of the president’s cabinet. A few years later, this department was divided, forming the Departments of Commerce and of Labor. Summary [1901-1905]. — William McKinley of Ohio, the twenty- fifth president, was assassinated by an anarchist a few months after he began his second term. Theodore Roosevelt of New York became the twenty-sixth president, being the fifth vice president to hold that office. During Roosevelt’s first term, the Alaskan boundary question was settled, the Panama Canal was begun, forest reserves were extended, and a National Irrigation Act was passed. 396 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE (1905 11. Roosevelt’s Second Term [1905-1909] Republican Roosevelt’s policies. — Roosevelt’s first term was so popu¬ lar that he was reelected by a large majority. He said that during his first term his main object had been to carry out the policies of McKinley; he an¬ nounced that during his second term his object would be to carry out his own policies, the chief of which were the regu¬ lation of “big business” and the conservation of national resources, especially of forests. “Big business.”—The infant industries of the United States had been protected until they had become giants. The combinations called trusts had increased rapidly. They controlled nearly all the output of the sugar and three-fourths of the steel, oil, and paper of the country ; in fact, they controlled about one-third of the products of all the nation’s industries, excluding agriculture. This con¬ dition of affairs was attributed by most people to the failure to enforce strictly the anti-trust laws and much was hoped from the prosecution of trusts which were breaking the laws by crushing out competition and controlling markets. Despite these prosecutions, during Roosevelt’s presidency the number of “ big business ” combinations increased enormously. Industrial laws. — Steps were taken to conserve forests and waterways, and the greatest of all national resources, Roosevelt Dam, Arizona, — to Irrigate Arid Region igo6] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 397 the health and lives of the citizens. Congress passed laws to regulate the working hours of railroad employees in interstate service, and to provide for the regulation of the rates of railroads engaged in interstate traffic. It passed pure food laws that forbade the use of injurious substances in foods and drugs entering interstate trade, and required labels stating the adulterations, if any were used. Cuban affairs.—For several years after the War with Spain, the United States kept troops and a military gov¬ ernor in Cuba. Under this military government, order was restored, schools were established, roads were built, and sanitary regulations were adopted to prevent the Cuban cities from being, as before, breeding places of disease. After these reforms were made, the Americans with¬ drew and left a native government in charge of affairs. In a short time, there arose disorder and revolts which the government could not control. The United States again took a hand in Cuban affairs, and sent a military governor to the island. Three years later, when it seemed that order was again restored, the Americans withdrew a sec¬ ond time from the island, leaving it in control of a native president and Congress. Philippine government.—The American policy for the Philippine Islands was announced to be ‘ self-government when the Filipinos are fit for it.’ Vast sums were spent on sanitation and education and the industrial develop¬ ment of the islands. The Filipinos became more friendly as they saw the Americans carry out the promise to govern the islands for the benefit of the natives. The first step in self-government was adding a Philippine national assembly [1907] to act with the commission appointed by the president. The day set for the election of the native delegates to this assembly was July 30, the anniversary of the day on which the first legislative 39B SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1905 assembly in America met at Jamestown. That year was the three hundredth anniversary of the establishment of the Jamestown colony, for the ‘ welfare of the Kingdom of God and the Kingdom of England.’ From that small beginning had come a mighty self-governing nation, extending its civilizing influence to islands of the Atlantic and Pacific. Yellow fever in New Orleans. — In various ways, medical science was changing living conditions. It was robbing many germ diseases of their terrors. One midsummer day [1905], New Orleans discovered that yellow fever was raging in its midst. Only eight years before, it had brought panic and thousands of deaths to the city. There was no panic now; people had learned that the disease is carried by mosquitoes and can be checked by destroying these insects. The citizens of New Orleans organized ‘an army of sanitation,’ and held a great house cleaning. “ Kill the mosquitoes,” was the cry. All pools and vessels containing standing water were coated with oil or screened with netting or cloth. The work was just finished when a terrific storm tore loose the screens and washed off the oil. The labor of weary days and nights was undone. The next day, the people began to do the work over again and do it better than before. Old men, children, millionaires, street waifs, clergyman, bar keepers, worked side by side. Trained men of the Federal service took charge of affairs. Within two months, the yellow flags were taken down. New Orleans had won the greatest victory ever gained over an epidemic. For the first time in the history of yellow fever, it was conquered by man. Anti-liquor campaign. — The opening of the twentieth century witnessed a widespread movement against the use and sale of intoxicating liquors. Towns, counties, and 1906] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 399 states passed prohibition laws, until more than half the area of the United States was ‘dry,’ — that is, with laws prohibiting the sale of liquor. The growth of temperance sentiment is largely due to the work of two organizations, the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union and the Anti- Saloon League. These send out hosts of books, papers, and lecturers to teach people the evils of the use of intoxicating drinks. For thirty years, the W. C. T. U. has been insisting on having literature put into school books to teach the injurious effects of alcohol; a generation of the children so taught have grown to manhood and are writing into the laws of our land the temperance prin¬ ciples learned at school. California earthquake [1906]. — Early in the twentieth century, there occurred the most destructive earthquake ever known in the United States. There were severe shocks along the Pacific coast. The city of San Francisco was destroyed by the earthquake and by the fire that followed it. Property to the value of $400,000,000 was destroyed and many lives were lost. Even before the ashes were cold, the brave Californians set to work to build a safer and more beautiful city. Oklahoma admitted to Union [1908]. — During Roose¬ velt’s second term, Oklahoma and Indian Territory were united and admitted as a state of the Union under the name Oklahoma. Wireless telegraph. — Marconi, a clever young Italian inventor, learned to utilize the waves of ether to carry messages instead of depending on instruments connected by wires. This system was promptly adopted, and in a few years, large ocean vessels were equipped with wireless apparatus and the globe was encircled with wireless stations. An event which occurred soon after the system was introduced illustrates its life-saving value. One foggy 400 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1909 winter night there was a collision between two ocean steamships, one of which, the Republic , was equipped with the wireless. Its operator sent out ‘ the ambulance call of the sea.’ Across the waves, through the foggy night, sped the cry for help, and ship after ship hundreds of miles away heard the call and hastened to the rescue. Without the wireless, the injured vessel might have sunk with all its crew and passengers, while ships a few miles away were ignorant of the disaster. ‘Two Billion Dollar Congress.’ — The Sixtieth Congress was notable for the friction between it and the president. Members of Congress complained that President Roose¬ velt assumed powers which belong to the legislative and judicial departments, and they resented this assumption. This Congress is called the ‘Two Billion Dollar Congress’ from the amount of its appropriations. As our country grows, the expenditures of the government of course increase, but many people think they have become greater than is necessary or justifiable. During Roosevelt’s second term, the appropriations amounted to over $3,500,000,000, — the expenditures of the government during these four years being twice as much as its expenses during the seventy-two years from Washington’s inauguration to the War of Secession. The national expenses during Roose¬ velt’s two terms were nearly eight billion dollars. Taft elected president. — Roosevelt was so popular that his party would have nominated him for another term, but he repeated his statement of four years before that “under no circumstances ” would he “ be a candidate for or accept another nomination.’’ He used his influence to secure the nomination and election of Secretary-of-War William Howard Taft of Ohio. A third time the Democrats put forward Bryan ; a third time he was defeated. Demo¬ crats, Republicans, and several other parties that put for- NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 401 1909] ward candidates declared in favor of better banking, currency, and tariff laws, and of other reforms for which there was general popular demand. Summary [1905-1909]. — During Roosevelt’s second term, Okla¬ homa was admitted to the Union, the United States intervened a second time in Cuban affairs, the Filipinos were granted a national assembly, there was an earthquake in California, Congress passed sev¬ eral useful industrial laws, and the use and sale of liquor were restricted in many states. 12. Taft’s Term [1909-1913] Republican Taft’s policies. — President Taft had had twenty-seven years’ experience in public life before he became president. He set to work to give the country a business-like, economi¬ cal rule. During the first year of his term, the govern¬ ment’s expenses were re¬ duced $53,000,000, without lessening its efficiency. Many people wished to have new laws made to con¬ trol trusts and business com¬ binations, but the president declared himself in favor of enforcing the existing laws instead of making new ones. There were government suits against the Standard Oil Company and the American Tobacco Company for breaking the Sherman anti-trust law, and verdicts were obtained to dissolve these great trusts. Suits were begun against the Harvester Trust, the Steel Trust, and other combinations. 402 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1909 Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act [1909]. — The president called an extra session of Congress for the purpose of carrying out the Republican promise to revise the Dingley Tariff Act. After five-months’ discussion, the Payne-Aldrich Bill was passed. It was opposed by most of the Demo¬ crats and by progressive, or insurgent, Republicans, because it did not reduce the high protective rates. It lowered twenty per cent of the rates of the Dingley Act, left unchanged sixty-five per cent, and increased fifteen per cent; goods in common use — cottons, woolens, and rubber — were among those on which the duties were in¬ creased. There were two amendments to the Payne- Aldrich Act which were generally approved : one laid an annual tax of one per cent on the earnings of all corpora¬ tions; the other provided for a Tariff Board consisting of three experts whose duty was to investigate the cost of products at home and abroad, and to make reports to Congress as a basis for further tariff legislation. This Tariff Board passed out of existence two years later because funds were not appropriated to keep it up. Thirteenth Census [1910]. — The Thirteenth Census showed that the first ten years of the new century had been a period of wonderful growth and prosperity. The population of the United States was over 91,000,000 — twenty-five persons for every one when the first census NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 403 1910] was taken ; including territories, the population was over 93,000,000; and including the Philippines and other de¬ pendencies, it was over 100,000,000. A noteworthy fact was the rapid increase of cities. In Washington’s time, there were in the United States only Courtesy of Literary Digest This Map shows Percentages of Population Increase, 1900-1910 six cities having a population of 8000 or over; at the time of the Thirteenth Census, there were forty-seven cities with a population of over 100,000 each, the forty-seven contain¬ ing 28,000,000 people. One-third of the 91,000,000 people in the United States was of foreign birth or foreign parentage. Immigrants were no longer going only to the North and the West. The South was building up in a wonderful way; in twenty years, its population had increased nearly seventy per cent and its manufacturing capital had increased over seven hundred per cent. Instead of sending its cotton to the North and to England, it manufactured at home a large and increasing part of the crop. Agricultural advance. — The cotton crop held its place 404 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1910 as the greatest of all the agricultural products of the United States, being valued in 1910 at over $800,000,000; the total value of that year’s agricultural products was nearly $9,000,000,000. The United States had become the granary of the world, being the greatest of all food-export¬ ing countries. The development of this great industry is aided by the Department of Agriculture with its thousands of trained specialists. Every community in the nation feels its helping hand —encouraging agricultural education, establishing experimental farms, aiding in the control of plant and animal pests, and introducing profitable scientific methods in place of old haphazard ones. Gunnison Tunnel. —The exploits of men of our own race and time in developing the resources of the continent are as interesting as the adventures of De Soto, Coronado, and other early explorers. One of many instances was the exploration of the Gunnison River, in order to decide if it were feasible to use the stream to irrigate a desert region in southwestern Colorado. A. L. Fellows and W. W. Torrence, two engineers of the government reclamation service, entered the Black Canon, which had been pro¬ nounced impassable, and followed the Gunnison River thirty miles down its course. Three thousand feet above them rose the rock walls of the canon, narrowing at the bottom to a width of thirty or forty feet. Down its boulder-strewn bed, in rapids, over falls, through grim underground channels, the stream rushed with the speed of a mill race. By day, the explorers toiled on, climbing, crawling, limping, wading, swimming, taking notes, and making records; by night, they snatched a few hours’ rest, lying on narrow ledges of rock, drenched with spray from the snow-fed stream. Under all these difficulties, they made a survey which proved that it would be feasible to use the stream for irrigation. After ten years’ labor, the 1909 ] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 405 Gunnison Tunnel, the first of the great irrigation systems of the national government, was completed. The wild torrent was turned from its canon bed, carried through a six-mile tunnel under the mountains, and made to bring fertility to the desert. It supplies a canal four hundred miles long with water, and has changed 200,000 acres from a desert where no creature could live into a fertile region with herds, crops, orchards, and gardens. Discovery of North and South Poles. — For four centu¬ ries, expedition after expedition had explored the polar regions and hun¬ dreds of brave men had lost their lives in attempts to reach the poles. At last an Ameri¬ can, Commander Robert N. Peary, who had spent t w e n ty-t h r ee years in Arctic explorations, reached the north¬ ern goal [1909]. He made a rapid sled journey from his ship across the ice of the polar sea and with five companions reached the Pole. About two years later, the South Pole was reached by two explorers ; first by a Nor¬ wegian, Captain Roald Amundsen, and a few weeks later by a brave Englishman, Captain Robert Scott, who perished on the return journey toward his base of supplies. Commander Peary and his Dogs 406 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [w* Air and ocean travel. — Another long-cherished scheme was carried out when men learned to navigate the air. A pioneer in air travel was an American, Samuel P. Lang¬ ley, who made a flight of nearly a mile in a machine driven by a small steam engine [1896]. A few years later, several suc¬ cessful flying machines were invented. Among the foremost “ bird men ” were Orville and Wilbur Wright, Glenn Curtiss, and other Americans. Within a few years, there were made cross-country flights of two or three thousand miles, a speed of over a hun¬ dred miles an hour was at¬ tained, and ascensions were made to a height of eighteen thousand feet. Flying ma¬ chines were adopted as a part of army service, to be used instead of cavalry for scouting purposes. Practical scientists are laboring to make machines reliable for passenger service. While mastery of the air was being gained, new records were made for ocean travel. The steamship time across the Atlantic was lowered by one great ‘ ocean greyhound ’ after another until the ocean was crossed in less than four and a half days. Huge vessels were built that were floating palaces. Despite safety devices, some of these great vessels met with appalling disasters. One of them, the Titanic , struck an iceberg at midnight off the coast of Newfoundland [1912]. Over 1600 persons were Wright’s Biplane NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 1911] 407 drowned; 700 were rescued by the Carpathia , summoned by the sinking ship’s wireless calls. Postal savings banks and parcel post. — In two ways the service of the postal department was increased while Taft was president. Postal savings banks were established [1911] to provide a depository for small savings. These banks receive sums ranging from one dollar to five hun¬ dred dollars, and pay two and a half per cent interest. The first depositor in the first bank was an eleven-year-old boy, who proudly put in his two-dollar ‘ nest egg.’ As popular as the postal savings banks and of even more widespread usefulness is the domestic parcel post. Begun as an experiment with special stamps [1913], in a few months it was handling a large share of the small pack¬ ages of the country. Its efficiency has been increased by decreasing its rates and increasing the size and weight of the packages that may be carried by it. Arbitration treaties. — After continuing nearly a century, a fisheries dispute between the United States and Great Britain was settled by arbitration [ 1911 ] to the satisfaction, in the main, of both parties. The next year [1912], treaties of arbitration were made by the United States with France and Great Britain. It was agreed that their dis¬ putes should be submitted to arbitration, these great nations being “ resolved that no future difference shall be a cause of hostilities between them or interrupt their good relations and friendship.” New states. — During Taft’s presidency, two new states were admitted, Arizona and New Mexico [1912]. There were now forty-eight states, and no territories were left within the borders of the United States. Wilson elected president.—The Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act was approved by the regular, or ‘ stand pat,’ Republi¬ cans and was opposed by the progressives, or ‘ insurgents.’ 408 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1912 Dissension in the Republican ranks increased when Roose¬ velt announced himself again a candidate for the presidency. Republicans in favor of Taft secured his renomination and the Roosevelt followers formed a new party called the Progressive. The Progressives proclaimed a “ new nationalism”; they declared in favor of government control of “ problems which have expanded beyond the reach of the individual states” and “equal suffrage to men and women alike,” and nominated Roosevelt for the presidency. The Democrats had made use of their majority in the House to change its rules so as to lessen the power of the speaker to direct and block legislation; they declared in favor of other reforms, — “downward revision ” of the tariff, better currency laws, anti-trust legislation, an income tax, and election of senators by popular vote; on this platform they nominated Woodrow Wilson of Virginia, a Southerner of national training, who was governor of New Jersey. Wilson was elected, receiving 435 of the 531 electoral votes. For the first time since the War of Secession, a South¬ ern man was chosen for chief executive; here was proof that after half a century the separation of sections was over and there was a real Union. And for the first time since that war, the Democratic party really controlled the three branches of the government and was to take its turn at ‘ constructive ’ statesmanship. That party had had nominal control in Cleveland’s second term, but it divided on the cur¬ rency question and never came together as a working force. Summary [1909-1913]. — William Howard Taft of Ohio, the twenty- seventh president, served one term. During his presidency, the Payne- Aldrich Tariff Act was passed, postal savings banks and a domestic parcel post were established, and the states of Arizona and New Mexico were admitted to the Union. Other interesting events of the time were the discovery of the North Pole by an American, the invention of airships, the settling by arbitration of a fisheries dispute with Great Britain, and the making of arbitration treaties with France and Great Britain. 1913] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 409 13. President Wilson [1913 -] Democratic President Wilson. — With each election during the last century, the personality of the president has become a matter of more importance. By making use of his Consti¬ tutional power to suggest legisla¬ tion and his veto power, the presi¬ dent has become really, as Presi- dent Wilson phrased it, “ the head of the gov¬ ernment and the responsible leader of the party in power.” When Wilson became president, people knew him chiefly as the able president of Princeton Univer¬ sity, the reform governor of New Jersey, a Student Woodrow Wilson and scholar who had written with wisdom and refreshing common sense and charming lucidity of style about American history and politics. He promptly showed himself a great leader, masterful and tactful, who stated simply and held steadily 4io SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [19x3 fine ideals. With due regard to the party that elected him, but with chief regard to the welfare of the whole people, he led the work for which his party had been put in power. The most important of this legislative work was the reform of tariff and currency systems and the better control of trusts. Glass of Virginia, Clark of Missouri, and Underwood of Alabama, — three leaders of the first Democratic working majority in Congress for over sixty years. Underwood Tariff Act [1913]. — Under the leadership of Oscar Underwood, the Democrats passed a law which greatly reduced the general average of tariff rates; the rates on cotton and woolen goods were lowered, and sugar and wool were put on the free list. In order to raise needed revenue, the Underwood Tariff Act carried an income tax of 1 % on incomes above $3000. Federal Reserve Act [1914]. — After the tariff act was passed, Congress turned to the banking and currency ques¬ tion. A bill introduced by Carter Glass was passed, which was approved, on the whole, by bankers and the general public and which established a banking system that may be of as great service to the United States as the famous Bank of England is to Great Britain. The Glass-Owen Bill, or Federal Reserve Act, upheld the gold standard. It planned to replace, within twenty years, national bank 1 914 ] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 411 notes by federal reserve notes which are to be redeemed, on demand, in gold by the Treasury Department. There are twelve Federal Reserve Banks supervised by a Federal Reserve Board, with a Federal Advisory Board. The Reserve Board, consisting of seven members, by its supervision unites the banks in a national policy and gains cooperation among them. The banking business of issuing notes, discounting paper, and using deposits is conducted by the Reserve Banks [opened November 16]. The capital of each bank is provided by banks in its district, national banks being required to come into the system and state institutions being allowed to do so. The Reserve Banks are the “ financial trustees of the nation ” ; they are to supervise and control their member banks; to keep large reserve funds, especially of gold, so as to assist members in need; and to promote banking and business safety and prosperity. The Federal Advisory Board is composed of members chosen by Reserve Banks. A complement to the Federal Reserve Act is a “rural credits ” bill to provide banking accommodation for the 412 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [iqm farmers, enabling them to obtain loans with land as security. Anti-trust legislation.— Trust-controlling legislation finally took shape in three bills. The Clayton Anti-trust Bill supplements the Sherman Act; it forbids certain business methods which restrain competition and it holds the in¬ dividuals in a law-breaking corporation personally responsi¬ ble as criminals. The Trade Commission Bill established an Interstate Trade Commission the duty of which is to investigate the organization and management of corpora¬ tions so as to see that they conduct their business in ac¬ cordance with the law. The Rayburn Railroad Bill gives the Interstate Commerce Commission power to control railway stock and bond issues. Constitutional amendments.—Two amendments to the Constitution passed by Congress during Taft’s presidency, having been approved by the required three-fourths of the states, became a part of the law of the land [1913]. The Sixteenth Amendment gives Congress power to lay an income tax. The Seventeenth Amendment provides that senators shall be elected by the direct vote of the people, instead of by state legislatures. These were the first amendments since the three passed after the War of Secession, to give freedom and civil rights to the negro. New political methods. —The Seventeenth Amendment shows the growing disposition of the people to take direct governing power; fortunately, this is united with a growing disposition to put affairs into the hands of experts, directly responsible to the electors. In public matters, people are beginning to use the methods they take to secure efficient service in private business. A noteworthy instance of this was the adoption by Galveston and other cities of the commission form of government. IQI 4 ] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 413 By this effective and economical plan, a small group of persons, usually five, is made responsible for the manage¬ ment of a city, as a board of directors is of a railway or other business. Some cities have a manager, instead of a commission. In electing a commission or manager, the people usually reserve for themselves the rights of initiative, referendum, and recall. The initiative gives the people the right to initiate, or begin, legislation; if a certain per cent of voters state their views to their legislature, it must take action on the subject. The referendum refers laws from the legisla¬ ture to the people for final adoption or rejection; on peti¬ tion of a certain per cent of voters, any measure passed by the legislature must be ratified by the popular vote in order to become law. The recall gives electors the right to recall, or dismiss, an official with whom they become dis¬ satisfied and to replace him with another, without waiting for a regular election. In many states, especially in the West, the initiative, referendum, and recall have been adopted for state-wide use. Equal suffrage. — Changed industrial conditions bring women in ever-increasing numbers into the ranks of wage- earners, and so tend to bring them into the political world. Twelve states have adopted equal suffrage, — Wyoming, Nevada, Colorado, Utah, Idaho, California, Washington, Oregon, Arizona, Kansas, Illinois, and Montana. In many other states, women vote about school matters and women tax-payers vote on questions of taxation. Welfare work. — Women are leading many great welfare movements. Chief among these is the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union, founded by Miss Frances Willard, which has now a membership of over half a million and has auxiliaries in over fifty countries and provinces. Miss Clara Barton and Miss Mabel Boardman directed the 414 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1914 work of the Red Cross Society, at first established to care for ill and wounded soldiers, then broadened to serve sufferers from flood, fire, and other calamities. Miss Julia Lathrop is in charge of the Children’s Bureau, recently established to investigate mat¬ ters concerning the welfare of children. Miss Jane Addams is a leader in the work to uplift the submerged classes in great cities. Among these welfare workers was Mrs. Woodrow Wilson, the wife of the presi¬ dent, in response to whose dying wish Congress passed a bill eliminating objectionable alleys in Washington City, jane Addams Mexican affairs. — Early in Wilson’s presidency, the state of affairs in Mexico attracted serious attention. Mexico is a very rich- country, but its people are very poor. Its resources have been exploited largely by foreigners who have obtained mining, oil, commercial, and banking interests and concessions and who have stirred up revolts and insurrections to further their business schemes. President Wilson broadened the Monroe Doctrine, prac¬ tically taking the position that not only must Europe keep out of our hemisphere in a political sense, but that the Spanish-American states of the western continent must be left free to manage their own affairs, without the interference of foreign business interests. He refused to recognize as president Victoriano Huerta, an adventurer who obtained control of the Mexican government. No active part was taken in Mexican affairs, however, until 1914] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 415 Huerta’s soldiers at Tampico seized unarmed marines on a boat carrying the flag of the United States. Then demand was made that the Mexicans salute the Ameri¬ can flag, as apology. Huerta refused and American forces, sent to uphold our national rights and dignity, occupied Vera Cruz. Argentina, Brazil, and Chile offered their services as mediators. Through their influence and by the skill, patience, and wisdom of the American government, the with¬ drawal of Huerta was effected and war was averted. Arbitration treaties. — The ‘ABC’ conference about Mexi¬ can affairs is significant of the growing feeling that war is brutal and wasteful, foolish and wicked. “There is no difference so fundamental that it cannot be settled in peace and mutual respect if both sides are willing to be just and patient.” One of the leaders in a movement for international peace is Secretary-of-State Bryan, by whom twenty-six arbi¬ tration treaties have been made between the United States and other countries, — including Spanish-American re¬ publics, China, and several European countries. These treaties provide for commissions of inquiry in case of dis¬ putes between nations, and require a year’s investigation before the declaring of war, thus causing nations to act with sober good judgment. National peace and reunion. — 1914 rounds out a cen¬ tury of peace among English-speaking people, being the Confederate Monument in Arlington National Cemetery to the South as the home of General Robert E. Lee and consecrated to the North by being a national cemetery. On this monument are a plow and a pruning-hook and these words: “ They have beaten their swords into plow¬ shares and their spears into pruning-hooks.” One of the contributors to this monument was a New Jersey regiment 416 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1914 hundredth anniversary of the treaty of Ghent which ended the war of 1812. Significant of the reunion of sections is the monument to Confederate soldiers, erected at Arlington, a place sacred NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 417 1914] which had shortly before given a striking instance of mag¬ nanimity. It erected a battlefield monument having on one side an appropriate inscription in honor of its own dead and on the other side a tablet: “ To the brave Ala¬ bama boys who were our opponents on this field and whose memory we honor.” Thus this chapter of our history ends, with peace and good-will in our land. The LInited States and Great Brit¬ ain, estranged by two wars, have been reconciled during a century of peace; the sister sections, after a bitter era of discord and war, are going forward side by side, a great reunited nation. New chapters of our history will be made by the boys and girls who are to-day studying history. In their hands is the future of our nation, the keeping of it true to the great ideals of its founders, —liberty, peace, and righteous¬ ness. European war. —While we have peace at home, there is raging the most colossal war in the history of the world. The murder of an Austrian archduke by a Serb was fol¬ lowed by a declaration of war by Austria against Servia [July 28]. Through military alliances and business and political interests, one country after another was drawn into the contest, until the war involves most of Europe and Africa and the greater part of Asia. This great war is being fought with new and deadly weapons, — long-range rifles, powerful howitzers, guns of twenty-mile range, air-craft of all kinds, armed and armored automobiles. With all these new devices, the story of the war is the old, old one. Brave, strong young men are busy killing one another, nations are being impoverished and filled with feeble men, widowed women, and fatherless children. Common interests have so bound the world into one 418 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE Nu great community, that even a neutral nation, like the United States, suffers in this war. The price of many commodities — especially cotton, of which crop Europe usually takes two-thirds — declined, and the decrease of tariff receipts made it necessary to lay a war tax to raise $100,000,000 revenue. The people of the United States being drawn chiefly from the warring nations, “ it is natural and inevitable that there should be the utmost variety of sympathy,” but the president wisely urges all Americans to “act and speak in the true spirit of neutrality which is the spirit of impar¬ tiality and fairness and friendliness to all concerned.” Thus this great country of ours will be “ fit and free to do what is honest and disinterested and serviceable for the peace of the world,” — a peace that may be, not the quiet of an armed camp like modern Europe, but a lasting concord. APPENDIX TOPICS FOR STUDY CHAPTER 1 Geographical Studies Locate on the map all places mentioned in the text. 1. Draw an outline map of North America. Mark on it the ranges of the chief crop plants ; of the chief mineral and metal deposits. 2. Mark on a map of North America the range of savage Indian tribes ; of barbarous ones ; of partly-civilized ones. 3. Trace the probable course of Leif the Lucky. 4. Trace on the map the principal trade routes from Venice and Genoa to India. How far is it from Italy to India by way of the ocean route south of Africa ? 5. Trace on the map the course of the four voyages of Columbus; the two of Cabot; the voyage of Da Gama. Use different-colored crayons for each. 6. Trace on the map the probable route of Narvaez ; of De‘ Soto ; of Coronado. Trace the course followed by Magellan’s ship and by Drake on their voyages around the world. Suggestive Questions 1. Tell some ways in which America is adapted to be the home of a great nation. Name some ways in which men may improve a country; some ways in which they may injure it. 2. Was there a fair division of duties between Indian men and women? Give reasons for your opinion. Compare an Indian boy’s education with your own. Why did the English adopt into their language such words as ‘wigwam,’ ‘moccasin,’ and ‘tobacco’? De¬ scribe Indian relics that you have seen. Is it more or less difficult for Indians in America to lead a savage life now than it was four hundred years ago ? Why ? 3. Name five words describing the Northmen and mention facts to prove that they possessed the qualities named. 1 11 TOPICS FOR STUDY 4. Make a list of products which Europeans obtained from India. Give reasons why Venice and Genoa obtained control of the eastern trade. Tell why land travel was so much slower and more difficult during the Middle Ages than it is now; sea travel. Describe the mariners compass and its uses. 5. Contrast Columbus’s reception on his return from his first voyage and from his fourth. Name some traits of Columbus’s character and give incidents to prove them. Why was so little attention paid at the time to Cabot’s voyage? Was it more or less important than Da Gama’s? Why? Name three European nations which sent expedi¬ tions to America; tell what regions were discovered by each. 6. Why did early discoverers make so few investigations in the interior of America? Tell about the explorers who first visited the interior. Tell about three discoverers connected with the Pacific Ocean. Why did Spain excel other countries in discoveries and ex¬ plorations in the New World? Tell what effect the Great Armada had on American colonization. Name other events that took place about the time that the Armada was destroyed. What facts did Europeans learn about the United States between 1497 and 1600? What important facts did they fail to learn? Make in your notebook a list of Spanish, of French, and of English discoverers of the sixteenth century according to the following plan: — Name Region visited Date Exercises 1. Resolved: that short, rapid rivers are more useful in the develop¬ ment of a country than long, slow ones. Write an account of Indian corn, telling its history, range, uses, and value ; illustrate the sketch with drawings of the plant and its parts. 2. Resolved: that it was right for Europeans to take land from the Indians. Write an account of the life of an Indian from babyhood to manhood; illustrate the sketch with pictures of Indian tools and utensils. 3. Write an account of a Northman’s voyage. Draw a picture of a Norse vessel. 4. Resolved: that the Turkish conquests were a benefit to Europe. Tell the story of a pearl from its discovery in Ceylon to its wearing by TOPICS FOR STUDY in & \ enetian lady ; illustrate the story with pictures of the people through whose hands the gem passed. 5 Describe Columbus’s first voyage, in a letter purporting to be from a sailor on his vessel. Draw a picture of a caravel. Compare a caravel with a Norse ship and an Indian canoe. 6. Resolved: that Spain had a just claim to the whole continent of North America. Write an account of the United States, purporting to be by a European in 1600. Describe the journey of one of the Spanish explorers of the United States ; illustrate the sketch with pictures of the regions visited. Suggested Readings Contemporary Writings. — The voyage to Vinland, from the Saga of Eric the Red; Marco Polo’s account of Japan and Java; Columbus’s letter to Gabriel Sanchez, describing his first voyage; Coronado’s journey to New Mexico and the Great Plains; Pasqualigo’s and Sou- cino’s letters about Cabot’s first voyage. Illustrative Literature. — Hiawatha, “ Discovery of the North Cape,” and “Skeleton in Armor” by H. W. Longfellow; “Voyage to Vinland” by J. R. Lowell; “Columbus” by Joaquin Miller; “The Triumph” from Psalm of the West by Sidney Lanier; “Columbus” by Alfred Tennyson ; Westward Hoi by Charles Kingsley. Picture List The Rocky Mountains by Bierstadt ; other pictures of American scenes: the illustrations in Catlin’s North Aitierican Indians; Fred¬ erick Remington’s pictures of Indians, especially his Hiawatha illustra¬ tions ; statue of Erikson by Anne Whitney; Columbus before the Council of Salamanca by Barabino; Columbus at the Court of Ferdi¬ nand and Isabella by Brozik; Departure of Columbus from Palos by Balaca; Landing of Columbus by Vanderlyn; Reception of Columbus after his First Voyage by Balaca; statue of John Cabot and his Son Sebastian by Cassidy; the Grand Canon by Louis Akin; pictures of Spanish life, especially those of Murillo and of Velasquez. CHAPTER II Geographical Studies Locate on the map all places mentioned in the text. 2. Is the northwest passage around America useful for commerce ? Give reasons. IV TOPICS FOR STUDY 3. Mark on the map the New England colonies in the order of settlement. 4. Draw a map of Manhattan Island and the surrounding country. Why was this island a good site for a trading post ? 8. Mark on a map of North America the chief settlements made during the seventeenth century, using different-colored crayons for the English, Spanish, French, Dutch, and Swedish. Indicate with the colored crayons changes in ownership. Tell how geographical conditions determined the industries of the different colonies. Suggestive Questions 1. Why did not the Spaniards occupy the United States? What motives led the English to colonize America? Tell briefly what was accomplished by the Spanish, by the French, and by the English in the New World during the sixteenth century. Compare the French and the Spanish treatment of the Indians. 2. What mistake did early explorers and settlers make about the width of the United States? What facts misled them? Give some rea¬ sons for the suffering of the early colonists. Could all of it have been avoided? Could some of it have been avoided? If so, how? In which is it necessary for men to work harder, a new or an old country ? Give reasons for your opinion. Compare the industries of Spanish, French, Dutch, and English colonies. Which was the best foundation for a colony? Give reasons for your opinion. Give an account of the first House of Burgesses. Tell some reasons urged in favor of slavery; some reasons against it. What was accomplished by the first English colony before a second one came over? 3. Describe the religious conditions of Europe in 1600. Compare them with the conditions in our time and country. Mention points of likeness between the Pilgrims and the Puritans ; of unlikeness. Why did the Massachusetts Bay colony grow so much more rapidly than the other New England colonies? Compare Hooker’s and Winthrop’s views about government. Ought Rhode Island to have been included in the New England Union? Give reasons for your opinion. Define Sepa¬ ratist, Pilgrim, Puritan, dissenter. Write an account of the person in early New England history that you like best. In what ways was life in Virginia like that in New England? In what ways was it unlike? 4. Did the Dutch pay a fair price for Manhattan Island ? Give reasons for your opinion. Describe the life of a Dutch trader; of a patroon. Describe the life of a rich planter in Maryland. TOPICS FOR STUDY v 5. Write an account of Oliver Cromwell. Describe the effect of the Commonwealth on the different colonies. Why were the Navigation Acts not obeyed in the colonies ? Did the English have a just claim to New Netherland ? In what way was the Dutch colony a disadvantage to the English? How might it become dangerous to them? Why did there come to be two Carolinas instead of one? Why did the Hugue¬ nots settle in South Carolina instead of in New France? 6. Write an account of Bacon. Was he a patriot or a rebel? Why did the Indians become hostile to the colonists ? Could conflicts be¬ tween the two races have been avoided ? Give reasons for your opinion. 7. In what respects were the Quakers like the Puritans? In what respects were they unlike? Why did Penn purchase Delaware? Why was a water outlet more important to a colony than it is to a state now? Write a brief account of what the English accomplished in America during the three-quarters of a century beginning with 1607. What power did the English Parliament assume in the Revolution of 1688? 8. Tell some European events of the seventeenth century which in¬ fluenced affairs in the American colonies. Make in your notebook a list of English sovereigns from 1584 to 1692. Tell some events of colonial history during the reign of each. What three nations had claims in America in 1700? What were they doing to make these good? What two nations had been deprived of territory during the century ? Give reasons why people came from Europe to the American colonies. Tell some things that the English learned from the Indians; some things that they got from them. Why did settlements follow the coast and rivers? Why did people of a certain religion make settle¬ ments ? What was the difference between an indented servant and a slave? Compare the life of slaves in Massachusetts, Virginia, and South Carolina. Were slavery and the slave trade regarded then as they are now? Give reasons. Write in your notebook a list of persons prominent in the colonial history of the seventeenth century according to the following plan : — Name Colony Important fact Exercises 1. Write an account of the three crop plants obtained from the Indians by Ralegh’s colonists; illustrate the sketch with drawings. Write a story describing the fate of a member of the Lost Colony. VI TOPICS FOR STUDY 2. Resolved: that the settlement of Jamestown was the most im¬ portant event in the early history of America. Write two letters pur¬ porting to be from a colonist, — one describing the Jamestown colony the year after its settlement; the other describing it eighteen years later. 3. Resolved: that the Massachusetts Bay colony acted wisely in banishing Roger Williams. Write a letter purporting to be from one of the Pilgrims, describing the voyage of the Mayflower and the first winter at Plymouth. Dress dolls in garments like those worn by the Puritans. 4. Resolved: that the Swedes had as just a claim to Delaware as the Dutch had to New York. Write a description of Maryland, purporting to be written by a New England trader. Write an account of a day spent in New Amsterdam. Draw pictures of Dutch children engaged in characteristic sports. 5. Resolved: that the English were justified in seizing New Nether- land. Describe the industries carried on in a North Carolina pine forest. Write an account of rice and its cultivation in South Carolina; illustrate the sketch with pictures. 6. Resolved: that Bacon’s Rebellion was, justifiable. Write an account of King Philip’s War, in the form of a diary by a Connecticut boy. 7. Describe Penn’s treaty with the Indians, in a letter purporting to be from a Quaker colonist. Dress dolls in garments like those worn by the Quakers. 8. Resolved: that it would have been easier to colonize America if it had not been inhabited by Indians. Write three letters describing a trip through the colonies, purporting to be from three fellow-trav¬ elers,— one a Puritan merchant, one a Dutch fur trader, and one a Maryland planter. Describe a day in a New England school; illus¬ trate the sketch with pictures of the schoolhouse, teacher, and pupils. Make drawings and collect pictures of colonial houses and furniture. Suggested Readings Contemporary Writings. — Hakluyt’s reasons for the English colonization of America; Barlowe’s account of his voyage to Virginia in 1584; Smith’s account of the founding of Virginia, from the True Relation; Hamor’s description of Pocahontas; Juet’s account of Hudson’s discovery of the Hudson River; Bradford’s account of why the Pilgrims left England and their life at Plymouth, in his History of Plymouth Plantation; Winthrop’s account of the Massachusetts Bay TOPICS FOR STUDY Vll colony, from his History of New England; Winthrop’s account of the founding of Connecticut; White’s description of Maryland in 1634; Van der Donck’s description of New Netherland; Hegeman’s account of a schoolmaster’s duties in New Netherland in 1661 ; Roger Williams’s letter in 1670 on toleration in Rhode Island; Penn’s account of the condition of his colony in 1683. Illustrative Literature. — “ Sir Humphrey Gilbert ” and Court¬ ship of Myles Standish by H. W. Longfellow ; “Mystery of Cro-a-tan ” by M. J. Preston ; “ Smith and Pocahontas” by W. G. Simms ; To Have and to Hold and Prisoners of Hope by Mary Johnston; “Landing of the Pilgrims” by Felicia Hemans; “First Proclamation of Myles Standish ” by M. J. Preston ; Grandfather's Chair by Nathaniel Haw¬ thorne ; Stories of the Old Dominion byj. E. Cooke; Knickerbocker's History of New York by Washington Irving. Picture List Marriage of Pocahontas and Rolfe by Brueckner; paintings and photographs of Dutch scenes, especially the pictures of Ruysdael, Potter, and Rembrandt; Departure of Pilgrims from Delft Haven by Cope; Landing of the Pilgrims by Lucy; Pilgrims going to Church, and other Pilgrim pictures by Bough ton; the Hidden Foe by Pierce; Priscilla Spinning by Barse; Penn making a Treaty with the Indians by West. CHAPTER III Geographical Studies Locate on the map all places mentioned in the text. 1. Compare Canada and Louisiana as sites for colonies. Compare the geographical advantages of the French and the English colonies. 2. Trace the line of French forts from the mouth of the St. Lawrence to the mouth of the Mississippi. 3. Make a war map of North America in the French and Indian War, marking French and British victories in different-colored crayons. Draw a map of Quebec and the surrounding country, to illustrate the siege of the city. Mark on the map the possessions of France, Spain, and Great Britain at the beginning of the war; at the end. Suggestive Questions 1. What influence did the enmity of the Five Nations to the French have on colonization ? Contrast Spanish, French, and English treat- Vlll TOPICS FOR STUDY ment of the Indians. Tell about the chief explorers connected with the Mississippi River. Why was the ownership of Acadia important to New England ? 2. Name two colonies to which women were sent as wives for colonists. Describe the treatment of poor debtors in the eighteenth century. What were the objects of the Georgia colony ? Write the names of the thirteen British colonies, in the order of their settle¬ ment; in the order of their position on the coast, from north to south. In honor of what royal persons were the six southern colonies named ? Which colonies had English names? Which had Indian names? Explain the three forms of government, — royal, proprietary, and charter. Make in your notebook a list of the thirteen original colonies according to this model: — Colony When settled Where By whom Form of government Why were the British willing to exchange Louisburg for Madras ? Why were the colonists opposed to the exchange ? 3. Compare the position and strength of the French and the British at the beginning of the French and Indian War. Why did the British claim the Ohio Valley ? Why did the French claim it ? Why was its possession important to each ? Why did not the French government send aid to Montcalm ? Compare Montcalm and Wolfe. Write an account of Pitt. What great question was settled by the French and Indian War ? Why did some people think the victory might prove a disadvantage to the British ? Write a brief sketch of the French in the New World, from the exploration of Verrazano to the end of the French and Indian War. Exercises 1. Resolved: that Canada was a more desirable region for a French colony than was Louisiana. Give an account, purporting to be from an English captive, of an Indian raid on a New England town. Describe the capture of a merchant ship by Blackbeard. 2. Describe the cultivation of rice and of indigo ; illustrate the sketch with drawings. 3. Resolved: that the British colonies were justifiable in removing the Acadians. Write two letters, one from an English soldier, the other from a French woman, each describing the capture of Quebec. TOPICS FOR STUDY IX Suggested Readings Contemporary Writings. — Champlain’s account of his adventures on Lake Champlain in 1609; Castelman’s description of Philadelphia in 1710, from The Voyage, Shipwreck , and Miraculous Escape of Richard Castelman , Gen.] Eliza Lucas’s account of South Carolina, from her Journal and Letters] Oglethorpe’s account of the plan of Georgia, from his Brief Account of the Establishment of the Colony of Georgia; Captain Knox’s account of the fall of Quebec from his Historical Journal] Washington’s Journal describing his Journey to the Ohio. Illustrative Literature. — Story of Tonty by Mrs. M. H. Cather- wood ; “ Ballad of the French Fleet” and Evangeline by H. W. Long¬ fellow ; Yemassee by W. G. Simms ; Virginians by W. M. Thackeray; Last of the Mohicans by J. F. Cooper; Seats of the Mighty by Gilbert Parker; Grandfather's Chair by Nathaniel Hawthorne; Stories of the Old Dominion by J. E. Cooke; Struggle for a Continent by Francis Parkman. Picture List Colonial Days by Henry; Evangeline by Faed, by Douglass, and by Taylor; Franklin and Braddock by James ; Death of Montgomery by Trumbull; Death of Wolfe by Trumbull and by West. CHAPTER IV Geographical Studies Locate on the map all places mentioned in the text. 1. Trace the route followed by pioneers, from Pennsylvania to the Ohio country ; from Virginia to Kentucky ; from North Carolina to Tennessee. 2. Draw a map of Boston to illustrate the battle of Bunker Hill. 3. Explain the geographical importance of New York to the British. 4. Trace the line of march planned for the British campaign of 1777. Trace the line of march followed. Draw a map to illustrate the battles of Saratoga. Trace the course of Clark’s expedition down the Ohio to Kaskaskia ; from Kaskaskia to Vincennes. 5. Draw a map to illustrate Greene’s campaign in the Carolinas. Explain how Greene made the rivers an advantage to his army. Tell how they might have been a disadvantage. X TOPICS FOR STUDY 6. Make a map of the United States in the War of the Revolution, marking British and American victories with different-colored crayons. Mark the territory of the United States, Great Britain, and Spain at the close of the Revolution. Trace the ‘back lands,’ showing the claims of each state. Suggestive Questions 1. Explain the chief causes of colonial discontent. Ought the colonists to have shared the expenses of the French and Indian War ? Give reasons for your opinion. Why is a stamp tax an easy tax to collect ? Why did the colonists resent the Stamp Act ? Compare Samuel Adams and Patrick Henry, Tell about some famous English¬ men who sympathized with the colonists. Why were the colonists less dependent on the home government after the French and Indian War than before it ? Name ten words that tell traits of King George III.’s character and mention an incident in proof of each. Why did the other colonies take the part of Massachusetts ? Describe the move¬ ment to the West. Write a sketch of Daniel Boone. 2. Compare the First and the Second Continental Congress. Com¬ pare the views of the Whigs and the Tories. Why did the colonists resent the sending of Hessians more than of British soldiers ? Give an account of the battle of Bunker Hill. Describe the movements of the British troops during 1775; of the Continental troops. In what contest had the colonists been trained in fighting ? What did the British call the colonial war ? What is the difference between a re¬ bellion and a revolution ? 3. Compare land and naval warfare during the War of the Revo¬ lution. Give reasons why the British wished to occupy New York. Write a one-page sketch of the Declaration of Independence, giving its main parts. What rights does it claim for all ? Why are these rights called “ inalienable ” ? What solemn promise did the signers of the Declaration of Independence make ? What advantages did the Ameri¬ cans have in the War of the Revolution ? What disadvantages ? 4. Explain the plan of the British campaign of 1777. Describe the steps taken to carry it out and their results. How did the flag of 1777 differ from that of to-day ? Tell why the flag has been changed. Give a full account of the battles of Saratoga and their results. Which was more trying to patriot courage, — a defeat such as Brandywine or a winter of inaction like that at Valley Forge ? Give reasons for your opinion. Name five foreigners who aided the Americans, giving a brief account of the services of each. Tell about the part that Indians TOPICS FOR STUDY xi took in the Revolution. Explain how Clark was able with so small a . force to make such extensive conquests. Write a sketch of Clark. 5. Describe the two British plans of conquering the colonies. Tell the advantages and disadvantages of each. Which plan do you think the better ? Give reasons for your opinion. Write a sketch of John Paul Jones. Compare the way in which Schuyler and Arnold received unjust treatment. Give an account of Continental paper money, relat¬ ing incidents to show its lack of value. Why was the Continental currency less'valuable in 1780 than in 1778 ? Why does the value of a paper dollar vary more than that of a gold one ? Contrast the charac¬ ters and military careers of Greene and Gates. 6. What were the advantages and disadvantages of Cornwallis’s position at Yorktown ? Was Cornwallis wise in occupying this po¬ sition ? Give reasons for your opinion. Compare the surrenders at Saratoga and Yorktown. Compare Burgoyne and Cornwallis. Write an account of the three men who, in your view, did most to make good the Declaration of Independence. Give instances to prove that a defeat may be as valuable as a victory. Name and describe the most important battles of the Revolution. Tell some battles in which Wash¬ ington took part; Gates; Greene; Arnold. Explain the following terms, — militia, regulars, privateer, campaign, evacuate, siege, advance guard, earthworks, drawn battle, volunteer, recruit, winter quarters, partisan bands, spy. What was the basis of the claim of each colony to ‘ back lands ’ ? Which colonies had no western claims ? Exercises 1. Resolved: that Great Britain had a right to require the colonies to help pay the expenses of the French and Indian War. Write a dialogue between a New England merchant and a Carolina planter, comparing their burdens under the Trade and Navigation Acts. 2. Resolved: that the Boston Tea Party was a justifiable destruc¬ tion of private property. Write an account, in the person of a British soldier, of the expedition from Boston to Concord. Describe the journey of a Regulator family from North Carolina to Tennessee and its life in the new country. Write a dialogue between a Whig and a Tory, each explaining and defending his course. Draw pictures of British and Colonial soldiers. 3. Write a sketch, comparing our country on July 4, 1776, with it on the last Fourth of July. Illustrate the sketch with pictures of the costumes, furniture, and homes of both periods. xii TOPICS FOR STUDY 4. Resolved: that the French alliance was necessary to the success of the colonists. Write a letter, purporting to be from a British soldier under Burgoyne, describing his campaign. Write an account of the winter at Valley Forge, in the form of a journal by a Continental soldier. Write an account of the territory secured by Clark’s cam¬ paign; illustrate the sketch with pictures of the country. 5. Resolved: that partisan lighting was a fair method of carrying on war. Give an account, purporting to be. from a Continental sailor, of the fight between the Bon Homme Richard and the Serapis. Write an account of Continental money; illustrate the sketch with drawings of coins and paper money used during the Revolution. 6. Resolved: that a republic is the best form of government. In the form of a journal written by a girl during the Revolution, tell how she aided the patriot cause. Make as full a collection as you can of pictures illustrating American life from the founding of Jamestown to the winning of independence. Suggested Readings Contemporary Writings. — Patrick Henry’s speech against the Stamp Act and his speech in the Convention of 1775 ; Pitt’s Protest against the Taxation of the Colonies; Burke’s speech urging Concili¬ ation with the Colonies; Declaration of Independence; Dr. Waldo’s description of camp life at Valley Forge in his Journal ; account of the fight with the Serapis , in Paul Jones’s Life and Correspondence; Greene’s account of affairs in the South in his Life and Correspondence by Reed ; Cornwallis’s letter to Clinton about the surrender at York- town ; Clark’s account of his campaign in the Illinois country ; Filson’s description of Boone’s adventures in The Discovery , Settlemetit , and Present State of Keniucke; Autobiography of Benjamin Frankiin. Illustrative Literature. — “ Paul Revere’s Ride ” by H. W. Long¬ fellow ; ‘‘Lexington” from Psalm of the West by Sidney Lanier; “Con¬ cord Hymn” by R. W. Emerson; “The Rising” from Wagoner of the Alleghenies by T. B. Read ; “ Grandmother’s Story of the Battle of Bunker Hill” by O. W. Holmes ; oration at the laying of the cornerstone of the Bunker Hill monument by Daniel Webster; “ Washington ” from Under the Old Elm , and “ Ode for the Fourth of July, 1876” by J. R. Lowell; “ Boasting of Sir Peter Parker ” by Clinton Scollard ; “ Ballad of Sweet P ” by V. W. Cloud; “ Little Black-eyed Rebel ” by Will Carleton ; “Betty Zane” by T. D. English; “American Flag” by J. R. Drake; Hugh Wynne by Weir Mitchell; “ Song of Marion’s Men ” by W. C. TOPICS FOR STUDY xm Bryant; Horse-Shoe Robinson by J. P. Kennedy; Partisan by W. G. Simms; “Eutaw Springs 11 by Philip Freneau,; Pilot and Spy by J. F. Cooper; Richard Carvel and Crossing by W. Churchill; “ England and America in 1782” by Alfred Tennyson; Grandfather's Chair by Nathaniel Hawthorne; Stories of the Old Dominion by J E. Cooke. Picture List Call to Arms by F. O. C. Darley; Arousing the Minutemen by Dunsmore ; statue of a Minuteman by Daniel French ; Battle of Bunker Hill and other Revolutionary pictures by Trumbull; All’s Well by Winslow Homer; statue of Nathan Hale by Frederick MacMonies; Mrs. Murray receiving the British Officers by Brownscombe; Washington crossing the Delaware by Leutze; Washington, at Trenton by Faed; Betsy Ross making the Flag by E. M. Hallowed; Washington and Lafayette at Valley Forge by Dunsmore; Washington at the Battle of Monmouth, and Wyoming Massacre by F. O. C. Darley; Arnold and Andre by Blauvelt; Mrs. Steele and General Greene by Chappel; American Peace Commissioners in 1782, from the unfinished painting by West; Washington’s Farewell to his Officers at Whitehall by Fleury ; Washington and Lafayette at Mount Vernon by Rossiter and Mignon ; Washington and his Mother by Fournier; Peace Ball at Yorktown by Brownscombe. CHAPTER V Geographical Studies Locate on the map all places mentioned in the text. 4. Make an industrial map of the American states at the end of the eighteenth century. Name the six cities in the states, and tell the natural advantages of the location of each. Name and locate the first four colleges in the United States. 5. Trace the route of Lewis and Clark’s expedition. 6. To prove that it was 1 a border war,’ mark on a map of the United States the chief points of attack in the War of 1812. Draw a map to illustrate the campaigns against Canada. Draw a map to illustrate the battle of New Orleans. 7. Mark on the map the three lines between free and slave regions, — Mason and Dixon’s line, the Ohio River, the line of the Missouri Com¬ promise. What natural advantages has New England for manufactures ? XIV TOPICS FOR STUDY 8. Mark on the map the region which the Erie Canal opened to the market of New York City. n. Locate on the map the so-called ‘Great American Desert.’ Lo¬ cate the Oregon Country and tell its natural resources. 12. Locate on the map the territory in dispute between Mexico and Texas. Indicate the territory ceded by Mexico to the United States at the end of the war. 15. Mark on a map of the United States its chief deposits of gold, silver, lead, coal, copper, iron, petroleum, natural gas. Suggestive Questions 1. What were the defects of the Articles of Confederation? Were these more noticeable in times of war or of peace? Give reasons. Describe some influential members of the Convention of 1787. Give a brief, clear account of the plan of government drawn up. Tell some compromises necessary to form the Constitution. Was it wise and right to make these compromises? Give reasons for your opinion. What powers were given the general government by the Constitution of 1787 which it did not have under the Articles of Confederation? Why did the general government need to have power to lay taxes? Is there any one who does not pay taxes in some way? Explain. Why was the Constitution submitted for adoption to the votes of the states instead of the people? Give some arguments in favor of a state’s agreeing to the Constitution; some arguments against it. 2. What is a direct tax? an indirect tax? To which are people most likely to object? Why? Give reasons in favor of the doctrine of implied powers; give reasons against it. Compare the American Revolution with the French Revolution. What reasons were there why France should expect aid from America? What reasons were there why America should not give aid? Tell why it is fair to make certain articles ‘contraband of war.’ Ought food to be considered contraband? Give reasons. Describe the cotton gin and tell how it affected the life of the South. Why were the western states more democratic than the eastern ones? Write a sketch of Washington’s life. 3. If Congress passes an unjust or unconstitutional law, ought a state to nullify it? Give reasons for your opinion. Write a sketch of John Adams’s life. 4. Name instances during the eighteenth century when European events influenced American affairs; instances when American events influenced European affairs. Give an account of the chief labor-saving TOPICS FOR STUDY xv inventions of the eighteenth century. Describe the education of an American boy soon after the Revolution ; of an American girl. Describe religious conditions at the end of the eighteenth century. Compare them with those of the seventeenth century. 5. Compare Chief Justice Marshall and President Jefferson. Ought Jefferson to have removed Federalist office-holders? Give reasons for your opinion. Give an account of the Louisiana Purchase. Did the Constitution give the general government power to make such a pur¬ chase? Was the purchase a wise or an unwise one? Why? Was the attitude of Federalists and of Democratic-Republicans toward the Louisi¬ ana Purchase consistent with their political principles? Explain. Give an account of Lewis and Clark’s expedition. Why did America refuse bribes to France and pay bribes to the pirate states? Give an account of Fulton’s invention of the steamboat. Write a sketch of Jefferson’s life. 6. Why did the early presidents make such efforts to avoid war? Tell the causes of the War of 1812. Why did the Americans win so many sea victories? Give an account of some ocean duels between British and American ships. Describe the battle of New Orleans. Mention one unjustifiable act committed on each side during the war. What were the results of the War of 1812? Describe the effect of the War of 1812 and the Embargo Act on American manufactures. Explain free trade, tariff for revenue only, and a protective tariff. Which do you think best of the three? Why? Write a sketch of Madison’s life. 7. Why is Monroe’s term called the ‘ Era of Good Feeling’ ? What sectional question came forward about this time? Compare the life of pioneers in Indiana with that of the Jamestown colonists. Describe the system of agriculture a century ago. What effect did this system have on the settlement of the West? Give some arguments in favor of the Missouri Compromise ; some against it. Did the War of 1812 make European nations more or less disposed to respect the Monroe Doc¬ trine? Give reasons. Write an account of three famous authors who lived in New York. Write a sketch of Monroe’s life. 8. Describe and explain two ways in which transit was improved. Why is it cheaper to haul freight by canals than by natural streams? From what two states did the first six presidents come ? What two presidents during the first half century served only one term? Write a sketch of John Quincy Adams’s life. 9. Compare the early life of John Quincy Adams with that of An¬ drew Jackson. In what respects was each fitted for the presidency ? On the whole, which of the two was the better fitted for the position? XVI TOPICS FOR STUDY Give reasons for your opinion. Compare dress and manners in the times of Jackson and of Washington. What were some of the bad effects of the Spoils System ? Did it have any good effects ? If so, what ? In what way do Indians usually own land? Compare it with our method of ownership. As a rule, which thought the general govern¬ ment was stronger, the original states or the states formed from terri¬ tories? Why? How does a president veto a bill? Write a sketch of Jackson’s life. 10. Describe the Independent Treasury plan. What were its ad¬ vantages? Write a sketch of Van Buren’s life. 11. Give a sketch of Harrison’s life. Having been elected by the Whigs, ought Tyler to have aided them to carry out their plans, contrary to his own views ? Give reasons for your opinion. Give reasons for the annexation of Texas by the United States; reasons against it. De¬ scribe the most important inventions of the first half of the nineteenth century. Describe some of the chief reforms in laws and social condi¬ tions. Name some causes and some results of the increased immigra¬ tion of this period. Write a sketch of Tyler’s life. 12. Tell the direct and the indirect causes of the War with Mexico. Give an account of the three American campaigns against Mexico. Why were the Americans so successful? Name some officers who fought in this war and in the War of Secession. What troublesome question was brought up by the acquisition of new territory? Write a sketch of Polk’s life. 13. Explain how natural causes and self-interest made the northern states free ; the southern states slave. In what respect did the ‘ personal liberty’ laws resemble the South Carolina Ordinance of Nullification? Write a sketch of Taylor’s life. As the old leaders died, what kind of men took their places ? Describe the bright side of slavery ; the dark side. Write a sketch of Fillmore’s life. 14. What was the main motive in forming the Republican party? Write a sketch of Pierce’s life. 15. Compare the effect of the Dred Scott decision on the North with that of John Brown’s Raid on the South. How did public lands add to the prosperity of the Union? How did they cause discord? Did the Constitution deny a state’s right to withdraw from the Union? Did it affirm it? Name some cases in which secession had been as¬ serted as a right. Why did Compromise measures succeed in 1820, in 1834, and in 1850, and fail in i860? Tell the direct and the indirect causes of the secession of the Cotton States. TOPICS FOR STUDY XVII Exercises 1. Resolved: that the president ought to be elected by the direct vote of the people. Make a list of the chief duties of each of the three departments of the government. 2. Resolved: that Washington’s services to his country were greater as statesman than as general. Write a dialogue between two New York merchants, one a Federalist, the other a Democratic-Republican, giving reasons for their political opinions. Give an account of the voyage of a New England slave-trading vessel. Describe slave life on a rice plantation. 3. Resolved: that a state had a right to nullify a law that was unfair to it. 4. Give an account of a settler’s journey from his home on the Ohio River to New Orleans, to carry his hogs to market. Collect and com¬ pare pictures by West, Copley, and Stuart. Read one American book of the eighteenth century and write an account of it. Have a Martha Washington tea party, reproducing dress and manners of the Revolu¬ tionary period as exactly as you can. Make a collection of pictures illustrating the homes, furniture, dress, and domestic life of the United States in the eighteenth century. 5. Resolved: that the Embargo Act was beneficial to the American people. In the person of a passenger on the Clermont , write an account of the trial trip from New York to Albany. Read Lewis’s and Clark’s journals, and give, in the form of a journal by one of the party, an account of the chief events in the journey ; illustrate the account with pictures and photographs of the country explored. 6. Resolved: that a protective tariff is beneficial to the country at large. Write a letter, purporting to be from an American sailor, describ¬ ing the voyages and victories of ‘ Old Ironsides.’ Write an account, in the person of a British drummer boy, of the battle of New Orleans. Write the story of cotton from the time its seed was planted till its fiber was made into a garment; illustrate the story with pictures of the cotton plant and of the tools and machinery used in the processes of making it into cloth. 7. Resolved: that the United States ought strictly to regard the Monroe Doctrine. Write a description, from the standpoint of a per¬ son at Cumberland Gap, of pioneers passing along the Cumberland Road in one day. Read Thanatopsis , To a Waterfowl , and Death of the Flowers; Rip Van Winkle and Legend of Sleepy Hollow; Last of the Mohicans. XV111 TOPICS FOR STUDY 8. Resolved: that the invention of the steam car was more beneficial to America than the invention of the steamboat. 9. Resolved: that a machine which does the work of ten men is an advantage to the laboring classes. Write the speech of an Indian ordered to leave his home in the East for a reservation in the West. Write a dialogue between a farmer and his wife as to the relative ad¬ vantages of the reaping machine and the sewing machine. Draw a pic¬ ture of a sickle; of a reaping machine ; of a flail; of a threshing machine. 10. Resolved: that during a panic city people suffer more than country people. 11. Write an account, purporting to be from a Texas settler, of the Texan War for Independence. Write a dialogue of immigrants on shipboard, giving their reasons for coming to America. 12. Resolved: that the War with Mexico was unjustifiable. Write a description of the march from Vera Cruz to the city of Mexico, pur¬ porting to be by an American soldier who took part in it ; illustrate the story with pictures of the country. 13. Resolved: that the Fugitive Slave Law ought to have been en¬ forced. Describe, in the person of a Forty-Niner, the journey from Pennsylvania to California and life in a mining camp. 14. Resolved: that it was right to let territories decide for them¬ selves the question of slavery. 15. Resolved: that a citizen’s first duty was to his state. Describe the efforts to lay the Atlantic cable ; illustrate the sketch with drawings. Write an account of the ‘golden age’ of American literature. Collect pictures of American authors of the middle of the nineteenth century. Read some of these poems and books: Hiawatha , Evangeline , and some of Longfellow’s shorter poems ; Snow-Bound, , Maud Muller , and In School Days; Vision of Sir Launfal; Concord Hymn and The Mountain and the Squirrel; Tanglewood Tales and Twice-told Tales; The Raven , Annabel Lee, and The Gold Bug; selections from Ban¬ croft’s, Motley’s, Prescott’s, and Parkman’s histories; Song of the Chat¬ tahoochee; Battle of King's Mountain; Spring, and The Cotton Boll. Suggested Readings Contemporary Writings. —The Constitution of the United States; Washington’s Farewell Address; Webster-Hayne Debate; Monroe’s message in 1823 announcing the Monroe Doctrine; Calhoun’s speech on the Slavery Question, March 4, 1850; Webster’s Seventh of March speech, in 1850, on the Constitution and the Union; Clay’s speech in TOPICS FOR STUDY xix favor of Compromise, July 22, 1850; Jefferson Davis’s speech on with¬ drawing from the Senate in 1861. Illustrative Literature. — “ Hail Columbia” by Joseph Hopkin- son ; Little Jarvis by M. E. Seawell; “ Star-Spangled Banner” by F. S. Key; “Old Ironsides” by O. W. Holmes; “First Fruits in 1812” by Wallace Rice ; “ Battle of New Orleans ” by T. D. English ; Pioneers and Prairie by J. F. Cooper; “ Pioneers ” by Walt Whitman ; Huckleberry Finn by ‘Mark Twain’; Man without a Country by E. E. Hale; “ Hunter of the Prairies ” by W. C. Bryant; Two Years before the Mast by R. H. Dana ; “ Death of Jefferson ” by H. Butterworth ; Georgia Scenes by A. B. Longstreet; Old Times in Middle Georgia by R. M. Johnston ; Uncle Remus stories by J. C. Harris ; “ Defense of the Alamo ” by Joaquin Miller ; Tales of the Argonauts by Bret Harte ;* Biglow Papers, First Part , by J. R. Lowell; “ Buena Vista ” by Albert Pike ; “ Angels of Buena Vista ” by J. G. Whittier; “ Bivouac of the Dead ” by Theodore O’Hara; “How Cyrus laid the Cable” by J. G. Saxe; “Arsenal at Springfield ” by H. W. Longfellow. Picture List Washington portraits and statues ; pictures of colonial houses, furni¬ ture, and dress ; paintings by West, Stuart, and Copley ; Battle of New Orleans and Emigrants crossing the Plains by F. O. C. Darley; pic¬ tures of American authors of the middle of the nineteenth century and of their homes ; Travel in the South in the ’30’s by Henry. CHAPTER VI Geographical Studies Locate on the map all places mentioned in the text. 1. Trace on the map the boundary between the Union and the Con¬ federacy at the beginning of the war. Where and how did the Con¬ federacy have the advantage? the Union? 2. Locate on the map the course planned for the Federal campaigns of the second year. Trace the routes followed by the Federal armies and fleets in the West. Describe the country between Richmond and Washington. Describe the situations of Vicksburg and Port Hudson. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of the direct and the pen¬ insular route from Washington to Richmond. Draw a map of the Shenandoah Valley, to illustrate Jackson’s valley campaign. 3. Draw a map of Gettysburg and the surrounding country, to illus¬ trate the battle of Gettysburg. XX TOPICS FOR STUDY 4. Draw a map of the region called the Wilderness, and make a list of the battles fought there. Why were there in each campaign along this route battles at or near the same place ? Draw a map of the country around Richmond and Petersburg, to illustrate the positions of the two armies during the siege. Trace Sherman’s line of march from Chatta¬ nooga to Atlanta. 5. Trace Sherman’s line of march from Atlanta to Savannah; from Savannah to Petersburg. Compare the country that he crossed with that between Washington and Richmond. Trace the line of Lee’s retreat from Petersburg to Appomattox Courthouse. Suggestive Questions 1. What was the direct cause of the War of Secession ? Name some indirect causes. Explain how the interests of the states were at first like, then unlike, then conflicting. Which side do you think began the War of Secession ? Give reasons for your opinion. To which government did Fort Sumter belong if a state had a right to secede ? To which, if it did not have a right to secede ? Name some advantages that each side had in the contest; some disadvantages. What right for .which the Americans contended in the War of 1812 was violated by the seizure of Mason and Slidell? 2. Describe the three Federal plans for the second year. Explain the reason of each. Explain the effect of the battle between the Monitor and the Merrimac on the naval warfare of the world. As Lee loved the Union, why did he leave the army of the United States and join the Virginia army ? Why is Jackson’s campaign in the Shenandoah Valley studied and admired ? Compare Generals Lee and Jackson. In what ways did the military movements of Lee and Jackson differ from those of McClellan ? of Pope ? Would McClellan have fought a battle at Fredericksburg ? Give reasons for your opinion. Explain the following terms: gunboat, unconditional surrender, line of defense, civilians, divisions, cavalry, arsenal. 3. On what grounds was Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation justifiable ? Describe prison life on both sides. Why did the Con¬ federates oppose the use of negro troops and refuse to exchange negro prisoners? Was Congress justifiable in dividing the state of Virginia? Give reasons for your opinion. Write a sketch of General Stonewall Jackson’s life. Describe the battle of Gettysburg. Why is Gettysburg regarded as the turning point of the war? Why was the siege of Vicks- TOPICS FOR STUDY xxi burg so prolonged ? Tell about the four great Federal generals who took part in the fighting around Chattanooga. 4. Why were there so few changes in the Federal army in the West ? Why were there so many in the East ? Compare Grant’s plan of Vir¬ ginia campaign with McClellan’s. Which plan do you think the better ? Why ? Compare Generals Grant and Lee. Why did Grant lay siege to Petersburg instead of trying to take it by storm ? What are the rules of civilized warfare with regard to private property ? Are these always respected ? Name Federal and Confederate generals who re¬ garded them. Name one Confederate and some Federals who disre¬ garded them. Write an account of Farragut’s life. Why were there so few sea fights in the War of Secession ? How did the victories of Sherman and Farragut affect Lee’s army ? 5. What two questions did the war settle forever ? Give an account of slavery in the United States, from its introduction in the Jamestown colony to its abolition at the end of the War of Secession. Name five great Federal generals; five great Confederates. Name the chief battles in which Lee fought; Grant; Jackson ; Thomas; Joseph E. Johnston; Sherman. Write a sketch of Lincoln’s life. Why was his death a calamity to the South ? Describe the conduct of the slaves during the war. Make a list of ways in which the South suffered more from the war than did the North. Why is paper money now worth more than it was in 1865 ? Exercises 1. Resolved : that the United States began the War of Secession by attempting to send reenforcements to Fort Sumter. Write a dialogue between two brothers in Kentucky, the one in the Union army, the other in the Confederate service, each explaining and defending his course. Draw pictures of Confederate and Federal soldiers in uniform. 2. Resolved: that the peninsular route was preferable to the direct route to Richmond. Describe in the person of an eyewitness the ficrht between the Merrimac and the Monitor. Describe a trip on a © blockade runner between Wilmington and Havana. Write in journal form an account of a girl’s life on a southern plantation during the war. 3. Resolved: that the Federal government ought to have agreed to the exchange of prisoners. Write two accounts of the battle of Gettys¬ burg, — one purporting to be from a Pennsylvania farmer, the other from a Confederate drummer boy. Write a letter from a cave dweller at Vicksburg, giving an account of the siege of the city. 4. Resolved: that Sheridan was justifiable in laying waste the Shenan- XXII TOPICS FOR STUDY doah Valley. Write a letter from a Federal soldier, describing camp life during the siege of Petersburg. Describe life in the Confederate camp. 5. Give an account of the part taken in the War of Secession by soldiers from your community. Collect portraits of the chief Union and Confederate officers. Write a sketch of Confederate money, ex¬ plaining the decrease of its purchasing value ; illustrate the sketch with drawings of notes. Suggested Readings Lincoln’s two inaugural addresses and his Gettysburg address; Artemus Ward: His Book by C. F. Browne; “ Our Country’s Call ” by W. C. Bryant; “A Cry to Arms” by Henry Timrod; “Dixie”; “Battle Hymn of the Republic” by Julia Ward Howe; “Maryland, my Maryland” by J. R. Randall; “Brave at Home” and “Sheridan’s Ride” by T. B. Read; “Picket Guard” by E. L. Beers; “How are you, Sanitary?” by Bret Harte; Hospital Sketches by L. M. Alcott; “Stonewall Jackson’s Way” by J. W. Palmer; “Little Giffen of Tennessee” by F. O. Ticknor; “Dirge for a Soldier” and “Before Vicksburg” by G. H. Boker; “Boston Hymn” by R. W. Emerson; “John Burns of Gettysburg” and “Reveille” by Bret Harte; “High Tide at Gettysburg” by W. H. Thompson; “Kentucky Belle” by C. F. Woolson; “Ballad of Chickamauga” by Maurice Thompson; On the Plantation by J. C. Harris; Among the Camps and Two Little Confederates by T. N. Page; Long Roll and Cease Firing by Mary Johnston ; “ O Captain, my Captain ! ” by Walt Whitman ; “ Conquered Banner” and “ Sword of Lee ” by Abram Ryan ; “ Blue and the Gray ” by F. M. Finch. Picture List Statute of Lincoln by Augustus St. Gaudens; Massachusetts Troops marching through Baltimore by F. O. C. Darley; In Hampton Roads by Zogbaum ; statue of General Thomas by J. Q. A. Ward ; Sherman’s March to the Sea by F. O. C. Darley ; statue of Lee by E. M. Valentine ; Virginia Mourning her Dead and statues of Jackson by Sir Moses Ezekiel; Photographic History of the Civil War (Brady photographs) ; other pictures of generals and scenes of the War of Secession. CHAPTER VII Geographical Studies Locate on the map all places mentioned in the text. 2. Trace the course of the first railway across the continent; the second ; the third. In what ways was the site of Chicago advantageous for a great city ? TOPICS FOR STUDY xxiii 3. Draw a diagram of Eads's jetties. Explain their effect on the city of New Orleans. 4. Trace on the map of the United States the divisions of standard time. In what division is your home ? Explain the cause of the dif¬ ferences in time, as one travels from east to west. 6. Locate on the map the six states admitted during Harrison’s presidency. Name some geographical advantages of each. 8 . Draw a map of Manila Bay, to illustrate the battle of Manila. Draw a map of Santiago de Cuba, and the surrounding country, to il¬ lustrate the movements of Cervera’s fleet and the battles of El Caney and San Juan Hill. Give reasons why the annexation of the Hawaiian Islands and the possession of Porto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines were desirable for the United States ; reasons why they were undesirable. 9. Draw two maps of the United States, — one in 1800, one in 1900, — to illustrate acquirements of territory. 10. Mark on the map the headwaters of the chief rivers of the United States. Draw a map of the Panama Canal. Describe the geographical conditions of the Canal Zone. 11. Mark on a map of the United States the earthquake belt. Make a map of your state, marking in black the counties where liquor is sold. Suggestive Questions 1. What reasons were there for a closer union between the North and the South after the war than before ? What sources of discord were there ? How can a bill be made law, in spite of the president’s veto ? State reasons for giving the suffrage to the freedmen; state reasons against it. Why did southerners say that it was unjust to call a secessionist a ‘ rebel ’ and ‘ traitor ’ ? Why do they think that it would be right now to call any one who opposed the general government a ‘rebel’ ? Why did the United States object to the French occupation of Mexico ? How did the Monroe Doctrine apply to this case ? Write an account of Andrew Johnson’s life. 2. Did the South approve the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amend¬ ments ? Why did it agree to them ? Give an account of General Lee’s life after the war. In what way was the negro race injured by re¬ construction rule ? Compare the effect of railroads on the settlement of the western states with the effect of rivers on the settlement of the eastern states. Tell some good results of the Ku Klux Klan ; some evil results. Give an account of the public scandals that came to light while Grant was president. Why are affairs demoralized by war ? XXIV TOPICS FOR STUDY Name the chief causes of demoralization after the War of Secession. What is the 11 solid South’ ? Why has it remained unbroken ? De¬ scribe the anti-liquor movement. Compare the condition of the United States in 1776 with that in 1876. What was the chief cause, from colonial days to the present time, of Indian wars ? Write an account of Grant’s life. 3. Tell in what way workmen have a right to carry on a strike. Tell some unjustifiable things that are sometimes done during a strike. For what purposes is it fair for capitalists to form business combina¬ tions ? In what ways do trusts and corporations misuse their power ? Name some advantages of labor unions; some disadvantages. What change did the resuming of specie payment make in the value of paper money? Why, when the face value is the same, do people usually prefer paper money to coin? Was slave or free labor better for the South? State facts in proof of your answer. Write an account of Hayes’s life. 4. Ought a president to remove any officials for political reasons ? If so, which? Why? Write an account of Garfield’s life. Name as many ways as you can in which the force of electricity is utilized. Write an account of Arthur’s life. 5. Can the general government regulate the rates of a railroad extending through only one state ? Can it regulate a line passing through two or more states ? Explain the difference. Mention reasons against the admission of each class of immigrants excluded by the present laws of the United States. Why did Cleveland think that tariff rates ought to be reduced? 6. Compare the settlement of Oklahoma with that of Virginia ; of Tennessee. What voting rights have women under the laws of the state in which you live? Do you think they ought to have more or less rights ? Why ? Describe the plan and purpose of reciprocity in a tariff bill. Explain the Australian ballot system. Why was it adopted in so many states ? Write an account of Harrison’s life. 7. Why did most people ask to have notes paid in gold instead of in silver? Why was it necessary for the government to pay whichever was demanded? Explain the two ways in which a bill may become law without a president’s signature. Give reasons for the financial distress during Cleveland’s term. Give reasons in favor of the United States interfering in Cuba; reasons against it. Describe the gold fields of Alaska. Write an account of Cleveland’s life. 8. Describe the great steel trust. What were the causes of the War TOPICS FOR STUDY xxv with Spain? its results? Give a history of the Philippines from their discovery by Magellan to the present time. 9. Name the chief territorial acquirements of the United States and tell how each was gained. Why did the world’s population increase in the nineteenth century more rapidly than ever before? Tell some of the causes of the growth of cities. Why has America grown more rapidly in population than other countries? Give an account of the chief labor- saving inventions of the nineteenth century. Tell ways in which laws and customs changed during the century. In what ways has country life improved ? Why are most of cur cities worse governed than our counties and states? Describe and explain the rapid improvement of the South after the War of Secession. Describe the advance in edu¬ cation during the nineteenth century. Name the chief American authors of the first third of the nineteenth century ; of the second third; of the last third. Name a famous American scientist; an artist; an architect; a musician; tell something about each. Why has America more im¬ migrants than emigrants ? From what country did your ancestors come ? Why did they come to America? Name some problems before the United States at the end of the nineteenth century. 10. How many presidents have been murdered ? Write an account of McKinley’s life. Tell about the need and value of forest reserves. Give an account of the Panama Canal. 11. Tell some ways in which railroads are regulated by the general government. Why are rate laws passed by states instead of by the general government ? Give an account of the anti-liquor movement. Compare a ‘wet’ town with a ‘dry’ one. Name some germ diseases. In what way can they be checked and destroyed ? Compare the out¬ break of yellow fever in Philadelphia in 1793 with that in New Orleans in 1905. In what ways can tuberculosis be prevented ? How can it be cured in its early stages ? Tell some of our health duties to ourselves and to others. 12. Give a history of the tariff from 1792 to the present time. Is the present tariff a benefit or an injury to your family ? to your neigh¬ borhood ? to your state ? to the United States ? Exercises 1. Resolved: that Congress had no right to make laws for the southern states while they were not represented in it. Write a letter from a southern man describing his home in 1865. Collect pictures of Alaska, — scenery, products, and people. XXVI TOPICS FOR STUDY 2. Resolved; that all disputes between nations ought to be settled by arbitration. Describe a journey across the continent on the Union Pacific Railroad soon after it was completed. Write a story describing a child’s escape from the Chicago fire. Write a letter from a woman telling her reasons for joining the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union. 3. Resolved: that labor organizations are a benefit to a country. Write a dialogue between a union and a non-union workman, each explaining and defending his position. Draw a picture of Eads’s jetties. 4. Resolved: that all civil service appointments should be governed by the merit system. Describe the changes after election in a govern¬ ment office, under the spoils system. Write a story about an old man’s first conversation over the telephone; illustrate the story with drawings. 5. Resolved: that the general government does right in excluding paupers and illiterate immigrants. Describe the immigrants landing in New York in one day, illustrating the sketch with pictures. 6. Resolved: that the suffrage should be given to women. Write a letter, purporting to be from an Oklahoma settler, describing his ride to take up a claim. Hold an election for class president, vice president, and secretary, using the Australian ballot system and marking the ballots properly. 7. Describe work in a coal mine and a strike there. Collect pictures of Hawaii, illustrating scenery, products, and native life. Write in journal form an account of a miner’s trip to Alaska. 8. Resolved: that trusts ought to be prohibited by law. Write a letter purporting to be from one of Roosevelt’s Rough Riders, describ¬ ing army life in Cuba. Collect pictures to illustrate Cuban and Philip¬ pine life. 9. Resolved: that the force of electricity is more useful to man than that of steam. Make drawings of ten labor-saving inventions used by your family or friends. Write an account of a family’s attempt to do for one day without the labor-saving inventions of the last half century. Write a dialogue between a city and a country boy, each describing the advantages of his home. Describe a day in your school; compare it with a day in an American school a hundred years ago. Read three American books of the nineteenth century and write an account of the one you like best. Make a picture gallery of American authors of the nineteenth century ; of American statesmen ; of American generals. 10. Describe a visit to a western forest reserve ; illustrate the sketch with pictures. Give an account of a day’s work on the Panama Canal. TOPICS FOR STUDY XXVll 11 . Resolved: that all ocean vessels ought to be equipped for wire¬ less telegraphy. Describe the war on tuberculosis in a city, such as New York; illustrate the sketch with drawings. 12. Make a list of things used in your family, the price of which is affected by tariff rates. Collect portraits of all the presidents from Washington to Wilson and tell one noteworthy fact about each. Make a list of reasons why you are glad that you are an American. Suggested Readings Speech on Reconstruction by Thaddeus Stevens : December 18,1865 ; ‘‘The Stricken South to the North ” by P. H. Hayne; speech on Civil Service Reform by Carl Schurz: December 12, 1894; Shame of the Cities by Lincoln Steffens; ‘‘Cuba Libre” by Joaquin Miller; “Word of the Lord from Havana” by Richard Hovey; Old Creole Days by G. W. Cable ; In Ole Virginia , and Red Rock by Thomas Nelson Page; Uncle Remus stories by J. C. Harris; In the Tennessee Mountains by ‘Charles Egbert Craddock’; “Ship of State” by H. W. Longfellow; “ Gone Forward ” by Margaret J. Preston ; Up from Slavery by Booker Washington; “Centennial Hymn” by J. G. Whittier; How the Other Half Lives, and Children of the Poor by J. A. Riis ; Ramona by H. H. Jackson ; Panama: the Canal , the Country , and the People by A. Bul¬ lard ; “ Song of the Flags ” by S. Weir Mitchell; “ Grover Cleveland” by Joel Benton; “Unguarded Gates” by T. B. Aldrich; “Makers of the Flag” by Franklin Lane. Picture List Cowboy Mounting, and Lost in a Blizzard by Borglum; pictures of American authors and their homes; works of art by Americans, espe¬ cially portrait of his Mother and other pictures by J. McNeil Whistler; Cumaean Sybil and other pictures by Elihu Vedder; Christmas Chimes and other pictures by Blashfield; and the Puritan, Lincoln, Grief, and other statues by Augustus St. Gaudens. LIST OF BOOKS FOR REFERENCE AND TEACHER’S USE Those marked with asterisk form a brief, comprehensive school library at moderate cost. Most of the contemporary accounts in the lists of Suggested Readings are published, in inexpensive forms, in Hart’s Source Book of American History , Hart’s American History Told by Contemporaries , the Old South Leaflets, Channing and Hart’s American History Leaflets , and similar series. Aftierican History and its Geographic Co 7 iditions by E. C. Semple The European Background of American History by Max Fernald Story of the American India 7 is by G. B. Grinnell * The Discovery of A 7 /ierica by John Fiske Christopher Columbus by C. R. Markham John and Sebastian Cabot by C. R. Beazley * The Colo 7 iies by R. G. Thwaites Principal Navigations , Volumes 12-16, by Richard Hakluyt English Colonies in America by J. A. Doyle A Short History of the English Colo 7 iies in America by H. C. Lodge Old Virgmia and her Neighbors by John Fiske Works of John Smith edited by E. Arber The Begimiings of New England by John Fiske The Story of the Pilgrims by E. Arber Dutch and Quaker Colonies by John Fiske * The Struggle for a Continent by Francis Parkman The American Revolution by John Fiske The War of Independence by John Fiske The Federalist Papers * The Formation of the Unio 7 i by A. B. Hart George Washington by Woodrow Wilson Franklin’s Autobiography The Ma 7 iy-sided Franklin by Paul Leicester Ford Daniel Boone by R. G. Th waites xxviii LIST OF BOOKS xxix The Winning of the West by Theodore Roosevelt Industrial History of the United States by Katherine Coman History of Literature in America by Wendell and Greenough Thot?ias Jefferson by James Schouler * Division and Reunion by Woodrow Wilson Henry Clay by Carl Schurz John C. Calhoun by H. E. von Holst Daniel Webster by H. C. Lodge Battles and Leaders of the Civil War published by the Century Co. Bird's Eye View of our Civil War by T. A. Dodge Abraham Lincoln by J. T. Morse Robert E. Lee by W. P. Trent Robert E. Lee , Man and Soldier by Thomas Nelson Page Confederate Portraits by Gamaliel Bradford Photographic History of the Civil War Twenty Years in Congress by J. G. Blaine Thirty Years in the Senate by Thomas H. Benton The New South and Other Addresses by Henry Grady * History of the American People by Woodrow Wilson The American Commonwealth by James Bryce The State by Woodrow Wilson CHARTS AND OUTLINES Some Eastern Indians Some Western Tribes NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS Algonquins Iroquois Maskoki Dakotas Comanches Shoshones Aztecs Mohegans Pequots Narragansetts Wampanoags Massachusetts Delawares Powhatans Shawnees Five Nations Six Nations after being joined by Senecas Cavugas \ Onondagas Oneidas l Mohawks Tuscaroras ( Hurons Eries l Cherokees Seminoles Creeks Chocktaws Chickasaws XXX EUROPE IN AMERICA xxxi EUROPE IN AMERICA, 1492-1614 For Spain Columbus Magellan Balboa De Leon Narvaez De Soto Coronado | For England Discoverers and Ex- \ plorers The Cabots Drake Gilbert Ralegh I Verrazano Cartier Champlain it id * if Cabral For Portugal \ TT [ Vespucci For Holland Hudson Spanish f St. Augustine, 1565 [ Santa Fd, 1582 First Settlements in United States and Canada English French Jamestown, 1607 Quebec, 1608 Dutch Manhattan, 1613 XXX11 NEGRO SLAVERY IN AMERICA NEGRO SLAVERY IN AMERICA In Spanish Colonies In English Colonies Slaves first imported: i. When ? 2. Whence ? 3. Why ? 4. By whom ? English government’s part in slave trade. Slave and free labor. How slavery was regarded during sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In the American Republic Effect of climate and industries on institution of slavery. Ordinance of 1787. Law of the Constitution about slavery : 1. Counting slaves. 2. Importing slaves. 3. Returning runaway slaves. Change of opinion about slavery. Views of statesmen on subject. Antislavery movement in South. Effect of cotton gin. Influence of slavery on: 1. Settlement 2. Labor. 3. Industries. Louisiana Purchase. Missouri Compromise. Admission of states in pairs, free and slave. Annexation of Texas. Wilmot Proviso. Antislavery movement in North: 1. Aboli¬ tionists. 2. Uncle Toni's Cabin. 3. ‘ Under¬ ground railroad. 1 4. Personal liberty laws. Compromise of 1850. Kansas-Nebraska Bill. Dred Scott decision. John Brown’s raid. Influence of slavery on secession. Emancipation Proclamation. Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amend¬ ments to Constitution. Slaves 1 conduct during war. Freedmen during reconstruction period. Comparison of negroes as slaves and citizens. 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V- U ^ r 0 0 0 *>* •«-* G-G G—* e e" 8 s 00 ^ CO H W H I fO On w O ON O' G G - b/) E.E fc & G IU G c/j (4 H < H CO in o w 3 re 43 .2 o c re •— bfi m g re re M G in -4-* 0 If) X .So X x •G -r- LO fc/} b/) in ~ *-• X X *3 > > ><; H 44 J-G o £.2 0) 10 G (A re a C E re re HhJ^2:cu co ’0 c G G >< 3 >< s ^ ^ 5 g r 1 o > > " £ 5^ OOZZgZ _o IS o 44 G o > (4 S < Z o Z G O 4-* bX) .s m m g s < re ^ TO bo ^ E 3 O G , CQ ' G - C f-H .E re “ w b g r = 3 « jc « re .g E o — lh >• o re re lg 1 Z 1 > ' ~>N C oj re O G L_ X ^ re Cl, u *v« w PZ 0 re £ re GH I-1 E re 43 re G 40 < c o 14 c 43 O 1 —1 15 N c/5 T! > D g jj u.so G E G 05 G .2, > o c o G 3J G OWO >n 05 0) > 33 05 C w '3 0 Z O o ;v: m G Lh C ° re ^3 •43 o .33 2 £ H X G 3 T o 15 > o > £ 2 re to 43 o 03 O ££ M n G G M H G W NO N (50 On O *-i O CO re- lONO m g GNdOOCM (N OJ IN 00 OJ (N THE UNITED STATES AND ITS POSSESSIONS xxxiv THE UNITED STATES Q w X ►4 D O' U < £ o K ’So 2 *b/3 o)ooo 4 —< 4 —■ 4 —* 4 —> 4 —• 4-> 4 —> 4 —» tnininintnuiLnwLnintn in w CCGGCGGCGGCCC ®l>®a) oj a; n 03 £.20 S 3 l-l-S'C-g £ b/0 g £ g • i3 >1 o r v 3 o ^ ^ ^ to >n« £ C“p 43 g 2 T3 -a ^ -35 •r >5 >- 03 O O ,to g • g d G r 1 ® n—' c/i 03 c rc 3 03 c/5 XC 3 o g r _«S tn O £ C/3 " 1/5 >> «? £ jr 03 dg 03 ® -g Jr 03 £ O u o ZUZ >> > XI X 03 03 0 ® 03 03 a) ® UU ® ® to cO c/l ^—• a cu o X .3 .t: o o {-> 5 5 Ph Ph d d 1/5 G G ® safe •»-••*-* 3, c/3 c/3 JZ • rH • t-4 4-4 G D Jr C O O G O G C /5 o c/) VG ® d O X 4= " t /5 G G d c d a>* C /2 CO 3 Cl. 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E >N.-3 ^3 O a) 2 cpiE c 3 o £ J-G «• ^ X & 3 ' 2 3,5 3 o 2 3 SP o « h 3 P 3 0 3 P ^ .s P ” - OP cj” c«P 3 Pl Q^c/2t/3c/vH^U)JQmp-iffiOfflOc/2O(Z)0-i t— g§ H 2 5 p <; 3 XX OX O' H X 3- KX OnONOnOnO OX t>01 01 3- 3 - X X XX XXX t^X XXX OnOnOnO h h XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX ONONON MMlHHMl-IrtMMHMHHHHHHMMIH W N 00 0 X 0 < 00 ON 0 w M O M 3 < 3 CO 3 3 3 O O p* Pd • • c* ■ 3 o 3 3 M ^ ^Pd-oPCl c 3 in>.c2 in 2 hH 3-l 3 3ir' l ^’T-Srrt3__3 bjj u 3 Ol 3 £ ? U s C £ O 3 Wl 3 « > X ^3^00 X 3 5 X j3 o O 3 3 O -+-* bo 3 X 3 in O «i bo 3 E o x 1 ^, 3 3 ■ S o o X 4J in Id 5 o 3 5 3 Id H in W u z Id Q Z Id a, Id Q 3 >-, o ho X 3 O U zzSzmS% 3 £doz< 3 :s X 3 JS d cu u (D o S .2 3 C2 'a 2 x u X o x PuPh Aggregate area of land and inclosed water. f Census of 1903. XXXVI TERRITORY ACQUIRED TERRITORY ACQUIRED Louisiana Territory from France, in 1803, for $15,000,000 By Florida Territory from Spain, in 1821, for $5,000,000 Purchase j Gadsden Purchase from Mexico, in 1853, for $10,000,000 Alaska from Russia, in 1867, for $7,200,000 By Annexation Texas, in 1845 Hawaii, in 1898 By War Mexican cession, in 1848, for $15,500,000 Porto Rico and Guam from Spain, in 1899 Philippines from Spain, in 1899, for $20,000,000 IMPORTANT DATES IN AMERICAN HISTORY xxxvii IMPORTANT DATES IN AMERICAN HISTORY 1492. The New World discovered by Columbus. 1497. The continent of North America discovered by Cabot. 1565. The first permanent settlement in the United States made by Spaniards at St. Augustine, Florida. 1607. The first permanent English settlement in the United States made at Jamestown, Virginia. { Representative government established in the English colony of Virginia. Slavery introduced into the English colony of Virginia. 1620. The second permanent English settlement established at Plymouth, Massachusetts. 1636. The first college in the United States founded at Harvard, Mass. 1664. The English seized New Netherland. 1 733 - Georgia, the last of the thirteen British colonies, founded. 1759. Capture of Quebec. 1763. Peace of Paris, ceding to the British the French possessions in America. 1765. Parliament passed the Stamp Act. x 775-i78i. War of the Revolution. 1775. Battle of Bunker Hill. 1776. Declaration of Independence. 1781. Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown. 1783. Treaty of Paris, making peace between the United States and Great Britain. 1787. Constitution of the United States drawn up by convention. 1789. Washington inaugurated first president of the United States. 1792. Whitney invented the cotton gin. 1803. Louisiana territory purchased from France. 1807. Fulton’s steamboat made a successful trip. 1812-1815. War with Great Britain. 1813. Battle of Lake Erie. 1814. Battle of Lake Champlain 1815. Battle of New Orleans. 1820. Missouri Compromise between free and slave states. 1823. Monroe Doctrine announced. 1844. First telegraph line established by Morse. 1846-1848. War with Mexico. 1846. Battle of Buena Vista. 1847. March to Mexico. 1848. Mexican cession of territory. 1850. Compromise of 1850 between free and slave states. 1861-1865. War of Secession. 1862. Monitor and Merrimac fight, the first battle between iron-clad vessels. 1863. Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation. Battle of Gettysburg. Surrender of Vicksburg. 1865. Lee surrendered at Appomattox. 1869. First transcontinental railway completed. 1898. War with Spain. Battle of Manila. Defeat of Cervera’s fleet at Santiago de Cuba. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE In Congress , July 4., 177b, The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the Powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happi¬ ness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to insti¬ tute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes ; and accordingly all experience hath shown, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Des¬ potism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. — Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world. xxxviii DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE xxxix He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and neces¬ sary for the public good. He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncom¬ fortable, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihila¬ tion, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within. He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States ; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands. He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers. He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our People, and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislature. He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil Tower. Pie has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their acts of pretended legislation: For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from Punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States: For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world: For imposing taxes on us without our Consent: For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury; xl DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences: For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies: For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments: For suspending our own Legislature, and declaring themselves in¬ vested with Power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Pro¬ tection and waging War against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to com pleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands. He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeav¬ oured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions. In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free People. Nor have We been wanting in attention to our Brittish brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends. We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE xli Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the Protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor. JOHN HANCOCK. New Hampshire — Josiah Bartlett, Wm. Whipple, Matthew Thornton. Massachusetts Bay — Saml. Adams, John Adams, Robt. Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry. Rhode Island —Step. Hopkins, William Ellery. Connecticut — Roger Sherman, Sam’el Huntington, Wm. Will¬ iams, Oliver Wolcott. New York — Wm. Floyd, Phil. Livingston, Frans. Lewis, Lewis Morris. New Jersey — Richd. Stockton, Jno. Witherspoon, Fras. Hop- kinson, John Hart, Abra. Clark. Pennsylvania — Robt. Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benja. Frank¬ lin, John Morton, Geo. Clymer, Jas. Smith, Geo. Taylor, James Wilson, Geo. Ross. Delaware — Oesar Rodney, Geo. Read, Tho. M’Kean. Maryland— Samuel Chase, Wm. Paca, Thos. Stone, Charles Carroll of Carrollton. Virginia— George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Th. Jefferson, Benja. Harrison, Thos. Nelson, jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton. North Carolina— Wm. Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn. South Carolina — Edward Rutledge, Thos. Heyward, Junr., Thomas Lynch, Junr., Arthur Middleton. Georgia — Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, Geo. Walton . 1 1 This arrangement of the names is made for convenience. The states are not mentioned in the original. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 1 We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more per¬ fect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. Article. I. Section, i. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. Section. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty-five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and 1 Reprinted from the text issued by the State Department, xlii CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xliii within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New- York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Mary¬ land six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies. The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other Officers; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment. Section. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six Years; and each Senator shall have one Vote. Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expira¬ tion of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one third may be chosen every second Year; and if Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make tempo¬ rary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such Vacancies. No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the A^e of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided. The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the Office of President of the United States. The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice xliv CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES shall preside: And no Person shall be convicted without the Concur¬ rence of two thirds of the Members present. Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States : but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to law. Section. 4. The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of chusing Senators. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day. Section. 5. Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penal¬ ties as each House may provide. Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, Punish its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a member. Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgment require Secrecy; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those Present, be entered on the Journal. Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. Section. 6 . The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xlv No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been encreased during such time; and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continuance in Office. Section. 7. All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills. Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States; If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections, to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by Yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law. Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States^; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill. Section. 8. The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; To borrow Money on the credit of the United States; xlvi CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes; To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States ; To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures ; To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current Coin of the United States; To establish Post Offices and post Roads; To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries; To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court; To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations; To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water; To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years; To provide and maintain a Navy; To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval F orces; To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions; To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appoint¬ ment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress; To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings ; — And To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xlvii Section. 9. The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be pro¬ hibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person. The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it. No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed. No Capitation, or other direct, Tax, shall be laid, unless in Propor¬ tion to the Census or Enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State. No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another: nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another. No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be pub¬ lished from time to time. No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, with¬ out the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or for¬ eign State. Section. 10. No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills of Credit; make any thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility. No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Im¬ posts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection Laws: and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Controul of the Congress. No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into xlviii CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of Delay. Article. II Section, i. The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same Term, be elected, as follows Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector. The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabit¬ ant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each ; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such Majority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for President; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representation from each State having one Vote; A quo¬ rum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be neces¬ sary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice President. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xlix The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and the Day on which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States. No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligi¬ ble to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty-five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States. In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resig¬ nation or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Compensation, which shall neither be Increased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them. Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the fol¬ lowing Oath or Affirmation: — “ I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States.” Section. 2. The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment. He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Con¬ sent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers 1 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise pro¬ vided for, and which shall be established by Law: but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments. The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session. Section. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress Infor¬ mation of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Considera¬ tion such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Minis¬ ters ; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the Officers of the United States. Section. 4. The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misde¬ meanors. Article. Ill Section, i . The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Com¬ pensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in Office. Section. 2. The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Author¬ ity;— to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls ; — to all Cases of admiralty and maritime J urisdiction ; — to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party; —to Con¬ troversies between two or more States; — between a State and Citizens of another State ; — between Citizens of different States, — between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES li States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens, or subjects. In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Con¬ suls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by Jury ; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed. Section. 3. Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court. The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted. Article. IV Section, i. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. Section. 2. The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States. A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime. No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall lii CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due. Section. 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junc¬ tion of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all need¬ ful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State. Section. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic Violence. Article. V The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate. Article. VI All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES liii Law of the land ; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any thing in the Constitution or laws of any State to the Contrary not¬ withstanding. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judi¬ cial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States. Article. VII The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so rati¬ fying the Same. THE AMENDMENTS I Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assem¬ ble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. II A well-regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. III No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. IV The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, sup¬ ported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. liv CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES V No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any Criminal Case to be witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. VI In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining Witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence. VII In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. VIII Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. IX The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. X The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respec¬ tively, or to the people. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES lv XI The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State. XII The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the gov¬ ernment of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate; — The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted ; — The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional dis¬ ability of the President. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and a lvi CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. XIII Section i. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their juris¬ diction. Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. XIV Section i. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States: nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several states according to their respective numbers, counting the whole num¬ ber of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the pro¬ portion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Con¬ gress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Con¬ stitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES lvii rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability. Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or eman¬ cipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void. Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appro¬ priate legislation, the provisions of this article. XV Section i. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. XVI The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. XVII Section i. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislatures. Section 2. When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of said State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies: Provided, that the Legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the Legislature may direct. Section 3. This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as a part of the Constitution. * INDEX For convenience in reference and topical study, this history is fully indexed, with cross references. Ab'bey, Edwin, 386. ‘ABC’ conference, 415. A ber crom'bie, General, 118. Ab o li'tion ists, 191, 266, 267, 270, 271, 272. Aca'dia, 106, 108, 113, 117, 118, 244. Acts of Trade, see trade laws. Ad'ams, President John, 146, 193- 195, 206, 208, 236, 237, 243. Adams, President John Quincy, 236-241, 246. Adams, Samuel, 126, 127, 132, 135, 173, 180. Ad'dams, Jane, 414. ado'be, 7. Ad vi'so ry Board, see Federal Ad¬ visory Board. Af'ri ca, 17, 25, 28, 48, 54, 227. Ag'as siz, Louis, 276, 384. agricultural education, 379, 404. plants, American, 38. agriculture, 7, 10, 35, 52, 53, 54, 64, 65, 81, 82, 92, 93, 102, 111, 112, 190,197, 198, 199, 201, 268, 288, 330, 351, 363, 379, 380, 381, 392, 396, 404. inventions affecting, 190, 201, 248, 379, 381. Agriculture, Department of, 379. A gui nal'do, 376. air travel, 406, 417. A1 a ba'ma, 231, 233, 280, 284, 296, 373, 388. Alabama , cruiser, 293, 342. Alabama Claims, 341, 342. Al'a mance, battle of, 132. Al'a mf), 255. A Ios'ka, 233, 253, 254, 338, 367, 368, 375, 377, 388. Al ba ny, 153, 215, 238. Al'be marie settlement, 81, 95. Albemarle Sound, 81. Al'gfers, 210, 227. Algon'quin (kin) Indians, 11, 39, 41, 50, 105, 106. Al'ien Act, 194, 195, 241, 245, 281. Al'legfteny Mountains, 103, 105, 114, 123, 161, 192, 199, 230. Allegheny River, 114, 116. Amendments to the Constitution, 177, 180, 183. Fifteenth, 339, 310. first ten, 184. Fourteenth, 336, 337, 340. Seventeenth, 412. Sixteenth, 412. Thirteenth, 328, 333, 335, 337,340. Twelfth, 195. A mer' i ca, see North America and South America. America, origin of name, 25. American party, 272. American republic, 175-263. A me ri' go Yes puc' ci (poot che), see Vespucci. Am' fterst, 119. A' mund sen, Roald, 405. an aes thet' ics, discovery of, 267. an'ar chists, 357, 390. Ap' derson, Major Robert, 286. An' dr6, Major John, or An dri , 166. An' dros, Sir Edmund, 89, 90. animals of North America, 4, 5. annexation, of Hawaii, 365, 375, 377. of Texas, 255, 256, 259, 377. | An tie' tarn, battle of, 307, 308. An' ti-Fed' er al ists, 180. anti-liquor laws, 111, 257, 346, 398, 399. Anti-rent Riots, 253. I Anti-Saloon League, 399. lix lx INDEX Anti-slavery party, 267. anti-slavery societies, 191, 266. anti-trust laws, 360, 396, 401, 408, 412. Appalach'i an Mountains, 2, 4, 135, 214, 291, 315. Appomat'tox, surrender at, 327. arbitration, 342, 343, 365, 366, 376, 391, 407. treaties, 407, 415. architecture, 96, 202, 347, 387. Argentina, 415. ar'id region, 3, 4, 251, 265, 392. Ar i zo'na, 8, 29, 263, 274, 407, 413. Arkansas, 209, 247, 287, 296, 314. Arkansas River, 103. Ar'ling ton, 416. Arma/da, Spanish, 34, 38, 41, 44. Army of Northern Virginia, 319. of the Potomac, 312, 319. Ar'nold, Benedict, 144, 154, 155, . 164, 165, 166, 169. art, 202, 234, 347, 386, 387. Ar'thur, Chester A., 352-354. Articles of Confederation, 172, 177. A'sia(shia), 14, 15, 17, 20, 103, 375. Assembly, First General, at James¬ town, 53, 54, 398. At lan'ta, 322, 323, 365. At lan'tic cable, 274. Ocean, 22, 23, 105, 106, 238, 380, 392. Azt'dubon, John James, 277, 384. Australian ballot system, 360, 361. Aws'tri a, 417. authors, American, 99, 135, 204, 205, 274-277, 385, 386. a vi a'tion, 406. ‘back lands,’ 172, 173. Ba'con, Nathaniel, 83, 84. Bacon’s Rebellion, 83, 84. Ba ha'ma Islands, 22. balance of power between sections, 232, 263, 277. Bal bo'a, 26, 32. ballot, 336, 360. See also suffrage, voters and voting. Baltimore, first Lord, 74, 75. second Lord, 75, 76, 78, 88. Bal'ti more, Maryland, 223, 256. Ban'croft, George, 276, 385. Bank of United States, 185, 226, 240, 247, 251, 252. banks, national, 330, 411. reserve, 411. state, 247, 411. barbarous Indians, 8-12. Bar'bary States, war with, 210, 211, 220, 227. Par'nard, Henry, 257. Bar'ry, John, 143, 144. Bar'ton, Clara, 413. 4 battle above the clouds,’ 318. ‘ battle of the boys,’ 320. Bay Psalm Book , 98. Bear Flag Republic, 261. Beau're gard (bo), General P. G. T., 262, 291, 297. beginnings of American history, 1-35. Be'mis’s Heights, 155. Ben'ning ton, battle of, 153. Berkeley, Lord John, 81. Berkeley, Sir William, 83, 84. 4 big business,’ see trusts. Big Horn River, 347. ‘Billion Dollar Congress,’ 361. Bill of Rights, 145. bi'son or buffalo, 5, 30, 213, 214. Blackbeard-, pirate, 107. Black Hawk War, 244. Black Hills, 347. Bland Silver Act, 350, 360. blockade, 224, 290, 300, 308, 309, 318. runners, 300, 324. blockhouses, 65, 96. 4 bloody angle,’ 320. 4 Bloody Monday,’ 279. Blue Ridge Mountains, 109. Board of Trade, 90. Board'man, Mabel, 413. Bonaparte, see Napoleon. Bon Homme Bichard (bo nom' r8shar'), ship, 162. Boone, Daniel, 136. Booth, John Wilkes, 332. border states in War of Secession, 287. Bos'ton, 62, 66, 99, 132, 133, 134, 137,138, 139, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 199, 204, 210, 293, 343, 345. 4 Boston Massacre,’ 132. Boston Port Bill, 133, 134. INDEX lxi ‘ Boston Tea Party,’ 133. boundary, Confederate, 291. disputes about, 233, 253, 254, 259, 271, 338, 369. Bow quet'(ka), Colonel Henry, 123. Box'ers, 376. Br£d'dock, General Edward, 116, 117. Braddock's defeat, 116, 117. Bradford, William, 99. Br&gg, General Braxton, 261, 315, 317, 318, 322. Bran'dy wine, battle of, 155, 156, 158, 229. Brant, Joseph, 153. Brat'tle bo ro, 61. ‘ brave,’ 9, 244. Bra zil', 415. bread riots, 250. Breed’s Hill, 141, 142. British East India Company, 133. British Guiana, see Guiana. Brock, General Isaac, 218. ‘ Brothers of the Coast,’ 106. Brown, General Jacob, 222. Brown, John, 278. See John Brown's raid. Bry'an, William Jennings, 369, 376, 400, 415. Bry'ant, William Cullen. 205, 235, 274, 385. Bnch an'an, James, 273-285. Bu'ell, General Don Carlos, 294, 297. Bue'na Vis ta, battle of, 261. buffalo, see bison. roads, 213, 214. Buffalo, New York, 238, 355, 390. Bull Run, see Manassas. Bun'ker Hill, 141. battle of, 141, 142, 150, 233. Bur'gess es, House of, see House of Burgesses. Burgoyne', General John, 140. 153, 154, 155, 156, 172. Burke, Edmund, 130. Burn'side, General Ambrose, 308, 312. Bftrr, Aaron, 195. Bush'y Run, battle of, 123. Bht'ler, General Benjamin F., 300, 310. Byrd, Colonel William, 204. Cabinet, president’s, 184, 242, 379, 395. Ca'ble, George W., 386. Cab'ot, John, 18, 23, 24, 35, 74. Cabot, Sebastian, 24. Cal hown', John C., 227, 228, 240, 241, 246, 247, 267, 268, 269. California, 33, 261, 263, 265, 266, 269, 272, 274. 347, 367, 399, 413. C&l'vert, Cecil, see Baltimore, sec¬ ond Lord. Calvert, George, see Baltimore, first Lord. Calvert, Leonard, 75. Cambridge, Massachusetts, 142. Cam'den, battle of, 164. campaign of 1777, 152-158. ‘camps of concentration,’ 366. Can'ada, 31, 47, 102, 103, 113, 122, 144, 145, 153, 173, 209, 217, 218, 221, 222, 223, 253, 267, 293. canals, 240, 405. See also Erie Canal and Panama Canal. Canal Zone, 394. canoes, 8. capital and labor, contests between, 350, 351, 389, 391. capital of United States, 183, 206. car'a vels of Columbus, 20. Carneg'ie, Andrew, 389. Car o la'na, 31, 81. Car o li'na, 81, 82, 95, 105, 110. See North Carolina and South Car¬ olina. Car'olus, 81. carpetbaggers, 340, 341. carpetbag governments, 340, 341, 346, 348, 349. Car'teret, Sir George, 81. Cartier' (tya), Jacques (zhak), 30, 31. Ca taw'ba River, 168. Cathay', 15, 19, 22. caucus, 126. Cem'e tery Ridge, 313. census, 131, 196, 199, 351, 378, 402, 403. See also population. Cen tSn ni al Exhibition of 1876, 346, 347. Cer'ro GCr'do, battle of, 262. Cerve'ra (ther), Admiral Pascual, 372, 374. lxii INDEX Cham'bers burg, Pennsylvania, 322. Champlain', Samuel cle, 39, 41, 50, 105. Champlain, Lake, 41, 116, 145, 153, 218, 221, 223. Ch&n'cel lors ville, battle of, 312, 319. changes made in North America by man, 5. Chapul te pec', battle of, 262. Charles I., king of England, 62, 63, 67, 76, 77, 128. Charles II., king of England, 78, 80, 81, 84, 86, 89. Charles IX., king of France, 31. 81. Charles River, 62. Oharles'ton, South Carolina, 82, 108, 133, 148, 149, 150, 163, 169. 199, 246, 286, 292, 324, 325. Charles'town Heights, 141. charter colonies, 114. charter oak, 90. charters, of colonies, 63, 55, 62, 63, 67, 71, 76, 79, 86, 89, 90. Chase, Salmon P., 270. Chase, William, 287. Chat'ham, Earl of, see Pitt. Chat ta noo'ga, 296, 298, 315, 317, 318, 322. Cher'o kee Indians, 244. Cher'ry Valley, 159. Ches'apeake, frigate, 220. Chesapeake Bay, 43, 46, 154, 170, 290, 302. ghi ca'go, 345, 364, 365, 381, 392. Chick a hom'i ny River, 303. Chick a maw'ga, battle of, 315. Valley, 317. chief, Indian, 11. Children’s Bureau, 414. Chl'le, 415. Chil'koot Pass, 368. Chi'na, 15, 271, 376, 415. Chinese immigrants excluded, 356. Chlp'pe wa, battle of, 222. Chris ti'na fort, 74. church at Jamestown 44, 56. Church of England, 57, 58, 74, 76, 77, 78. Church'ill, Winston, 386 Chy rubus'co, battle of, 262. gi p&n'go, 15, 19. cities, 197, 344, 345, 360, 378, 379, 403. cities, growth of, 344, 378, 403, 412, 413, 414. civil service reform, 353, 355. clan, Indian, 11. Clark, George Rogers, 159, 160, 161, 173. Clark, William, 210. Clay, Henry, 227, 228, 236, 246, 247, 256, 268, 269, 270. Clay'borne, William, 75, 78. Clay'ton Anti-trust Bill, 412. Clem'ens, Samuel (‘ Mark Twain ‘), 386. Cler'mbnt , steamboat, 215. Cleveland, President Grover, 35lr- 358, 361, 362-369, 370. climate of North America, 3, 4. Clin'ton, Sir Henry, 140, 156, 158, 159, 164, 170, 172. coal, 4, 95, 274, 338, 363, 379, 391. coast line of North America, 1, 2. coins and coinage, 53, 78, 86, 178, 184, 329, 344, 350, 351, 362, 369. Cold Harbor, battle of, 321. colleges, 66, 98, 203, 383. colonial assemblies, 53, 54, 100, 124, 126. discontent, 124-136. growth, 76-82, 110. life, 91-101. trade, 124, 125, 131. colonies, American, in 1608, 47. at end of seventeenth centurv, 91-101. to states, 124-174. Col 6 ratio, 209, 263, 274, 347, 404, 413. Columbia, District of, see District of Columbia. Co lum'bi a, South Carolina, 325, Columbia River, 2, 210. Colum'bus, Christopher, 18-22, 24, 25, 30, 375. Commerce, Department of, 395. commission government, 376, 397, 413, 414" Committees of Correspondence, 132, 133, 134. common stock system, 44, 52, 60. Commons, House of, see House of Commons. INDEX lxiii Commonwealth, English, 70, 77, 78, 79. Com'pro mise, Missouri, see Mis¬ souri Compromise. Compromise of 1833, 240, 253. Compromise of 1850, 208, 209, 270. compromises in the Constitution, 179, 180, 389. Con'cord, fight at, 138, 139. Con fed'er ate monument at Arling¬ ton, 410, 417. Confederate states, 284, 287, 290, ! 291, 292. Con fed er a/tion, 172, 175. Articles of, 172, 177. Congress, Stamp Act, 128, 129. Continental, 134, 139, 140, 152, 104, 105, 100, 172. during reconstruction period, 330, 337, 338, 349. of United States, 178, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184, 185, 194, 195, 227, 232, 234, 240, 247, 252, 250, 200, 208, 209, 311, 328, 335, 330, 337, * 338, 339, 343, 348, 349, 353, 301, | 302, 303, 371, 370, 392, 400, 402, 412. powers of, 178, 183, 247, 281, 337, j 338, 349. Congress, frigate, 301. Con gres'sion al plan of reconstruc¬ tion, 336, 337, 340. Con nect'i cut, 68, 71, 79, 89, 90, 98, j 114, 190, 204, 205, 224, 257, 278. conservation of national resources, 369, 391, 392, 396. Con stan ti no'ple, taken by Turks, 15. Constitution of Confederate States, 284. of United States, 177-181, 184, 185, 195, 204, 205, 207, 231, 239, 240, 244, 245, 247, 207, 269, 270, 271, 278, 280, 281, 283, 284, 310, 311,328,339,343,349,303. See also Amendments. Constitution , frigate, 220. Constitutional convention, 176- 180. Constitutional Union party, 279. continent of North America, 1-5. Con ti nent'al army, 139, 142, 143, 173. congress, see Congress , Continental. money, 152, 100. navy, 143, 144. contraband of war, 189, 310, 323. Con tre'ras, battle of, 262. Convention, Hartford, 224. of 1787, 176, 177, 180. Virginia, of 1775, 134. of 1770, 145. CSn'way cabal, 167. cooking stove, invention of, 249. Coop'er, James Fenimore, 205, 235, 274, 385. Cop'ley, John, 202. copper, 274, 343, 379. Cor dll'le ra Mountains, 2, 4, 262. Cor'inth, Mississippi, 297, 298. corn, Indian, 4, 38, 51, 00, 04, 75, 81, 96, 197, 198, 199, 351, 379. Cornwal'lis, General Charles, 150, 151, 104, 107, 108, 169,170, 172, 173. Corona'do (tho), 28, 29, 30, 30, 404. corporations, 350. See also trusts. cotton, 190, 191, 197, 199, 213, 220, 230, 240. 255, 288, 290, 300, 351, 300, 363. 379, 403, 404, 410, 418. gin, 190, 191, 201. Cotton, John, 66. Cotton States, 280. coureurs' debois (bwa), 105. Cow'pens, battle of, 167. Cra/ter, the, 321. Cre di£' Mo biZ ier' (ya), 343. Creek Indians, 217, 244. War, 244. ‘ Crime of ’73,’ 344. Cro a toan', 38. Crom'well, Oliver, 77, 78, 79, 128. Crown Point, 140. Cu'ba, 22, 306, 370, 371, 374, 375, 376, 397. Cu le' bra Cut, 394. Cum'ber land , frigate, 301. Cumberland Gap, 238, 291. River, 294. Road, 214, 230. currency, 53, 73, 70, 160, 247, 350, 300, 362, 369, 370, 401, 408, 410. See also coins and coinage and paper money. Curtiss, Glenn, 406. lxiv INDEX Cus'ter, General George A., 347. cus'toms of eighteenth century, 205. Czol'gosz (cliol gftsli), Leon, 390. Da Ga'ma, 25. Dako'ta, 347, 381. See also North \ Dakota and South Dakota. Dale, Sir Thomas, 52, 53. Dan River, 168. Dan'ville, Virginia, 326. Dare, Virginia, 38. ‘dark and bloody ground,’ 199. Darkness, Sea of, 17, 20, 22. Da'vis, Jefferson, 261. 263, 270, 284, 287, 333. debt, national, 185. See war debts, j debtors, laws about, 110, 111, 205. 1 257. decimal currency, 184. Declaration of Independence, 146, 172, 237, 238, 346, 388. Declaration of Neutrality, 189. Declaration of Rights, 134. Decrees, French, 211, 216, 217, 229. De land', Margaret, 386. De la Salle, see La Salle. Del 7 a ware, 74, 87, 110, 114, 223. Delaware Indians, 75. Delaware, Lord, 51, 52. Delaware River, 59, 74, 79, 86, 87, 150, 151, 158, 202. De Leon', Pon'ce (tha), 26. Demarkation, Line of, 23. Democratic party, and Democrats, 239, 240, 252, 256, 273, 279, 348, 354, 358, 361, 369, 400. Democratic-Republican party, 185, 186, 195, 208, 230, 235, 239, 357. Department, see State , War, Treas¬ ury , etc. departments of government, 178, 179. De So'to, Hernando, 28, 29, 36, 404. i De Tocque'ville (tok'vil), 247. Detroit', Michigan, 160, 217, 218, 221 , 222 . De Va'ca, Cabe'za (tha), 28. Dew'ey, Admiral George, 371, 376. Dingley Tariff Act, 370, 402. Dinwld'die, Governor Robert, 114, 115. Discovery , ship, 43. dissenters, 68, 69, 76. District of Columbia, 206, 269. Dix, Dorothea, 257. domestic animals, 4, 5, 10, 65, 92. Don'el son, Fort, 294, 296. Ddr'chester Heights, 141, 144. Dorr’s Rebellion, 253. Doug'las, Stephen A., 272, 280. Do'ver, New Hampshire, 61. Downing, A. J., 387. Draft Acts, 312. Draft Riots, 312. Drake, Sir Francis, 32, 33. Dred Scott case, see Scott. dress, 96, 201. dugouts, 8. Du Quesne' (kan), Fort, 116, 117, 119. Dutch East India Company, 48, 72. explorations and settlement, 48- 51, 72-74, 78, 79. settlers, 73. West India Company, 72. Dwight, Timothy, 135. dy'na mite, 382. Eads, jetties, 351. Ear'ly, General Jubal A., 321, 322. earthquake, California, 399. earth’s shape, beliefs about, 17, 18, 20 . East India Company, see British and Dutch East India Company. East Jer'sey, 81, 110. Ed'ison, Thomas A., 384. education, 56, 66, 97, 203, 237, 238, w 257, 382, 383, 397. Ed'wards, Jonathan, 204. Elastic Clause of Constitution, 185, 240. El Ca'ney, battle of, 373, 374. El Do ra'do, 26. elections, presidential, 182, 195, 235, 236, 252, 256, 272, 273, 279, 347, 348, 354, 358, 361, 369, 376, 396, 400, 408. Electoral Commission of 1876, 348. Electoral Count Act, 355, 356. electricity, uses of, 186, 256, 353, 381, 382, 384. electric lights, 381. _ railways, 353, 381. El'i ot, John, 94, 95. E liz'a beth, queen of England, 33. 37, 138. INDEX lxv E man ci pa'tion Proclamation, 310, 311, 328. Em bar'go Act, 212, 213, 226, 229. Em'erson, Ralph W., 275, 385. England, 23, 24, 34, 36, 38, 57, 76, 77, 78, 79, 89, 90, 106, 238, 290, 293, 398, 403. See also Great Britain. English colonies in America, 36- 101, 102, 105. English contests with France, 102- 123. See also Great Britain. English discoveries and explora¬ tions, 23, 24, 36, 37, 38, 41, 42. Era of good feeling, 230. Er'ics son, Captain John, 301. Erie, New York, 114, 222. Erie, battle of Lake, 222. Erie Canal, 238. w Lake, 105, 114, 221, 222. Er'ik son, Leif, 13. ether used as anaesthetic, 257. I?u/rope in the Middle Ages, 14-18. Europe, wars of early nineteenth century, 211, 223, 229. wars of twentieth century, 417, 418. European ignorance of America, 1,5. Eu'tavv Springs, battle of, 168. exchange of prisoners in War of Secession, 311. ex ec'u tive department, 178. expenses of government, 400, 401. explorations in United States, 28, 29, 30, 35, 102, 103, 404. explorers, early, 26-35. exports, 54, 60, 93, 190, 197. factories, 226, 288, 290, 351. Fair Oaks, battle of. See Seven Pines. families, Indian, 11. farming, see agriculture. FSr'ra gut, Commodore David G., 298, 300, 324, 371. ‘ father of American navy,’ 143. ‘ father of Constitution,’ 177, 215. Fear, Cape, 42. federal plan of Constitution, 177. Federal Advisory Board, 411. Reserve Act, 410, 411. Reserve Banks, 411. Reserve Board, 412. Federalist, 180, 204. Federalist party and Federalists, 180, 185, 186, 195, 208, 209, 217, 240, 357. Federation of Labor, 350. Fel'lows, A. L., 404. Fer'di nand, king of Spain, 20. Fer'gu son, Major Patrick, 166. Field, Cyrus W., 274. “ Fifty-four forty or fight,” 254. Fil i pi'nos, 376. Fill'more, Millard, 269, 270. financial affairs, 151, 152, 165, 166, 175, 184, 185, 330, 344, 350, 351, 362, 363. See also debt, tariff , etc. firearms, 41, 61, 382, 417. fish and fisheries, 5, 7, 9, 23, 24, 39, 51, 60, 61, 64, 92, 102, 103. 338, 407. Fisher, Fort, 324. Fiske, John, 386. Fitch, John, 202. Five Nations, 12, 41, 109. flag of United States, 153, 154. flintlock guns, 61, 138. Flor'i da, 26, 28, 31, 36, 44, 47, 80. Ill, 122, 233, 244, 254, 280, 348, 349, 377, 392. Florida Purchase, 233, 377. flying machines, 406, 417. food, 44, 45, 46, 60, 64, 65, 75, 91 # ^ 96, 200. Foote, Commodore Andrew II., 294. foreign policy of United States, 189, 192, 233, 234. foreigners aiding Americans in War of Revolution, 157. forest reserves, 369, 391, 392, 396. forests, 4, 5, 82, 392, 396. forts, French, 108, 109, 112, 113. Forts : Chris t'i'na, 74. Crown Point, 140. Don'el son, 294, 296. Du Quesne (kan), 116, 117, 119. E'rie, 222. Fish'er, 324. Henry, 294, 296. Mims, 217. Mpul'trie, 149, 163. McHenry, 223, 224. Ni Hg'a ra, 119. Ne ^es'si ty, 116. INDEX kvi Forts ( continued): Oswe'go, 118, 119. Pitt, 119. Stan'wix, 153, 154. Summer, 288, 287. Ti con de ro'ga, 118, 119, 140,153. William Henry, 118. Fortress Mon roe', 301,302, 310, 333. Forty Niners, 265, 386. Fountain of Youth, 26. Fox Indians, 244. France, 30, 102, 108, 113, 122, 165, 172, 175, 194, 208, 209, 211, 213, 216, 292, 338, 339, 377, 407. See also French. franchise,see ballot,votersand voting. Fran'cis I., king of France, 30. Frank'lin, Benjamin, 155, 156, 173, 176, 180, 186, 187, 203, 204, 205, 207, 384. Franklin, state of, 192. Fred'er icks burg, Virginia, 306, 308, 312, 319. battle of, 308, 312. free coinage, 344, 369. ‘free 1 South, 351. free states, 231, 232, 263, 266, 267, 268, 269, 272, 278. Freedmen’s Bureau, 336. freedom of speech, 195. Free'man, Mary Wilkins, 386. Fremont', Captain John C., 261. French alliance with United States, 156, 158, 170. French and Indian War, see War , French and Indian. French Creek, 114. French, Daniel C., 387. French-English contest, 103-123, 196, 277. French explorers and settlers, 30, 31, 39, 41, 47, 102-105, 108, 109, 113. in American Revolution, 170. unfriendly relations with United States, 188, 193, 194, 211, 213, 216. French Panama Canal Company, 393, 394. French republic, 188. French Revolution, 188, 234. Freneau' (no), Philip, 135. friction matches, 248. Friends, see Quakers. fuel, 95, 200. Fugitive Slave Law, 267, 269, 270, 280, 283. Ful'ton, Robert, 214, 215. furniture, 95, 96, 200. fur trade, 39, 41, 50, 60, 61, 72, 73, 83, 93, 102, 105, 126, 136, 197, 200, 338. Gads'den Purchase, 271, 377. Gage, General Thomas, 133,137,138. Gal'veston, Texas, 413. ‘game cock, 1 164. Gar'field, President James A., 352, 353. Gar'ri son, William Lloyd, 267, 270. Gas pee' , schooner, 132. Gates, General Horatio, 155, 157, 164. Gates, Sir Thomas, 52, 53. Ga'tun Dam, 394. Ge net'(zhe na), Citizen Edmond, 188. Gen'o a, 15, 18, 19. ‘gentleman’ colonists, 43, 47. George II., king of Great Britain, 110 , 112 . George III., king of Great Britain, 128, 131, 133, 148. GeCr'gi a, 87, 92, 110, 111, 112, 114, 118, 135, 140, 163, 164, 169, 181, 190, 217, 244, 280, 284, 315, 322, 323, 325, 337. German settlers, 87, 91, 114, 258. germ theory of disease, 384, 385. Ger'man town, battle of, 155,156,229. Gettysburg, battle of, 313, 314, 318. Ghent, treaty of, 224. Gi'la River (he), 271. Gil'bert, Sir Humphrey, 37. Gist, 115. glass, etc., tax on, 131. Glass, Carter, 410. Glass-Owen Currency Bill, see Fed¬ eral Beserve Act. Goe'thals (gu't&lz'), Colonel George, 394. gold and gold mines, 4, 264, 265, 274, 338, 343, 347, 367, 368,379. gold coinage and standard, 344, 351, 362, 369, 370, 410, 411. INDEX lxvii ‘golden age,’ 274, 385. Goli ad', Texas, 255. Good Speed , ship, 43. G6r'gas, Colonel W. C., 394. Gdr'ges, Sir Ferdinando, 62, 86. government, British during Revolu¬ tion, 130, 131. colonial, 44, 47, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 59, 60, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 71, 76, 77, 78, 79, 82, 88, 90, 100, 101, 114, 124, 125, 126, 127, 129, 130, 131, 133, 156. state, 148, 175, 178, 332, 335, 337, 346, 361. federal, 176-181, 184, 195, 207, 245, 246, 281, 283. Indian, 11. governors, colonial, 124, 140. Grand Model, 82. Grant, General Ulysses S., 225, 260, 263, 294, 296, 297, 298, 306, 312, 314, 319, 320, 321, 322, 325, 326, 327, 332, 335, 339-348, 350, 353. Gray, Asa, 277, 384. Great American Desert, 254. Great Britain, 108, 112, 116, 148, 172, 173, 193, 211, 212, 213, 220, 223, 224, 225, 226, 253, 259, 281, 292, 293, 415, 417. arbitration of disputes with, 342, 343, 365, 366, 407. disputes with colonies, 124-135. second war with United States, 216-226. treaties with United States, 173, 175, 189, 224, 407. war with colonies, 137-174. great charter, 53. Great Divide, 210. Great Lakes, 116, 161, 173, 238. Great Khan, 15. ‘great peacemaker,’ 270. ‘great trio,’ 247, 268. ‘great white plague,’ 385. greenbacks, 330, 351. Green Mountain Boys, 140. Greene, General Nathanael, 166, 167, 168, 173, 225. Greenland, 13, 92. Greensboro, North Carolina, 168. Guam (gwam), 375. Guer ri ere ', frigate, 220. | Gul a'na, British, 365. j Guil'ford Courthouse, battle of, 168, | Gui teau' (to), Charles Jules, 352. | Gulf of Mexico, 2, 103, 105, 113 r 209. St. Lawrence, 31, 112, 220. [ Gun'ni son tunnel, 404, 405. j Guth'rie, Oklahoma, 358. Hague Conference, 376. j Hail , Columbia , 194. half-civilized Indians, 7. i ‘half-faced camps,’ 199, 279. I Half Moon , ship, 49. Hal'i fax, 145, 149. Hal'leck, General Henry W., 294, 307. Ham'il ton, Alexander, 176, 180., 184, 185, 186, 190, 204, 207. Hamp'ton Roads, 301, 302, 303, 325. hardships of early colonists, 44, 45, 46, 47, 59, 60, 64. Har'per’s Ferry, 278, 307. Har'ri man, Edward II., 389. Har'ris, Joel Chandler, 386. Har'ri son. President Benjamin, 358-361. Harrison, President William Henry, 217, 221, 222, 252. Harte, Bret, 386. Hart'ford, Connecticut, 68, 89. Hart'ford Convention, 224, 243. Har'vard College, 66, 98, 203. Ha van'a, 370. Hawal'ian (yan) Islands, 365, 375, 377. Ilaw'thorne, Nathaniel, 275, 385. Hayes, Rutherford Birchard, 348, 349-352. Hayne (ban), Paul Hamilton, 276. Hay lie, Robert Y., 244, 245, 281. Hayne-Webster debate, 244, 245. Ilay'ti, 22. Henry, Fort, 294, 296. Henry, Patrick, 127, 128, 134, 135, 139, 173, 180. Henry the Navigator, Prince, 17. Iler'ki mer, General Nicholas, 154. ‘ hero of Saratoga,’ 164. Iles'se, 141. J Hes'sian soldiers, 141, 150. Hi a wa'tha, 12. i Hill, General A. P., 326. ixvlii INDEX historians, American, 235, 276, 277, 386. Hob'kirk’s Hill, battle of, 168. Hob'son, Lieut. Richmond P., 373. Holland, 165, 175. colonies of, 72-74, 78, 79, 80. explorations of, 48-51. Pilgrims in, 57, 58. Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 385. Homestead Act, 330. Hood, General John B., 323, 324. Hook'er, General Joseph, 312, 313. Hooker, Reverend Thomas, 66, 68. Hdp'kinson, Joseph, 194. Horseshoe Bend, battle of, 217. House of Burgesses, 54, 83, 127, 134. House of Commons, 130. House of Representatives, 130, 178, 180, 195, 228, 232, 236, 280, 283, 338, 348, 355, 369, 408. Houston, General Sam, 255. Howe, Admiral, 149. Howe, Elias, 249. Howe, General William, 140, 142, 149, 154, 155, 158. How'ells, W. I)., 386. Hud'son, Henry, 48, 49, 50, 51, 74. Hudson River, 49, 62, 153, 156, 159, 170. Valley, 145, 165. Huerta (hwer'ta), Victoriano, 414, 415. Hu'grte nots, 31, 82. Hull, Captain Isaac, 220. Hull, General William, 218. Ice'land, 13. Pda ho, 259, 359, 392, 413. Illinois', 161, 231, 251, 272, 278, 279, 296, 413. immigrants and immigration, 258, 268, 330, 356, 357, 378, 403. immigration to colonies, 38, 39, 42, 43, 47, 59, 61, 62, 68, 73, 74, 77, 82, 87, 113. influence on views of Constitu¬ tion and Union, 258. impeachment of President Johnson, 337, 338. implied powers, 185, 207. impressment of American sailors, 189, 211, 212, 217, 224, 229. income tax, 330, 363, 365, 408, 410, 412. indented servants, 94, 98. independence, colonies declare for, 145. Independence, Declaration of, 146, 172. Independent Treasury plan, 251. ‘indestructible union,’ 328. Indian'a, 161, 216, 231, 358. Indian corn, see corn. Indian raids, 83, 85, 106, 107, 117. reservations, 6, 244, 347, 388, 392. Indian Territory, 244, 358, 399. Indian warfare, 11, 44, 85, 106, 107, 116, 117, 123. Indian wars, 109, 217, 347. See Fequot War, King Philip's War , etc. Indians, 5-12, 22, 27, 44, 60, 64, 65, 69, 71, 83, 84, 85, 88, 105, 106, 107, 109, 117, 123, 153, 154, 159, 187, 199, 217, 218, 221, 244, 265, 358, 388. See also Algon¬ quin, Iroquois , Muskhogean , and names of tribes. Indies, European trade with, 14, 15, 17, 18, 25. Indies, West, 24. indigo, 112, 197. industries, 92, 93, 111, 197, 379, 380, 381, 396. initiative, 414. insane, treatment of, 205, 257. insects as disease carriers, 384, 385. insurgent Republicans, 402, 407. internal improvements, 240. Interstate Commerce Act, 356. Commerce Commission, 412. Trade Commission, 412. invasion of South, 291. inventions, 186, 190, 201, 202, 248, 249, 256, 257, 353, 381, 382, 384. I'o wa, 209, 263, 347. Irish settlers, 87, 91, 143, 144, 241, 258. iron, 4, 8, 226, 240, 274. 379. ‘ironclad oath,’ 340, 346. ironclad warships, 301, 302. iron works, first in America, 56. Iroquois' Indians, 11, 12, 41, 49, 50, 105, 106, 109. INDEX lxix irrigation, 5, 251, 392, 404, 405. Irv'ing, Washington, 205, 235, 274, 385. Is a bel'la, queen of Spain, 20. I tal'ian seamen, 18, 30. Italians control eastern trade, 15. Jack' son, General Andrew, 217, 224, 225, 235, 236, 241-249. Jackson, General Thomas J., 292, 306, 307, 312. James River, 43, 48, 51. James I., king of England, 41, 43, 55, 62, 63. James II., king of England, 80, 81, 89, 102. See also York and Albany , Duke of. James'town, Virginia, 43, 46, 47, 51, 53, 54, 56, 60, 63, 91, 398. Jamestown colony, 43-56, 58, 59, 87, 91, 398. Japan', 15, 271. Jas'per, Sergeant, 149. Jay, Chief Justice John, 180, 189, 204. Jay’s treaty, 189, 229. Jef'ferson, President Thomas, 146, 173, 184, 185, 186, 190, 195, 206- 215, 216, 229, 237, 238, 240. Jer'seys, 81, 92. See New Jersey. jetties, see Eads's jetties. Jews, 69, 76. John Brown’s Raid, 278, 279, 280. John'son, President Andrew, 334- 339. John'ston, General Albert Sidney, 263, 297. John'ston, General Joseph E., 263, 291, 303, 322, 323, 325, 326, 327. Joliet' (zholya), Louis, 102, 103. Jones, John Raul, 143, 144, 161, 162. ju di'ci al department, 178, 179. jury, trial by, 68, 184, 195. Kalb, Baron, 158, 164. Kan'sas, 30, 209, 261, 272, 277, 278, 413. Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 272, 278. Kaskas'kia, 160. Kear'ny, General Stephen W., 261. Ken' ne bee River, 42, 61, 62. Kent’s Island, 75. Ken tuck'y, 136, 159, 191, 192, 195, 199, 221, 227, 241, 245, 268, 279, 284, 287, 291, 292, 359. Kentucky Resolutions, 195, 245. Key, Francis Scott, 223, 224. Khan, Great, 15. Kidd, Captain William, 107. King George's War, 112, 113. King Philip’s War, 84-86. King William’s War, 102, 106, 108. King’s Mountain, battle of, 166. Kitchen Cabinet, 242. Klon'dike, 367, 368. Know-Nothing party, 273. Knox, Henry, 184. Koch, Robert, 384. Kos cl us'ko, Count Thaddeus, 158. Ku Klux Klan, 341. labor, 94, 257, 349, 350. Labor, Department of, 395. labor and vagrancy laws, 335, 336. Lab'ra dor, 24. La Fargc, John, 387. La fay ettef Jean Paul. Marquis de, 158, 169, 170, 234. Lake Champlain, battle of, 223. Lake Erie, battle of, 221. Lake of the Woods, 259. Lang'ley, Samuel P., 406. Lamer', Sidney, 276, 385. La Salle, Robert de, 103. La'throp, Julia, 414. Latter Day Saints, see Mormons. Law'rence, Captain James, 220. laws, 73, 100, 101, 110, 124, 125, 205, 257, 270, 389. La zear', Dr. Jesse, 385. Lee, General Charles, 150, 158. Lee, ‘ Lighthorse Harry,’ 167, 303. Lee, Richard Henry, 146. Lee, General Robert E., 225, 262, 263, 303, 304, 306, 307, 312, 313, 314, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 326, 327, 329, 332, 335, 340, 416. legal tender, 330. legislative department, 178. Letf the Lucky, see Erikson. Lcis'ler, Jacob, 90. Leon, see De Leon. Lew'is, Meriwether, 210. Lewis and Clark expedition, 210. lxx INDEX Lex'ington, battle of, 137, 138, 139, 140. Lib’er a tor , 267. lighting, inodes of, 381. Lin'coin, President Abraham, 279, 280, 284, 285-333, 334, 335, 336, 337. Lincoln, General Benjamin, 155, 163, 164. literature, 98, 99, 135, 204, 234, 235, 274, 275, 276, 277, 385, 386. Little Bell , frigate, 217. local option, 272. locomotives, see steam engine. London Company, 42, 43, 63. * Lone Star State, 1 255. Long, Dr. Crawford, 257. Long'fel low, Henry W., 274, 385. * long houses, 1 12. Long Island, 42. battle of, 149. Lookout Mountain, 317. battle of, 318. lords proprietors, 81, 82, 110. 114. ‘ Lost Cause, 1 328, 333. Lost Colony, 38. Lou'is XIV., 103. Lou'Isburg, Canada, 112, 113, 119. Lou l si a'na, 209, 216, 232, 233, 280, 292, 298, 314, 340, 348, 349. Louisiana Territory, 103, 122, 173, 200, 208,209, 216, 232, 245, 262, 377. Lou'is ville, Kentucky, 298. Loio'ell, James R., 275, 385. Loyalists in Commonwealth period, 77. Loyalists in Revolution, 140. See Tories. Lu'cas, Eliza, 112. lumber and lumbering, 92, 93, 351, 379, 392. Lun'dy’s Lane, battle of, 222. Lynch'burg, Virginia, 326. M&e don'ongh, Commodore Thomas, 223. machinery, use of, 248, 249, 379, 381. Macmon'nies, Frederick, 387. Mcld'ison, Dolly, 216. Madison, President Janies, 77, 176, 177, 180, 190, 204, 215-228, 229. Mad'ras, India, 113. Ma gel'lan, Ferdinand, 26, 27. Magellan, Strait of, 26. mail service. 265, 266, 382. Maine, 61, 62, 78, 86, 89, 90, 105, 118, 135, 144, 223, 231, 232, 253, 257, 392. Maine liquor law, 257. Maine , battleship, 370. maize, 47. See corn. Man&s'sas, first battle of, 291, 292, 306. second battle of, 307. Man hat'tan Island, 50, 73. Manll'a, Philippine Islands, 371, 374. battle of, 371, 372. Mann, Horace, 257. manufactures, 125, 197, 213, 226, 240, 268, 290, 330, 360, 362, 379. Marco'ni, 399. mariner’s compass, 17. Mar'i on, General Francis, 164, 167, 241. Mark Twain, see Clemens. Marquette' (ket), Father, 102, 103. Mar'shall, John, 77, 206, 207, 281. Mary, queen of England, 90. Ma'ry land (mer), 75, 76, 78, 87, 92, 93, 101, 136, 172, 214, 239, 287, 307. Mason, James M., 292, 293. Mason, John, 62. Mason and Dixon’s line, 87, 231. Massachusetts, 59, 62, 67, 68, 69, 71, 76, 78, 86, 87, 90, 98, 106, 113, 114, 125, 128, 131, 132. 133, 134, 173, 176, 184, 193, 202, 224, 226, 257, 267, 268, 290. Massachusetts Bay colony, 62-67, 68, 69, 71, 76. Company, 62, 63, 67. Massacre of 1622, 54, 55. Massasoit', 60, 85. matchlock guns, 61. Maw'ry, Matthew Fontaine, 274,277, 384. 3fayflower, ship, 59, 60. McClel'lan, General George, 263, 292, 302, 303, 304, 306, 307, 308. McCor'mick, Cyrus, 248. McDow'ell, General Irvin, 291, 306, 307. McHenry, Fort, 223, 224. INDEX lxxi McKini', Charles, 387. McKin'ley, President William, 369," 370-377, 390. McKinley Tariff Act, 360. Meade, General George, 313. Meck'len burg County, North Caro¬ lina, 145. medicine, 100, 187, 204, 288, 300, 311, 324, 384, 398. Med i ter ra'ne an Sea, 14. Mem'phis, Tennessee, 294, 297. Merit System, 353. Merrimac, ironclad, 300, 301, 302. Merrimac River, 62. Methodist church, 111. Mex'i can cession, 262, 263,269, 330. Mex'i co, 25, 27, 32, 36, 251, 253, 254, 255, 258, 338, 339, 414, 415. Mexico, city, 262. Gulf of, see Gulf of Mexico. Mi§h'igan, 161, 221, 231, 247. Middle Ages, 14. Middle Colonies, 72-76, 114. Middle States, 156, 159, 174, 197, 204, 213. Miles, Major General Nelson A., 374. military government of South, 337. “Millions for defense,” 194. Mims, Fort, 217. mine, see Crater, 321. mineral resources of North America, 4. mines, see gold, silver, iron, etc. ministers in New England colonies, 65, 66, 68, 69. Min ne so'ta, 161, 209, 277, 278, 347. mint in Massachusetts colony, 78. Min'u it, Peter, 73, 74. minutemen, 135, 139. missionaries, French, 102, 105. Mis'sion a ry Ridge, 317. battle of, 318. missionary societies, 252. Mis sissip'pi, 231, 233, 261, 270, 280, 284, 296, 297, 340, 351. River, 3, 29, 103, 105, 108, 113, 114, 135, 161, 173, 189, 209, 224. 230, 232, 243, 244. 265, 291, 294, 297, 298, 300, 314; 351, 384, 392. Valley, 4, 103, 209. Missouri, 209, 231, 232, 265, 278, 287, 291, 292, 296, 297. Compromise, 232, 266, 271, 272, 278. River, 209, 210, 230, 392. Mo bile', Alabama, 217, 324, 371. Bay, battle of, 324. Mo'doc War, 347. Mo hawk Indians, 153. River, 153. Valley, 153. Mo li'na del Rey, battle of, 262. money, see coins and coinage, cur¬ rency, and paper money. Mon'i tor, ironclad, 300, 301, 302. Mon'mouth, battle of, 158, 229. Mon roe', Fortress, 301, 302,310,333. Monroe, President James, 77, 229- 236, 239. Monroe Doctrine, 233, 234, 338, 366, 414. Mon ta'na, 209, 259, 274, 347, 359, 381, 413. Montcalm', General Joseph Louis,- 118, 119, 120, 122. Mont gom' e ry, Alabama, 284. Montgomery, General Richard, 144. Mon to jo' (cho), Admiral, 371. Montreal', 31, 106, 108, 122, 144, 218. Moore’s Creek, battle of, 148. Mdr'gan, General Daniel, 155, 164, 167. Mor'mons, 251, 365. Mo roc'co, 210. Mor'ris, Robert, 151, 176, 257. Mor'ris town, New Jersey, 151. MCrse, Samuel F. B., 256. ‘ mother of New England,’ 67. motives of English colonization, 36, 398. MGt'ley, John Lothrop, 276, 385. Moul'trie, Colonel William, 149. Moultrie, Fort, 149, 163. Mound Builders, 12. mountain systems of North America, 2 . Mount Vernon, 183, 192. mowing machines, 248. Mug'wumps, 354, 355. Mur'frees bo ro, battle of, 315. music, 387, 388. Musk hoge'an Indians, 11, 109. lxxii INDEX Na po'le on Bo'na parte, 194, 209, 211, 216, 217, 223, 229. Nar ra g&n'sett Indians, 69, 70, 85. Narva/ez (eth), Panfilo de, 28, 29, 36. Nash'ville, battle of, 323, 324. national banks, 330. National Civil Service Reform, see Civil Service Reform,. Forest Service, 392. Republican party, 239. nationality, spirit of, 245, 258, 288, 335. Nat u ral i za'tion Act, 194. naval fighting in Revolution, 143, 144," 161, 162. in War of 1812, 220, 222, 223, 226. in Warof Secession, 293, 298, 300, 301, 302, 308, 324. in War with Spain, 371, 372, 373, 374. naval stores, 93, 197. Navigation Acts, 79, 80, 86, 124, 125. navy, Confederate, 290, 291, 293. of United States, 143, 144, 220, 298, 371, 395. Navy Department, 194. Ne bras'ka, 209, 272, 338, 369. negroes, 28, 54, 94, 190, 268, 270, 278, 279, 310, 311, 333, 336, 337, 339, 340, 341, 351, 361, 388, 412. See also slaves and slavery. Neth'er lands, see Holland. Neutrality, Proclamation of, 189, 234. Neutral nation, rights and duties of, 211, 342, 418. Ne va/da, 263, 274, 330, 413. New Al'bi on, 33. New Amsterdam, 50, 73, 80. New England, province of, 89. New England colonies, 145. New England confederacy, 71. New England Primer , 98. New England States, 48, 63, 72, 74, 75, 78, 79, 84, 85, 86, 89, 91, 92, 96, 100, 113, 125, 126, 137, 139, 153, 197, 200, 203, 213, 217, 224, 226, 236, 241, 245, 266, 336. New'found land (nu ), 24, 30, 274, 406. New France, 30, 39, 47, 103. New Hampshire, 61, 62, 78, 86, 113, 114, 191, 228, 271. New Ha/ven, Connecticut, 68, 71, 79. New Jer'sey, 58, 81, 89, 110, 114, 150, 151, 154, 158, 408, 409, 416. New Mar'ket, battle of, 320. New Mex'i co, 8, 29, 36, 47, 261, 263, 269, 407. New Neth'erland, 50, 72, 73, 78, 79, 80. New Or'le ans, Louisiana, 108, 109, 122, 200, 209, 223, 224, 225, 230, 298, 300, 351, 398. battle of, 224, 225, 241. New Swe'den, 74, 79. newspaper, first in United States, 99. New York, 41, 80. 97, 114, 134,140, 145, 150, 152, 153, 159, 162, 172, 174, 176, 181, 184, 191, 195, 208, 235, 251, 253, 269, 270, 274, 281, 348, 354, 355, 390, 391. New York City, 50, 80, 92, 93, 128, 133, 145, 149. 153, 154, 155, 156, 159, 164, 170, 173, 183, 198, 206, 215, 238, 250, 312, 343, 345, 353, 378, 393. Ni &g'a ra, Falls, 222. Fort, 119. River, 218, 222. NIc'ols, Governor Richard, 80, 81. NVna, caravel, 20. Non-Intercourse Act, 213, 216. NOr'folk, Virginia, 302. normal schools, 257. North, industries of, 92, 93, 197, 226, 290. condition in 1861, 290. condition in 1865, 330. North America, discovered by Cabot, 23. English attempts to settle, 36, 37, 38, 41, 42. exploration of, 34, 35. North Carolina, 30, 37, 39, 81, 82, 93, 107, 109, 110, 114, 132,136, 145, 148, 168, 169, 181, 192, 287, 324, 325, 327, 334, 337. INDEX lxxiii North Dako'ta, 209, 359. northeast passage to Asia, 48. Northern Pacific Hailway, 343. Northmen, 12-14, 19. North Pole, discovery of, 405. North Virginia, 42. northwest passage to Asia, 50. Northwest Territory, 173, 181, 187, 208, 216, 231. Norwegian settlers, 92, 58. No'va Sco'ti a, 42, 20, 108. novelists, 205, 235, 75, 385, 386. Nueces (nwa) River, 269, 260. nullification, 240, 241, 246, 247, 252, 270. ‘ Ocean Sea,’ 15. O'glethorpe, General James, 110, 111 , 112 . Ohi'o, 161, 208, 221, 231, 270, 274, 348, 376, 400. Ohio country, 136. Land Company, 114. River, 105, 114, 116, 160, 161, 214, 230, 232, 297, 392. Valley, 114. oil, 274, 350, 379, 396. Ok la ho'ma, 209, 358, 359, 399. ‘Old Hickory,’ 242. ‘ Old Ironsides,’ 22. ‘Old Rough and Ready,’ 264. Mild Silver Leg,’ 78. Olm'sted, Frederick, 387. On ta'ri o, Lake, 105, 221. O pe cSn'ca nough, 55. Orders in Council, 211, 216, 229. Ordinance, of 1787, 181. of Nullification, 246. of Secession, 280, Or'e gon, 33, 259, 277, 347, 348, 413. Oregon , battleship, 393. Oregon Country, 253, 254, 256, 258, 377. O ris'ka ny, 154. Os ce o'la, 244. Oswe'go, Fort, 118, 119, 153. O'tis, James. 125, 135. Ot'ta wa Indians, 123. Pa gif'ic cable, 382. Ocean, discovery of, 26, 33, 34, 62, 209, 210, 259, 261, 358, 371, 380, 399. Pacific States, 356. Page, Thomas Nelson, 386. Paine, John K., 388. Pak'en /tarn, General Edward, 225. Pa'lo Al'to, battle of, 260. Pa'los, Spain, 20,22. Pan a ma', Isthmus of, 26, 32, 393. Panama, republic, 394. Panama Canal, 393, 394, 395. Panic of 1887, 250, 251, 273. of 1857, 273. of 1873, 344. of 1884, 353. paper money, 152, 166, 250, 329, 330, 350, 351, 362. papoose', 10. parcel post, 407. ITir'is, treaty of, 173. Park'man, Francis, 277, 385. Par'lia ment, 76, 79, 90, 127, 129, 130, 131, 133, 135, 145, 156. parties, political, 185, 186, 230, 239, 240, 252, 267, 272, 273, 279, 354, 369, 377, 400, 401, 408. ■ partisan bands, 163, 164, 167. partisan political appointments, 208, 243, 352, 353. Pas teur', Louis, 384. ‘ pathfinder of the sea,’ 274. Patriots in Revolution, 140, 141, 145, 146, 150, 164, 165, 172. pa troons', 73, 253. Payne Tariff Act, 402, 407. peace, 332, 396, 415, 418. Peace Conference, 325. Convention, 283, 284. Pea Ridge, battle of, 297. Pen'ry, Robert N., 405. Peking', China, 376. Pen in'su lar Campaign, 302, 303. Penn, William, 86, 87, 88, 103. Penn syl va'ni a. 86-88, 92, lol, 114, 117, 123, 136, 110, 159, 174, 176, 187, 202, 273, 274, 313, 322, 337, 363, 391. pensions, 331, 357. People’s party, 364. Pe'quot Indians, 71. War, 71. Per'ry, Commodore Matthew, 271. Oliver H., 221, 222. ‘personal liberty' laws, 270. Pe ru', 27, 32. lxxiv INDEX Petersburg, Virginia, 321, 322, 329. siege of, 321. Pet'ti grew, J. J., 314. Phil a del'phia, Pennsylvania, 87, 133, 134, 142, 151, 154, 155, 156, 158, 170, 172, 176, 186, 187, 198, 204, 206, 346, 347. Phil'ip, King, 85. Philippine Islands, 27, 371, 375, 376, 377, 397, 403. national assembly, 397. Phips, Sir William, 106. photography, invention of, 249, 387. physical history of North America, 1-5. Pick'ens, Andrew, 164, 167. Plcfc'ett, General George, 314. Pierce, President Franklin, 271-273. PIFgrims, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 71, 99. Pinck'ney, Charles, 177. Pin'ta, caravel, 20. pioneer life, 199, 200. pirates, 106, 107, 210, 211, 227. Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham, 118, 119, 129, 130, 141. Pitt, Fort, 119. Pitts'burg, Pennsylvania, 116, 119, 160, 363. Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee, 297. Plains of Abraham, Quebec, 120. plantation life, 54, 75, 76, 97. platforms, political, 185, 230, 239, 240, 252, 264, 272, 273, 279, 357, 358, 361, 369, 401, 407, 408. Platte Country, 272. PlaUes'burg, New York, 223. Ply'mouth, Massachusetts, 59. Plymouth, colony, 59, 60, 61, 63, 71, 90. Company, 42, 43. Po ca lmn'tas, 46. Poe, Edgar Allan, 276, 385. poets, American, 135, 205, 235, 274, 275, 276, 385. Po?k, President James K., 256, 258- 263. Pol'o, Mar'co, 15, 19, 22. polyg'amy, 251, 357, 365. Ponce de Leon, see De Leon. Pon'tiac, 123, 217. Pontiac’s War, 123, 126. pony express, 265, 266. Poor Richard's Almanac, 205. Pope, General John, 294, 307. Pop'ham colony, 42. popular sovereignty, 272, 273. population of United States, 196, 199, 351, 377, 378, 402, 403. Pop'u lists, see People's party. Port Hud'son, Mississippi, 297, 298, 300, 314. Por'to Ri'co, 374, 375. Por'tu gal, king of, appealed to by Columbus, 20. explorations of, 17, 23, 25. postal savings banks, 407. postal system, 178, 265, 266, 381, 382, 407. potato, 4, 38, 96. Poto'mac River, 42, 75, 202, 206, 291, 307, 313. power loom, 226. Pow ha tan', 46, 55. Pres'cott, William H., 205, 276, 385. president of Confederacy, term of, 284. president of United States, duties of, 178. election of, 178, 195, 236, 347, 348. powers of, 178, 242, 355, 409. President , frigate, 217. presidential plan of reconstruction, 332, 336, 337, 338. Presidential Succession Act, 355. Prin^e'ton, battle of, 151. Princeton University, 203, 409. printing press, 14, 98, 256, 381. prisoners in War of Secession, 291, 311, 328. prisons, 247, 257, 311, 328. private property in war, 310, 313. privateers, 144. Proclamation of Emancipation, see Emancipation Proclamation. Proclamation of Neutrality, see Neutrality , Proclamation of. Pro gres'sive party, 408. progressive Republicans, 402, 407. prohibition laws, see anti-liquor laws. Proph'et, 217. pro pri'e ta ry colonies, 114. protective tariff, 226, 227, 240, 246, 252, 253, 284, 357, 358, 402. INDEX lxxv Prov'idence, Rhode Island, 69, 71. provincial soldiers, 119. Pueb'lo (pweb) Indians, 8. pueb'los, 8, 29. Pulas'ki, Count Casimir, 158. Pullman car strike, 363, 364. pure food laws, 397. Pu'ri tans, 58, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 74, 76, 77, 78, 275. ‘ Quaker guns. ’ 303. Qua'kers, 69, 70, 76, 86, 87, 88, 94, 274. Queb6c', Canada, 31, 39, 41, 47, 112, 120, 122, 144. Queen Anne’s War, 107, 108, 109. Queens'town Heights, Canada, 218. race problems, 388. radicals control Congress, 336, 337, 339. raids, see Indian and John Brown’s Raid. railroads, 238, 239,2f5, 250,256,273, 319, 321, 322, 323, 328, 330, 343, 344, 347, 349, 354, 356, 364, 365, 382, 397. Railway, Union Pacific, 343. railway rate regulation, 356, 412. Rai'sin River, battle of, 221. Ra'legh, Sir Walter, 36, 37, 38, 39, 52. Ra'leigrft, North Carolina, 39. Rap palian'nock River, 308. Rato'don, Lord, 168. Rayburn Railroad Bill, 412. reaper, invention of, 248. Rebellion, Bacon’s, 83, 84. Dorr’s, 253. Shays’, 176. recall, 413. r6§ i prog'i ty* 360. reconstruction period, 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 346, 349, 388. Red Cross Society, 414. Red River, 209, 298. re dSmp'tion ers, 94. ref er en'dum, 413. reforms, 257, 353, 360, 361, 397, 412, 413. regulars, British, 119, 142, 164. Regulators, 132, 136. religion, Indian, 11. religious conditions, of English col¬ onies, 44, 59, 61, 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 71, 76. of seventeenth century, 57, 58, 74. religious freedom, 69, 76, 90, 101, 111, 178, 205, 238, 388. revivals, 252. representation in Congress, 130, 131, 178, 179, 180. representative government in col¬ onies, 53, 54, 100. Representatives, House of, see House of Representatives. republic at end of eighteenth century, 196-205. Republican party, Democratic, see Democraticr-Republican party. Republican party, new, and Repub¬ licans, 273, 279, 348, 357, 361, 370, 376, 400, 402. Resa'ca de la Pal'ma, battle of, 260. reservations, Indian, see Indian res¬ ervations. Reserve Banks, see Federal Reserve Banks. Board, see Federal Reserve Board. Restoration of Charles II., 79. results of, French and Indian War, 122. War with Mexico, 262, 263. War of 1812, 225, 226, 416. War of Revolution, 173, 225. War of Secession, 327, 328. War with Spain, 375. reunion, national, 371,.408, 416, 417. Rev'e nue bills, British, 126. Revolution, War of, see War of Revo¬ lution. Revolution of 1688, 90, 102. Rhode Is'land, 69, 70, 71, 76, 79, 89, 90, 101, 114, 132, 134, 181, 202, 221, 224, 253, 281. rice, 82, 93, 111, 112, 197, 213, 288, 380. Rich’s Mountain, battle of, 292. Rich'ard son, Henry, 387. Rich'mond, Virginia, 134, 284, 291, 294, 300, 302, 303, 304,306, 307, 318, 319, 321, 322, 326, 332. Ri'o Gran'de River, 259, 260, 262, 290. Rip'ley, General, 222. roads, 95, 198, 199, 213, 214. lxxvi INDEX Roanoke' Island, North Carolina, 37, 38, 43, 52. * rock of Chickamauga,’ 315. Rock'e fel ler, John 1)., 350, 389. Rock'y Mountains, 2, 103, 209, 251, 259, 201. Rolfe, John, 52, 54. Roman Catholics, 74, 76, 101. Roo'sevelt, Theodore, 390-401, 408. Rose'cran§, General William S.,315. rotation in office, 242. Rough Riders, 390. routes of trade to East, 14, 15, 17. royal colonies, 55, 07, 110, 114. Rum'sey, James, 202. rural credits bill, 411, 412. Russia (rush'a), 172, 233, 333, 356, 377, 378. Sa bine' River, 233. sa'chein, 11. Sac Indians, 244. Sac ra men'to River, 265. sa'gas of Iceland, 14. St. Augustine', Florida, 31, 32, 36, 47, 112. St. Gaw'dens, Augustus, 387. St. Jo'seph, Missouri, 266. St. Law'rence River, 2, 31, 39, 102, 105, 114, 120. Gulf, see Gulf of St. Lawrence. St. Leg'er, Colonel Barry, 153. St. Lou'is, Missouri, 122, 210, 354. St. Mary’s, Maryland, 75. Salary Grab, 343, 344. Sa'lem, Massachusetts, 62,68,69, 91. Salle, see La Salle. Salt Lake City, Utah, 251. Samp'son, Admiral William T., 372. San An to'ni 6, Texas, 255, 262. San Fran §Is'co, California, 266, 393, 399. sanitation, 394, 397, 398. San Ja cin'to, battle of, 255. San Juan' (hwan) Hill, battle of, 374, 390. San'ta An'na, General, 255, 261. San'ta Fe', New Mexico, 36, 47, 61. San'ta Ma ri'a, caravel, 20. San ti a'go de Cu'ba, 372, 373, 374. Sarah Constant , ship, 43. Sar a to ga, battles of, 155, 156. Sar'gent, John S., 386. savage Indians, 7. Savan'nah, Georgia, 111, 163, 169, 324, 325. scal'awags, 340, 341. Scan di na'vi a, 12, 378. Schley, Admiral Winfield S., 372. schools, 66, 73, 83, 97, 98, 237, 382, 383, 388. See education. Sclnty'ler, General Philip, 153, 155, 164. scientists, 277, 384. Scotch settlers, 87. Scotch-Irish settlers, 114. Scott, Dred, 277, 278, 279. Captain Robert, 405. General Winfield, 222, 261. sea captains, English, 32. Sea of Darkness, 17, 20, 22. se 9 es'sion, 181, 213, 224, 245, 252, 280, 281, 283, 284, 286, 288, 311, 327, 328, 333, 335, 336, 337, 340. Secession, Ordinance of, 280. War of, see War of Secession. ‘second maker of Constitution,’ 207. Se dl'tion Act, 194, 195, 241, 245, 281. Sem'i na ry Ridge, Pennsylvania, 313. Sem'i nole Indians, 244. War, 244. Semwies, Captain Raphael, 293. Senate of United States, 178, 180, 232, 247, 280, 283, 338, 348, 355, 369. Sep'a ra tists, 58. Sera'pls , ship, 162. Ser'vi a, 417. Seven Days’ Fighting, 307. Seven Pines, battle of, 303. Seven Years’ War, 113. Seward (Soo'erd), William H., 270. sewing machine, invention of, 241. Shdn'non , frigate, 220. shape of world, beliefs about, 17. Sharps'burg, Maryland, see An- tietarn. Shaw nee', 217. Shays’ Rebellion, 176. Shen an do'ah Valley, 306, 321, 322, 323. Shenandoah , frigate, 293. 322, 323, 32(5. 325, 326, 327, 332. ‘Sherman’s bummers,’ 323. Sherman Anti-trust Act, 3C 412. Sherman Silver Act, 360, 362. Slii'loh, battle of, 207. ships, American, 222, 395. Si er'ra Ne va'da, 2. silver, 4, 274, 330, 343, 344, 347, 350, 351, 360, 362, 363, 365, 369, 379. See coins and coinage. Sioua* War, 347. Sitting Bulk Chief, 347. Six Nations, 109, 159. slave labor, 258, 268. states, 232, 255, 263, 267, 268, 272. trade, 32. slaves and slavery, 28, 54, 71, 73, 81, 82, 85, 94, 95. 101, 106, 111, 163, 179, 180, 181, 190, 191, 196, 197, 205, 213, 230, 231, 232, 233, 255, 2,58, 263, 264, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 283, 284, 286, 288, 290, 310, 311, 327, 328, 329. 331, 335, 351. Sli dell', John, 292, 293. smallpox, 100, 111, 197. Smith, John, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 51, 59, 99. Smith, Joseph, 251. smuggling, 80, 125. social classes in colonies, 97. social life in colonies, 96, 97. soil of North America, 4, 392. ‘ solid South,’ 341. Soto, see De Soto. South, condition in 1861, 283, 288, 290. condition in 1865, 328, 329, 335. industries of, 93, 190, 197, 283, 288, 379-381. during reconstruction period, 336, 337', 340, 341, 346, 349. recent progress, 351, 403. South A ruer'i ca, 24, 25, 36, 265, 393. INDEX lxxvii 319, South Car o ll'na, 31, 93. , 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 114, 134, 148, 263, 149, 163, 164, 167, 169, 177, 324, 181, 227, 239, 240, 241, 244, 246, 247, 269, 280, 324, 325, 337, 340, 348, 349, 380. 401, South Da ko'ta ,, 209. , 359. South Pole, discovery of, 405. southern colonies, 114. Southwest Territory, 181, 231. Spain and Spaniards, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 33, 36, 47, 48, 107, 110, 111, 112, 122, 126, 172, 173, 189, 200, 209, 233, 254, 276, 366, 370, 371, 377. Spain, War with, 370-376, 390, 393, 395, 397. Spanish-American republics, 233, 414, 415. Spanish conquest of New World, 27, 47. discoveries and explorations, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 33, 34, 36. Main, 33. settlement, 32, 36, 47. speaker of House of Representa¬ tives, 228, 408. specie circular, 250. specie payments resumed, 350, 351. Spoils System, 242, 243, 352, 353. Sp5ts'wood, Alexander, 109, 110. Spot syl va'ni a, battle of, 320. squatter sovereignty, 272. square, 9, 105. Stamp Act, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 134, 135. Stamp Act Congress, 128, 129. stamp tax, 127, 330. ‘ stand pat ’ Republicans, 407. Standard Oil Company, 350, 401. standard time, 354. Stand'ish, Captain Myles, 59, 60. Stan'wix, Fort, 153, i54. Star-spangled Banner , 224. Starving 'lime, 51, 53. state banks, 250. constitutions, 361. State, Department of, 184. state sovereignty, 215, 281, 284, 288. States’ Rights Doctrine, 281, 283, 287, 333, 335. lxxviii INDEX steamboat, 202, 213, 214, 215, 231, 378, 382, 406. steam engine, 201. steel trust, 370, 389, 396, 401. Ste'phens (\ ns), Alexander, 284. Ste'phen son, George, 238. Steu'ben (stoi), Baron von, 157. Ste'vens, Thaddeus, 337. Still'wa ter, see Saratoga , battles of. k Stone wall’s f( ^t cavalry,’ 306, 307. Sto'ny Point, kew York, 159. Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 270. strikes, 349, 350, 391. Stuart, General J. E. B., 306, 307. Stu'art, Gilbert, 202. Stwy've sant, Peter, 78, 79, 80. sub-treasuries, 251. suc'co tash, 10, 96. suffrage, 100, 148, 192, 253, 336, 359, 361, 388, 389, 408, 413. Sugar Act, 126. Siil'livan, General John, 15 . Sullivan's Island, South C volina, 148, 149. Sum'ner, Charles, 270. Sumter, Fort, 286, 287. Sum'ter, Thomas, 164, 167. Sunday, observance of, 66, 205. Sunday schools, 252. Supreme Court, 179, 207, 278, 348, 349, 363. Swamp Fight, 85. ‘ swamp fox,’ 164. Swedish settlers,- 74, 79, 87, 258, 378. Taft, William H., 376, 400, 401-408, 412. Tal la poo'sa River, 217. Tam pi'co, Mexico, 415. tariff, 185, 226, 227, 240, 246, 247, 252, 253, 273, 281, 283, 284, 330, 357, 358, 360, 361, 362, 363, 369, 370, 401, 402, 408, 410, 418. Tariff Board, 402. * tariff of abominations,’ 240. Tarle'ton, Banastre, 167. tax, direct on colonies, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131. taxation, 55, 56, 76, 100, 114, 124, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 135, 148, 152, 156, 175, 178, 185, 192, 283, 330, 340, 346, 413. Tay'lor, Zachary, 260, 261, 264-269. tea, tax on, 131, 133, 156. Teach or Thatch, see Blarkbeard. Te cum'seh, 217, 218, 222. telegraph, 256, 274, 382, 399, 400. telephone, 354, 382. temperance societies, 257. ten-hour system, 257. Tennessee, 136, 191, 192, 217, 224, 242, 256, 287, 292, 296, 315, 318, 323 333 Tennessee River, 230, 294, 296,317. Tex'as, 103, 233, 254, 255, 256, 258, 259, 262, 263, 280, 314, 377, 381. Thames (temz), battle of, 222. Thanksgiving, the first, 60. third term, 192, 215. thirteen original states, 113,114, 281, T/iom'as, General George, 294, 315, 317, 323. Theodore, 388. Ti con de ro'ga, Fort, 118, 119, 140, 153. Tll'den, Samuel J., 346, 348. Tilden-IIayes contest, 318, 356. Tim'rod, Henry, 276. Tip'pe ca noe, battle of, 217. Titanic, ship, 406. tithing man, 205. tobacco, 4, 38, 50, 52, 53, 54, 73, 75, 76, 79, 81, 93, 197, 199, 200, 213, 230, 288, 350, 380. Tocque'ville, see De Tocqueville. Toleration Act, 76, 78. tomato, 4. tools, 8, 92, 93, 201, 248, 249, 328, 351, 381. To'ries, 140, 145, D8, 153, 155, 159, 163, 175, 188. To ron'to, see York. TSr'rence, W. W., 404. to'tem, 11. trade, 35, 50, 60, 72, 75,102,105,114, 124, 125, 131, 134, 136, 196, 197, 199, 200, 211, 212, 213, 226, 268, 271, 273, 290, 300, 330, 360, 362. Trade Commission Bill, 412. trade laws, 79, 80, 124, 125, 126, 127, 131, 175, 178. routes of Middle Ages, 14, 15, 17, 25. unions, 350. trans-continental railroads, 343. INDEX iXX-X transit, 95, 108, 199, 218, '214, 238, 379. See railroads , canals , steamboats , roads. Treasury, Department of, 181. treaties of arbitration, see arbitration. Treaty of French with colonists, 150, 158. of friendship with Massasoit, 00, 85. of Ghent, 224, 410. Jay’s, 189. of Paris, 173. Penn’s with the Indians, 88. with Mexico, 202. with Spain, 375. TrSnt, 292, 293. Tren'ton, battle of, 159, 151, 229. trial by jury, 08, 184, 195, tribes, Indian, 11, 12. Trlm'ble, I. R., 314. Trlp'o li, 210, 211. truck farming, 380. True Relation, Smith’s, 47, 99. Truin'bull, John, 135. trusts, 350, 300, 370, 389, 390, 401, 410. Try'on, Governor William, 132. tu ber cu lo'sis, 384, 385. Tu'nis, 210. turkey, 4. Turks control trade routes, 15, 18. Turn'er’s Insurrection. 279. O hs ca ro'ra Indians, 109. ‘ Tweed Ring,’ 345, 346. ‘ Two Billion Jl'Jlar Congress,’ 400. Ty'ler, President John, 252, 258. typhoid fever, 384.. Uncle Tom's Cabin , 270. ‘ unconditional surrender,’ 294. ‘underground railroad,’ 267. Un'der wood, Oscar, 410. Tariff Act, 430. Union Pacific Railroad, 343. United Colonies of New England, 71. United States, 170, 182, 185, 208, i 209, 217, 283, 234, 330, 375, 378, I • 388, 393, 395, 397, 399, 402,417. I university planned for Jamestown colony, 56. University of Pennsylvania, 203. of Virginia, 238. , TJ'lah, 263, 209, 274, 305, 413. Vii'ca, Cabe'zade, (tha), 28. Valley campaign, Jackson’s, see Shenandoah VaU g. Valley Forge, 156, T , 158. \TXn Bu'ren, President Martin, 249— 252. Ved'der, Elihu, 380. vegetation of Nortl^ America, 4. Venezuela (zwej,* 27, 305, 300. Ven'itje, 15. VeTa Cruz, Mexico, 201, 202, 415. Yer m5nt', 01, 78, 140, 153, 191, 192. Verraza'no (z«e), 30, 39, 102. Vespuc'ci (pootche), A me'ri go, 24, 30. veto, 247, 252, 338, 357, 409. ‘ veto president,’ 357. vice president, method of electing, 195. succeeds to presidency, 252, 209, $4, 352, 353, 390. Vicksburg, Mississippi, 297, 298, 300, 314, 318. Vintjennes', Indiana, 100. Vin'land, 13, 14. 19. Vir gln'i a, 38, 74, 75, 70, 77. 79, 81, 82, 83, 84, 87, 91, 93/98. 100, 109, 114, 123, 127, 128, 134, 135, 139, 145, 140, 159, 109, 173, 181, 195, 206, 229. 278, 279, 28!, 284, 287, 292, 307, 311,314, 320, 340. Virginia , see Merrimac. Virginia Company, 41, 53, 55, 58. Virginia Military Institute, 220. Virginia Resolutions, 195, 245. voters and voting, 65, 00, 68, 09, 78, 83, 100, 148, 192, 253, 272, 339, 340, 359, 300, 301, 413. Wa'bash River, 217. wam'pum, 9, 73, 88. War, Black Hawk, 244. Creek, 244. French and Indian, 113-122, 124, 126, 136, 139, 198, 200. King George’s, 112, 113. King Philip’s, 84-80. King William’s, 106, 108. Modoc, 347. of 1812, 216-226, 230, 240, 241, 245, 252. of Revolution, 137-174, 188, 225, 281, 303, 309. lxxx INDEX War of Secession, 181, 191, 203, 285-333, 338, 347,357, 366, 388, 400, 408, 412. Pequot, 71. Pontiac’s, 123. Queen Anne’s, 107, 108, 109. Seminole, 244. Seven Years’, see IFar, French and Indian. Sioux, 347. with Barbary States, 210, 211, 220, 227. with Mexico, 259-263, 284, 294, 303, 393. with Spain, 370-375, 376, 390, 393, 395, 397. war debts, 126, 184, 185, 226, 329, 330, 331, 337, 375. War. Department of, 184, 194, 336. War'ren, General Joseph, 142. Washington, Booker, 388. Washington, George, 77, 114, 115, 11(5, 117, 135, 139, 142, 143, 144, 145 ; 149, 150, 151, 152, 156, 157, 158, 159, 165,169, 170, 173, 17(5, 182-192, 205, 215, 225, 303, 389. Washington (state), 259, 359, 413. Washington City, 2<>0, 223, 251, 256, 29f, 292, 302, 306, 307, 321, 322, 332, 363, 414. Washington and Lee University, 340 ^ Water loo, battle of, 229. waterways of North America, 2, 3, 391, 392, 396. Watt, James, 201. Wayne, General Anthony, 159, 187. weapons, Indian, 8. of seventeenth century, 61. of twentieth century, 382, 417. Web'ster, Daniel, 228, 245, 247, 254, 2(58, 269, 281. Wes'ley, John and Charles, 111. West, Benjamin, 202. West, industries of, 199, 200, 230, 231, 380, 381. settlement of, 135, 136, 199, 200, 230, 251, 254. West Indies, 24, 85, 112, 292, 300. West Jersey, 81, 86, 110. West Point, New York, 165, 294, 303. West Virginia, 311, 330. Wey'ler, General, 266. wheat, 65, 197, 199, 212, 363, 379. Whig party, 252, 256, 357. Whigs, see Patriots in Revolution. Whisky Insurrection, 187, 188. ‘ Whisky King,’ 344. Wins'tier, J. McNeil, 386. White, Captain John, 38. White Plains, battle of, 150. Whlt'field, George, 111. WhTt'ney, Eli, 190. Whit'ti er, John G., 274, 275, 385. wigwams, 8. Wii'derness, battle of, 319. Wilkes, Captain Charles, 293. Wil'lard, Frances, 346, 413. Wil'liam of Orange, III., king of England, 90, 102. William and Mary College, 98, 204. William Henry, Fort, 118. Wil'liams, Roger, 68, 69, 70, 71. Wil'liamsburg, Virginia, 139. WU'ming ton, North Carolina, 169, 324. Wil'mot Pro vi'so, 263. Wil'son, Woodrow, 386, 408, 409- 418. Wilson, Mrs. Woodrow, 414. Wiison Tariff Act. 363. Win'ches ter, battle of, 322. WIn'throp, John, 63, 64, (56, 99. Wisconsin, 161, 231, 244, 263. witchcraft, 90, 91. Wolfe, General James, 119, 120, 122, 144. woman suffrage, 359, 413. See suffrage. Woman’s Christian Temperance Union, 346, 399, 413. women in War of Revolution, 148. in War of Secession, 309. sent to colonies, 53, 109. women’s work in colonies, 93, 100. welfare work, 257, 346, 413, 414. wool and woolen goods, 93, 226, 227, 240, 288, 360, 402, 410. working day, length of, 257, 397. World’s Fair, at Philadelphia, 346, 347. at Chicago, 365. Wright, Orville and Wilbur, 406. Writs of Assistance, 125. INDEX lxxxi Wy o'ming, 200, 259, 263, 359, 413. Wyoming Valley, massacre, 159. X Y Z Papers, 193, 194. YM'kin River, 168. Yale College, 98, 203. yellow fever, 108, 187, 384, 385, 398. Y6rk, Canada, 221. York and Albany, Duke of, 80, 81, 87, 89. See also James II. Ydrk'town, Virginia, 170, 303. York River, 303. Young, Brigham, 251. Young Men’s Christian Association, 252. Young Women’s Christian Associa¬ tion, 252. r f i > /■ \> * °^ - • J>° o -7^;* o ^ °o ^T^o* o° ^ ^ ° -° ^ <* . ^ * > -° a 0 <^ V • * " ^ \j s * • , o \ V v \!^L'* O •* ^ a * k s$ 6%'. ^ * '7, w Az* A ° vv « '/ A v \. ■ * tf*. \0 v* _ „ _ 0 -V o J 8,1 / % a 0 *<•«* a> v s * * • ^ < X A V "V «* 4 AV ^ ^'*** % •»' * «G v o, 'o, * - <\ ’; «fe / • ° 0 ^ '\. 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