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C V . r-CXXN . «*
A SHORT HISTORY
OF
THE AMERICAN PEOPLE
BY
EDNA TURPIN
A 11
WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY
S. C. MITCHELL, Ph.D.
PRESIDENT OF DELAWARE COLLEGE
ILLUSTRATED
“ Long as thine Art shall love true love,
Long as thy Science truth shall know,
Long as thine Eagle harms no Dove,
Long as thy Law by law shall grow,
Long as thy God is God above,
Thy brother every man below,
So long, dear Land of all my love,
Thy name shall shine, thy fame shall glow! ”
— Sidney Lanier
B. F. JOHNSON PUBLISHING CO.
Atlanta — RICHMOND — Dallas
All rights reserved
£.//«
•/
.
Copyright, 1911
Copyright, 1914
EDNA TURPIN
14-11—H.P.
/',6 y .
JAN 21 1915
©CI. A !J93!5 6 8
INTRODUCTION
Miss Turpin’s Short History of the American People
has impressed me as a work of exceptional value. The
narrative is clear, impartial, spirited, and altogether read¬
able. The prime merit of the work is, in my opinion, that
events are made so to unfold that even a child will grasp
the principle of cause and effect as it has worked itself out
in the history of our country. This volume is not a series
of detached dates and incidents, however picturesque or
pleasingly told. The process of growth is brought out in
every paragraph in such a way as to make the sequence of
events illumining. By such treatment the reader is en¬
abled to contract the historical habit. As “ the habit of
sound thinking is more than a thousand thoughts,” so the
historical habit of interpreting cause and effect in human
experience is of far more value than any knowledge of
events, however comprehensive.
The author has preserved the due perspective of Ameri¬
can history by giving a large place to the facts bearing on
the industrial and social development of our people, in
accordance with the changing sphere of the modern State,
which is becoming more and more social both in its spirit
and aims.
The style is simple and yet energetic, while the appara¬
tus for teaching, such as maps, topics for study, references
for reading, and suggestive questions, are admirable.
Columbia, S.C.,
February, 1911
S. C. MITCHELL
.
PREFACE
The history of America is the story of the transforma¬
tion of a country, in brief space of time, from a wilderness
occupied by half-naked savages to the home of a great,
highly-civilized nation ; it is the history of the growth of an
ideal, — a government founded on the principles of liberty,
equality, and fraternity. Only three hundred years ago
the English race and free government were established in
the little Jamestown colony. Twelve other colonies, like it
in race and principles, grew up along the middle Atlantic
coast. The colonies became states, the states formed a
confederation, the confederation gave way to a republic of
united republics, the republics have been welded into a
great and glorious nation.
This book is an attempt to tell the story of the Ameri¬
can people in a simple, connected, vivid way, so as to make
their history interesting and their past and present prob¬
lems intelligible to young students. American children
should learn the history of our country and should under¬
stand its past and present problems, so as to be prepared
to accept, in their turn, the sacred trust of its guidance.
Events are described with due regard to their rela¬
tive importance. Especial emphasis is laid on the advance
in invention, education, science, literature, — the wonder¬
ful progress of peace.
It should always be borne in mind that we see events
clearly and truly only when we look at them by the light
of their own times. Early religious persecutions, British
viii
PREFACE
trade laws, New England’s slave trading, southern slave
holding, are to be judged by the standards and conditions
of the times, not by those of the twentieth century.
The history of America is one of physical, mental, and
moral growth and progress. To this growth and progress,
each section — north, south, east, west—has contributed
and is contributing its part. We must recognize and duly
value each and all. The cultivation of sectional egotism,
the inculcation of one-sided, narrow-minded views, are
great evils to any community.
It is hoped that this book will be useful in teaching
American history so as to inspire true patriotism and to
train children for honest, earnest, intelligent citizenship.
PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION
This history has been carefully revised and brought up
to date. There are a number of slight changes for the
sake of clearness and correctness, two new sections have
been inserted, there are several new illustrations and maps,
and the narrative now includes the first part of the present
administration. The titles of the fourth and sixth chapters
have been changed: “From Colonies to States” seems a
better title than “ War of the Revolution ” for the Ameri¬
can struggle for liberty, which was carried on before and
during the Revolution, in legislative halls as well as on
battlefields; clearness and continuity are secured by in¬
cluding the sectional strife of 1850 et seq. in the chapter
with the “ War of Secession ” and entitling this chapter
“ Discord, Secession, and War.”
For help in the work of revision, the author thanks Dr.
Lyon G. T.yler, Dr. James S. Wilson, Dr. S. C. Mitchell,
Mr. R. D. W. Connor, Col. Hilary A. Herbert, and others.
SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS
Every intelligent, conscientious teacher, through per¬
sonal experience and peculiar needs, evolves his or her own
methods; but a few suggestions, originating from the
author’s own experience in the schoolroom, may be helpful.
1. The teacher’s own preparation should be as thorough
as possible. A subject must be definite and vivid to us
before we can make it living and interesting to others.
2. Keep always clearly in view what you desire to
accomplish. You wish the pupil to know thoroughly the
main facts of the history of our country and to understand
the causes, effects, and relations of these. You wish this
knowledge to develop the child’s character and to inspire
intelligent patriotism and a sense of personal responsibility
for the good government of the country. How can these
ends be best accomplished ?
a. The teacher may profitably spend a few minutes on
a lesson assigned for preparation, training the pupils to
recognize and select the main points and to connect them
with what has already been learned, as parts of one story.
b. Thorough preparation should be required on the part
of the pupil. He should study the subject as presented in
his text-book, and this should be the basis of class work.
c. The lesson should be assigned and recited by topics.
For this purpose the section headings of this text-book will
be found helpful. In reciting, the pupil should use his own
language, not that of the book, and should be required
always to express himself clearly and correctly. He may
IX
X
SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS
recite without being interrupted or questioned, and then
other pupils may be required to correct misstatements, or
to supply omitted facts.
d. The training of memory and thought should go hand
in hand. The child should learn the facts and relate them
clearly as a connected story. He should consider also their
causes and results, and look for the connection and se¬
quence of events. It should be borne in mind that the
foundations of American history are laid in European his¬
tory,— of which for nearly three hundred of its four hun¬
dred years it was a part.
e. Diligent use should be made of “ the two eyes of his¬
tory,”— chronology and geography.
The few dates given in the text should be learned thor¬
oughly. Around the main facts, related ones should be
grouped. These should be so closely associated that the
mention of one event will call to mind connected and con¬
temporary events.
Use maps constantly with the text, and keep definitely
in view the physical features of the country and their effects
on settlement, industries, events, and character. It is a
good plan to use an outline map for each chapter, marking
on it the chief events of the period.
f. Each period, each term, should be taught thoroughly
and then its events connected with the past. Important
events should be taught by grouping related events in sev¬
eral different ways,—according to subject, geography, and
chronology.
g. Do not advance too rapidly. Review often. Do not
overtax the pupil’s mind or memory, but insist on his
grasping and retaining the main facts. Many devices may
be used for this purpose. Five minutes’ written exercises
on topics are useful. So are questions prepared by the
pupil
SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS
xi
h. Interest may be added to the lesson by the judicious
use of the Topics for Study. These furnish suggestions
for class and individual study. It is not expected that all
nor most of them shall be required of each member of any
class.
i. Sources should be used with care, but they should be
used. Each pupil should read contemporary accounts of
important events. Illustrative literature has a twofold
value: it adds interest to the narration and it develops a
taste for good literature. Pictures of scenery, portraits of
famous persons, and copies of good pictures should be col¬
lected and observed. Every available means should be
used to make events interesting and personalities real.
j. The ethical teachings of character and events, should
be emphasized. A boy of to-day will not need to lead a
colony, like Captain John Smith; but there are always
fields in which common sense, energy, and wisdom are
needed.
First, last, and always, that historical training is best
which best prepares the child for his or her duties as an
American citizen.
• •
.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
The Beginnings of American History
PAGE
1. Physical Features of North America.i
2. The Indians.5
3. The Coming of the Northmen .12
4. Europe in the Middle Ages.14
5. Columbus and Other Discoverers.18
6. Early Explorers.26
CHAPTER II
English Colonies
1. Attempts to settle North America.36
2. The Jamestown Colony ..43
3. New England Colonies.57
4. Settlements on the Middle Coast.72
5. Colonial Growth.76
6. Bacon’s Rebellion and King Philip’s War .... 83
7. The Settlement of Pennsylvania ...... 86
8. The Colonies at the End of the Seventeenth Century . . 91
CHAPTER III
The French-English Contest
1. King William’s and Queen Anne’s War.102
2. The Settlement of Georgia and King George’s War . . 108
3. The French and Indian War.113
CHAPTER IV
From Colonies to States
1. Colonial Discontent.124
2. The Beginning of the War of the Revolution . . . 137
xiii
XIV
CONTENTS
PAGE
3 -
The Events of 1776 ......
•
143
4 -
The Northern and the Western Campaigns of 1777-
1779 .
152
5 -
The Campaign in the South .....
.
l6l
6.
The End of the War ......
•
I69
CHAPTER V
The American Republic
i.
Forming a Government .....
175
2.
Washington’s Terms ......
182
3 *
John Adams’s Term ......
193
4 -
The Republic at the End of the Eighteenth Century
I96
5 *
Jefferson’s Terms .......
206
6.
Madison’s Terms : The War of 1812
215
7 *
Monroe’s Terms .......
229
8.
John Quincy Adams’s Term .....
236
9 -
Jackson’s Terms .......
241
IO.
Van Buren’s Term ......
249
ii.
Harrison and Tyler’s Term .....
252
12.
Polk’s Term: The War with Mexico .
258
CHAPTER VI
Discord, Secession, and War
I.
Taylor and Fillmore’s Term .....
,
264
2.
Pierce’s Term .......
271
3 *
Buchanan’s Term ......
273
4 -
Lincoln’s Presidency : The Beginning of the War of Secession
285
5 -
The Events of 1862 . . • .
#
294
6.
The Events of 1863.
310
7 *
The Events of 1864.
3 i 9
8.
The End of the War.
325
CHAPTER VII
National Development
I.
Johnson’s Term.
• t
334
2 .
Grant’s Terms.
339
3*
Hayes’s Term . . . ,
349
CONTENTS xv
PAGE
4. Garfield and Arthur’s Term . . . * 352
5. Cleveland’s First Term.354
6. Harrison’s Term.358
7. Cleveland’s Second Term.362
8. McKinley’s First Term : The War with Spain . . . 370
9. The Nation at the End of the Nineteenth Century . . 377
10. McKinley and Roosevelt’s Term ...... 390
11. Roosevelt’s Second Term.396
12. Taft’s Term . ........ 401
13. President Wilson.. . 409
APPENDIX
Topics for Study . i
List of Books .xxviii
Charts and Outlines.xxx
Declaration of Independence ..xxxviii
Constitution of the United States ...... xlii
Index ..lix
' I
. . .c'^7
■
■
MAPS
FULL-PAGE MAPS
Early Distribution of Indian Tribes {colored') , . facing u
Trade Routes to the East.16
Routes of the Explorers ........ 40
North Atlantic Coast, 1650-1695 ( colored} ... ,,90
America Two Centuries after Discovery ..... 104
South Atlantic Coast, 1650-1695 ( colored ) . . . facing 106
Territorial Changes, 1763 ( colored ) .... „ 122
The Colonies at the Outbreak of the Revolution ( colored ) „ 134
The United States at the Close of the Revolution ( colored} „ 172
The United States in 1803 (colored} .... „ 209
Free and Slave Territory in 1821 (colored} ... „ 233
Territorial Acquisitions, 1783-1853 (colored} . . „ 263
United States and Confederate States (colored} . . „ 290
Territorial Growth of the United States (colored} . following 376
MAPS IN THE TEXT
Map of Savage, Barbarous, and Half-civilized Tribes ... 6
Toscanelli's Map ..18
Explorations aiid Settlements during the Sixteenth Century . 34
Land Grants under Charter of 1606.42
Quebec and Vicinity . 120
The Battle of Bunker Hill.141
Clark’s Campaign, 1777-1778.160
Greene’s Carolina Campaign.167
Washington’s March to Yorktown.170
Adoption of Manhood Suffrage.191
Scene of the War in the North.218
British Campaign against Washington, 1814 .... 223
New Orleans and Vicinity.224
xvii
MAPS
xviii
Battle of New Orleans
•
PAGE
. 225
The Mexican War, 1846-1847
•
. 259
Charleston Harbor ....
•
. 286
Routes of the Invading Armies .
•
. 296
Map of Vicksburg ....
•
. 298
The Battlefield of Gettysburg
•
• 3*3
The Chattanooga Campaign
•
• 315
War Map of Virginia ....
• 320
Philippine Islands ....
• 372
Operations around Santiago de Cuba .
* 372
Profile of the Panama Canal
• 393
The Panama Canal ....
• 393
Movement of the Center of Population
. 402
Map showing Percentages of Population Increase, 1900-1910
• 403
Twelve Federal Reserve Banks and Districts
.
.
. 411
A SHORT HISTORY OF THE
AMERICAN PEOPLE
CHAPTER I
THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY
i. Physical Features of North America
Physical history of North America. — A country, like a
nation, has its history, — its beginning, its slow ages of
growth, its great periods of change. By patient study of
rocks, plants, and animals, scientists have learned the his¬
tory of our continent. They tell us that ages and ages
ago the sea flowed over what is now dry land. By de¬
grees, the land rose out of the water and was occupied by
strange plants and wonderful animals.
In course of time, the climate changed. There came a
long, long winter ; it destroyed plant and animal life and
formed a great glacier which covered two-thirds of North
America. At last, the climate grew mild again; the gla¬
cier melted and the land was occupied by plants and ani¬
mals like those known to us. People came, we know not
when nor whence. They were tribes of wild men who
hunted and fought their way across the country. Amer¬
ica was a world to itself, unknown to the people who lived
beyond the great oceans which encircled it. It took hun¬
dreds of years for Europeans to learn what every school
child now knows about our continent.
Coast line. — North America is a great wedge-shaped
2
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE
body of land, broad at the north and narrowing toward the
south. The eastern coast is indented with bays and gulfs
which make good harbors. At the south, the Gulf of
Mexico, a great arm of the Atlantic Ocean, extends half¬
way across the continent. Along the northeastern border
of the United States is a series of inland seas, the Great
Lakes, connected by water-ways with the Atlantic. The
eastern coast, with its narrow ocean and many inlets, seems
to invite access from Europe. The western coast, on the
other hand, presents an uninviting front to Asia. It is
washed by the broad Pacific, and its long shore from Can¬
ada to Mexico has few good harbors.
Mountain systems. — The chief mountain systems of the
continent extend along its eastern and western coasts. On
the Atlantic side, there is the Appalachian system, with an
average width of a hundred miles and an average eleva¬
tion of 2000 feet. The mountains lie near the New Eng¬
land coast, but at the south there is a wide coast plain
which extends westward along the Gulf of Mexico. Near
the Pacific lies the Cordillera system. It consists of great
table-lands, elevated valleys, and lofty mountain ranges.
It has an average width of a thousand miles, and some of
its snow-capped peaks rise to a height of nearly 15,000
feet. The Sierra Nevada, the Cascade, and the Rocky
mountains are parts of this system.
v Rivers. — On the northeastern coast of America, there
are two large river systems, the Nelson-Winnipeg and the
St. Lawrence; both flow northward and are closed by ice
during the winter. The eastern coast is broken by nu¬
merous rivers. In New England, where the mountains
are near the shore, the streams are short and rapid; they
furnish good water-power, but are not navigable like the
longer, slower rivers of the south. On the western coast,
there are few rivers. Two mighty streams, the Columbia
THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 3
and the Colorado, cut their way through deep gorges to
the ocean. In the central valley, there is the Mississippi;
Colorado Canon
this river and its great, easy-going, navigable branches
drain over a million square miles of land.
Climate and soil. — Its vast extent and varied elevation
give our continent great variety of climate. The winters
are generally colder and the summers hotter than in the
same latitude in Europe. In most parts of the United
States, the rainfall is sufficient to secure good crops.
There is, however, a semi-arid and arid region east of the
Rocky Mountains. The ocean breezes are deprived of
their moisture by the mountains and plains surrounding
4
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE
this region, and the rainfall is scanty; in some places,
there are months and even years without rain.
The soil is varied in character; for the most part, it is
fertile. The Mississippi Valley, a vast extent of fertile
land with abundant rainfall and favorable climate, is one
of the greatest agricultural regions of the world.
Mineral resources. — North America is rich in mineral
resources. Coal and iron, the most useful, are found in
nearly all sections. The Appalachian Mountains are a
great coal field, rich also in iron, building stones, pottery
clays, and other minerals and metals. The Cordilleras
have vast rich deposits of coal, and of iron, silver, gold,
and other metals.
Vegetation.—The country has varied and abundant
vegetation. The most important native plant is maize, or
Indian corn, which is cultivated everywhere except in the
coldest regions of the continent. Among other native
crop plants are the potato, tomato, and tobacco. Wheat,
rice, cotton, and most of our domestic plants are natives of
the Old World that find here a congenial home.
When white men first came to America, most of the
country, except the central valley, was covered with forests.
Along the eastern coast were forests of white, yellow, and
other pines, and of maple, beech, birch, elm, ash, oak,
hickory, chestnut, walnut, and cottonwood.
In the west are great forests of spruce, fir,
hemlock, cedar, yellow pine, and redwood;
some of the western trees are hundreds of
years old and have attained huge size.
Animal life. — Most of our domestic ani¬
mals, like our domestic plants, were brought
here from the Old World. The turkey is
the only North American animal which has been domesti¬
cated. Among the natives of America are many game
Wild Turkey
THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY
5
birds and game or fur-bearing animals — quail and pigeon,
deer, bear, beaver, bison or buffalo, and others. The
waters along the coasts, especially the shoals of the north¬
east and northwest, abound in fish. Cod, mackerel, and
herring are plentiful in the Atlantic waters; salmon and
cod abound in the Pacific.
Changes made by man. — In many ways, the natural
features of a country influence the life of its inhabitants;
the inhabitants also affect the natural features. American
forests have been destroyed, and in their places have arisen
farms, villages, towns, and cities. Deserts have been sup¬
plied with water by irrigation, and instead of barren wastes
there are gardens, grain fields, and orchards. Swamps
have been drained and made productive. Harbors and
rivers have been dredged and deepened, and the courses of
streams have been changed.
Plant and animal life has been greatly changed by human
agency. Most of our flowers, crop plants, orchard trees,
and domestic animals, and many of the birds and weeds
most familiar to us, are natives of other countries. They
have been brought here by man, either intentionally or unin¬
tentionally.
Summary. —North America is rich in natural advantages, and well
adapted to be the home of a great nation. Its chief native crop plants
are Indian corn, the potato, tomato, and tobacco. Most of our domestic
plants and animals have been brought here from the Old World.
2. The Indians
Indians of North America.— The rich natural resources of
America are just beginning to be used, for we are the
youngest of the great nations of the world. A few
hundred years ago, our forefathers were living in England
and other countries of Europe; they had not seen nor
6
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE
even heard of this great continent. The only inhabitants
of North America were the people whom we call Indians.
There are still Indians in this country, but now they live
chiefly on western
lands set apart for
them by our gov¬
ernment. Four
hundred years ago,
they roamed over
the whole conti¬
nent of which
their race had been
masters for hun¬
dreds, perhaps
thousands, of years.
Yet they were not
numerous. Fam¬
ine, disease, and
fierce and frequent
wars prevented their rapid increase. East of the Missis¬
sippi River, there were only
a few hundred thousand peo¬
ple, probably fewer than are
now in one city like Baltimore.
The Indians of the United
States had no records to give
us information about their
origin and early history. We
can only describe them as
they were when white men
first came to this country.
In general appearance, the
Indians of different sections
were much alike. They had
A Typical Indian Face
THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY
7
copper-colored skin, small black eyes, high cheek bones,
and coarse, straight, black hair. There were, however,
many tribes which differed in appearance, language, and
customs.
Savage tribes. — In the north and northwest, there were
savage tribes which had no settled homes. They moved
from place to place in search of fish, game, roots, and
herbs which were their food. They made rude shelters of
skin or bark, or dwelt, like wild beasts, in holes and
caves.
Half-civilized tribes.—Very unlike these savage tribes
were the partly-civilized ones which inhabited the moun-
Puebios in New Mexico
tainous country from New Mexico and Arizona southward
to Chili. They depended on agriculture for food, and
raised crops of maize and vegetables. They made pottery
and were skilled in the art of weaving; some of these
tribes had a sort of picture-writing and knew how to work
soft metals. Their homes were built of wood, stone, or
adobe, — that is, sun-dried clay.
8
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE
To protect themselves against neighboring savage tribes,
some of these Indians built their homes on steep cliffs
along the streams. These houses were perched like
swallows’ nests on the rocks and were reached by ladders
or steep paths. They consisted of several stories, one
rising behind and above another like steps. Inside were
many little rooms, crowded together like cells in a great
honeycomb. Sometimes one, two, or even three thousand
people lived in one of these village houses. The Spanish
name for these strongholds is pueblos , meaning ‘villages,’
and the people who live in them are called Pueblo Indians.
Some tribes in New Mexico and Arizona still have such
houses and lead lives much like those of their fore¬
fathers.
Barbarous tribes. —The Indians most interesting to us
are the half-savage or barbarous tribes that occupied the
eastern part of the United States and were the helpful
friends or the deadly foes of the white men who settled
the country. These barbarous Indians lived in rude huts
or in wigwams made of poles covered with skins or bark;
these dwellings were grouped together in villages from
which the men wandered far and often in hunting and
fighting parties.
Their tools and weapons. —The use of iron was unknown
to the Indians, and they made their tools and weapons of
wood, stone, and bone. Their weapons were bows and
arrows, spears, wooden clubs, and stone axes. Their
household goods consisted of some skins or mats for beds
and a few pots and dishes made of wood, clay, or soap¬
stone. Some of the northern tribes made light, strong
canoes of birch bark; the bark was fastened on a cedar
frame by means of roots or deerskin strings. The south¬
ern Indians used ‘dugout ’ boats. These ‘ dugouts ’ were
made of logs hollowed by burning the wood and scraping
THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY
it with j-ude knives of stone or shell; sometimes they
were large enough to carry thirty or forty men.
Wampum.— Like other barbarous people, the Indians
were fond of bright colors and ornaments. They loved to
streak their bodies with paint and to adorn themselves
with ornaments of shells and feathers. Beads of shell,
called wampum, were strung to¬
gether into necklaces, bracelets, and
belts. The color and arrangement
of the beads had certain meanings,
and wampum served as records as
well as ornaments. It was used for
money also, but this was a matter of
small importance. A little copper,
certain kinds of clay and stone, and
beads of seashells were the chief
articles of trade. The stream, field,
and forest were the storehouses
from which the Indians obtained
food and clothing.
Occupations of men.— As fishing
and hunting supplied their chief
needs, these occupations were not
sports, as with us, but work. The
men, or ‘ braves,’ roamed about the
country, — fishing, hunting, and
fighting. When not busy with these
duties, they spent their time sleep¬
ing, gambling, playing games, danc¬
ing, making weapons or canoes.
Occupations of women. — The
duties of the Indian women, or
Wampum
‘squaws,’ were many and varied. They made the clothes
of the family,—shirts or mantles, waist cloths, leggings,
IO
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE
and moccasins of skins, usually deerskin or buffalo hide.
They collected dry sticks and kindled a fire by rubbing
two sticks together or by striking one hard stone against
another. In the ashes they baked sweet potatoes, ears of
corn, and bread made of dried corn pounded into meal;
game and fish were roasted on the coals or boiled in pots
made of clay; a favorite dish was succotash, a stew of
corn and beans.
The women planted, cultivated, and harvested the little
crops of corn, beans, pumpkins, and tobacco. These were
raised on patches of fertile ground, cleared by burning or
girdling the trees. The soil was tilled with rude plows
made of sharpened sticks and with hoes made of stone or
shells fastened to sticks. The Indians had no domestic
animals except dogs, which were used for hunting and for
food.
Children. — Indian babies, or * papooses,’ were wrapped
in skins and tied on wooden frames till they were old
enough to walk. These papooses were laid on the ground
or carried about on their mothers’ backs. Children wore
no clothing except in winter when they had deerskin shirts.
When they were four or five years old, the girls began to
help their mothers. The boys learned to run, swim, play
ball, and use the bow and arrow; they delighted in sports
which prepared them to join their fathers in fishing and
hunting parties and on the warpath.
Indian traits. — Their outdoor life made the Indians
hardy and active, quick of eye, keen of ear, and gave them
great powers of endurance. They could travel seventy-five
miles a day, with no food except a handful of corn. They
could go in a straight line through the tangled forest, guided
by the growth of moss and trees. Trampled turf or a
few broken twigs informed them as to the whereabouts of
game, the number and movements of an enemy. They
.
I
Wnfa ■'/}
\ s>ix, ^>,„r
p" *kaii> tl
XJWlin;
■ l ^d.N.'V
jjJHftNVvv
AlJ, V
THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY
II
lived and died bravely, and bore hardship and suffering
with patient courage. They seldom fought in the open,
however, preferring secret attack from ambush or by night.
They were cruel and revengeful; they seldom forgot or
forgave an injury, and they delighted in scalping their
enemies and in torturing their prisoners to death.
The Indians had little idea of a supreme God, but they
looked forward to a future life in a happy hunting ground.
As a rule, they were superstitious; they believed in signs
and dreams, and worshiped the powers of nature, personi¬
fied as animals.
Government. — In general government and habits, the
eastern tribes were much alike. Several related families
usually lived together in the same wigwam or house.
These families formed a clan. The clan was generally
named for some animal from which its members claimed
to be descended, and had, as its mark or badge, an image
of this animal, called a totem. Each clan chose its own
chief to lead it in war and its own sachem, or ruler, for
time of peace. These chiefs had little power except the
influence which their eloquence or courage gave them. A
number of clans having the same language formed a tribe
governed by its council of sachems. Tribes related in
language formed a group called a family.
Muskhogean, Algonquins, and Iroquois. — The eastern In¬
dians belonged to three great families which included many
tribes. In the south were the Muskhogean, who occupied a
fertile country and had farms and villages.
Most of the country from the Carolinas to Hudson Bay
was inhabited by the Algonquins, the most numerous of
the three families and the one with which the English
settlers came first into contact. Most of our adopted
Indian words — such as wigwam, squaw, papoose, wam¬
pum, moccasin — are from Algonquin dialects.
12
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE
Scattered among the Algonquins, there were tribes of
Iroquois, the ablest and most warlike of the eastern Indians.
Many of the Iroquois ‘ long houses,’ cabins of logs or
bark, were large enough to hold twenty or thirty families.
Their tribes south of the Great Lakes were united in a
confederacy called the Five Nations; it was said to have
been formed by an Iroquois hero, Hiawatha.
Mound Builders.—In the United States, especially in
the Ohio Valley, there are thousands of great earthen
mounds. Some are square, some are round, some are
shaped like serpents, birds, or beasts. Pipes, weapons,
and vessels of various kinds have been found in these
mounds. It was once thought that they were erected by
a race which has disappeared; now, the general belief is
that the Mound Builders were the ancestors of the people
found in America by the white men.
Summary. — The Indians were the early inhabitants of North
America. There were savage tribes in the north and northwest, partly-
civilized tribes in the southwest, and barbarous tribes in the east. The
men of the barbarous tribes spent their time fishing, hunting, and fight¬
ing ; the women did the work at home and raised the little crops of corn,
beans, pumpkins, and tobacco. The Indians were gathered together in
clans, each led by its own war chief and its sachem. A number of clans
formed a tribe, and tribes related in language formed a family. The
three chief families of eastern Indians were the Muskhogean, the Algon¬
quins, and the Iroquois.
3. The Coming of the Northmen
Northmen.—While Indian tribes roamed over North
America, our forefathers were living in Europe. It is
thought that the Northmen were the first Europeans who
visited this country, and that they discovered it by accident.
These Northmen lived hundreds of years ago in Scandi¬
navia, the northwestern part of Europe. They were
iooo] THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY
!3
skillful, fearless sailors, like their descendants, the Danes,
Norwegians, and Swedes.
The Northmen discov¬
ered Iceland and settled it
about the ninth century, —
that is, between the years
800 and 900. A century
later, they established a
colony on the coast of
Greenland.
Discovery of Vinland
[1000]. —About the year
1000, a ship going to Ice¬
land from Greenland was
driven southwest by storms,
and the sailors saw an un¬
known land to the west.
The next year, Leif Erik-
son, called ‘ Leif the
Lucky,’ sailed with thirty-five men to seek the shores of
which his countrymen had caught a
glimpse. He landed on the northeastern
coast of America and explored the coun¬
try.
The Northmen found‘self-sown wheat’
— probably wild rice — and such quanti¬
ties of wild grapes that the land was
given the name Vinland, meaning ‘ wine
land.’
For some years, occasional voyages
were made from Greenland to Vinland.
These became less and less frequent and
From Statue by Anne Whitney Anally Ceased. The Northmen forgot
LeifErikson their western discovery, and so far as the
An Old Buried Ship discovered in
Scandinavia
14
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE
world was concerned, their voyages were as if they had
never been made. The land they had found was lost
again. Century after century, the great continent lay un¬
visited, forgotten. Only the old sagas, or stories, of Ice¬
land kept record of the discovery of the far western coast
of ‘ Vinland the Good.’
Summary. — The old Icelandic sagas say that the Northmen came
to the coast of North America about the year 1000. They called the
country Vinland. They made no permanent settlement, and in course
of time their discovery was forgotten.
4. Europe in the Middle Ages
European trade with Indies. — The story of the Indians,
the early inhabitants of our country, forms only a small part
of its history. Its discovery by the Northmen was merely an
incident. The history of the American people really begins
with Europe in the Middle Ages.
The Middle Ages is the name given to the period of
time beginning about the eighth century and ending in the
fifteenth with the invention of the printing press and the
discovery of America. In early times, Europe was occupied
by many little warring tribes. As civilization and Christian¬
ity spread, nations were formed which grew strong and rich.
Trade increased. There was growing demand for spices,
drugs, silk, sugar, ivory, pearls, diamonds, and other things
which were found in the Indies, as southeastern Asia was
called. These goods were not brought directly from the
Indies to Europe; they came by long, slow, and difficult
routes and changed hands many times on the way. They
were conveyed by camel caravans across the deserts and
mountains of central Asia or by sail or row boats over the
stormy, pirate-haunted Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf.
At last, they reached seaports on the Mediterranean or the
1453] THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY
15
Black Sea. Thence, they were carried by ships to Euro¬
pean ports. Gradually, two cities on the Italian coast,
Venice and Genoa, gained control of the eastern trade. It
was said that no one could season a dinner without adding
to the profits of one of these cities.
Marco Polo’s travels. — In the thirteenth century, eastern
Asia was visited for the first time by a European. This
was Marco Polo, a native of Venice. He spent twenty
years in Asia; at one time, he ruled a province under the
authority of the Great Khan, or king of the country. In
a book about his travels, Polo described the wide extent and
vast wealth of the Great Khan’s possessions. He told about
the huge cities and swarming people of Cathay, or China,
where he lived many years. East of Asia, he said, there
was an ‘Ocean Sea,’ on which he had sailed. Near the
Asian coast, there was an island kingdom, Cipango, or
Japan, which he did not visit, that he was told had palaces
“entirely roofed with fine gold” and paved with golden
slabs.
Polo described truthfully what he saw, but he repeated
many extravagant tales which he heard. His story was so
wonderful that at first people regarded it as a mere fairy
tale ; as they learned more about the East, they found that
so much of his tale was true that they began to believe it
all. Bold adventurers longed to visit Cathay and Cipango
and bring back their treasures.
Trade routes seized by Turks. — Instead of carrying out
these plans, it seemed as if Europeans were to lose even
their trade with the Indies. In the fifteenth century, the
fierce, barbarous Turks made themselves masters of west¬
ern Asia and gained control of the trade routes to eastern
Asia. They captured Constantinople [1453] which was
the great trade center. Sometimes they demanded heavy
toll from the traders; sometimes they plundered caravans
i6
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE
Trade Routes to the East
The dark part of the map shows parts of the eastern hemisphere unknown at this time. The whole western hemisphere was undiscovered.
THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY
17
and killed or enslaved the men engaged in the traffic.
They made trade so difficult and dangerous that Euro¬
peans began to seek new routes to the East.
Europeans seek new routes. — Naturally, the first plan
was to sail around Africa. The Portuguese were the first
to attempt this all-sea route. Prince Henry, called the
Navigator, sent out expedition after expedition in search
of a way around Africa to the Indies. Some ships went
only a short distance down the long coast, others sailed
hundreds of miles, but in the end all turned back. The
sailors were discouraged by the seemingly-endless stretch
of land. Their small ships were not built for long, rough
voyages ; they had no charts nor maps to guide them, and
they were just beginning to use the mariner’s compass.
Even if it were possible, the voyage around the vast con¬
tinent of Africa would be long and slow. Was there no
shorter route to the East ? Some wise men said that there
was ; they said that a ship could sail west and reach the
eastern shore of Asia.
Beliefs about earth’s shape. — Most people then believed
that the earth was flat, like a plate, and that if any one
went to the edge, he would fall off. They said that the
great Sea of Darkness, inhabited by dreadful monsters,
circled around the known land. Many learned men, how¬
ever, laughed at these tales and asserted that the world
was round. If this were true, of course if a man traveled
far enough in any one direction, he would come back to
the place from which he started.
The scientists were right about the shape of the earth,
but most of them made two mistakes. First, they thought
that the earth was smaller than it really is, and so they
supposed the western route to be much shorter than it
is ; second, they did not know that there was a great
continent in the ocean between Asia and Europe, and
18 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE
so they supposed that seamen could sail straight west to
Asia.
Summary. — During the Middle Ages, Europe carried on an im¬
portant trade with the Indies in silks, spices, and other things. This
trade was interrupted by the Turks during the fifteenth century, and
Europeans sought new trade routes. Some scientists believed that the
earth was round, — not flat, as most people thought, — and they said that
eastern Asia could be reached by sailing across the western ocean.
Marco Polo, a Venetian who visited China during the thirteenth century,
said that there was an open sea east of the country. No one knew that
between Europe and Asia lay the great continent of America.
5. Columbus and Other Discoverers
Columbus and Cabot. — Bold seamen began to plan voy¬
ages across the western ocean in search of a new route to
Asia. Foremost among the men who made such plans
were two Italian seamen, Christopher Columbus and John
Cabot. Both were natives of Genoa, the Italian city which
had grown rich by the eastern trade and which was suffer¬
ing heavy loss from the Turkish control of the trade routes.
THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY
19
At Genoa there is still to be seen the house in which
Columbus passed his childhood. A tablet bears this in¬
scription : “No home more worthy! Here under his
father’s roof Christopher Columbus passed his boyhood
and youth.” Young Columbus went to sea when he was
about fourteen and became a daring and expert sailor.
“Wherever ship had sailed, there have I journeyed,” he
said, in later years.
Columbus plans a western voyage. — In the course of
time, he began to plan a voyage across the western ocean,
where, so far as he knew, no ship had sailed. If he had
ever heard of Vinland and the Northmen’s western voyages,
he attached no importance to them. He was seeking, not
The Fleet of Columbus
a northern land of grapes and ‘ self-sown wheat,’ but the
Spice Indies of the south and Cathay and Cipango de¬
scribed by Marco Polo. The more Columbus thought about
20
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1492
the subject and studied maps and charts, the more con¬
vinced he was that the world was round and that he could
reach Asia by sailing westward.
He tried in vain to get the king of Portugal to help him
carry out his plan. Then he sent his brother to seek aid in
England and in France. He himself went to present his
cause to the king and queen of Spain. After many years,
King F'erdinand and Queen Isabella agreed to aid his en¬
terprise. He obtained three small vessels, called caravels,
— the Santa Maria , the Pinta , and the Nina. The three
Columbian Exposition Model
A Caravel
carried only ninety men, but it was hard to secure even this
small number. The wisest men of the kingdom had said
that the plan of this “ foreign upstart ” was “ vain and
impossible.” No wonder the common people distrusted it.
They felt that to go forth on the unknown Sea of Darkness
would be taking their lives in their hands. But at last the
needed sailors were secured. Some were won by rewards,
some were forced into service, some were taken from jails.
Columbus’s first voyage [1492].—Columbus set sail
from Palos, a Spanish seaport, one summer morning in
The Landing of Columbus
22
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1492
1492. He carried with him a compass, a letter from the
king and queen of Spain to the ruler of Cathay, and a
year’s provisions. Instead of following the coast, as all
mariners before him had done, he struck boldly out across
the Atlantic, the dreaded Sea of Darkness. Day after
day, week after week, he “ steered west and sailed day
and night.” In vain his fearful, turbulent crew urged him
to turn homeward.
One night, ten weeks after he left Palos, Columbus saw
a flickering light in the distance ; the next morning, October
12, there lay before him a fair shore “very level, with
very green trees and many streams.” Columbus went
ashore, fell on his knees, kissed the earth, and gave thanks
to God. Then he drew his sword, unfurled a banner,
and took possession of the land in the name of the king
and queen of Spain. This land was one of the Bahama
Islands. Columbus thought that he had reached the
Indies ; so he called the natives of the country Indians,
the name which they retain to this day. He cruised
about and discovered Cuba, Hayti, and other islands.
Then he returned to Spain to carry news of his discovery
which was proved by the display of people, plants, birds,
pearls, and gold ornaments from the new land. He was
loaded with honors, and a second expedition was promptly
fitted out.
His second voyage [1493]. — Instead of seeking criminals
for a crew, he chose his companions among gentlemen and
nobles. Five hundred men in seventeen vessels accom¬
panied him on his second voyage. They thought that the
newly-discovered country was the treasure land described
by Marco Polo, and they were eager to take possession of
its gold, gems, silks, and spices. Instead of these, they
found “ a wilderness peopled with naked savages.” They
were disappointed and angry, and quarreled with Columbus.
1497] THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY
Line of Demarkation.—Spain and Portugal, the two
chief seafaring countries of Europe, agreed to divide the
New World between themselves. The division was to be
made by a line, called the Line of Demarkation, run¬
ning north and south through the Atlantic. It was said
that lands discovered east of this were to belong to Portu¬
gal, lands west of it were to belong to Spain. Other
nations, however, did not acknowledge the exclusive right
of Spain and Portugal to the New World, and they, too,
sent out expeditions.
Cabot’s voyages [1497, 1498]. — The king of England
gave John Cabot and his three sons permission “to sail to
all parts, countries, and seas
of the east, of the west, and of
the north.” They were not
given authority to sail to the
south; Spanish seamen had
discovered the southern lands,
and Spain had a strong navy
to make good its claim to those
regions.
John Cabot was a bold Ital¬
ian seaman who had made his
home in England “to follow
the trade of merchandise.”
With “ one little ship of Bristol and eighteen men,” he
set sail in the spring of 1497. He crossed the stormy
Atlantic, reached the coast of North America, which he
thought was a part of Asia, and took possession of the
country in the name of the king of England. Cabot saw
no people, but he found snares for game, needles for mak¬
ing nets, and other signs of inhabitants. He was amazed
at the multitude of fish along the coast, and reported that
they were so numerous that they “almost crowded one
another out of the water.”
John Cabot
24
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1498
The next spring, John Cabot, or his son Sebastian made
a second voyage with fifteen ships and explored the coast
from Labrador southward.
The English were disappointed at finding icebergs, fish,
and fur-bearing animals where they expected gold and
spices, or at least a passage to Asia. For years, they
made few explorations and no settlements in the country
and valued it only as “a codfish coast.” The banks of
Newfoundland were visited every year by fishing expedi¬
tions from England and France.
Columbus’s third voyage [1498]. — Meanwhile, Spanish
expeditions went southward in search of the Indies. Co¬
lumbus, on his third voy¬
age, took a southerly
course, and reached the
mainland of South Amer¬
ica, which he supposed to
be a part of Asia. He
went on to the West
Indies. There the dis¬
content against him be¬
came so violent that he
was sent back to Spain in
chains, like a criminal.
Vespucci’s voyage
[1497-1499?]. — About
the time that Columbus
made his third voyage, the
coast of South America
was visited by an Italian
merchant, Amerigo Ves-
Columbus in Chains
pucci, or Americus Vespucius, according to the Latin form
of his name. Vespucci wrote an interesting account of the
country. He and others thought that this was a new con-
1499 ] THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY
25
tinent, and that the land which Columbus had discovered
was Asia or islands off its coast. A German geographer
called the southern continent Americi terra , or the land of
Americus, from the traveler who described it. The name
America finally came to be applied to both the great
western continents.
Da Gama’s voyage [1499]. — While seamen from Spain
and England were exploring the shores of America, a
Portuguese sailor named Da Gama sailed around the
coast of Africa, went to India, and returned to Portugal
laden with spices, silks, and ivory. His cargo proved
that he had reached the land which Columbus had sought.
Columbus’s fourth voyage [1502]. — Da Gama’s discov¬
ery of a sea-way to India made Columbus more bent than
ever upon finding a western route. He secured ships and
men to make a fourth voyage. The story of this his
last voyage, as told by his son who took part in it, is a sad
one of famine, disease, tempests, mutinies of his crew, and
quarrels with the natives. Columbus cruised along the
coast of Mexico rich in treasures which would have brought
him fortune and favor; but in search of the western sea route
he passed them by. Worn-out with hardships and disease,
he returned to Spain.
He died two years later, believing to the last that the
lands he had discovered were islands off the coast of Asia,
and that he had found only a new route to the Indies.
But the world was greater than he thought — and so was
his discovery.
Summary [1436-1502].— Expecting to reach Asia, Christopher
Columbus sailed in 1492 across the Atlantic. He discovered some of
the West Indies. He made three other voyages, discovering other is¬
lands and touching the coast of South America. Columbus was fol¬
lowed across the western ocean by other navigators. North America
was discovered in 1497 by John Cabot, a seaman from England. South
26
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1513
America was visited and described by Amerigo Vespucci, and in his
honor the name America was given to the New World. Da Gama,
a Portuguese navigator, sailed around Africa and discovered an all-sea
route to India.
6. Early Explorers
De Leon visits Florida [1513]. — At first, nothing seemed
too wonderful to tell and to believe about the New World.
Men said there was in it El Dorado, a land of gold.
“ Gold is more plentiful there than copper is with us. . . .
All their dripping pans are pure gold . . . and as for
rubies and diamonds, they go forth on holidays and gather
them by the seashore to hang on their children’s coats and
stick in their children’s caps.” Another story said that
there was in the New World a fountain the waters of
which gave everlasting youth to whoever drank of them.
Gray-haired Ponce de Leon, who had accompanied Co¬
lumbus on his second voyage, sailed in search of the Foun¬
tain of Youth. On Easter Sunday, he landed on a sandy
peninsula, beautiful with live oaks, palmettos, magnolias,
and many flowers. Disappointed and gray-haired still, he
turned from its shores; for nowhere in the fair land which
he called Florida could he find the fountain that he sought.
Balboa discovers Pacific Ocean. — The year that De Leon
visited Florida, Balboa, a Spanish navigator, explored the
Isthmus of Panama. From a mountain peak, he beheld a
broad ocean. He made his way to the shore; clad in
armor, he waded into the ocean and took possession of it
in the name of the king of Spain.
Magellan’s ship sails around globe [1519]. — Six years
later, Magellan, a Portuguese navigator in the service of
Spain, started on an eventful voyage. Passing through the
strait which now bears his name, he struck out boldly
across the western ocean which he called Pacific, meaning
isio) THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY
27
‘ peaceful.’ He discovered the Philippine Islands, and there
he was killed in a skirmish with the natives. His ship
continued its westward course. After a three-years’ cruise,
it returned to Spain with a crew of eighteen half-starved
men, the first seamen who ever made the circuit of the
globe. Their voyage did more than discover a western
route; it proved positive¬
ly that South America is
a continent and not a
part of Asia.
Spanish conquests. — In
the New World, the
Spaniards found at last
the treasures that they
craved. They discovered
the pearl fisheries of Ven¬
ezuela and the gold and
silver mines of Mexico
and Peru. They robbed
native homes and temples
and graves of their treas¬
ures, never seeming to
think that the Indians
had any rights which
ought to be respected.
The stories of the con¬
quest of Mexico and of
Peru by little bands of Cortez, the Spanish Conqueror of Mexico
Spanish adventurers are
sad tales of the cruelty of the invaders and the sufferings
of the natives. A Spanish writer says, “With mine own
eyes I saw kingdoms as full of people as hives are of bees,
and now where are they ? . . . almost all have perished.”
“ The men perished in the gold mines with hunger and
28 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1528
labor, the women perished in the fields under whips and
cudgels.” To supply hardier laborers for the mines
and fields, negroes were brought from Africa. Thus be¬
gan the curse of negro slavery in the New World.
Explorations in United States. — In search of new treas¬
ure lands, the Spaniards explored the country to the north.
The stories of Narvaez, De Soto, and Coronado, the first
explorers of the United States, are records of wonderful
hardships, courage, and cruelty.
Narvaez’s expedition [1528]. — Narvaez landed in Florida
with about four hundred men, provided with food enough
to last only a few days. He marched through the pathless
wilderness, expecting to find kingdoms and treasures; in¬
stead, he found fierce, hostile Indians lurking in swamps
and forests. After suffering severely from hunger and
disease, at last the Spaniards reached the Gulf of Mexico.
There they built frail boats and embarked. They were
shipwrecked in a storm and only four men escaped. After
eight years and a pitiful, wonderful journey of 2000 miles,
these men made their way to a Spanish settlement on the
Pacific coast of Mexico. They had walked across the con¬
tinent, had been among many tribes of Indians, and had
heard tales of cities rich in gold.
De Soto’s expedition [1539]. — Cabeza de Vaca, one of
the four survivors of Narvaez’s band, met in Mexico a
young daring Spanish soldier, Hernando De Soto. De
Soto had gone to the New World with “ nothing else of
his own save his sword and his shield ”; he had taken
part in the conquest of Peru and had gained a vast fortune.
He listened with interest to the story of Cabeza de Vaca’s
journey, and resolved to explore the northern land, hoping
to find treasures like those of Peru and Mexico.
It was easy to get adventurers to accompany him. With
an army of several hundred men, he landed in Florida one
1539], THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY
29
May day eleven years after Narvaez’s ill-fated expedition.
He found the Indians of the region, enraged by the cruelty
of De Leon and Narvaez, “ as fierce as mad dogs.” De
Soto added fuel to the fire of their hatred; an old histo¬
rian says that “ he was much given to the sport of slaying
Indians.”
Beset by the difficulties which had overcome De Leon
and Narvaez, De Soto marched through the country. The
exact route that he followed is not known. He wandered
for months through the southeastern part of the United
States. His men suffered terribly from disease, from In¬
dian attacks, and from lack of food. At last, they reached
“a deep and very furious river,” so wide that a man
standing on the farther shore could not be distinguished
from a stump. This was the Mississippi, so called from
an Algonquin word meaning ‘ great river.’ The Spaniards
made boats and crossed the stream, wandered through
the western country for several months, then returned to
the Mississippi. De Soto was stricken with fever and
died. To conceal his death from the Indians, his follow¬
ers buried him in the river. They built rude boats and
made their way down the river and along the coast.
Months later, the survivors of the band reached a Spanish
settlement in Mexico.
Coronado’s expedition [1540]. — While De Soto’s party
was exploring the eastern wilderness, another band of
Spaniards was wandering through the west. Coronado
left Mexico with an army of three hundred Spaniards and
eight hundred Indians, and marched in search of seven
rich cities of which he had heard. These cities proved to
be Indian pueblos, or cliff dwellings, such as are still seen
in Arizona and New Mexico. The Spaniards conquered
the Indian strongholds and shot or burned many of their
prisoners. Continuing their journey, they went probably
30
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1540
as far as central Kansas. They found streams flowing
through great rocky chasms, and wide, treeless plains over
which roamed bands of fierce Indians and vast herds of
“ crook-backed cows,” as they called the buffalo or bison;
Supposed Buffalo Real Buffalo
but nowhere did they find gold and cities. After travel¬
ing weary hundreds of miles, they returned at last to
Mexico.
Verrazano’s voyage [1524]. — France, like England,
refused to recognize the right of Spain and Portugal to
divide the New World between themselves. * Where was
the will,’ asked Francis I., the French king, ‘by which
Father Adam had made them his sole heirs? ’
King Francis sent Verrazano, an Italian seaman, to
explore the coast of America. The first voyages of western
discovery for each of the four great nations — Spain, Eng¬
land, Portugal, and France — were made by Italians —
Columbus, Cabot, Vespucci, and Verrazano. The decline
of Italian commerce had thrown out of employment many
seamen who turned to other nations for occupation. Ver¬
razano was the first navigator to explore and describe the
coast of the United States. He sailed along the shore
from North Carolina to Newfoundland and took possession
of the country, which he called New France, in the name
of the French king.
Cartier’s voyages [1534]. — Ten years later, Jacques
Cartier, a bold French seaman, crossed the Atlantic in
1534] THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 31
search of a northwestern route to Asia. Cartier explored
the northern coast and entered “a goodly great gulf”
which he named St. Lawrence. The next summer, he
returned and sailed up the St. Lawrence River. He built
a rude fort upon the heights where Quebec now stands,
and ascended the river as far as the site of Montreal.
French attempts to make settlements. — An unsuccessful
attempt was made to establish a colony in Canada. Later,
French Protestants called Huguenots made two unsuccess-
The Spanish Gate, St. Augustine
ful attempts to settle on the southern coast. The first
settlement was in South Carolina, called Carolana in
honor of the French king, Charles IX. This settlement was
destroyed by fever and by famine which reduced the colo¬
nists to such straits they ate their shoes and leather jackets.
The second attempt at settlement was in Florida. This
colony was destroyed by a band of Spaniards who built,
in 1565, a fort at St. Augustine — the beginning of the
32
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1565
city which is the oldest permanent settlement in the
United States.
English sea captains. — In two ways, the English got a
share of the New World treasures. One was by a slave
trade, bringing negroes from Africa and selling them to
the Spaniards. English seamen, however, found an easier
way of getting treasures than by the slave trade. They
took advantage of the fact that Spain and England were
on unfriendly terms, and they preyed on the Spanish ships
An Old English Warship
bearing gold and silver from Mexico and Peru. One little
English ship would attack a huge Spanish vessel, or even
a whole fleet, and bear off its treasures. For daring cour¬
age, the English sea captains of the sixteenth century
have never been surpassed.
Drake’s voyage around world [1577]. — The most famous
of these seamen was Sir Francis Drake whom the Span¬
iards called “the Dragon of the Seas.” On an expedition
to Panama, he heard about the great western ocean which
Balboa had discovered. Drake climbed to the top of a
1577 ] THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY
33
tree and thence beheld the broad Pacific; immediately he
resolved to “sail once in an English ship on that sea.”
Five years later, he started on his famous voyage around
the world. On the way, he attacked Spanish ships and
settlements and captured vast stores of treasure. At one
time, we are told, his men, “ being weary, contented them¬
selves with as many bars and wedges of gold as they could
carry, burying above fifteen tons of silver in the sand and
under old trees.” The old records give exact lists of the
treasures taken ; but of the countries visited they say
only that the seamen “saw many strange birds, beasts,
fishes, fruits, trees, and plants too tedious to mention.”
With only one ship, Drake passed through the Strait of
Magellan and up the western coast of America. He
entered “ a fair and good bay ” on the California coast.
In the name of the English queen, Elizabeth, he took
possession of the country, which he called New Albion.
After sailing northward as far as Oregon, he turned to the
southwest, crossed the Pacific, and returned safe to Eng¬
land.
Spain in New World, — Thus, explorers from Spain,
England, and France sailed along the coast of America,
touching here and there, claiming for the nations that they
represented the regions visited. Spain, indeed, claimed
the whole western continent; the western ocean was
called the ‘ Spanish Main,’ and seamen who sailed there
under the flag of any other country were put to death as
pirates. For fifty years, Spain held the foremost place in
America. It sent forth the men who discovered the New
World, found the Pacific Ocean, made the first circuit of
the globe, coasted along the Atlantic and Pacific shores,
and explored the interior. Love of adventure and of gold
brought the Spaniards by thousands to the New World,
especially to the south where they found countries rich in
34
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1588
gold, silver, and gems, and inhabited by unwarlike, easily-
conquered people. Spain gained vast wealth and for a
while it prospered.
But in the sixteenth century, its power declined. Its
rich Dutch provinces rebelled and won their independ¬
ence. Later, it came into conflict with England on the
sea. Again Spain lost. The defeat of its Great Armada
[1588] by the courage and skill of English seamen and
by the tempests of the northern seas was a blow from
which Spain never recovered. This defeat cleared the
way for the English and other nations to settle America.
Results of explorations. — America had been discovered
near its narrowest part, and this was explored ; for a long
time, men did not know that it broadened at the north and
the south into great continents. Year after year, seamen
sailed up and down the coast, entering bays and rivers,
hoping at each indentation to find a water-way to the Pa¬
cific. Explorers wandered to and fro in the land, pene-
THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY
35
trating forests, crossing streams, climbing mountains,
following great canons, crossing “ mighty plains and sandy
heaths, smooth and wearisome and bare of wood.” In
spite of sea voyages and land explorations, people remained,
for more than a century, ignorant of the size and shape of
North America.
Slowly but surely knowledge grew. As years passed,
men accepted North America for what it was, — a place
the treasure of which must be of their own making.
Wealth and cities and nations were to be there, but they
were not to be discovered. They were to be built up and
created; and the task required patience, perseverance,
hard work, and business methods. . Colonies were to be es¬
tablished in the wilderness, and the only firm and safe
foundations for colonies are agriculture and trade.
Summary [1513-1588]. — By slow and painful degrees and many
explorations, people learned the size and character of North America.
The first explorers were Spaniards, — De Leon who visited and named
Florida, Balboa who discovered the Pacific, and Narvaez, De Soto, and
Cbronado who explored the United States. The ship of a Spanish
captain, Magellan, made the first circuit of the globe, but an English¬
man, Sir Francis Drake, was the first sea captain to make that voyage.
The first French explorers were Verrazano who visited the eastern
.coast of America, and Cartier who discovered the St Lawrence Gulf
and River. The first permanent settlement in the United States was
made, in 1565, at St. Augustine, in Florida, by the Spaniards.
CHAPTER II
ENGLISH COLONIES
i. Attempts to settle North America
Spain, England, and France in North America.— Nearly
a century had now passed since the discovery of the New
World. The Spaniards claimed the whole northern con¬
tinent, but they made few attempts to occupy the regions
explored by the ill-fated expeditions of Narvaez, De Soto,
and Coronado. Their only
settlements north of Mexico
were at St. Augustine in Flor¬
ida and at Santa Fe in New
Mexico.
While Spain was busy seek¬
ing treasures in Mexico and
South America, England and
France attempted to settle the
eastern coast of North America.
England wished to have colo¬
nies there in order to offset the
Spanish colonies and to develop
English commerce. Love of
adventure and hope of gain made men join expeditions to
the New World, just as these motives lead them to-day to
explore Africa or to go to the gold fields of Alaska.
Ralegh and Gilbert—A foremost part in the work of
“western planting” was taken by Sir Walter Ralegh.
Ralegh was a courtier, scholar, author, soldier, and states-
36
ENGLISH COLONIES
37
* 584 ]
man, one of the bravest and most brilliant Englishmen of
the sixteenth century. By his efforts to settle America
he earned the title of ‘ the father of English coloniza¬
tion.’
Ralegh, however, was not the first Englishman to under¬
take to colonize America. He was preceded by his half-
brother, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who obtained from Queen
Elizabeth a patent, or written permission, for “planting
and inhabiting certain northern parts of America,” which
were claimed by England on account of the discoveries of
Cabot. Gilbert came to America, but on his homeward
voyage he was overtaken by a tempest, and in the stormy
September night his little vessel went down. Some of his
fellow-voyagers escaped. They told how calmly Sir Hum¬
phrey met death, reminding his comrades, “ We are as
near to heaven by sea as by land.”
Ralegh took up Gilbert’s
patent and devoted his for- “ *“ ^ -
tune and energy to the
effort to “ plant an English
nation in America.”
Voyage of exploration
[1584]. — The year after
Gilbert’s fatal voyage, Ra¬
legh sent an expedition to
explore the coast in search
of a suitable site for a colony.
The Englishmen reached
Roanoke Island, off the
coast of North Carolina, and
found the natives friendly
and hospitable. After a two-months’ visit, the explorers
described the land as “ the most plentiful, sweet, fruitful,
and wholesome of all the world,” and the people as “ most
An Indian Town
38 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1584
gentle, loving, and faithful . . . and such as live after the
manner of the golden age.” In honor of Elizabeth, called
the Virgin Queen, the name Virginia was given to the
middle coast of North America.
Ralegh’s first colony [1585].—The next year, Ralegh
sent a hundred men to settle on Roanoke Island. This
first English colony in America was badly managed, and
in a few months the colonists returned to England. They
took with them some American plants, the uses of which
they had learned from the natives. These were Indian
corn, which “maketh a very good bread,” tobacco, which
the Indians said “would cure being tired,” and potatoes
which “when boiled had a goodly taste.”
‘ The Lost Colony ’ [1587]. — Sir Walter Ralegh sent out
another colony with Captain John White as governor.
Instead of being composed of men, like the first band, this
included some women and children. Soon after they landed,
Mistress Dare, one of the colonists, had a daughter. This
first child of English parentage born in America was named
Virginia Dare. Soon Captain White returned home for
needed supplies. England was preparing to fight the great
Spanish Armada, and it was three years before White
could get supplies and return to Roanoke Island. He
found the place “ desert, tenantless, and silent.” Of over
a hundred persons, not one remained. The only trace left
by them was the word “ Croatoan,” the name of an Indian
tribe, carved on a tree. Whether the settlers had been
killed by Indians, had died of famine and disease, or had
been carried off and adopted by an Indian tribe, no one
knew. No one knows to this day.
Ralegh resigns his patent. — Ralegh found that the estab¬
lishing of a colony was too great an undertaking for one
person; so he gave up his patent to a company in
London.
ENGLISH COLONIES
39
1608]
“ I shall yet live to see it an English nation,” he said.
He did live to see an English colony established north
of Roanoke Island. In course of time, the flourishing
colony of North Carolina grew up on the coast to which
he had sent ship after ship. In his honor, its chief city
was named Raleigh.
French settlement at Quebec [1608]. — While the English
were trying to settle the middle coast, the French were send¬
ing expeditions to the northern coast which they claimed on
account of the discoveries of Verrazano. For nearly a
century, their fishing vessels had frequented the northern
waters, and by degrees a fur trade had sprung up with the
Indians. A French company was organized to carry on
this trade, and posts were established on the St. Lawrence
River, the gateway to the fur country of the north. Early
in the seventeenth century, a settlement was made at
Quebec. Of the twenty-eight settlers, twenty died the
first winter. For many years, the colony had to struggle
with hardships and lack of supplies.
“ We ate our peas by count,”
said its founder, Samuel de Cham¬
plain.
Champlain — Champlain is well
called ‘the father of New France.’
For a quarter of a century, he held
the foremost place in French ex¬
ploration and colonization. There
is no more attractive figure in the
early history of America than this
brave, gentle, daring, self-sacrific¬
ing, capable, Christian gentleman.
His visit to Lake Champlain [1609]. — Champlain made
friends with the Algonquins, his Indian neighbors along the
St. Lawrence. The summer after Quebec was founded, he
3MV3Q
SCALE OF MILES
O 200 400 600 800 1000
Columbus
♦ ♦o + + 1st voyage, 1492-’93
»oo<>ock>o 2d voyage, 1493-’96
'ceccGc 3d voyage, 1498-1500
oonoooc 4th voyage, 1502-’04
Cabot, 1497-’98
oo. o-o-o Vespucci, 1499
::::::::: De Leon, 1513
== = = = Verrazano, 1524
_Narvaez, 1535
_Cartier, 1534-35
e>.&•&•> De Soto, 1529-’42
_>_>_>_» Coronado, 1540-’41
. Drake, 1579
.* + ++ + Hudson, 1610-’ll
Champlain, 1615-16
= x=x= Joliet and Marquette, 1673
_ De La Salle, 1681-’82
1609]
ENGLISH COLONIES
4 i
accompanied a band of them on an expedition against the
Iroquois who occupied central New York. The French
explorer wished to visit a region which the Indians had de¬
scribed to him, “ a large lake filled with beautiful islands,
and with a fine country surrounding it.” On the western
shores of this lake, now called Champlain, the Algonquins
met the Iroquois in battle. Champlain with his musket
aided his friends, and the Iroquois, who had never before
seen firearms, fled in terror from ‘ the stick ’ which sent
forth noise and smoke, wounds and death. But it was a
costly victory for Champlain and his nation. From the
time he fought beside the Algonquins, the fierce Iroquois
tribes of the Five Nations were the deadly enemies of the
French.
Except for this quarrel with the Iroquois, the French
were on good terms with the natives. They adapted them¬
selves to Indian character and customs, and often adopted
native dress. French traders seeking furs and French
missionaries teaching the Christian religion went in and
out of the wigwams, as friends and brothers.
Virginia Company [ 1606 ].—Two years before the
French founded Quebec, an English company, called the
Virginia Company, was formed for the purpose of coloniz¬
ing the middle Atlantic coast. Their victory over the Great
Armada made Englishmen more inclined than ever to disre¬
gard Spain’s claims to the New World. So they planned
to take possession of part of it, hoping to find gold mines
and expecting great profits from a trade with settlers and
Indians.
The Virginia Company obtained from King James I.
a charter giving it permission to establish colonies in
America. The country to be settled was so extensive
and so many men shared the enterprise, that the Virginia
Company was divided into two parts. One part was called
42
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1606
the Plymouth branch because it was composed largely of
men from Plymouth; to this was granted the right to settle
the land from latitude 41 0 to 45 0 , — that is, from Long Island
to Nova Scotia. The other part was called the London
branch because it was composed largely of men from that
city; to the London Company was granted the land from
34 0 to 38°, — that is, from Cape Fear to the mouth of the
Potomac River. The strip of land
between the two grants was open to
both companies and was to belong
to the one which first settled colonies
there.
Both companies sent out colonies
soon after the charter was obtained.
Popham Colony [ 1607 ]. — The
Plymouth Company sent to North
Virginia a colony, called from one
of its leaders ‘the Popham Colony.'
The settlers, landing in summer on the Kennebec River,
were pleased with the country and climate as they then
appeared. But disappointment and despair followed.
During the long severe winter, the Englishmen suffered
terribly from cold, famine, and sickness. They returned
home with such dismal tales of the “ cold, barren, moun¬
tainous, rocky desert,” that it was years before another
attempt was made to settle there.
Summary [1579-1609]. — Toward the end of the sixteenth century,
the English tried to establish colonies on the middle coast of America,
which they called Virginia. The leader in this effort was Sir Walter
Ralegh. After several unsuccessful attempts, he resigned the undertak¬
ing to a company. This Virginia Company organized two branches,
the Plymouth and London. Meanwhile, the French were carrying on
a fur trade with the Indians in Canada. They established trading posts
and a colony at Quebec. The leader of the French colonists was
Champlain.
ENGLISH COLONIES
43
1606]
2. The Jamestown Colon?
Colony sent by London Company [ 1606 ].— The attempt
of the London Company to make a settlement was more
successful than that of the Plymouth Company. A band of
colonists was sent out in three small ships,— The Good
Speedy the Sarah Co 7 istanty and the Discovery. These
colonists meant to land on, or near, Roanoke Island, but
they were driven northward by storms. They entered
Chesapeake Bay and sailed up a river which they called
James in honor of their king. Weary of the long months
on shipboard, they viewed with delight the broad stream
with its banks gay with blossoming dogwood and redbud,
and fair with meadows and forests. “ The low shores
were covered with flowers of divers colors; the goodly
trees were in full foliage and all nature seemed kind.”
Landing at Jamestown [May 13 , 1607 ].—The colonists
decided to settle about fifty miles from the mouth of the
river. This situation was safer than one on the coast which
was apt to be visited by foes, French and Spanish. On
May 13, 1607, the little band landed and laid the founda¬
tion of a town called Jamestown. This little English
settlement was the beginning of our great nation.
Colonists.—There were a hundred and five men to
make a colony ‘and not one woman to make a home/
Half the number were registered as ‘gentlemen,’ — men
of good birth “ that never did know what a day’s work
was.” They came to enjoy a life of adventure, seeking
gold and a water-way to the west, and they were ill fitted
for the rough labor of planting a colony. The other col¬
onists were men of more useful sort, — tradesmen and
mechanics. All were ignorant of the soil, climate, and
conditions of the new land. These things they had to
learn by slow and painful degrees.
44
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1607
Government. — The colony was governed by a council,
one member of which was elected president. The settlers
were to have the same rights and be ruled by the same
laws as their fellow-citizens at home in England. For five
years, however, they were to use the ‘ common-stock ’ sys¬
tem,— that is, land and supplies were to be held in com¬
mon, instead of being owned by individuals. This seems
a bad plan since it made the idle and the industrious share
alike, but at first all had to depend for food and clothes on
the supplies brought from England.
First church. — One of the first things provided was a
church. Captain Smith, one of the colonists, described it
thus: “We did hang an awning (which is an old sail) to
three or four trees, to shadow us from the sun, our walls
were rails of wood, our seats unhewed trees till we cut
planks, our pulpit a bar of wood nailed to two neighboring
trees. . . . This was our church till we built a homely
thing like a barn.”
First year at Jamestown. — Soon after the English landed,
they were attacked by Indians, “ creeping from the hills
like bears, with bows in their mouths.” They were driven
off, but for years the colony had to be on guard against
them. There was, too, the fear of the Spanish, who claimed
the whole coast. Any day they might come to destroy the
English colony in Virginia as they had destroyed the
French one in Florida. The Spaniards wished, indeed, to
“ drive these villains out and hang them ” ; but, remember¬
ing the fate of their Great Armada, they feared to renew
the war with England and did not go beyond threats.
The little colony had more serious troubles than Indian
attacks and fears of Spaniards. The settlement had been
made in a marshy, mosquito-infested, unhealthful place,
and there was much sickness. The colonists suffered, too,
from lack of food. At one time, they had only “ half a
ENGLISH COLONIES
45
1607]
pint of wheat and as much barley boiled with water for a
man a day, and this . . . contained as many worms as
grains.” The first summer, famine and disease destroyed
half the colony. There were not enough well men to care
for the sick and to bury the dead. Bodies were “ trailed
out of their cabins like dogs to be buried.”
Captain John Smith.—The ability and energy of one
man probably saved the colony from ruin. This was
Captain John Smith, one of the councilmen appointed to
govern the colony. _________
about
years old
He was
thirty
and had led a
roaming, eventful
life. As a lad, he
fought with the
Dutch against the
Spaniards; then he
wandered east to
fight the Turks and
to travel in many
countries. He
came home to
England, with
wonderful tales of
his adventures by
land and sea, just
in time to join the
expedition to Vir¬
ginia. He was
Captain John Smith
vain and boastful, but able and energetic, “ brass without,
but gold within.” He led the colonists in planting crops,
felling trees, and building huts. He made friends with
the Indians and persuaded them to trade corn and game
46 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1607
for beads, bells, knives, and cloth. He explored many of
the streams flowing into Chesapeake Bay and made maps
of the coast.
Pocahontas. — In an expedition up the James River,
Captain Smith was made prisoner by the Indians. He
was carried before a great war chief called the Powhatan,
an old man “ well beaten with many cold and stormy
winters.” Captain Smith tells us that he was sentenced to
death and that the war club was raised to kill him. Then
Pocahontas, the little
daughter of Powhatan,
threw her arms around
the white man and
begged his life. At her
request, he was spared;
later, he was allowed to
return to his friends at
Jamestown. Such is
Captain Smith’s story.
The Indian maiden
became the faithful and
helpful friend of the
English. More than
once when food was
scarce “the dear and
blessed Pocahontas,” as
the English called her,
came with attendants bringing baskets full of corn. She
came also, “ by stealth in the dark night through the wild
woods,” to warn the English of an intended attack by her
countrymen. “ Shee, next under God, was the instrument
to preserve this Colonie from death, famine, and utter con¬
fusion,” says an old historian.
Second year at Jamestown. —The second year found the
ENGLISH COLONIES
47
1608]
Jamestown colony in a sad condition. There was still
much suffering from sickness and want of supplies. New
colonists had come over, among whom were some work¬
men and many ‘ gentlemen’. Captain Smith wrote home to
the Company: “When you send again, I entreat you
rather send thirty carpenters, husbandmen, gardeners,
fishermen, blacksmiths, and diggers-up of roots, well pro¬
vided, rather than a thousand of such as we have.”
By the vessel which carried this letter, Captain Smith
sent a manuscript, the True Relation of Virginia . It was
a description of the country, which he had written in the
intervals of tree cutting, house building, trading, and ex¬
ploring. This was the first English book written in the
United States.
In the autumn, Captain Smith was made president of
the colony. Under his wise, vigorous government affairs
improved. He made idlers work, saying, “You must
obey this now for a law : He that will not work shall not
eat.” The ‘gentlemen’ labored heartily, though the axes
“blistered their tender fingers.” Strict order was kept.
At night, a can of cold water was poured down the sleeve
of each man for every oath that he had uttered.
American colonies in 1608 . — The winter of 1608 found
the English one of three European nations occupying the
northern part of America. Far to the north at Quebec in
Canada or New France were the French; at St. Augustine in
Florida and at Santa Fe in New Mexico were the Spanish;
between the French and the Spanish was the little Eng¬
lish colony at Jamestown in Virginia. No one could say
which nation would finally control the great continent; the
chances seemed in favor of Spain.
Smith’s return to England. — The next year, several
hundred colonists came to Virginia, and Captain Smith
returned to England. For two years and a half, the
48 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1609
“ dear noble captain and loyal hearte,” as his men called
him, had played his part bravely and wisely at Jamestown.
He never came back to that colony, but a few years later
he explored the northern coast to which he gave the name
New England. He described its wealth in fur, fish, and
lumber, and made a map of the coast. After this, he
remained quietly in England, writing books about his
adventures and the countries he had visited.
Hudson’s first two voyages.— Not long before Captain
Smith left Jamestown, he wrote a letter about America to
Henry Hudson, a fellow-Englishman. In this letter, he
expressed his belief that north of the James River there
was a waterway leading to the western ocean; in proof of
this, he sent a map which he had made of the region.
This letter was of great interest to Hudson. In the year
that Captain Smith went to Jamestown, Hudson had ex¬
plored the coast of Europe in search of a northeast passage
to Asia. On this and on a second voyage, both undertaken
for English merchants, Hudson was turned back by bar¬
riers of ice.
Hudson’s third voyage [ 1609 ]. — He was asked to make a
third voyage for the Dutch East India Company. Holland
sent out more trading vessels than all the other countries
of Europe, and most of these vessels were under the
control of the great East India Company. They brought
tea, coffee, spices, silks, and other merchandise from Asia
and the East Indies. On their long, roundabout voyage
south of Africa, they passed and repassed their enemy,
Spain, and their trade rival, Portugal, in constant danger of
attack from both. So the Dutch merchants sent Hudson
‘ to find an easier route to the Spice Islands.’
Hudson was again baffled by the ice barriers off the
northern coast of Europe. Instead of returning home, he
determined to go in search of the western passage men-
i6og]
ENGLISH COLONIES
49
tioned by Captain Smith. With one little ship, the Half
Moon, manned by about twenty Dutch and English sailors,
he struck out boldly across the Atlantic. He sailed along
the northern coast of America, examining bays and rivers.
He discovered the Delaware River and explored a beautiful
river, now called Hudson in his honor. The country
The Half Moon on the Hudson River
seemed to him “ as fair a land as was ever trodden by the
foot of man” and the natives a “sensible and warlike
people.” These were Iroquois Indians whose friendship
Hudson won by giving them biscuit and rum; in return
E
50
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1609
they brought him tobacco, wampum, venison, and furs.
Only a few weeks before, Champlain had made the Iroquois
his enemies by joining an Algonquin war party against
them.
New Netherland.—The Dutch claimed the country which
Hudson had explored, and called it New Netherland.
They established trading posts and bought furs from the
Indians, giving in exchange beads, knives, hatchets, and
The Dutch Colony of New Amsterdam
gay-colored cloth. The first Dutch settlement was a fort
and trading post on Manhattan Island [1613]. Around
this, there gradually grew up a “little group of huts.”
This village became a town, called New Amsterdam ; now,
it is the great city of New York.
Hudson’s fourth voyage. — The spring after his Dutch
voyage, Hudson was sent out again by English merchants,
this time in search of a northwest passage to Asia. He
explored the northern coast of America and entered the
bay and strait which bear his name. That autumn, his
ship was shut in by ice and the crew suffered severely
from cold, famine, and sickness. The next summer, he
l6og]
ENGLISH COLONIES
51
wished to continue his explorations, but his men were re¬
solved to return home. They mutinied and put Hudson,
his little son, and some sick men in a small boat. The
boat drifted off on the summer sea and was never heard
of again. An old Dutch legend says that the castaways
came safe to shore and made their home in the fair land
which Hudson had discovered.
Meanwhile, how were affairs at Jamestown ?
Starving Time in Virginia [1609-1610].—When Cap¬
tain Smith left the colony, it seemed securely established.
It contained over fifty houses and about five hundred
people. But affairs were badly managed and the colony
was soon in sore straits. By unwise dealings, the Indians
were made unfriendly, and they refused to sell corn to the
white men. The colonists were reduced, says one of their
number, to feed on “ roots, herbs, acorns, walnuts, berries;
now and then, a little fish . . . yea, even the very skins
of our horses.” They ate more loathsome food, — rats,
snakes, and even dead bodies. With famine came sick¬
ness. At times, there were not more than five or six men
able to work. During the terrible months called the
Starving Time, the colonists were reduced from five
hundred to sixty.
Delaware saves the colony. — The survivors resolved to
leave Jamestown and go to the Newfoundland fisheries,
whence they could get passage home. They embarked,
but on their way down the James River they met ships
bringing supplies and colonists. The commander, Lord De
la Warre, or Delaware as the name came to be written,
persuaded the colonists to return to the abandoned settle¬
ment. When he landed at Jamestown, he fell upon his
knees and thanked God that he had come in time to save
the colony planted for the “ welfare of the kingdom of
God and the kingdom of England.’*
52
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1612
Governors Gates and Dais. — Lord Delaware remained
in Virginia two years and then left the colony to be gov¬
erned by Sir Thomas Gates and Sir Thomas Dale. They
were severe but able and energetic rulers. Idlers were
flogged, and death was the penalty for robbing a garden
of flowers or vegetables or for killing a fowl or domestic
animal. The common-stock system was put aside. Each
man had land assigned him and owned
all his crop, except two and a half bar¬
rels of corn which he was required to
contribute to the common granary.
Tobacco-growing in Virginia. — Dur¬
ing these first five struggling years,
the Virginia colonists experimented
with many things, trying to raise rice,
olives, silk, and other Old World crops.
At last, a profitable native crop was
found. This was tobacco. Tobacco
had been introduced into England
from Ralegh’s colony on Roanoke
Island, and its use had spread rapidly
throughout Europe. The weed was
supposed to have a medicinal value,
and its use became a fashionable habit.
At first, tobacco was obtained only
from the Spanish settlements. John
Rolfe, one of the Jamestown settlers,
observed that the plant was raised by
the Virginia Indians, and he thought
that it might be cultivated as a market
crop by the colonists. The experi¬
ment was made. The tobacco grew well, was of good
quality, and commanded a high price.
Prosperity of colony. — In spite of the Company’s efforts
Tobacco Plant
ENGLISH COLONIES
S3
l6l2]
to keep them secret, tidings of the colonists’ hardships had
reached England. Tales of famine, of fevers, of Indian
attacks, of the terrible Starving Time, of the stern rule of
Gates and Dale, were told and lost nothing in the telling.
It was difficult to get settlers to go to the colony. Some¬
times men sentenced to be hanged for theft or other petty
offenses, according to the severe English law of the day,
refused pardon when it was offered on condition that they
go as servants to Virginia.
But now there was a change. Tidings crossed the seas
of the profits in raising tobacco and of the growing pros¬
perity of the colony. Hoping to make their fortunes,
people came to Virginia and took up plantations. At first,
only men came. They found the country pleasant and
the tobacco crop profitable; they began to regard Virginia
as home and brought over their families. To provide
wives for unmarried men, the Company sent out a ship¬
load of young women of humble birth but good character.
These became the wives of colonists who paid their pas¬
sage— not with money, but with tobacco. Coin was sc&rce
and tobacco was the currency of the colony; with it men
paid debts and salaries, and bought food, clothes, and tools.
Great Charter [1619]. —Up to this time, Virginiahad been
a trading colony, governed by rules made by the Virginia
Company. Now the Company granted it a new charter,
called the Great Charter. This said that, in addition to
the governor and council appointed by the Company,
Virginia was to have an assembly of its own to make its
laws. This assembly was to be composed of members
chosen to represent the different settlements, or ‘boroughs,’
as they were called.
First General Assembly. — On Friday, July 30, 1619,
there met in the church at Jamestown the first elected
law-making body in America. That little assembly was
54 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1619
the parent of our great national Congress. Each of the
eleven Virginia boroughs sent two burgesses, as represent¬
atives to the assembly, — hence it was called the House
of Burgesses.
Introduction of slavery. —The year that the first House
of Burgesses met, Jamestown was the scene of another
event that was of widespread importance, but this one was
the beginning of evil and trouble. “The last of August,”
says Rolfe, “ there came in a Dutch manne of war that sold
us twenty negars.” These negro slaves were savages from
the west coast of Africa, where the people worshiped devils,
fought like wild beasts, and ate or enslaved their captives.
These savages were very imitative and were easily taught
some civilized habits, and trained to work in the fields.
They proved useful servants. Dutch and English vessels
brought shipload after shipload of them to Virginia and to
other English colonies as others were settled.
Life in the colony. — For the time, Virginia prospered
and many people came to make homes there. P'ifteen
years after the colony was established, it had over twelve
hundred settlers. There were few villages; Jamestown
was the only town in the colony. Most of the people
were engaged in the cultivation of tobacco and lived
on farms and plantations along the streams which served
for highways. Each plantation had its own * landing,’
or wharf, to which ships came to bring goods and to get
cargoes of tobacco. The colonists obtained from Eng¬
land most of their clothing, household goods, tools, and
other supplies. They were too busy raising tobacco to
take time to make such things for themselves.
Massacre of 1622. — P'or years, the colonists were on
friendly terms with the natives. They traded together, and
the red men went freely in and out the white men’s houses
and towns. But at heart the Indians were hostile. They re-
1622]
ENGLISH COLONIES
55
sented being treated as inferiors by the English ; they re¬
sented the clearing of the forests where they were accustomed
to hunt, the occupying of the meadows where they were ac¬
customed to camp and fish. They feared that the English,
who were increasing in numbers and power, would become
masters of the country. Opecancanough, who had suc¬
ceeded the earlier Powhatan as chief, resolved to destroy
them. Several Indian tribes united in planning a general
massacre.
After four years of preparation, the blow fell and fell as
from one hand. On the same day and at the same hour,
an attack was made on all the Virginia settlements; at
sunset, three hundred and fifty white men, women, and
children lay dead.
After this, there was distrust, hate, and war between the
two races. Year by year, the English drove the savages
farther back, up the streams, into the forests, across the
mountains. At every opportunity, the Indians attacked
the English and destroyed unprotected families and border
settlements.
Company’s charter withdrawn [1624]. — At the end of
fifteen years, the English colony was firmly planted, but
it was rooted in graves ; famine, disease, and massacre
had destroyed four-fifths of its settlers. The ill fortune
of the colony gave King James an excuse to interfere in
its affairs. He accused the Virginia Company of mis¬
managing matters, and its charter was withdrawn. King
James took control of the colony, promising that it should
enjoy all its former rights.
The chief change was that the governor and council
were appointed by the king instead of by the Company.
The colony continued to elect its assembly to make its
own laws. This assembly claimed the power of taxation,
declaring,' “ The governor shall not lay any taxes .. . ..
56 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1624
otherwise than by the authority of the General As¬
sembly.”
What the Jamestown colony accomplished. — Our nation
rests to-day on the foundation laid three hundred years
ago by the handful of capable, liberty-loving Englishmen
who settled Jamestown. For thirteen years, Jamestown
The Church at Jamestown, showing in the Foreground the Tower built in
1642-1645
was the only English colony in America. Its people
“brake the ice and beat the paths” in the wilderness.
They underwent many hardships while they were learning
to adapt themselves to conditions in the New World, but
they built their colony on firm foundations; it had a profit¬
able industry and a free government. Farms, plantations,
villages, iron works, churches, and a law-making assembly
were established and a university was planned.
Summary [1607-1624]. — The first permanent English settlement
in America was made, in 1607, at Jamestown in Virginia. The
colony suffered much from famine, sickness, and mismanagement.
1620]
ENGLISH COLONIES
57
Tobacco became the main crop and proved so profitable that the
colony built up steadily. The chief events in the early history of
Virginia took place in 1619; these were the introduction of slavery
and the establishment of a general assembly, a law-making body
elected by the people. Two years after Jamestown was founded,
Henry Hudson in a Dutch ship explored the coast between the Delaware
and Hudson rivers. The Dutch called this country New Netherland,
and established posts there to carry on a fur trade with the Indians.
3. New England Colonies
Religious conditions of seventeenth century. — About
the time that Jamestown was founded, the people who
were to make the second English settlement in America
went from England to Holland. These were the members
of a church, or congregation, who moved about so much
that they came to be called Pilgrims, — that is, people who
travel, usually from religious motives.
Religious conditions in the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries were very different from those of our time. We
have religious freedom,—that is, a man may believe and
teach what he pleases, go to church or stay at home as he
chooses, and pay or not pay to support a minister. Three
hundred years ago, religious freedom was almost unknown.
Nearly every country had its established church, or form
of religion, and all people were required to attend and sup¬
port this church. It was thought that to let people believe
and worship as they pleased would destroy all law and
order.
In England, there was a national church called the Church
of England. People were required to submit to its govern¬
ment, just as they were required to submit to the government
of the state. Some men were dissatisfied with the Church
of England. They wished to free it — or purify it, as
they said — of certain forms and doctrines. These men
58 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1620
were called Puritans. Others went farther. They so dis¬
liked the forms and doctrines of the established church that
they were unwilling to remain members of it, and they
formed religious congregations of their own ; because they
separated themselves from the
Church of England, they were
called Separatists. These Sepa¬
ratists were fined and imprisoned
for refusing to attend and support
the established church.
Pilgrims. — To escape this
harsh treatment, a little band of
Separatists, called Pilgrims, went
to Holland where people were
allowed more religious freedom
than in any other country of Eu¬
rope. Most of these Pilgrims
were tradesmen and mechanics;
they were sober, earnest, hard-working people and got on
well with the thrifty, industrious Dutch. Other English
Separatists joined them until their band had several hun¬
dred members. But they were not contented in Holland.
Though they were kindly treated, they were strangers in a
strange land. They loved their English speech and cus¬
toms, and wanted their children to grow up English and
not Dutch.
Good reports were now coming from the English colony
at Jamestown. So the Pilgrims decided that they would
go to the New World and make a settlement where they
could establish their own church. They obtained from the
Virginia Company a grant of land on the coast of New
Jersey. They were so poor that they had to borrow money
for the expenses of their expedition. As they could not
afford to carry all their congregation, a part remained ia
Holland.
The Puritan
ENGLISH COLONIES
59
l62o]
Voyage of Mayflower [1620]. — One hundred and two
men, women, and children set sail for America in a single
small vessel, the Mayjloivcr. One of the band was Cap¬
tain Myles Standish, who was not a member of the congre¬
gation but who liked the Pilgrims so Well that he went
with them. He
became their mil¬
itary leader and
served them as
bravely and faith¬
fully as Captain
John Smith had
served James¬
town. After a
long, stormy voy¬
age, the Pilgrims
approached land
far north of that Th z Mayflower
for which they
had a grant; they wished to turn southward, but the
weather was bad and the surly captain was unwilling to
make a longer voyage. The Pilgrims, therefore, decided
to establish their colony on the coast of Massachusetts.
Their grant did not apply to this territory. So, before
landing, they drew up an agreement to make and obey
such laws as they needed.
First year at Plymouth. — On December 21, 1620, the
men landed at Plymouth on a bleak, ice-bound coast. One
of their number says: “They fell upon their knees and
blessed the God of heaven, Who had brought them over
the vast and furious ocean. . . . For the season it was
winter and . . . what could they see but a hideous and
desolate wilderness, full of wild beasts and wild men ? ”
The first work was to build a large log house, called the
6o SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [i6ai
Common House ; as soon as this was finished, the women
and children came ashore.
During the first winter, the Pilgrims suffered terribly
from cold, famine, and illness. Over half the little band
died. At one time, only seven men were well enough to
work. These men, rough soldiers like Standish, nursed the
sick, cut firewood, cooked, washed, and did all the other
work, “and all this willingly and cheerfully.”
Fortunately, Indian attacks were not added to other hard¬
ships. Massasoit, the chief of a neighboring tribe, made
with the white men a “ treaty of friendship ” that was kept
as long as he lived. Friendly natives taught the colonists
how to catch fish and to raise Indian corn.
The Mayflower returned to England in the spring. In
spite of the hardships of the winter, not one of the Pilgrims
went back. They were busy building cabins, planting gar¬
dens and fields, fishing and hunting to obtain food, — estab¬
lishing homes in the wilderness. In the autumn, they
celebrated their harvest and the end of the year in America
by a feast — the first Thanksgiving. Year after year, this
festival was observed, and it came at last to be a national
holiday.
Plymouth settlement. — At first the Plymouth settlers,
like those at Jamestown, owned land, goods, and live-stock
together. In both colonies, this common-stock plan was a
failure. After a few years, the Pilgrims abandoned it and
divided land and property, so that each man might have
the reward of his own labors. After this, the colony was
more prosperous. The people found out what sort of crops
to raise and how to raise them on the poor, stony soil; they
established fisheries along the coasts and trading posts
among the Indians. Ships that brought supplies and col¬
onists from England were sent back laden with lumber,
salt fish, and furs.
1627]
ENGLISH COLONIES
61
A Dutch visitor described the Plymouth colony when it
was seven years old. He said that the houses of good
hewn plank stood in little gardens along the streets. At
the top of a hill, there was a square, strong building in
which the Pilgrims held their church meetings and their
town meetings about the business and government of the
colony; on the top of the house, there were six cannon so
placed as to command the country and the harbor. When
Pilgrims going to Church
the Pilgrims went to church or town meeting, they carried
with them their matchlock or flintlock guns. These were
very unlike the firearms in use to-day. The powder in the
matchlock had to be lighted from a burning fuse; the
flintlocks had flints which struck fire by hitting against a
piece of steel and so set fire to the powder.
Other settlements. — In ten years, the Plymouth colony
had about three hundred people. Meanwhile, Englishmen
settled at other places on the northern coast. There were
little bands of timber cutters, fur traders, and fishermen on
the Kennebec River in Maine, at Dover in New Hampshire,
and at Brattleboro in Vermont.
62
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1622
Two Englishmen, Sir Ferdinando Gorges and Captain
John Mason, obtained a grant to the land between the
Kennebec and Merrimac rivers. They divided it. Gorges
took the eastern part, which he called Maine, and Mason
the western part, which he named New Hampshire. Settle¬
ments were established, but they grew slowly.
Massachusetts Bay Company. — Meanwhile, affairs in
England were in bad shape. The Puritans got on badly
with vain, self-willed King James I. and worse with his son,
King Charles I., who ruled with little regard for his subjects’
rights. Many Puritans became discouraged with the state
of affairs at home and decided that there was “no place
left to fly unto but the wilderness.” There was a great emi¬
gration to New England. In ten years, 20,000 colonists
came over, most of whom settled in Massachusetts.
The Massachusetts Bay Company, formed by Puritan
merchants and country gentlemen, bought a large tract of
land around the Charles and Merrimac rivers. This tract
was to extend westward to the Pacific Ocean, which was
supposed to be not far from the Hudson River. King
Charles gave the Bay Company a liberal charter [1629],
saying that it was to be managed by a governor and a
council elected by its members ; these were to make any
laws they pleased which did not conflict with the laws of
England. The king was not sorry to have the Puritans
go to America. They annoyed him at home, and they
would be useful in America, keeping the French and Dutch
^way from the territory claimed by England.
The Bay Company promptly sent out settlers who founded
Salem, Boston, and other towns. Most of the settlers
came over in the summer; they found the coast very un¬
like the bleak, ice-bound shore on which the Pilgrims had
landed. One of the Bay colonists wrote in his journal,
f< What with fine woods and green trees by land, and these
1
1630]
ENGLISH COLONIES
63
yellow flowers painting the sea, made us all desirous to see
our new paradise of New England.”
The second summer, there came ships, bringing a thou¬
sand colonists. One of these ships brought the governor,
Mr. John Winthrop, a ‘narrow¬
minded but ever large-hearted ’
gentleman. It brought also
the charter of the Massachu¬
setts Bay colony. Nothing
was said in the charter about
the place of the Company’s
headquarters. The king took
it for granted that it would be
in England. But the Puritans
knew that at home they would
be exposed to the king’s inter¬
ference. If they displeased
, . -r-r• ru / , , , John Winthrop
him, King Charles would not
hesitate to withdraw their charter, as King James had
withdrawn the London Company’s charter six years be¬
fore. Therefore, the officers of the Company went to
America and took their charter with them.
Snowshoes
Early days in Bay colony. —The Bay colonists, like
those of Jamestown and Plymouth, suffered many hard-
64 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1630
Moccasins
ships at first. Want and the severe climate caused much
sickness. Some of the colonists became discouraged and
returned to England, but
there remained a band of
sober, steadfast men.
“ God sifted a whole na¬
tion that He might send
choice grain out into this
wilderness,” said one of their
preachers.
Until they could raise crops for them¬
selves, the colonists had to depend on
supplies from England and on such scanty
stores as they could obtain from the
Indians. Sometimes they were “ forced
to lengthen out their own food with acorns.” At one
time, just as Governor Winthrop was dividing his last
handful of meal with a needy neighbor, a ship laden with
food entered the
harbor.
Soon matters
improved. The
cod fisheries off
the coast fur¬
nished food and
a valuable ex¬
port. Gardens
were planted,
fruit trees set
out, fields
cleared and cul¬
tivated, and
crops of wheat, rye, and Indian corn were raised. The
native grain became the chief dependence, because it
A Garrison House at York, Maine, built in 1676
1630]
ENGLISH COLONIES
6 5
would grow on rough, half-cleared land where wheat did
not flourish. The colonists followed the Indian custom of
planting beans and pumpkins in their cornfields. They
learned to fish and to hunt in the Indian fashion, and to
use canoes, moccasins, and snowshoes, like the natives.
They had no domestic animals except the horses, cattle,
and hogs brought from England. These were scarce and
valuable. In the early histories, the death of a cow or a
goat is recorded as duly as the death of a person.
Life in New England. — Each New England town had a
blockhouse, a strong log house, of which the second story
usually projected over the lower one. This served as a
fort and a place of refuge from Indian attack. One of the
first buildings erected in each settlement was a meeting
house, used for religious and business assemblies. The
minister was the leading man of the settlement, and only
members of the Puritan churches were allowed to hold
office or even to vote. Men who spoke against the church
or state government were fined, whipped, or banished.
66
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1635
The Puritans had come to America, not to establish a place
of religious freedom, but to found a colony governed ac¬
cording to their own views.
Opinions about government. — They did not always agree
among themselves about matters of government. A party
led by Governor Winthrop and Rev. John Cotton thought
that most men were so unfit to govern that they ought not
to be allowed to vote, and that all power ought to be in the
hands of a few. “ The best part is always the least,” Gov¬
ernor Winthrop said, “ and of that best part the wiser part
is always the lesser.” Rev. Thomas Hooker and other
liberal men thought that all people should have a voice in
•the government. Mr. Hooker asserted that “the founda¬
tion of authority is laid in the free consent of the people.”
Religious customs. — The Puritan colony had many strict
religious customs. No meals were cooked on Sunday, and
the people all went to the meeting house — which was
unwarmed in the coldest weather—to listen to long hymns,
long prayers, and long sermons. It was thought sinful to
gather flowers on Sunday or to walk in the fields for rec¬
reation. People who traveled on that day were arrested and
fined. Boys bringing home the cows were told to ‘ let the
bars down softly as it was the Lord’s day.’ Under its stern
rule, the Bay colony became “a model place of steady work
and clean living. Nowhere else in the world would you
hear so few oaths uttered, or see so few idle or drunk or
begging.”
Schools. — A school was established in Boston a few
years after it was founded [1635], anc ^ soon each settle¬
ment had a school. These were for boys only; girls
might learn at home to read and write, but they were
expected to spend most of their time in housework. The
first college in the colonies was Harvard [1636], named
after Rev. John Harvard who left it his books and half his
ENGLISH COLONIES
1636]
67
estate to educate the “ youth of this country in knowledge
and godliness/’
Harvard College
Trouble about charter. — King Charles was willing to
have the Puritans settle in America, but he did not wish a
strong Puritan state to be built up there. His law courts
decided that the Massachusetts Bay Company’s charter
should be withdrawn and that the colony should be made a
royal province, like Virginia. The magistrates at the Bay
were so unwilling to give up their charter that they re¬
solved to resist by force of arms. Fortunately for them,
other affairs and disputes at home kept the king from
sending troops against his unruly subjects in America.
For some years, the colony went on undisturbed, governing
itself according to its charter.
Settlement of Connecticut [1636]. — In course of time, the
Puritans made settlements in other parts of New England.
So many of these were made by people from Massachu¬
setts that this colony is called ‘the mother of New
68 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1636
England.’ One of the first bands of settlers from Massa¬
chusetts was led by Rev. Thomas Hooker. These settlers
drove their cattle and carried their children and household
goods to the fertile Connecticut Valley. It took ten days
to make the ninety-mile journey through the pathless, tan¬
gled forest, steering their course by a compass. They
settled at Hartford near a Dutch fort. There they had
good meadow lands and a chance to carry out their views
about government, which were disapproved by the ruling
party at the Bay. They adopted a written constitution
[1639], which allowed freemen
to vote who were not church
members.
About the time that Hartford
was founded, several bands of
colonists came from England to
Connecticut. One of these was
a Puritan congregation which
made a settlement at New
Haven. This was ruled by laws
even stricter than those of
Massachusetts. Only church
members were allowed to vote
and to hold office. No law was
recognized but the Bible ; trial
by jury was not used because it
was not a part of the law of
Moses.
Roger Williams. — The year
that Mr. Hooker went to Hart¬
ford, the Bay colony was rid of
another dissenter, — that is, one
who disagreed with the ruling party. This was Roger
Williams, a Salem preacher. He said that the land be-
Roger Williams
ENGLISH COLONIES
6g
I636)
longed to the Indians, and that neither the king of Eng¬
land nor any one else had a right to grant it away from
them ; the settlers ought to buy it from the natives. He
said, too, that every man ought to be allowed to vote, and
that sensible, upright men ought to be chosen for magis¬
trates without regard to their church membership. He
asserted that it is wrong to compel people to attend a
certain church or to tax them for its support. The laws
of the country, he urged, should prevent and punish crime,
not direct religious matters; for their religious views, men
should answer only to God and their own consciences.
These views seem reasonable to us to-day, but they
seemed foolish and wicked to most people then. To keep
Williams from spreading these opinions in the colony, the
Massachusetts magistrates resolved to send him back to
England. Not wishing to return to the motherland, he
fled from Salem in the depth of winter and hid with Indians
in the forest.
Settlement of Rhode Island [1636]. — Afterward, he went
with a few companions to the country of the Narragansett
Indians, south of the Bay colony. The Narragansett chief
gave him a tract of land. Here Williams established the
first settlement in Rhode Island; he called it Providence,
saying, “ I desired it might be a shelter for persons dis¬
tressed in conscience.” It was to be free to “ Baptists,
Protestants, Jews, or Turks, to all men of all nations and
countries.”
Quakers. — Rhode Island was the only colony in which
the people, called Quakers, or Friends, were not persecuted.
The Quakers were a religious sect that thought people
should lead pure, simple lives. They wore bonnets or
broad-brimmed hats and sober-colored clothes, used ‘ thee,’
‘ thou,’ and ‘ thine,’ instead of ‘ you ’ and ‘ yours,’ in speak¬
ing to one person, and refused to take off their hats as a
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1637
token of respect. The Quakers said the Bible ought to be
the only rule of government for people and churches.
They thought that it was wrong to take oaths in law courts, to
serve in the army, or to pay taxes to support the established
church. For refusing to do these things, they were
severely punished, — whipped, fined, imprisoned, branded
with hot irons, even put to death.
Pequot War [1637]. — Not long after Roger Williams
settled Rhode Island, he rendered a great service to the
colony which had driven him out. At the request of the
Pequot Fort
Bay magistrates, he went to the council fire of the powerful
Narragansetts and persuaded them not to join a war league
against the English. This league was planned by the
1637]
ENGLISH COLONIES
7i
Pequots, a warlike tribe of Connecticut, who urged the
neighboring tribes to go with them on the warpath. The
Indians, who at first had been friendly, had grown jealous
of the increasing numbers and power of the New England
settlers.
Finally the war whoop took the place of their early ‘ wel¬
come ’; they attacked settlement after settlement. At last,
the colonists made an expedition against the Pequot strong¬
hold, a collection of wigwams surrounded by a log stockade,
or fence. They guarded the two entrances and threw lighted
torches over the stockade to set fire to the wigwams within.
The inmates were burned or killed as they tried to make
their way out. Of over four hundred Indians, only five
escaped ; most of the remaining members of the tribe were
shot or captured and made slaves. By this severity, the
other Indian tribes were overawed. For forty years, there
was peace in New England.
Union of four New England colonies [1643]. — Soon after
the Pequot War, the colonies of Plymouth, Massachusetts
Bay, Connecticut, and New Haven formed a union, called
the “ United Colonies of New England,” which lasted forty
years. Each colony kept charge of its own affairs, but
acted with the others against the Indians and in other
matters of common interest. Perhaps this union was
suggested to the colonies by the Dutch republic, formed of
free united states, where the Pilgrims had lived so many
years.
Rhode Island charter. — The four united colonies were,
as they said, “ all in church fellowship.” They did not
ask Rhode Island to join the union. The year that the
confederacy was formed, Roger Williams went to England
to secure a charter for his colony. He returned the next
spring with a charter for “ Rhode Island and Providence
Plantations.”
72
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1621
Summary [1620-1644]. — In 1620, the second English settlement in
America was founded at Plymouth, Massachusetts, by the Pilgrims.
They suffered many hardships, but by degrees they prospered and built
up a thriving trade in lumber, salt fish, and furs. Other colonies were
established along the New England coast. There were a few scattered
settlements in Maine, Vermont, and New Hampshire. The most pros¬
perous New England colony was Massachusetts Bay, founded by English
Puritans. Settlements were made at several places in Connecticut, —
the chief ones being at Hartford by settlers from Massachusetts, and at
New Haven by an English congregation. Roger Williams established
the first settlement in Rhode Island and made it a place of religious
freedom. The Pequot Indians made war on the New England settle¬
ments, but were defeated. Soon after this war, the colonies of Plymouth,
Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, and New Haven formed a union for
defense and common action.
4. Settlements on the Middle Coast
New Netherland. — While the English were building up
colonies in Virginia and New England, the Dutch were
taking possession of the region that they called New Nether¬
land. Their colony grew steadily though slowly compared
with their New England neighbors, to whom settlers came by
shiploads and congregations. A Dutch West India Com¬
pany was organized on the same plan as the great East
India Company. It established trading posts where agents
were stationed to collect furs and timber. Furs were the
1626]
ENGLISH COLONIES
73
money of this settlement, as tobacco was of Virginia, and
they were used in the payment of debts and salaries.
Wampum was used for small change.
There were in the Dutch colony some great landowners
called ‘patroons.’ A patroon was granted a large tract
of land on condition that he bring over as settlers fifty
grown persons within four years. The patroons lived in
handsome style on their vast estates, served by negro
slaves and surrounded by tenants. Most of the Dutch set¬
tlers were small farmers and thrifty, hard-working trades¬
men whose wives were neat housekeepers and good cooks.
The Dutch built comfortable homes, and had fat cattle,
well-tended gardens, and yards gay with flowers, especially
tulips, lilies, and roses. They were fond of sports and
brought to America their native amusements, — coasting,
skating, and sleighing, — their habit of making New Year’s
calls, their celebration of Christmas by the visit of Santa
Claus, and of Easter with colored eggs. They were reli¬
gious, intelligent people and built churches and established
schools at New Amsterdam and elsewhere. Like other
people of the times, they had strict laws. There were
ducking-stools for scolds, and slanderers were punished by
having a red-hot iron run through the tongue.
Governor Minuit. — The first governor of New Nether-
land was Peter Minuit, a wise and capable man. He
made friends with the Indians and paid them for the land
occupied by the Dutch. For the island of Manhattan, he
gave cloth, beads, knives, and hatchets to the value of
twenty-four dollars. The Indians thought themselves well
paid for the island which was a small part of their vast
possessions.
Dutch and English claims. — In the course of a few
years, the English settled near the Dutch on the Connecti¬
cut River. Both nations claimed the land. The English
74 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1638
asserted that the whole coast belonged to them by virtue
of Cabot’s discovery; the Dutch claimed the territory on
account of Hudson’s explorations.
Swedes settle Delaware [1638]. — The Swedes also occu¬
pied territory claimed by the Dutch. Led by Peter Minuit,
some Swedes landed on the west bank of the Delaware
River and bought from the Indians a tract of land which
they called New Sweden. There they made a settlement,
called Fort Christina in honor of their young queen. This
was the first settlement in what is now Delaware.
Lord Balti¬
more’s colony.—
Meanwhile, Vir¬
ginia also had
new and unwel¬
come neighbors.
They were of
the same race as
her settlers but
of a different re¬
ligion. The laws
of England at
that time re¬
quired all men
to conform to
the established
church. Many
Puritans who
were unwilling
to conform to
the Church of England took refuge in New England.
George Calvert, Baron Baltimore, planned to establish in
America a colony where Roman Catholics might have
liberty of belief and worship.
1632]
ENGLISH COLONIES
75
For this purpose, he obtained from the king a grant of
land north of the Potomac River. Over this territory, he
was given almost absolute power. He was to pay to the
king two Indian arrows every year and one-fifth of the
gold and silver found in the territory. Lord Baltimore
died before he could send a colony to his American estate.
His sons, Cecil, the second Lord Baltimore, and Leonard
Calvert, carried out his plan.
Settlement at St. Mary's [1634]. — Leonard Calvert
brought a band of colonists to the province which was
called Maryland in honor of the queen of England. A
tract of land was bought from the Indians for ‘a few
hatchets and hoes and a little cloth/ and a settlement
was made called St. Mary’s. The site chosen was a de¬
serted Indian settlement where there was good cleared
land. The first year’s crop provided the settlers corn for
their own use and a surplus to trade in New England for
salt codfish.
Early days in Maryland. — In its early days, Maryland
was spared many of the troubles which beset the other
colonies. The people had plenty of food, fairly good
health, and freedom from Indian attack. The region was
occupied by the mild Delawares whose good will the set¬
tlers won by justice and kindness. They had troubles,
however, with their Virginia neighbors, who regarded them
as trespassers. Part of the territory given Lord Baltimore
belonged to the Virginia grant; on it were settlers from
that colony who refused to acknowledge Lord Baltimore’s
authority. The leader of these was Mr. William Clay-
borne, who had established a trading post on Kent’s Island.
After leading several revolts and giving the Maryland col¬
ony much trouble, he was at last suppressed.
Life in Maryland resembled that in Virginia. In both
colonies were few villages and many great plantations. To-
76 SHORT HISTORY Of AMERICAN REORLE [164a
bacco was the staple crop and the currency, and the broad
streams were used as highways. The form of government
was like that of Virginia; instead of ruling as absolute
lord, according to the terms of his charter, Lord Baltimore
gave the colonists the rights of freemen.
Religious affairs. — The chief difference between the two
colonies was in the matter of religion. In Maryland, all
Christian sects enjoyed freedom of belief and worship.
This was secured by a law, called the Toleration Act [1649],
which said that “ no person . . . professing to believe in
Jesus Christ, shall from henceforth be anyways molested
. . . for his religion nor in the free exercise thereof.”
In Virginia, the Church of England was established by
law, and all people were taxed to support it; dissenters,
such as Quakers, Puritans, and Roman Catholics, were
driven out. In Massachusetts, only Puritans were allowed ;
people of other religions were whipped, banished, or even
put to death. In Rhode Island alone, there was entire
religious freedom, even Jews and unbelievers being toler¬
ated. It was many years before persecution ceased and
religious freedom prevailed everywhere.
Summary [1621-1649]. — The Dutch colony of New Netherland
grew steadily though slowly, and carried on a thriving fur trade with
the Indians. Some Swedes established south of New Netherland a
settlement which they called New Sweden. An English Roman
Catholic nobleman, Lord Baltimore, founded the colony of Maryland.
In occupations and government, Maryland resembled its neighbor,
Virginia.
5. Colonial Growth
English Commonwealth [1649]. — The English people
resisted King Charles’s disregard of their rights, especially
his assuming the right to lay taxes, —a right which be¬
longed only to Parliament. At last, the contest between
ENGLISH COLONIES
77
1649]
king and people came to open war. King Charles’s army
was defeated, and he was put to death by his own subjects.
Instead of the kingdom, a Commonwealth was established.
The head of this Com¬
monwealth was Oliver
Cromwell, the leader of
the Puritan army.
What effect did these
events at home have on
the English colonies in
America ? Let us see.
Colonies under Com¬
monwealth.—The Great
Charter of Virginia,
which the king had on
the whole respected,
gave that colony the
rights for which English¬
men at home were con¬
tending. Virginia was
contented and prosper¬
ous, loyal to the king
and the Church of England. It submitted, however, to
the Commonwealth fleet sent to require the obedience of
the colonies; back of this fleet, as the Virginians well
knew, was the power which had conquered the king.
English loyalists, who disliked the way affairs were man¬
aged at home, came by hundreds and thousands to settle
in the colony which was known to be friendly to them.
Among these refugees were the ancestors of George
Washington, James Madison, James Monroe, John Mar¬
shall, and other famous men. Most of these loyalists were
country gentlemen, and they settled on plantations along
the rivers. Virginia grew and thrived.
78 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1649
In Maryland, the Commonwealth caused hardships. Clay-
borne, who had led several revolts, again raised an insurrec¬
tion. For a while, the government was controlled by a
group of Puritans. They repealed the Toleration Act,
and ruled so harshly that Cromwell at last interfered and
restored Lord Baltimore to power.
Puritan New England sympathized with Puritan England,
and promptly declared against the king. When English
Puritans came to power, they naturally showed favor to their
friends in America. New England prospered. Massachu¬
setts extended her authority over the settlements in New
Hampshire, Vermont, and Maine, set up a mint to make
small coins, and
regulated church
affairs more
strictly than did
Puritan England.
Members of the
Church of Eng¬
land were not al¬
lowed to vote nor
even to hold their
own church ser¬
vices.
Affairs in New
Netherland. —
English affairs
affected the
Dutch colony of
New Netherland
but little. It
thrived under the
rule of Governor Peter Stuyvesant. ‘ Old Silver Leg,’ or
‘ Headstrong Peter,’ as he was called, was a queer figure
Peter Stuyvesant
1651)
ENGLISH COLONIES
79
stumping about on his wooden leg ornamented with bands
of silver, but he was a brave, able, and energetic man.
By force of arms, he compelled the Swedes on the Dela¬
ware River to own Dutch authority and made New Sweden
again a part of New Netherland. Farms were cleared
and tilled, villages were built up, trade increased. The
thrifty Dutch prospered in New Netherland.
The Restoration [1660]. — But changes were at hand for
all the colonies. After Cromwell died, the English people
restored the kingdom, and Charles II., the son of Charles
I., was made king. This is called the Restoration. Tid¬
ings of it were received with very different feelings in the
different colonies. Virginia promptly and gladly owned
Charles II. as king.
The New England colonies, on the other hand, heard
with deep regret of the Restoration; most of them put off
acknowledging King Charles as long as possible. The
king punished New Haven for helping his enemies by
making it a part of Connecticut which had acknowledged
him promptly. He gave Connecticut and Rhode Island
liberal charters, allowing them to make their own laws and
elect their own governors.
Navigation Acts. — While Cromwell was ruling the Eng¬
lish Commonwealth, Parliament passed a Navigation Act
requiring that the merchandise of the colonies should
be carried in English ships manned by English crews.
This act was intended to shut out the Dutch and to build
up English trade. As the ships and crews of the colonies
were ‘ English,’ the act was no great hardship to them.
But when Charles II. became king, stricter laws were
passed. These new Navigation Acts required that certain
products, such as tobacco, should be shipped only to Eng¬
land. Later, laws required the colonists to buy from
England all their manufactured goods.
8o SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1664
Seizure of New Netherland [1664].—The colonies com¬
plained of these laws, but prospered under them. True,
they were not very strictly obeyed. It was hard, if not
impossible, to enforce the Navigation Acts while a Dutch
colony occupied the middle coast. The Dutch sea captains
were ready to aid their English neighbors and to make
profit for themselves by carrying on a smuggling trade.
For this and other reasons, King Charles resolved to take
possession of the whole coast, which the English had never
ceased to claim. He granted his brother James, Duke of
York and Albany, the territory on which the Dutch settle¬
ments were situated. An English fleet under Colonel
Richard Nicolls was sent to take possession of it. The
fleet entered New York Bay and demanded the surrender
of New Amsterdam. The Dutch and English were at
peace, and the city was not prepared to resist the unex¬
pected attack. Stuyvesant, the brave old Dutch governor,
was compelled to surrender.
“ I had rather be carried to my grave,” he said.
The name of the colony was changed from New Nether¬
land to New York, in honor of its English master. The
flourishing town of New Amsterdam, in which there were
1500 of the 7000 Dutch inhabitants, became New York
City. Colonel Nicolls, an able and sensible man, was
made governor of the colony. All people were given
equal rights in trade and religion, and the Dutch settlers
became contented, loyal English subjects.
This seizure of Dutch territory gave the English control
of the great central harbor and water-way, and it removed
the foreign wedge from between the northern and southern
colonies. The long Atlantic coast, from the bleak north
to the flowery south, from French Canada to Spanish
Florida, was English territory.
Settlement of New Jersey.— Even before he knew the
i66 4 ]
ENGLISH COLONIES
81
result of Nicolls’s expedition, the Duke of York granted
the southern part of his province to his friends, Lord
Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. This territory was
called New Jersey, in honor of Sir George Carteret who
had been governor of the island of Jersey. Carteret took
the eastern part of the territory and Berkeley the western
part. In the course of a few years, East and West Jersey
were sold to companies of proprietors. Many settlers
came to them, attracted by their natural advantages and
good government.
Carolina grant [1663]. — Virginia had now another new
neighbor, Carolina. King Charles granted to eight noble¬
men as lords proprietors “ all the region lying south of
Virginia, extending from 31 0 to 36° north latitude, and
westward across the continent from ocean to ocean.”
In honor of the king, this region was called Carolina, from
Carolus , the Latin name for Charles. The name Carolana
had been given to it a hundred years before by French
settlers in honor of their king, Charles IX.
Albemarle settlement. — The settlement of the northern
part of this territory had been begun by people from
Virginia several years before the grant to the lords proprie¬
tors. The first settlement was established on Albemarle
Sound. It was an unwholesome site, but there as else¬
where the settlers preferred the swampy, unhealthful coast
to the fertile, wholesome interior which was shut in by
forests. In spite of disadvantages, the Albemarle settle¬
ment prospered. During the next few years, other
settlements were established here and there at favorable
places. From these beginnings grew the colony of North
Carolina.
The people who came to this section were, for the most
part, sturdy, energetic men who took up small farms and
usually had few slaves. They raised corn, tobacco, and
82
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1670
cattle, and shipped the produce of their noble pine forests,
— lumber, tar, pitch, and turpentine. By the end of the
seventeenth century, the northern Carolina settlements
had 5000 people.
Charleston settlement [1670].—A few years after the
Carolina grant was made, the lords proprietors sent out a
colony. This settled in the south at Charlestown, or
Charleston. The first settlers came from England ; later,
there came Scotch, Irish, Germans, and Huguenots or
French Protestants. At first, the Frenchmen were not
given equal rights with other settlers, but they were intel¬
ligent, industrious people who won their way and aided in
building up the colony. • The end of the seventeenth
century found about 7000 people in the southern Carolina
settlement. Instead of small farms as in northern Caro¬
lina, there were large plantations worked by slaves.
About the end of the seventeenth century, the cultiva¬
tion of rice was begun. A sea captain gave a bag of seed
rice to a gentleman in the colony, and it was planted as
an experiment. Soil and climate favored its growth.
Rice became the chief crop of the colony and was used
for money as tobacco was in Virginia.
Government of Carolina. -— The proprietors adopted for
Carolina a form of government called the ‘Grand Model/
but the people insisted on having a voice in making their
own laws, and at last their demands were granted.
Summary [1649-1694]. — During the English Commonwealth, Vir¬
ginia was built up by loyalist refugees, the Maryland government was
upset by a rebellion, and New England prospered under the friendly
home government. Soon after the Restoration, New Netherland was
seized from the Dutch; the northern part became the colony of New
York; the southern part formed two colonies called East Jersey and
West Jersey. The territory south of Virginia was granted by King
Charles to eight noblemen and was named for him Carolina. Two
distinct settlements grew up in Carolina: one in the north on Albe¬
marle Sound, and one in the south around Charleston.
6 7 6 ]
ENGLISH COLONIES
83
6. Bacon’s Rebellion and King Philip’s War
Governor Berkeley.—Virginia had other grievances be¬
sides the grant of the southern territory to the lords pro¬
prietors. The people were dissatisfied with their governor,
Sir William Berkeley. In his young days, he had seemed
a frank, high-spirited gentleman, but as years passed he
showed himself self-willed and narrow-minded. He ap¬
proved high taxes and did not wish the common people to
vote; above all, he opposed public education and the
liberty of the press.
“ I thank God there are no free schools nor printing
presses,” he said, “and I hope we shall not have them
these hundred years.”
He and his friends got control of the House of Burgesses,
and ruled with little regard for the people’s rights.
Most of the Virginians disapproved Berkeley’s course,
but he was their governor, and they were loyal, law-abiding
people ; probably they would have gone on grumbling and
submitting to him had there not arisen trouble with the
Indians which he would not settle nor allow others to
settle.
Bacon’s Rebellion [1676]. — Fierce Indian tribes attacked
the borders, laying waste plantations and killing many set¬
tlers. The House of Burgesses voted to send five hundred
men against these savages, but Berkeley disbanded the
force. Some people said he valued his profitable fur trade
with the Indians more than the lives of the colonists ; others
thought he feared that after the little army settled the
disturbance on the borders, it would turn against his
arbitrary government. Whatever his motive, he disbanded
the force and left the frontiers unprotected.
A few weeks later, news came that the Indians had
attacked a plantation belonging to Mr. Nathaniel Bacon
84 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1676
and had killed the overseer and a servant. Mr. Bacon
was a young Englishman, as high-spirited and resolute
as the governor himself. As soon as he heard of the
Indian attack, he collected a little band to pursue the
savages. He sent to ask the governor for a commission.
It was refused, and he marched on without it, defeated
the Indians, and returned home.
Berkeley would gladly have punished Bacon as a traitor
because he had led an armed band without a commission,
but the sympathies of the people were with the young
leader. The governor had to call a new assembly and give
Bacon a commission to fight the Indians. Hardly had the
troops marched away, however, before Berkeley declared
their leader a traitor and an outlaw and raised troops to
use against him. After conquering the Indians, the little
army marched against the governor. Bacon showed no
desire to assume power himself; his only aim seemed
to be to put an end to unjust government and to defend
the rights of the people. A few weeks after he took up
arms, he died of fever, and with his life the rebellion ended.
Berkeley was again master of the colony. He took swift
and severe revenge on his enemies, hanging more than
twenty persons for having taken part in the rebellion.
“ As I live, the old fool has put to death more people in
that naked country than I did for the murder of my
father,” exclaimed King Charles.
King Philip’s War [1675-1676].—While Bacon’s Rebel¬
lion was going on in Virginia, New England was being laid
waste by an Indian war. When the Indians sold land for
beads, knives, cloth, and trinkets, they thought that the Eng¬
lish, like their tribes, wished only to use it for hunting and
fishing. They watched with increasing anger the growth
of farms, villages, and towns. Year by year, the white men
and the red men grew more unfriendly. The races were
1675]
ENGLISH COLONIES
8 S
too different to live and prosper side by side. The English
settlers treated the Indians with contempt as an inferior
race, and resented their disregard of property rights, their
gathering grain and fruit like wild berries, their shooting
cattle like deer. The Indians looked on the white people
as one tribe and revenged themselves on any one of the
race for the unjust acts of another. Moreover, firearms
and ‘ fire water ’ were spread abroad among the savages
with deadly effect.
During the lifetime of Massasoit, his ‘ treaty of friend¬
ship ’ with the English was unbroken. An open outbreak
came in the time of Massasoit’s son, Philip, who was a
famous warrior, brave, wise, and prudent. The war is
called for him King Philip’s War, but it is not known what
part he took in it. One day a settler fired at and wounded
an Indian who had shot his oxen. A few days later, a band
of Indians attacked and burned a village. The aroused
savages went from one bloody deed to another; they burned
houses and villages, killed men, women, and children.
The Swamp Fight.—The fierce Narragansett Indians
had their headquarters on an island in a swamp. This
was thought to be inaccessible, and here the women and
children were assembled and food was stored. One
December day, a thousand soldiers made their way to the
island. In this ‘ Swamp Fight,’ most of the men, women,
and children gathered on the island were killed, and the
fort with its five hundred wigwams was burned.
The next summer, Philip was hunted down and shot, and
the remnant of his tribe was overcome. The Indians were
killed, driven away, or sold as slaves in the West Indies.
Among those sold as slaves were King Philip’s wife and
his little son. The colonists suffered severely in this war.
Many villages were destroyed, hundreds of dwellings were
burned, and hundreds of men, women, and children were
86 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1684
killed. There was hardly a village or even a home in New
England which did not suffer loss.
Massachusetts charter withdrawn [1684]. —Soon after
King Philip’s War, King Charles took from Massachusetts
the territory west of Maine which it
had controlled for many years; this
was made into the royal province of
New Hampshire. The king called
Massachusetts to account for break¬
ing the Navigation Acts and for coin¬
ing money and doing other things not
permitted by its charter. The charter
was declared forfeited, and Massachu¬
setts was made a royal colony. It was not allowed to
retain Maine which it had bought from the heirs of Gorges.
Pine Tree Shilling
Summary [1675-1684]. -— Bacon's Rebellion was a revolt in Virginia,
led by Nathaniel Bacon against the bad government of Governor
Berkeley. After Bacon's death, the rebellion was put down. About
the same time, there was an Indian war in New England, called King
Philip's War. Nearly half the New England settlements were destroyed
and the power of the Indians was broken. Soon after this war. Charles
II. made New Hampshire a royal province, took away the Massachusetts
charter, and made it a royal colony.
7. The Settlement of Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania grant [1681]. — William Penn’s father was
a bluff English admiral who longed to see his son master of
an estate and a title. Young Penn, however, turned from
the gay life of the court and joined the Quakers. He and
some other Quakers purchased West Jersey as a place of
refuge for their sect. But Penn wished to have a colony
of his own. After his father’s death, he asked King
Charles to give him a tract of land west of the Delaware
River, offering to take this in payment of sixteen thousand
ENGLISH COLONIES
87
l68l]
pounds due his father. The king was glad to grant a
wilderness instead of paying gold from his treasury. He
gave the young Quaker a vast territory which was called
Pennsylvania, meaning ‘ Penn’s woodland.’
Maryland protested in vain against the grant to Penn of
the land about the Delaware which was hers by charter.
For eighty years, there were disputes about the boundary
between the two colonies. It was finally fixed by two
surveyors, Mason and Dixon, who ran the boundary called
Mason and Dixon’s line.
Penn’s colony. — The land which Penn bought from the
king did not border on the ocean. In order to have a
water outlet, he obtained from the Duke of York the ter¬
ritory which afterward formed the state of Delaware.
Within a few months, twenty-three shiploads of colonists
came to Pennsylvania. Not only English Quakers came,
but also Welsh, Scotch, Irish, Swedish, Dutch, and Ger¬
man people. Penn founded a town which he called
Philadelphia, ‘ the city of brotherly love.’
A year later, he could truly say, “ I have led the greatest
colony into America that ever any man did upon a private
credit, and the most prosperous beginnings that ever were
in it are to be found among us.” Soon Pennsylvania
was third in population and wealth among the colonies,
being surpassed by only Virginia and Massachusetts. It
was the last of the thirteen English colonies, with the ex¬
ception of Georgia which was established a half century
later. Seventy-four years before Pennsylvania was founded,
the first English settlement was made at Jamestown. Thus
in a lifetime, we may say, twelve colonies were founded
and English power was established along the Atlantic
coast.
There were several reasons for the prosperity of Penn¬
sylvania. It had fertile soil and other natural advantages.
88
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1683
Moreover, it had a good government; established as a
place of refuge for the persecuted sect of Quakers, it was
a “free colony for all mankind,” tolerating all creeds and
races. Like Lord Baltimore, Penn put the control of his
colony in the hands of its freemen. “You shall be gov¬
erned by laws of your own making,” he said to his colonists,
“ and live a free and, if you will, a sober and industrious
people.”
Penn's treaty with Indians. — Penn was not satisfied
with purchasing Pennsylvania from the king of England.
He thought that the natives had rights which ought to be
Penn’s Treaty with the Indians
regarded, and he paid them also for the land. Soon after
his arrival, he met the Indian chiefs in council, and a treaty
of peace and friendship was formed. The red men prom¬
ised to “live in love with William Penn and his children as
long as the moon and sun shall endure.” The peace pipe
was smoked and belts of wampum were exchanged to con¬
firm the treaty; the belt given by the Indians to Penn is
still kept.
King James II. — A few years after the Pennsylvania
1685]
ENGLISH COLONIES
89
grant, Charles II. died, and his brother James, Duke of
York, became king. King James was a bitter, sullen man,
who wished to
rule according
to his own will
and make all people
conform to his re¬
ligious views.
Governor Andros. —
Without regard to their
charter rights or their
wishes, he resolved to
unite the colonies from
Maine to New Jersey in
one province. Andros was
made governor of this ‘ prov¬
ince of New England.’ He
was a rough soldier who made himself thoroughly hated.
With the aid of royal troops, he tried to carry out the
king’s orders, — to suppress printing presses, to execute
the trade laws, to lay taxes without the consent of the
people’s assemblies.
Peace Pipes
Wampum Belt
He took away the Rhode Island charter. He demanded
the Connecticut charter from the assembly at Hartford;
suddenly, all the candles in the assembly room were blown
out, and when they were lighted, the charter, which had
been on the table, was gone. Andros stormed and de-
9 °
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1688
manded it in vain. At last he declared the government
at an end and went away. The charter, it is said, lay safe
for three years in a hollow tree, called the Charter Oak.
Revolution of 1688.—The English people would not
long submit to King James’s disregard of their rights.
Parliament deposed him and gave the throne to his daugh¬
ter Mary and her husband, William of Orange. By this
act, Parliament established itself as the supreme power of
England. After the Revolution of 1688, the king, instead
of being master, was subject to the people’s will declared
in Parliament.
The colonies welcomed ‘the glorious Revolution.’ I11
New York, a popular party led by a German merchant,
named Jacob Leisler, took control of affairs. This unedu¬
cated but brave and patriotic man acted as governor for
over a year. When the governor sent by William and
Mary came over, Leisler was hanged on an unjust charge
of treason.
King William’s rule. — In course of time, affairs settled
down, and William of Orange ruled in his firm, orderly,
business-like way. He organized a Board of Trade to
oversee and direct affairs in the colonies. Connecticut and
Rhode Island had their charter rights restored. Massa¬
chusetts was given a new charter [1691]; by this, Massachu¬
setts Bay and Plymouth were united in one royal colony
and Maine and Nova Scotia were added to it. Men of all
religions were to be allowed to vote, hold office, and have
their own church services.
Witchcraft delusion. — Near the end of the seventeenth
century, a wave of superstition swept over New England..
At that time, most people in the Old and the New World
believed in witchcraft. They thought that people called
witches made bargains with the devil and obtained power to-
change their shapes, to ride through the air on broomsticks.
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Royal Colonies I
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1692]
ENGLISH COLONIES
9 1
and to cause storms and illness. Many people in New Eng¬
land, especially ugly, friendless, old women, were accused
of being witches. Hundreds of persons were thrown into
prison. At Salem, Massachusetts, nineteen persons charged
with witchcraft were hanged and many were tortured.
Summary [1681-1692]. —The colony of Pennsylvania was founded
by William Penn and was made a place of refuge for people of all creeds
and races. Its natural advantages and good government soon made it
third in wealth and population among the English colonies. Penn bought
also the territory which afterward formed the state of Delaware. King
Charles II. was succeeded by King James II., who ruled with so little
regard to the people’s rights that he was deposed by Parliament, and
William and Mary were made sovereigns.
8. The Colonies at the End of the Seventeenth
Century
English colonies. —The first permanent English settlement
in the New World was made at Jamestown in Virginia
in 1607 ; the end of the century found twelve English colo¬
nies firmly established along the Atlantic coast. The
people in these colonies differed in many ways, but they
had more points of likeness than of unlikeness. Most of
them were English, but there were also many Scotch, Irish,
Dutch, Germans, Swedes, and French. The colonists did
not consider themselves Americans ; they were English
people living in America. As they had less contact with
the outside world, they had changed less during the century
than their fellow-countrymen in England. The chief
change was that their wits were quickened and their ener¬
gies developed by their struggles to occupy the wilderness.
Though life in the new country was rough, there was less
suffering for food and clothes than in Europe. Land was
cheap. People who would work could always make a liv¬
ing and had a chance to improve their condition.
92
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1600-1700
Industries. — At first, people tried many new industries,
endeavoring to raise silk, wine, olives, and coffee from
New England to Georgia. By degrees, they learned to
adapt their undertakings to conditions in the country.
They cleared farms and cultivated native crop plants as
well as those brought from Europe. Their tools and
methods were very crude. A farmer had a few hoes and
spades and perhaps a clumsy wooden plow; sometimes
there was only
one plow in a
neighborhood,
which several
men used by
turns. They
merely scratched
the surface soil,
believing that
Wooden Plow
‘deep plowing would poison the land.’ Cattle, hogs,
sheep, and horses brought from England and Holland
thrived in all the colonies. Land was seldom cleared or
fenced for pastures. Animals were branded or had their
ears cut wdth their owner’s mark, and were turned into the
woods.
On the rocky, sterile soil of the northern colonies,
farming was unprofitable. New Englanders raised only
needed foodstuffs and sought other sources of wealth.
Their vast forests were full of excellent timber; off the
coast were cod and mackerel, and the seas near Greenland
were frequented by whales. Lumbering, shipbuilding,
fishing, and seafaring became the chief industries of New
England. Its rich men were merchants and shipowners.
Lumbering, seafaring, and agriculture were carried on in
the middle colonies. Wheat, corn, and cattle were shipped
from the Jerseys, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. New York
1600-1700]
ENGLISH COLONIES
93
Rolling Tobacco to Market
was a busy little trading town from which furs, cattle,
lumber, and grain were shipped. It had only a few hun¬
dred inhabitants, and pastures and grain fields occupied
what are now the great streets of Fifth Avenue and Broad¬
way.
In the southern colonies, the soil was fertile, the climate
mild, the rainfall abundant. This section was engaged
almost entirely in agricul¬
ture. Here, the planters
were the rich men. In
Maryland and Virginia,
tobacco was the chief
crop, and a man’s wealth
was reckoned in the
pounds of that staple
which he raised. Cattle,
tobacco, tar, pitch, and lumber were shipped from North
Carolina. In South Carolina, the cultivation of rice was
being begun.
All the colonies carried on a fur trade with the Indians.
Traders went into the border country with pack horses
laden with goods — beads, cloth, knives, hatchets, and
brandy — to exchange for the skins of bears, beaver, deer,
and buffalo.
The colonists made at home many things for which
people now depend on factories and shops. Men made of
wood many tools and utensils, such as hinges, plows,
spoons, and dishes. They cobbled shoes and made furni¬
ture and harness. They raised hemp, flax, and cotton, and
sheared sheep for wool. The women carded, spun, and
dyed these materials, wove them into cloth, and made
clothes for their families. Women made soap and candles,
did their own housework, and cared for their children. It
was a busy, wholesome, and usually contented life.
94 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1600-1700
Labor.—There were in all the colonies indented serv¬
ants, or redemptioners. These were bound to serve a cer¬
tain number of years, and during this, period they were
bought and sold like slaves. Some sold themselves to pay
their passage to America; some were criminals sentenced
to service for a term of years as punishment for offenses;
Priscilla Spinning
some were children who were stolen and sold. Few in¬
dented servants came over after the seventeenth century.
Instead, negro slaves were brought to all the colonies.
In the North, they were used chiefly as house servants;
they suffered too much from the severe climate to be
profitable outdoor servants. Under the mild climate of
the South, they thrived and proved profitable farm laborers.
Few people thought that slavery was wrong, but many
thought that it was a bad form of labor. A Virginia gen¬
tleman, himself a slave-owner, said of slaves, “ They blow
up the pride and ruin the industry of our white people.’ 1
The Quakers and some other people in all sections con¬
demned slavery, and thought, as pious John Eliot said,
1600-1700]
ENGLISH COLONIES
95
“To sell souls for money seemeth to me a dangerous
merchandise.”
Means of transit. — The first colonists settled near the
coast so as to be in reach of the mother country for the
sake of supplies and commerce. Later settlements were
built up along the coast and on streams which served as
roads. Great pathless forests barred the way to the in¬
terior. It was easier to go from either of the Carolinas
to England than to make one’s way through the two hun¬
dred and fifty miles of wilderness which lay between the
Albemarle and Charleston settlements. When it was neces¬
sary to travel across the country, people went on foot or
horseback; goods were carried on pack horses. Except
in New England, the colonies had little to do with their
neighbors.
Houses and furniture. — Most of the colonists lived in
log cabins. These were often built without the use of
iron or glass both of which were scarce and expensive.
Wooden pegs were used instead of nails, hinges were made
of wood or leather, and instead of a lock and key there
was a wooden latch with a string. The cabin had one
door. Often there was no window; sometimes there was
one, left open or covered with oiled paper instead of glass,
and protected by heavy wooden shutters. The roof was of
bark, straw, or shingles on log rafters; the chimney, built
of logs or stone, had a large fireplace which took up most
of one side of the room. The fire logs were four or five
feet long; sometimes horses were used to draw the great
logs to the hearth. Wood was the fuel used everywhere ;
the great coal beds of the country were unknown.
The furniture of the cabin consisted of a few simple
articles hewn out of logs, —bedsteads, tables, benches, and
stools, and a few wooden or pewter dishes. Such were the
homes of the common people.
g 6 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1600-1700
Rich people lived in well-built frame, stone, or brick
houses. These were of the style of architecture now
called colonial. They were large and square, with wide
halls, great staircases, and stacks of chimneys. They were
furnished with handsome beds, chairs, chests, clocks, china,
and silverware brought from England.
Food. — Food was cooked on the fireplace in skillets, pots,
and griddles and on spits. Among the poorer classes, corn
and pork were the chief articles of food. The colonists
learned from the Indians to cultivate corn, beans, and
pumpkins, and to prepare corn in various ways. They
pounded the dry grain into meal for bread, or made it into
mush, hominy, and succotash. They used also wheat and
rye bread, and their gardens supplied herbs and a few
vegetables. Potatoes, now our chief vegetable, were little
used. It was believed that the eating of a potato a day
for seven days would kill a person. Tea and coffee were
almost unknown; people drank homemade beer and cider
and a great deal of wine and strong liquors.
Dress. — Men wore knee breeches and long stockings ;
women wore caps, close-fitting bodices, and full skirts.
Poor people had coarse clothes of homespun linen and
woolen or of dressed skins. Workmen were required by
law to wear coarse cloth; often they were “ clothed all in
leather.” Rich people followed the London fashions.
Gentlemen rivaled ladies in gay and handsome dress; they
wore wigs, silk stockings, fine linen, lace ruffles, clothes of
silk, satin, and velvet, adorned with jewels and gold and
silver buckles.
Social life. —In New England, groups of families form¬
ing religious congregations lived together in villages and
towns. A church and a blockhouse were the center of
each settlement; around these were the houses of the
minister, merchants, blacksmiths, carpenters, and farmers
1600-1700]
ENGLISH COLONIES
97
In all the colonies, hunting, fishing, and other outdoor
sports were the chief amusements of the people. In the
middle colonies, especially in New York, dancing and
spinning bees were popular. The farmers and planters of
the South lived so far apart that it was said ‘no man could
hear his neighbor’s dog bark.* They met at church and
at the horse-races,
hunts, and other
sports enjoyed by
English country
gentlemen.
In all the colo¬
nies, there were
strict social dis¬
tinctions. Only
the gentry were
allowed to use
the prefixes ‘Mr.’
and‘Mrs.’; other
people were
called ‘Goodman’
and ‘ Goodwife.’
People were
seated in church
according to their social position, and boys in college
classes were arranged according to the rank of their
parents.
Education. — The training of children was strict. They
had daily tasks and Bible lessons, and were punished
severely for little faults. They were taught that industry,
good habits, and “ good manners (a civil, kind, handsome,
and courageous behavior) render them truly serviceable in
the world.”
There were free schools in some of the colonies. One
H
g 8 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1600-1700
of the first was established in Virginia [1634] by a colonist
who gave two hundred and fifty acres of land and eight
cows for the purpose. The ‘three R’s’ — reading, ’riting,
and ’rithmetic — and Latin and Greek were the chief
branches of study. Children went to school six days in
the week and often spent
eight or ten hours a day in
the schoolroom. They had
few holidays; there was a
summer vacation of about
two weeks. The idle or stu¬
pid child who failed to learn
his long, difficult lessons was
whipped and had a dunce cap
put on his head.
In the South, farms and
plantations were so far apart
that there were few schools.
The children of southern
planters were usually taught
by tutors at home; sometimes
these tutors were indented
servants, sometimes they were scholars from English uni¬
versities. The sons of many wealthy colonists were sent
to England to be educated. During the first century of
colonial life, three colleges were established: Harvard in
Massachusetts, William and Mary in Virginia, and Yale in
Connecticut.
Literature. — In early colonial days, people had few
books and no newspapers. The first printing press in the
United States was set up in Massachusetts [1639]; the
first book printed on it was the Bay Psalm Book, made by
ministers for church use. The best-known book was the
New England Primer, with its quaint verses and pictures.
1600-1700]
ENGLISH COLONIES
99
The first newspaper was established early in the eighteenth
century at Boston.
Some of the early discoverers, explorers, and colonists
wrote interesting accounts of the country and of their ex¬
periences. Captain John Smith wrote at Jamestown his
True Relation describing the Virginia colony. William
Bradford wrote the narrative of the Pilgrims’ journeyings
and their settling in the New World. John Winthrop
kept a chronicle of events in the Massachusetts Bay
colony. These three men wrote in a vivid, entertaining
style and their books are still read with interest. Most of
the colonial authors were New England clergymen who
wrote books about religious doctrines, few of which are
read to-day.
Illustration from Plain Things for Little Folks
ioo SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1600-1700
Medicine. — In colonial days, little was known about the
science of medicine. There were few professional doctors.
The healing art was practiced by ministers who had read
some medical books or by women who had picked up a
knowledge of simple remedies and of herbs which they
raised in their gardens. Barbers often acted as surgeons.
Quack doctors traveled about selling pills and powders of
their own making, which they claimed would cure all
diseases. Blood-letting was a favorite remedy; insects,
such as grasshoppers and silkworms, boiled in oil or dried
and powdered, were used as remedies for various diseases.
Toads burned to a cinder and powdered were given as a
cure for smallpox. When we consider the remedies used,
we do not wonder that whole communities were laid waste
by smallpox and other contagious diseases.
Government. — On the whole, the colonies were much
alike in government. Each had a governor and two law¬
making bodies, a council and an assembly. The council
was usually composed of members appointed by the king
or the proprietor; the assembly, which was the tax-laying
body, was composed of members elected by the people.
In every colony, the suffrage, or right to vote, was limited
to men who had a certain amount of property or were
members of a certain church.
The laws were strict, like those of England and other
countries. They decided such matters as the wages of
laborers, the price of corn, and how far from the street
houses should be set. There were many meddlesome laws
that interfered with personal liberty. In New England,
people were punished for dancing; in Virginia, they were
fined for being absent from church. For theft and many
other offenses, people were hanged; for smaller offenses,
they were gagged, whipped, ducked, put in the stocks or
pillory, branded with hot irons, or had their ears clipped.
1600-1700]
ENGLISH COLONIES
101
Slaves were burned alive for killing their masters or for
setting fire to houses. In only three colonies were people
allowed religious
freedom, — in Bap¬
tist Rhode Island,
Roman Catholic
Maryland, and
Quaker Pennsyl¬
vania.
Summary [1600-
1700]. — At the end of
the seventeenth century,
there were twelve Eng¬
lish colonies established
along the Atlantic coast.
Most of the settlements
were on the seacoast and
along the streams. The
northern colonies were
engaged in lumbering,
shipbuilding, and seafar¬
ing; the middle ones in lumbering, seafaring, and agriculture; and the
southern ones in agriculture. In all the colonies, there were slaves
and indented servants. The New Englanders lived chiefly in villages
and towns, the southern people on farms and plantations. Most people
wore coarse clothing and lived in log cabins of which the furniture
was homemade; rich people wore fine clothes and had in their stately
houses handsome furniture brought from England. The chief branches
taught in the schools were reading, writing, and arithmetic. There
were three colleges: Harvard, William and Mary, and Yale. There
were no newspapers ; the chief books of the time were accounts of the
country by Smith, Bradford, and Winthrop, and religious treatises by
New England ministers. In general government, the colonies were
much alike, each having a governor and a council and an assembly.
Laws were strict and regulated personal and religious affairs.
CHAPTER III
THE FRENCH-ENGLISH CONTEST
i. King William’s and Queen Anne’s War
French in America.—The king of France aided James
II. in his attempt to regain the English throne, and so the
Revolution of 1688 was followed by war between France
and England. This was the beginning of a long contest
that finally decided which of the two nations should pos¬
sess America.
Eet us look back and see what the French had accom¬
plished in the New World. At first, they moved slowly.
It was three-quarters of a century after Verrazano explored
the coast before a permanent settlement was made in
Canada. A quarter of a century later, there were only
two hundred French colonists in America. Afterward,
settlement advanced rapidly. When William of Orange
became king, there were in America 12,000 French¬
men,— adventurers exploring the wilderness, soldiers
establishing forts, traders gathering rich harvests of
furs, fishermen making great hauls of cod and herring,
farmers clearing settlements in the forest, missionaries
teaching the natives the glory of God and the power of
France.
These enterprising men made their way far beyond the
settlements along the St. Lawrence. Two of them, Father
Marquette and his soldier comrade Joliet, went in search
102
1678]
THE FRENCH-ENGL1SH CONTEST
103
of a great river described by Indians, which they thought
might be the longed-for passage to Asia. They found this
river, the Mississippi [1678], and de¬
scended it in birchbark canoes as far as
the mouth of the Arkansas.
La Salle. — A few years later — the
very year that Penn came to America —
brave, wise Robert de la Salle descended
the Mississippi [1682] and explored the
three channels by which it enters the
Gulf of Mexico. He took possession
of the great Mississippi Valley, extend¬
ing from the Alleghenies to the Rocky
Mountains, in the name of the French
king, Louis XIV., for whom he called
the country Louisiana. In a letter to
the king, La Salle said that the country
was “ so beautiful and so fertile, so free
from forests and so full of meadows,
brooks, and rivers, so abounding in fish, game, and venison,
that one can find there ... all that is needful for the
support of flourishing colonies.” This mild, fertile region
seemed to him a better place for a French colony than the
bleak wilds, of Canada, and he led thither a band of settlers.
They intended to settle near the mouth of the Mississippi,
but the vessels went too far west and landed on the coast
of Texas. The colony did not prosper. La Salle was
murdered by his own men while on his way to Canada for
aid, and the settlement was destroyed.
New France. — It was a vast and noble country that the
French claimed,—their New France which included
Canada and the great Louisiana territory. But it was
many-months’ journey from their homeland, and the
fivers which gave access to it presented barriers also ; tbej
104
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE
America Two Centuries after Discovery
SOHMAIf * CO., N..rJ
i68g] THE FRENCH-ENGLISH CONTEST 105
St. Lawrence was ice-bound through the long winter, and
the mouths of the Mississippi were malarial swamps.
By degrees, however, the French occupied the country.
Traders, soldiers, and missionaries went up and down
the rivers, establishing trading posts, forts, and mission-
houses from the mouth of the St. Lawrence to the outlets
of the Mississippi, two thousand miles away.
The French found it easy to occupy the interior be¬
cause they were on friendly terms with most of the
native tribes. Traders, called conreurs de bois or wood
rangers, adopted Indian dress and customs, and many
of them married squaw wives. Indians came by hundreds
to the trading posts to exchange beaver skins for cloth,
beads, and knives. Only the fierce Iroquois were the
deadly enemies of the French. They never forgot nor
forgave the alliance of Champlain with their Algonquin
foes. Year after year, their warrior tribes, like a great
wall, held the French back from the forest regions south
of Lakes Erie and Ontario.
French and English. — The English occupied less terri¬
tory than the French, but their colonies were closer to¬
gether and easier of access from Europe. There were
two hundred thousand people on the farms and in the
villages along the middle Atlantic coast. With the ex¬
ception of a few trading posts and villages in Maine,
none of these settlements adjoined the French.
But every year the two people were drawing nearer
together on the northern borders and in the forest west
of the Alleghenies. The French were pushing up the
Ohio River. English traders and explorers were crossing
the mountains and building huts in the wilderness; they
began to realize that it was “inconvenient” to have
French forts “all along from our lakes by the back of
Virginia and Carolina to the Bay of Mexico.”
io6 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE (1689
King William’s War [1689-1697]. — Such was the state
of affairs when war began. While the French and Eng¬
lish fought in Europe, their colonies contended in America.
This colonial war, called from the ruling English king,
King William’s War, lasted eight years. During it, Sir
William Phips of Massachusetts led a force against the
French province of Acadia, and conquered and plundered
it, bringing away even the governor’s spoons and wigs.
Several raids were made by Iroquois allies of the Eng¬
lish and by Algonquin allies of the French. The bloody
deeds of these savages made the contest horrible. Worse
still, the colonists sometimes imitated the savages and
scalped their enemies or gave prisoners to Indian allies to
burn at the stake. The Iroquois attacked Montreal and
burned their French captives at the city wall. The
Algonquins came down the river valleys leading like
roads from the north, and laid English settlements waste
with torch and tomahawk. People were surprised at
work or awakened at night by the screeching war-whoop.
Houses were burned, and men, women, and children were
massacred or made prisoners. Then the savages marched
hastily away, taking prisoners to sell or keep as slaves or
to burn at the stake. F'eeble women and children who.
lagged on the march were scalped; crying babies were
snatched from their mothers’ arms and killed. Such was.
Indian warfare.
Suppression of piracy. — After King William's War,
European nations united in an effort to suppress pirates.
These were especially troublesome along the Atlantic
coast of America. The ‘ Brothers of the Coast,’ as these
pirates called themselves, had fleets, thousands of armed
seamen, and islands for strongholds. They carried on a
smuggling trade; they captured and robbed ships ; they
even attacked and plundered towns..
Clairne l bgCf'iryini rienj Cat
necticut.
Delaware
bay
tilaware
bay w,
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Jamestown"
JaM’estowrr
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ibeinarle &d.
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GULF OF
MEXICO
b)'(- ItA\^VIAAAlA\
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Claimed by Vc. f rid Conn.
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\ORTH - GAltOLl\V
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Charleston ^
Port Royal v
^Tiharleston
'Port Royal /
Uit. Augustine
\ Charter Colonies
-A-£0°
4 \ Proprietary Colonies
j \Royal Colonies
iSt. Augustine
SOUTH
ATLANTIC
COAST
( 1650 - 1095 )
GULF OF
MEXICO
MEXICO
1095
Xon g ft u3e~"WesT
reenwlcb
i6g8)
THE FRENCH-ENGLISH CONTEST
107
Two of the most notorious of their bold, cruel leaders
were Captain William Kidd and Edward Teach or Thatch,
called Blackbeard from his long, shaggy, black beard.
Blackbeard had his head¬
quarters off North Carolina,
and was a terror to the
middle and southern coasts.
Captain Kidd was a sea cap¬
tain, who was given charge
of an armed ship to destroy
pirates and turned pirate
himself. He is said to have
buried stolen treasures along
the coast, and many people
have searched in vain for
his hidden wealth. Captain
Kidd and Blackbeard were
finally captured and put to
death. Other pirates were
hanged in chains, or killed
while resisting arrest, or
driven from their island strongholds. After some years,
the sea-thieves were suppressed and coast travel was made
safe.
Queen Anne’s War [1702-1713]. — Peace between the
French and English lasted only a few years. Then began
the war called in the colonies Queen Anne’s War, from
the ruling English sovereign. It lasted twelve years.
Again the torches and tomahawks of the Indians
carried terror to the northern settlements. The colonists
attacked the savages in turn; but, as a watchful governor
remarked, to pursue Indians in the forests was as useless
“ as to pursue birds that are on the wing.”
A French and Spanish expedition sailed to South
Blackbeard
io8 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1710
Carolina, but Charleston, though stricken by yellow fever,
made a gallant defense and beat off the fleet.
The most important victory of the war was in the
north. The New Englanders retook Acadia, which had
been taken in King William’s War and restored by treaty
to the French. This time it remained in British hands;
henceforth, it was called Nova Scotia.
Summary [1689-1713]. —The French occupied Canada and pressed
westward and southward, along the lakes and rivers. The Mississippi
was partly explored by Marquette and Joliet, and was followed to its
mouth by Robert de la Salle; he took possession, in the name of the
French king, of the great central valley which he called Louisiana.
Near the end of the seventeenth century, there began the great French
and British struggle for the possession of North America. It commenced
with the eight-years’ war, called by the colonists King William’s War.
The chief events of this war were Indian raids and the British conquest
of Acadia. Four years after King William’s War ended, Queen Anne’s
War began. It lasted twelve years. During it, there were Indian raids,
and Acadia, which had been restored to the French, was retaken.
2. The Settlement of Georgia and
King George’s War
Growth of French power. — After Queen Anne’s War,
there was a thirty-years’ peace between France and Great
Britain. France made use of the time to strengthen its
hold on America. By the middle of the eighteenth century,
it had a series of forts from Montreal to New Orleans.
These forts were built on commanding sites along the
rivers and the lakes.
No difficulties kept back the French. The region about
the mouth of the Mississippi was a swamp, subject to
overflow, covered with a rank growth of cypress and
willows, but the French resolved to establish a settle¬
ment to control the entrance to the great river. Pioneers
THE FRENCH-ENGLISH CONTEST
1718]
109
cleared away the jungle, dug ditches, made embankments,
and built a fort and some log cabins. They called this
settlement New Orleans. In ten years, it had 1600 in-
An Early Picture of New Orleans
habitants, nearly all of whom were men. To make homes
in the wilderness, the French king sent a shipload of
young women who became colonists’ wives.
Indian wars. — The end of Queen Anne’s War did not
bring peace to the British colonies. The North Carolina
settlements were attacked by the fierce Tuscarora Indians.
The savages were overcome by the aid of South Carolina
which sent a little army through the wilderness to aid her
hard-pressed neighbor. The conquered Tuscaroras went
to New York and joined the kindred Iroquois tribes;
henceforth the confederacy was the Six Nations instead of
the Five Nations. A few months later, the Muskhogean
tribes of the Carolinas went on the warpath. A year
passed, many homes and settlements were destroyed, and
four hundred colonists were killed before the Indians were
subdued.
Governor Spotswood’s explorations. — While this Indian
war was going on, the Virginia mountains were explored
by Governor Alexander Spotswood, accompanied by a
band of gallant gentlemen. They ascended a summit of
the Blue Ridge, and beheld the fair country west of the
no
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1716
mountains. Governor Spotswood urged the home govern¬
ment to establish a chain of forts beyond the mountains,
in order to keep back the French from this territory; but
his advice was unheeded.
Colonial growth. —In spite of their Indian, French, and
Spanish enemies, the British colonies grew and prospered.
East and West Jersey were united and formed the royal
province of New Jersey [1702]. Delaware was separated
from Pennsylvania and given an assembly of its own.
The King bought the rights of the lords proprietors
[1729] and Carolina became two royal colonies, North
and South Carolina. Their beginnings had been distinct
and there had been little real connection for years before
their political separation.
A new colony was estab¬
lished, last of the origi¬
nal thirteen. This was
Georgia, so called in
honor of George II., the
ruling king of Great
Britain.
Oglethorpe and his col¬
ony. — Georgia was the
first great charity in the
New World; its territory
was given to proprietors
“in trust for the poor.”
The colony was founded
by General James Ogle¬
thorpe, a noble-minded,
James Oglethorpe
charitable Englishman, as a refuge for poor, unfortunate
people, especially poor debtors.
At that time, debt was punished as a crime. If a
man owed even a few pennies, he could be put into jail
17331
THE FRENCH-ENGLISH CONTEST
hi
and kept there till his debt was paid or till he died. All
prisoners — debtors, thieves, and murderers — were herded
together in filthy, disease-infested places. They suffered
for lack of food and clothing. Sometimes smallpox or
some other disease destroyed almost all the occupants
of a prison. A colony where poor men could make a
fresh start would be a benefit to the country and to indi¬
viduals. Men who were a burden at home might be¬
come self-supporting. New industries could be developed
and British trade built up. General Oglethorpe planned
that the colony should be a military one, occupying the
region between South Carolina and Florida, to hold it
against the Spaniards of Florida and against the French
who were taking possession of the Mississippi Valley.
Government of Georgia.—There were three rules laid
down for Georgia : first, it was to have religious freedom ;
second, negro slavery was forbidden; third, rum was not
to be brought into the colony. The colonists were selected
with as much care as possible. They were drilled as
soldiers, and were supplied with powder, shot, and guns as
duly as with plows and seeds. The first settlement was
made at Savannah on the broad stream bearing that name
[1733]. General Oglethorpe was the first governor; the
religious leaders were John and Charles Wesley, and
later George Whitfield, three famous English clergymen,
the founders of the Methodist church.
Industries of Georgia and South Carolina. — General
Oglethorpe wished to make the production of silk the chief
industry of the new colony. Silkworms were brought over,
mulberry trees were planted, and some silk was produced.
The first silk taken from Georgia to England was made
into a dress for the queen. The industry did not flourish,
however, and others took its place. Rice become a staple
crop, and after a while negro slaves were used as laborers.
11 2
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1741
Meanwhile, the cultivation of indigo was begun in South
Carolina. A young lady, Miss Eliza Lucas, planted on
her father’s farm indigo seeds brought from the West
Indies. The first crops were destroyed by frost and by
worms, but Miss Lucas persevered, and finally a good crop
was raised. Indigo and rice thrived on the swampy coast,
and for over half a century they were the staple crops of
South Carolina.
Georgia attacked by Spaniards. —War with Spain broke
out when the Georgia colony was only six years old.
The Spaniards attacked one of its settlements, and General
Oglethorpe marched a little army against St. Augustine,
but was unable to take its fort. Two years later, the
Spaniards made a sudden attack with fifty ships and 5000
men, intending to destroy the Georgia settlements and
then to march against the Carolinas and Virginia. Their
army was defeated and driven off by General Oglethorpe
with only six hundred and fifty men.
King George’s War [1744-1748].—While Georgia was
fighting the Spaniards, the northern colonies were again
fighting the French. This war of Great Britain against
France and Spain was called in the colonies King George’s
War, because George II. was then king. It lasted five
years.
The principal event was the taking of Louisburg on
Cape Breton Island. Louisburg was a fortress that guarded
the entrance to the Gulf of St. Lawrence and was a con¬
stant danger to the British fishermen visiting the New¬
foundland banks. The fort was surrounded by stone walls
twenty or thirty feet high and forty feet thick; on these
walls were posted a hundred cannon. Next to Quebec,
it was the strongest fortress in America. The French
boasted that women could hold it against an enemy ; but
strong as it was, it was taken after six-weeks’ siege by a
1748]
THE FRENCH-ENGLISH CONTEST
ii3
little army of 4000 New England farmers and fisher¬
men, aided by four British warships.
By the treaty at the end of the war, Louisburg was given
back to the French in exchange for Madras, a British
stronghold in India, which had been taken. The New
Englanders were indignant that their conquest Louisburg,
like Acadia, was returned to the French, and, like that,
would have to be retaken when war broke out again.
Summary [1713-1748]. — After Queen Anne’s War, there was a
thirty-years’ peace. During it, the French built forts and occupied the
country from Canada to the mouth of the Mississippi; Georgia, the
last of the thirteen English colonies, was founded by General James
Oglethorpe. Some years after Georgia was settled, the third war with
the French began. King George’s War, as it was called, lasted five
years. Its chief event was the capture of Louisburg, a strong French
fortress, which was given back at the end of the war.
3. The French and Indian War
Condition of colonies. — Peace between France and
Great Britain did not last long. A few years after King
George's War ended, there began the Seven Years’ War, —
or the French and Indian War, as it was called in the
colonies. This was the fourth, greatest, and last war be¬
tween the French and British in America, and it settled
finally the question of mastery in the New World.
When this war began, there were fifteen British colonists
to one Frenchman, but the French occupied a vast area
protected by well-placed forts. They had 80,000 colonists,
most of them in Canada, some along the Mississippi
River and the Gulf of Mexico. The British had over a
million colonists, living on farms and plantations and in
villages and towns, along the Atlantic coast.
The thirteen British colonies formed three groups:
four New England colonies — New Hampshire, Massa-
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1753
114
chusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut; four middle
colonies — New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and
Delaware ; five southern colonies — Maryland, Virginia,
North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.
These colonies may be divided into three other groups,
according to the way in which governors were chosen:
two charter colonies — Rhode Island and Connecticut —
elected their own governors; in three proprietary col¬
onies — Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware — the
governor was chosen by the proprietor; in eight royal
colonies—Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York,
New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and
Georgia — the ruler was appointed by the king. In
government, these thirteen little commonwealths were
much alike. In them all, people claimed the right to tax
themselves and to speak their minds about public matters.
Ohio Valley. — The first point of conflict between the
French and the British was the valley of the Ohio. This
was being occupied by British colonists, chiefly thrifty
Germans and hardy Scotch-Irish, who crossed the moun¬
tains to hunt, trade, and farm. About the middle of the
eighteenth century, the Ohio Land Company was formed
to trade with Indians and to settle the country west of the
Alleghenies. This company obtained a large grant of
land and established trading posts on the Ohio River.
The French also claimed the Ohio Valley. It was the
direct route between their posts on the St. Lawrence and
their settlements on the Mississippi. They broke up the
British trading posts, and built a log fort on the southern
shore of Lake Erie, at the present site of Erie, and two
forts on the upper branches of the Ohio River, one on
French Creek and the other on Allegheny River.
Washington goes as messenger to French. — Governor
Dinwiddie of Virginia sent George Washington to order
1753] THE FRENCH-ENGLISH CONTEST u 5
the French “peaceably to depart” from this territory
claimed by the British. Washington was only twenty-one,
but he was a brave and capable youth. He had had a
varied training, —in right principles by a good mother, in
books in simple Virginia country schools, in frontier life as
Washington’s Birthplace
a surveyor in the wilderness, in business as administra¬
tor of his brother’s large estate, in arms as commander of
the militia of eleven counties. With a few companions, he
set forth on the long, dangerous journey of a thousand
miles, following rivers and Indian trails through the wilder¬
ness to the French forts. On the return journey, the horses
gave out, and Washington came back on foot with only one
companion, a famous woodsman named Gist. They trav¬
eled up and down the mountains, crossed ice-blocked
streams, and made their way through forests where lurked
French and Indian foes. At last, they came home safe, with
tidings that the French refused to give up the territory.
It was necessary either to ‘drive them off by force of
arms,’ or to yield the western territory.
Conflict on Ohio [1754].— The British were resolved to
hold the country. Governor Dinwiddie ordered a body of
n6 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1754
backwoodsmen to build a fort at the forks of the Ohio,
where Pittsburg now stands. Troops were gathered and
sent forward as promptly as possible. While a small army
of three hundred and fifty men under command of
Washington was marching across the mountains, French
troops came down the Allegheny River, drove away the little
band of Virginians, and occupied and strengthened the fort
which they called Fort Du Quesne.
Instead of retreating when he learned that the French
had seized the fort, Washington went forward with his
troops. One May day, they met a band of Frenchmen in
the forest. There was a brief skirmish in which the Vir¬
ginians were victorious. They advanced and fortified a
camp which they called P"ort Necessity. There they were
attacked by seven hundred Frenchmen, and, after fighting
bravely all day long, they were forced to surrender.
This fight in the western forest was the beginning of a
great war between the French and the British. As
soon as news of the border conflict reached Europe,
France and Great Britain sent troops to their colonies.
The four points at which the French were most open to
attack were the northeastern coast, Lake Champlain, the
shores of the Great Lakes, and the headwaters of the
Ohio. The British planned to attack them at all these
points.
Braddock’s defeat [July 7, 1755].-—The troops to attack
Fort Du Quesne were led by Major General Edward Brad-
dock, the British commander. General Braddock was brave
and able, but self-willed and ignorant of Indian warfare. The
Americans warned him that the savages would lurk behind
shelter and would make sudden fierce attacks at favorable
times and places. But the British general refused to adapt
his methods to those of his savage foes. He sent his ax-
men ahead to cut a road through the forest to Fort Du
THE FRENCH-ENGLISH CONTEST
117
1755)
Quesne, a hundred and thirty miles away. Over this road,
he marched his army with drums beating, flags flying, and
men in bright uniforms and close, orderly ranks, as if he
were on a battle field in Europe.
Marching thus, his army came to a ravine in the
forest, only eight miles from Fort Du Quesne. There it
was attacked by a small band of French and Indians.
The Virginia soldiers hid behind trees and fought the
Indians in their own fashion. General Braddock called
the colonists cowards. Openly and fearlessly he put
himself at the head of his regular troops drawn up in line
of battle. Their red coats were marks for the fire of their
hidden foes, and they were shot down without being able
to strike a blow in return. At last they broke ranks and
‘ran like sheep pursued by dogs.’ Brave, foolish General
Braddock received his death wound, and nearly all the
subordinate officers were killed or wounded.
Colonel George Washington said, “ I had four bullets
through my coat and two horses shot under me, yet es¬
caped unhurt although death was leveling my companions
on every side of me.”
In the face of many difficulties, he conducted home the
shattered remnant of an army. The borders now lay open
to the French and Indians. Hundreds of persons were
butchered, and settlements were laid waste. The colonists
met savagery with savagery. Even Pennsylvania the
peaceful put a price on the scalps of Indians, — men,
women, and children.
Removal of French from Acadia. — Braddock’s papers
taken in the rout made known the British plans of attack
and enabled the French to defeat them. The colonists
feared that the French would attempt to take their old
province of Acadia, and that they would be aided by the
people who were French by race and at heart. Therefore,
n 8 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1755
Montcalm
were separated; some were
British defeats.— Dur¬
ing the first three years
of the French and Indian
War, one British defeat
followed another. Mont¬
calm, the able French
general, captured Fort
Oswego and leveled it
to the ground; he took
Fort William Henry;
with about 4000 men,
he defended FortTicon-
deroga against the Brit¬
ish general Abercrom¬
bie, with 15,000 men.
“ I dread to hear from
it was resolved to re¬
move the Acadians from
the country. The 6000
men, women, and children
were called together in
their churches and made
prisoners; weeping and
praying, they were taken
to the shore, put on board
vessels, and distributed
among the British colonies
from Maine to Georgia.
They suffered many hard¬
ships before they found
new homes and means of
living. Many families
never reunited.
America,” said Pitt, the
William Pitt
1757 ]
THE FRENCH-ENGLISH CONTEST
119
great English statesman, as month after month brought
tidings of failure and defeat.
British victories. — At last Pitt was made war minister,
and under him ‘ a war of failure and defeat was changed
into a war of victories.’ An army of 50,000 soldiers was
organized; half were British ‘regulars,’ or trained troops,
and the other half were ‘ provincials,’ troops raised
by the colonies. Great Britain furnished most of the
arms, ammunition, and generals. The ablest of the
officers sent over was Gen¬
eral James Wolfe, a young
Englishman with a daring,
determined spirit in a
feeble, sickly body. Gen¬
erals Wolfe and Amherst
led an attack on Louisburg,
the great French strong¬
hold. Bravely defended
though it was, it had to
surrender, and its great
walls were leveled to the
ground. Fort Oswego was
retaken, and the French
were forced to abandon
Fort Du Quesne. The
British rebuilt and garri¬
soned it, calling it Fort Pitt in honor of the great states¬
man ; the city of Pittsburg now occupies its site. The
year after Fort Du Quesne was taken, Forts Niagara and
Ticonderoga surrendered to the British.
Montcalm lacked soldiers, money, military stores, and
provisions. He appealed to the home government for aid,
but he appealed in vain. France could not send soldiers to
the colony. She was busy fightingat home, and, moreover,
the seas were controlled by British warships.
120
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1759
flll.AMS ENb. co. # N.Y.
Capture of Quebec [Sept. 13, 1759]. — Montcalm col¬
lected his forces, 14,000 disorderly troops, at Quebec. This
city is situated on a bluff overlooking the St. Lawrence
River. There are steep cliffs along the river several miles
above the city and a
high ridge extends six
miles below it. North
of the city was a level
space called the Plains
of Abraham, defended
on the river side by a
precipice.
In 1759, Wolfe besieged
the French stronghold. P"or
three months, it held out against
him. The long ice-bound northern
winter was approaching; if he did not
take Quebec soon, he would be forced
to give up the siege and return to the colonies. He re¬
solved to make a last desperate effort to take the city.
Dividing his army, he left half to threaten attack below
Quebec; the other half was conveyed up the river. At
night the troops floated down the stream and landed a
mile above Quebec at the foot of a steep bluff; there was,
as Wolfe had learned, a path going zigzag up this two
hundred feet of bushy precipice. The British climbed up
the bluff; when day dawned, about 5000 men were drawn
up in line of battle on the Plains of Abraham. In the
fight that followed, ‘Wolfe lost his life, but won Quebec
and Canada for Great Britain.’
As he lay wounded, he heard the cry, “ They fly! they
fly! ”
“ Who fly ? ” he asked.
“The French,” was the answer.
Quebec and Vicinity
The Death of General Wolfe
122
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1759
He gave some final orders and then said : “ Now God be
praised. I die in peace,” and died with the shouts of vic¬
tory in his ears.
Brave Montcalm, too, was mortally wounded. When
told that he could live only a few hours, he said, “ Thank
God ! I shall not live to see the surrender of Quebec.”
The next year, Montreal yielded and all Canada was in
the hands of the British.
Treaty of peace [1763]. — By the treaty of peace, France
ceded to Great Britain all her possessions east of the Mis¬
sissippi, except a few island fishing-stations. She had
already ceded to Spain New Orleans and Louisiana, the
great unexplored region from the Mississippi River to the
Rocky Mountains. Thus in two years France lost all her
possessions in the New World. To-day the French names
of Montreal, Quebec, St. Louis, New Orleans, and other
places from the mouth of the St. Lawrence to the mouth of
the Mississippi, remind us of the nation which settled that
great region. By the treaty at the end of the French and
Indian War, Spain yielded Florida to Great Britain ; twenty
years later, it was ceded back.
Results of war. — By the French and Indian War, the
British colonies were freed from a dangerous neighbor
and their Indian enemies were deprived of a powerful ally.
The colonists were drawn together in a common cause and
gained military training. There was soon to be a great
contest in which this training was to prove valuable. Some
people foresaw the coming contest. A shrewd Frenchman
said: “ England will erelong repent of having removed
the only check [the French power] that could keep her
colonies in awe. They no longer stand in need of her
protection. She will call on them to contribute toward
supporting the burdens they have helped to bring upon
her, and they will answer by shaking off all dependence.”
140 J „ 120° 110° l*W> 9Q? y()« 7 0 6 60°
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CHAPTER IV
FROM COLONIES TO STATES
i. Colonial Discontent
Some causes of colonial discontent. — The end of the
French and Indian War found the colonists loyal, but
growing discontented. They disliked their royal govern¬
ors and the Trade and Navigation Acts.
When the colonies were young and most of the people
were Englishmen or the children of Englishmen, a gov¬
ernor from the mother country seemed one of themselves.
Now, when most of the colonists were American born,
governors from Great Britain seemed outsiders. Some of
these governors were popular because they were wise and
capable men, considerate of the colonists’ rights; gov¬
ernors who were harsh and overbearing were disobeyed
or driven from office. Usually, the people had their way
without an open outbreak. The governor had power to
veto the laws passed by the assembly, but it alone had
power to lay taxes. If he refused to sign the laws that it
passed, it in turn refused to vote money for his salary;
this usually brought him to terms.
The chief cause of colonial dissatisfaction was the Trade
and Navigation Acts. It was agreed that Great Britain
had a right to regulate commerce and to shut out foreign
nations from free trade with the colonies; she was
entitled to this for protecting them and for guarding
124
FROM COLONIES TO STATES
125
1761]
their merchant ships with her navy. But the trade laws
were very strict; and year by year they became stricter.
The colonists were required to limit their commerce almost
entirely to Great Britain. They were not even allowed to
trade freely with one another. Manufactures were for¬
bidden ; they “ had not the right to manufacture so much
as a nail for a horseshoe.” It must not be forgotten, how¬
ever, that Great Britain tried to help the colonies by paying
bounties on some American products and by doing other
things to build up their trade.
As time passed and industries increased, the colonists
more and more evaded and disobeyed the unpopular trade
laws. Goods were smuggled to and from every port.
Hundreds of New England vessels were busy with the
forbidden coast trade.
To aid in enforcing the Acts, the king’s officers in Massa¬
chusetts were given Writs of Assistance. These were
warrants giving the king’s officers permission to search
any house at any time for smuggled goods. They dif¬
fered from regular search warrants in an important partic¬
ular : instead of giving the name of a suspected person,
a warrant was left blank; a custom-house officer could
fill in any name he chose and search any man’s prem¬
ises.
Otis’s protest.—James Otis was the king’s lawyer in
Massachusetts, and as such, it was his place to support the
Writs of Assistance. He thought that they were unjust and
oppressive, and so he gave up his office and did all that he
could against them. He made a famous speech on the
subject; it was five hours long and as eloquent and patriotic
as it was long. But in spite of the opposition of Otis and
others, Writs of Assistance were granted, officers entered
dwellings and warehouses by force, and much ill feeling
was caused.
CHAPTER IV
FROM COLONIES TO STATES
i. Colonial Discontent
Some causes of colonial discontent. — The end of the
French and Indian War found the colonists loyal, but
growing discontented. They disliked their royal govern¬
ors and the Trade and Navigation Acts.
When the colonies were young and most of the people
were Englishmen or the children of Englishmen, a gov¬
ernor from the mother country seemed one of themselves.
Now, when most of the colonists were American born,
governors from Great Britain seemed outsiders. Some of
these governors were popular because they were wise and
capable men, considerate of the colonists’ rights; gov¬
ernors who were harsh and overbearing were disobeyed
or driven from office. Usually, the people had their way
without an open outbreak. The governor had power to
veto the laws passed by the assembly, but it alone had
power to lay taxes. If he refused to sign the laws that it
passed, it in turn refused to vote money for his salary;
this usually brought him to terms.
The chief cause of colonial dissatisfaction was the Trade
and Navigation Acts. It was agreed that Great Britain
had a right to regulate commerce and to shut out foreign
nations from free trade with the colonies; she was
entitled to this for protecting them and for guarding
124
FROM COLONIES TO STATES
125
1761]
their merchant ships with her navy. But the trade laws
were very strict; and year by year they became stricter.
The colonists were required to limit their commerce almost
entirely to Great Britain. They were not even allowed to
trade freely with one another. Manufactures were for¬
bidden ; they “ had not the right to manufacture so much
as a nail for a horseshoe.” It must not be forgotten, how¬
ever, that Great Britain tried to help the colonies by paying
bounties on some American products and by doing other
things to build up their trade.
As time passed and industries increased, the colonists
more and more evaded and disobeyed the unpopular trade
laws. Goods were smuggled to and from every port.
Hundreds of New England vessels were busy with the
forbidden coast trade.
To aid in enforcing the Acts, the king’s officers in Massa¬
chusetts were given Writs of Assistance. These were
warrants giving the king’s officers permission to search
any house at any time for smuggled goods. They dif¬
fered from regular search warrants in an important partic¬
ular : instead of giving the name of a suspected person,
a warrant was left blank ; a custom-house officer could
fill in any name he chose and search any man’s prem¬
ises.
Otis’s protest.—James Otis was the king’s lawyer in
Massachusetts, and as such, it was his place to support the
Writs of Assistance. He thought that they were unjust and
oppressive, and so he gave up his office and did all that he
could against them. He made a famous speech on the
subject; it was five hours long and as eloquent and patriotic
as it was long. But in spite of the opposition of Otis and
others, Writs of Assistance were granted, officers entered
dwellings and warehouses by force, and much ill feeling
was caused.
126 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1764
Revenue bills. — A few years later, the colonists were
given a new and more serious cause of discontent.
The French and Indian War had left Great Britain with
an enormous debt. It had also greatly increased the ex¬
penses of government; it was necessary to build forts and
keep soldiers in America in order to defend it against
French and Spanish attacks and against Indian risings,
such as Pontiac’s War. How was the money for these
purposes to be raised ? The British government thought
that the colonies ought to pay part of the expenses against
the enemies on their borders.
The colonies agreed that it was just they should pay
a share of these expenses. They thought that the needed
funds ought to be raised by means of taxes laid by their
own assemblies. The assemblies, however, were slow to
act, and so the British government took matters in its
own hands. It made the strict trade laws even stricter
and passed a Sugar Act
[1764], laying heavy du¬
ties on sugar, molasses,
etc., brought into the
colonies. This Sugar
Act was a great hard¬
ship to New England
traders and was vigor¬
ously opposed by them.
Samuel Adams. — In
Massachusetts, this op¬
position was led by
Samuel Adams. Adams
was a shrewd political
leader ; he perfected the
caucus, by which a group of citizens voted and worked
together so as to control the action of a public meeting.
Samuel Adams
1765]
FROM COLONIES TO STATES
127
“If taxes are laid upon us in any shape,” Adams wrote,
“ without our having a legal representation whefe they are
laid, are we not reduced from the character of Free Subjects
to the miserable state of tributary Slaves ? We claim Brit¬
ish rights not by charter only. We are born to them ! ”
Stamp Act. — The British government did not stop with
strict trade laws; it went further, and for the first time it
laid a direct tax on the colonies.
This tax, called the Stamp Act, required a stamp on
deeds, contracts, and other business papers, and on all
newspapers and other publi¬
cations [1765]. The money
raised by it was to be used
in payment of the war debt.
Great Britain was using a
stamp tax and the colonies
also had used it, for it was
easy to collect. But a storm
of angry protest rose from
the colonies against this particular Stamp Act. They ob¬
jected, not to the amount nor to the form of the tax, but
to the fact that it was imposed by Parliament and not by
their own assemblies. They declared that it was “ against
the rights of Englishmen to be taxed save by their repre¬
sentatives.”
Patrick Henry. — The House of Burgesses was in session
when the Act reached Virginia, with the information that
it was to be enforced in November. Most of the members
of the House were stately gentlemen in silk knee breeches
and velvet coats, with curled and powdered wigs. Among
them was a country lawyer, dressed in simple clothes and
wearing his own plain hair. This was Patrick Henry, ‘the
trumpet of the Revolution.’ He proposed resolutions de¬
claring that the people of the colonies had all the rights of
Stamp Act Stamps
128
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1765
their fellow-countrymen in Great Britain; that only the
assembly in which they were represented had a right to
lay taxes on Virginians, and they were not bound to obey
any law to the contrary. A heated discussion followed.
Henry asserted that the Stamp Act was an act of tyranny
on the part of the king; then he mentioned rulers who had
been charged with tyranny and put to death.
“ Caesar had
his Brutus,”
he exclaimed,
“ Charles I. his
Cromwell, and
George III. — ”
“Treason!
treason! ” inter¬
rupted several
gentlemen.
“ May profit
by their exam¬
ple,” cried Hen¬
ry. “ If this be
treason, make
the most of it.”
Henry’s reso¬
lutions were
adopted. “Vir¬
ginia rang the
alarm bell,” and
the other colonies responded promptly. “No taxation
without representation ” became the watchword of the
liberty-loving people.
Stamp Act Congress. — At the suggestion of Massachu¬
setts, the colonies sent delegates to New York to a meeting
called the Stamp Act Congress. This Congress drew up
Patrick Henry’s Speech
1765]
FROM COLONIES TO STATES
129
papers asking the home government to repeal the Stamp
Act and declaring that only their own assemblies had the
right to tax the colonies.
How Stamp Act was received. — The first of Novem¬
ber, 1765, the day on which the Act was to go into effect,
The TIMES are
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Ifoou WILLIAM BRADFORD.
The Title-page of the Pennsylvania Journal, October 31, 1765
was a notable day in the colonies. Some people spent it
in fasting and prayer; some spent it in riot and violence,
destroying property and burning king’s officers in effigy,
but none spent it in obeying the Act. The stamps were
burned or returned to Great Britain, and people carried
on business without them.
Many people in Great Britain approved the course of
America. Pitt said that the colonists were right to resist
the Stamp Act because it was an unjust law and ought
not to have been passed; he said that Parliament had a
right to make laws about trade, but not to lay a direct tax
K
130 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [176s
on the people, “ taking their money out of their pockets
without their consent.”
“ You have no right to tax America,” he said in Parlia¬
ment. “ I rejoice that she has resisted.”
Burke, the famous Irish statesman, said that even if
Parliament had a right to pass such a law, it would be fool¬
ish to alienate 3,000,000 people for a small increase of
revenue.
The protest against the Stamp Act was so great that
it was repealed the next spring. But Parliament still
persisted in declaring that it had a right to tax the Ameri¬
can colonies.
British government. — This Parliament expressed the
views, not of the
great, free, liberty-
loving English peo¬
ple as a whole, but
of the king and a
group of his minis¬
ters. Let us see
how this was. The
British House of
Commons, like our
House of Represen¬
tatives, is composed
of members elected
from different parts
of the country ac¬
cording to popula¬
tion,— one for every
so many thousand
George III. people. Now, tO
keep representation
right, changes must be made in it according to the changes
1766]
FROM COLONIES TO STATES
I 3 i
in population. Our country has a census taken every ten
years, and by this is determined the number of representa¬
tives in Congress.
In George III.’s time, there had been no change of
Parliament membership according to the census for over
two hundred years. In some districts, population had in¬
creased ; large cities, such as Manchester and Birmingham,
had grown up, and these had no representatives. In
some districts, population had decreased; only a few
voters were left, but they still had representatives. The
national assembly, in which the people were not fairly
represented, was controlled by the king — narrow-minded,
stubborn, stupid George III. — and his ‘friends.’ His
mother’s constant advice to him had been, “George, be
king ” ; he was trying to “ be king’’ and rule by his own
will at home and in the colonies.
Tax on glass, etc. [1767].—The year after the Stamp
Act was repealed, another tax was laid on the colonies.
This was a tax on glass, tea, paper, paint, and certain
other things ; its proceeds were to be used to pay the sal¬
aries of officers in America. The people objected to this.
They wished to pay these salaries through their assemblies
as they had always done, so as to keep the officers respon¬
sible to them. The tax caused such dissatisfaction in
Massachusetts that two regiments of soldiers were sent to
Boston, to aid in enforcing the laws. For the most part,
the colonists did not disobey the law, and yet they destroyed
its effect. They stopped using taxed articles and other
goods imported from Great Britain. Trade was almost at
a standstill, and British merchants begged to have the tax
removed. At last this was done; only one tax was re¬
tained, that on tea.
“ There must be one tax to keep up the right,” said the
king.
i3 2
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1770
‘Boston Massacre/ — A month before this change was
made, an incident happened which showed the people’s
feelings. One evening, a mob followed the British troops
along the streets of Boston, abusing them and pelting
them with stones and snowballs. At last some angry
soldiers fired without orders, killing and wounding several
persons. The day after this street fight, some Boston
freemen, with Samuel Adams as spokesman, went to the
royal governor and in the name of the people demanded
that the soldiers be withdrawn from Boston. To avoid
trouble, the governor sent the troops to an island in the
bay.
Battle of Alamance [1771]. — In North Carolina, the
next year, dissatisfaction broke out in open rebellion. Dis¬
satisfied colonists organized in bands called Regulators,
demanded better government, and refused to pay oppres¬
sive taxes. “No reforms, no money,” they said. Near
the Alamance River, a battle was fought between these
Regulators and troops led by Governor William Tryon.
The Regulators fought bravely until their ammunition gave
out, and then retreated.
Gaspee burned [1772]. — Rhode Island, too, was rebel¬
lious. A British vessel, the Gaspee, stationed off the coast
to catch smugglers, was burned by a mob. The home gov¬
ernment ordered that all who took part in the affair should
be arrested and sent to England for trial, but not a man
was arrested.
Committees of Correspondence.—Towns, colonies, and
sections were drawing together in the common cause.
Samuel Adams suggested that the townships in Massa¬
chusetts form Committees of Correspondence, to “ state,
communicate, and publish the rights of the colonists.”
At the suggestion of Virginia, intercolonial Committees of
Correspondence were formed [1773] to exchange views
1773 ]
FROM COLONIES TO STATES
133
and discuss matters of general interest. These intercolo¬
nial committees, uniting the colonies in a common cause,
were the first great step toward Union.
Tea tax. — As has been said, the king retained the tax
on tea in order to carry his point that Parliament had a
right to tax the colonies. A trading association, the East
India Company, had been granted the exclusive right to
bring tea to Great Britain ; from British ports, it was
reshipped to America. Now the East India Company
was given permission to send tea to America without pay¬
ing the usual British duty, so that even with the three¬
pence tax, it would be cheaper there than in Great Britain.
It was thought that there would be a ready sale for it on
these terms, and tea ships were sent to four cities —
Charleston, Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. But
the colonists were contending, not for cheap tea, but for a
principle.
At Charleston, the tea was stored in cellars and not a
pound was sold. The ships were sent back from Phila¬
delphia and New York without being allowed to land their
cargoes. In Boston, the tea was thrown overboard one
night by a band of men disguised as Indians ; this is called
4 the Boston Tea Party.’
Boston Port Bill [1774]. — Instead of making terms with
the colonies, stubborn, foolish King George pressed severe
measures, especially against Boston. The charter of
Massachusetts was suspended. General Gage, who lacked
patience, tact, and good judgment where all were needed,
was made military governor. The Boston Port Bill was
passed, closing that harbor to all business till pardon
should be asked and payment made for the destroyed tea.
In those days, news came slowly across the sea, travel¬
ing on sailing vessels which waited for favoring winds
and often took months to make the voyage. So it hap-
134
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1774
pened that Virginia received news of the Port Bill a month
before it reached Boston.
The House of Burgesses held a day of fasting and prayer,
and issued a request for a general Congress of Committees
of Correspondence. Rhode Island, New York, and Massa¬
chusetts issued similar requests. The liberties of all the
colonies were threatened, and the others were ready to
stand by Massachusetts in the common cause. As a South
Carolina paper said, “ One soul animates 3,000,000 brave
Americans though extended over a long tract of 3000
miles.”
First Continental Congress [1774].—The Continental,
or colonial, Congress met at Philadelphia. It was a
notable gathering of able, earnest patriots, the picked
men of twelve colonies. They drew up a petition to the
king and a Declaration of Rights, and agreed that until
their rights were granted they would not carry on trade
with Great Britain.
Virginia Convention [1775]. — The harsh laws were not
withdrawn, and early the next spring the Virginia patriots
met at Richmond to decide what they should do. Some
suggested that they send new petitions to the king. Then
Patrick Henry made a famous speech, urging the people
to defend their liberties. Ten years before, he had urged
resistance by words to the Stamp Act. In these ten years,
the colonies had drifted and been driven far from the
mother country. Now Patrick Henry urged resistance by
arms.
“ Is life so dear or peace so sweet,” he asked in well-
known words, “ as to be purchased at the price of chains
and slavery ? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not
what course others may take, but as for me, give me lib¬
erty or give me death.”
Minutemen. — Still hoping that the home government
THE COLONIES AT THE OUTBREAK OP THE REVOLUTION
.
1775 ]
FROM COLONIES TO STATES
135
would regard their rights, people thought that it would be
wise to prepare to fight. The Virginia militia was organ¬
ized and put under command of Colonel George Wash¬
ington. From Maine to Georgia, fire¬
arms and ammunition were collected
and troops were organized and drilled ;
these were called ‘minutemen’ be¬
cause they were to be ready to fight
at a minute’s notice. The resolution
of the people was evident. They
would not obey Parliament; they
would be taxed only by their own
assemblies; if necessary, they would
fight for their rights.
Literature. — A glance at the litera¬
ture of the time shows its spirit. The
colonists were not writing chiefly
chronicles and religious discourses, as
in earlier days. Instead, there were
pamphlets and books about public
affairs, — protests against the Stamp Act, arguments
against the taxing of the Americans, inquiries into the
rights of the colonists, and even treatises in favor of Amer¬
ican independence. There were patriotic poems by Philip
Freneau, John Trumbull, and Timothy Dwight. The elo¬
quence of James Otis, Samuel Adams, and Patrick Henry
was setting fire to the tinder of popular discontent.
Western settlements. — While the thirteen colonies were
uniting against Great Britain, the settlement of the West
was beginning. At the end of the French and Indian
War, the British had set aside the region between the
Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River as an
Indian country; the colonists were forbidden to settle be¬
yond the headwaters of the streams which empty into the
136 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [177s
Atlantic. In spite of this decree, pioneers pressed west¬
ward, — traders carrying goods to exchange with Indians
for furs, hunters and trappers seeking game, farmers
occupying the fertile land. They made the long, toilsome,
dangerous journey across mountain gaps and along streams.
With their knives and rifles, they held their own, supplied
their simple needs, and built up homes in the wilderness.
Pioneers from Virginia and Maryland went to Kentucky,
the Regulators of North Carolina settled in Tennessee, and
people from Pennsylvania moved into the Ohio country.
Daniel Boone. — Daniel Boone was one of these western
pioneers. Soon after the French and Indian War, he went
from his home in North
Carolina “ in quest of the
country of Kentucke.”
His brother returned for
ammunition, and he spent
the winter alone in the
western wilderness.
Later, with a few bold
companions, he made the
Fort Boonesboro first settlement there.
“ Many a dark and
cheerless night,” he said, “ have I been a companion for
owls, separated from the cheerful society of men, scorched
by the summer’s sun and pinched by the winter’s cold, an
instrument ordained to settle the wilderness.”
Summary [1761-1775].— The colonists were discontented with
royal governors and with the Trade and Navigation Acts. Their dis¬
content was increased by the Writs of Assistance and by a direct tax, the
Stamp Act. They said that, as they were not represented in Parliament,
it had no right to tax them, for “taxation without representation
is tyranny.” The Stamp Act was repealed, but it was followed by new
taxes on tea, glass, etc. Finally, all the direct taxes were removed ex-
1775]
FROM COLONIES TO STATES
137
cept the one on tea. Several shiploads of tea were sent over, but the
colonists everywhere refused to receive it. The cargo sent to Boston
was destroyed; in punishment for this, the Boston Port Bill was
passed, closing the town to trade. The first Continental Congress met
at Philadelphia the year that the Port Bill was passed. While the
colonies were contending with the home government, Daniel Boone and
others pioneers were settling the country west of the Appalachians.
2. The Beginning of the War of the Revolution
Fight at Lexington [April 19]. — The spring of 1775
brought the clash of arms in New England. The British
general, Gage, who was in Boston with 3000 soldiers,
learned that the colonists had collected arms and powder
138 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [i775
at Concord, a village twenty miles away. General Gage
sent soldiers to seize these. In order to surprise the
colonists, the soldiers started from Boston at midnight.
But the patriots were warned of the British movement.
Messengers bearing the news galloped
from house to house, from village to
village. Bells were rung, drums were
beat, muskets were fired. Patriots seized
their flintlock guns, buckled on their
powder-horns, and shot-bags, and assem¬
bled in little groups here and there.
About sunrise, the British reached Lex¬
ington, a village a few miles from Con¬
cord ; there they found sixty or seventy
men in arms.
“ Disperse, you rebels ! Throw down
your arms and disperse! ” commanded
the British officer.
The men did not obey. The soldiers
fired and killed seven of the little band;
the Americans fired, too, and one British
soldier fell dead.
Concord fight. — The British marched on to Concord,
destroyed all the military stores that they could find, and
then started back to Boston. A band of patriots stationed
themselves at Concord Bridge, shots were exchanged, and
several men were killed on both sides.
Rising of colonists. — Meanwhile, news of the Lex¬
ington fight had spread abroad, and the patriots gathered
in haste. The clouds “ seemed to rain rebels,” said the
British. The patriots fought Indian fashion, taking shelter
behind houses, trees, and stone walls, picking off the soldiers
with their rifles. The British march quickened into a re¬
treat, and they hurried back to Boston, leaving three hun-
British Soldier
1775 ]
FROM COLONIES TO STATES
m
dred soldiers dead, wounded, or prisoners. The New
England minutemen did not lay down their arms; they
formed four little armies, that of each colony being sepa¬
rate, and camped near Boston.
Powder seized in
Virginia. — The
night after the fight
at Lexington, the
royal governor of
Virginia seized some
gunpowder stored at
Williamsburg. News
was borne so slowly
to the farms and
plantations of the
region that by the
time the people as¬
sembled, the powder
had been carried off
on shipboard. A
band of patriots, led
by Patrick Henry, went to the governor and compelled
him to pay the colony for it.
Second Continental Congress. — Three weeks after
the fighting at Lexington and Concord, Congress met.
George Washington w^ent, dressed in his uniform of
blue and buff, and no one needed to ask why. All felt
that war was at hand. Congress sent new petitions to
the king, but it also took charge of the troops assembled
at Boston and called for forces from all the colonies to
form a Continental army, of which it appointed Washington
commander in chief. His experience in the Lrench and
Indian War had prepared him for this place. Men were
already aware of his prudence, energy, dignity ; courage,
Old Powder-horn, Williamsburg
This was the magazine from which the powder was removed.
140
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [177$
and patriotic spirit; they were yet to learn his rare
patience, self-control, self-devotion, and persistence which
would bring victory out of defeat. In accepting the posi¬
tion, he declined all pay except for his bare expenses.
Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point. — The colonies
had not waited for Congress to act. The very day that it
met, a band of Vermont backwoodsmen, called Green
Mountain Boys, seized Fort Ticonderoga, the “gateway
to Canada.” The next day, Crown Point was surprised
and taken. Both forts contained valuable military stores.
Their large guns were dragged to Boston for the use of
the patriot army.
Whigs and Tories. — Everywhere, people were dividing
into two parties,—the loyalists, or Tories, who thought
that the king’s laws ought to be obeyed, and the patriots,
or Whigs, who were determined to assert their rights, even
if they had to disobey these laws. The patriots were the
more numerous, and they drove out the royal governors
and took control of affairs. Probably a third of the people
were loyalists. They were most numerous in New York,
Pennsylvania, Georgia, and the Carolinas. Some of them
were spies and men who were seeking only their own
interest; some were upright gentlemen who loved their
liberties, but clung to the mother country and hoped to
get their rights by peaceful measures. The Whigs and
Tories were very bitter against each other. Men were
whipped, tarred and feathered, deprived of property, even
shot or hanged by their neighbors or their own relatives
who belonged to the opposing party.
Troops sent to America. — The only answer that the king
made to the petitions of Congress was to send troops to
the colonies. In May, there landed in Boston several
thousand soldiers, led by three experienced generals, Sir
Henry Clinton, Sir John Burgoyne, and Sir William Howe.
1775]
FROM COLONIES TO STATES
141
Later, the king hired and sent over about 20,000 soldiers
from Hesse and other German states. The sending of
these Hessians made the patriots angry and more rebel¬
lious, as wise men knew would be the case.
“Were I an American as I am an Englishmen,” said
Pitt, “ while a foreign troop was landed in my country, I
never would lay down my arms — never — never — never! ”
Battle of Bunker Hill [June 17]. — Boston is situated on
a peninsula in the middle of the harbor; north and south
of it are two other peninsulas overlooking it. On the south
are Dorchester Heights. On the north are Charlestown
Heights, of which the part nearer Boston is called Breed’s
Hill and that farther off is called Bunker Hill.
The Americans resolved to occupy the heights com¬
manding the town on the north. Fifteen hundred patriots
moved forward in the night to occupy Bunker Hill; they
went on to Breed’s Hill, where they worked all night,
building defenses of earth and of two parallel rail fences
142
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1775
with the space between filled with hay. The British were
greatly surprised the next morning to see the little army
on Breed’s Hill. General Howe ordered 3000 soldiers to
cross the harbor in boats, march up the hill, and drive
away the rebels. People crowded on the Boston housetops
to watch the fight between the British regulars and the
American farmers and backwoodsmen.
“ Wait until you can see the whites of their eyes,” said
a patriot leader to his men, when he saw the soldiers
coming.
The command “ Fire! ” rang out when the British were
close at hand. The colonists fired; many of the British
fell dead or wounded and the remainder retreated. But
they re-formed their line and marched bravely up the hill
again; again they were driven back by the close*, deadly fire.
A third attack was made. The colonists’ powder was now
exhausted, and brave General Warren had been killed.
The patriots retreated, fighting as they went, with stones
and the butt ends of their guns. Two British soldiers had
fallen for every man the colonists had lost.
Washington takes charge of army. — Four days after the
battle of Bunker Hill, Washington started on horseback
from Philadelphia to take charge of the troops at Boston.
On the way, he met messengers carrying Congress news
of the fight.
“ Did the militia stand fire ? ” was his eager question.
On being told that it did, he exclaimed, “ Thank God! the
liberties of the people are safe.” If these raw troops
could stand against the British regulars, the best soldiers
in the world, they had the making of a good army.
Still, his heart must have sunk as he stood under the
great elm tree at Cambridge and looked at his army of
16,000 men. They lacked provisions, clothing, tents,
arms, — above all, ammunition. They were, said Washing-
1775]
FROM COLONIES TO STATES
143
ton, “ a mixed multitude of people under very little dis¬
cipline, order, or government”; but they were “active,
zealous in the cause, and of unquestioned courage.” For¬
tunately for the colonists, the British troops lay quiet in
Boston all that summer and fall and winter.- Washington
made good use of the time, collecting supplies and drilling
his troops into fighting shape.
Summary [1775]. — As their petitions to the home government
were disregarded, the colonists took up arms in defense of their
rights. There were fights at Lexington and Concord and a battle at
Bunker Hill. The second Continental Congress, which met at Phila¬
delphia, formed a Continental army, of which George Washington
was made commander in chief.
3. The Events of 1776
American navy in
1776.—While the
American army
was being drilled
and prepared for
service, the little
navy was busy and
successful. Its
most notable officers
were John Barry,
an Irishman, called
‘the father of the
American navy,’
and John Paul
Jones, a young
Scotchman. Their
deeds read like
romances. Barry
John Paul Jones
144 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1776
with twenty-seven men in rowboats captured a British ves¬
sel. He fought twenty sea battles and never once lowered
his flag to the enemy.
It is said that Barry was offered a large sum of money
and the command of a frigate if he would join the British.
He answered, “ Not the value and command of the whole
British fleet can seduce me from the cause of my country.”
From a six-weeks’ cruise John Paul Jones brought back
sixty-six prizes. When he was promised another ship, he
asked for a good one, “for I intend to go in harm’s way,”
he said — and he generally carried out his intention.
Most of the colonists’ sea fighting was done by privateers,
— that is, vessels owned by private persons which were
commissioned to attack British ships. Many sailors and
fishermen had been thrown out of work by the war; they
were ready to plunder British merchant vessels, thus serving
their country and enriching themselves at the same time.
American invasion of Canada [1776]. — During the first
year of the war, two American expeditions invaded Can¬
ada. One was led by Montgomery, a brave Irishman who
had served under Wolfe at the siege of Quebec. He cap¬
tured Montreal and secured much-needed provisions and am¬
munition. The other force, under Benedict Arnold, made
a winter march of three hundred miles through the wilder¬
ness of Maine to Quebec, where it was joined by Mont¬
gomery’s troops. Together, they made a gallant but
unsuccessful night attack on the city. The Americans hoped
that the Canadians would ris£ against Great Britain, but
they did not, and nothing was gained by the campaign.
British evacuate Boston. — Meanwhile, the British and
American troops at Boston lay quiet, month after month.
Washington, having prepared his army as well as he could,
made the first move and stationed troops on Dorchester
Heights, which command the town on the south.
1776)
FROM COLONIES TO STATES
145
Without an attempt to take the position, the British
evacuated Boston and sailed away to Halifax. They
took with them hundreds of New England Tories and left
behind arms and stores sadly needed by the Americans.
Washington goes to New York. — General Washington
knew that the British army would return and try to con¬
quer the colonies. He thought that it would probably come
to New York City and attack that colony first, because
its position made it more important to the British than any
other place in America. It controlled the Hudson Valley,
leading toward Lake Champlain, the nearest and easiest
route to Canada. It lay like a wedge between New Eng¬
land and the southern colonies ; if it were in British hands,
the colonies would be divided into two parts which could
be attacked and conquered separately. Washington, feel¬
ing sure that the British would try to take this colony,
marched his army to New York City.
The colonies declare for independence. — Up to this time,
the colonists had been contending for their rights as British
subjects. They had sent petitions to the king and to Par¬
liament, asking that these rights be regarded. Their pe¬
titions had been answered by the sending of troops, and they
had taken up arms in defense of their liberties. Patriots
everywhere began to urge that they should fight for their
rights as American freemen, not as British subjects.
In the spring of 1775, the people of Mecklenburg County
in North Carolina declared in favor of independence; the
next spring the Congress of North Carolina directed its dele¬
gates in the Continental Congress to “concur” with the other
colonies in declaring themselves free from Great Britain.
The decisive step was taken by the Virginia Convention
in the spring of 1776. It directed its delegates in Congress
to “ propose ” independence and it drew up a Bill of Rights
organizing a state government.
146 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1776
Patriots in other colonies took the same stand.
Meeting of Continental Congress. — Such was the state
of affairs when the Continental Congress met in 1776. It
was a notable meeting. According to the instructions of
his colony, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia made the fol¬
lowing motion: “Resolved, that these United Colonies
Independence Hall
are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States,
that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British
Crown, and that all political connection between them and
the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dis¬
solved.”
John Adams of Massachusetts seconded this resolution.
It was opposed by some members of the Congress, but was
carried.
Declaration of Independence [July 4]. — A committee was
appointed to draw up a Declaration of Independence. This
was written by Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, one of the
youngest members of Congress, but already known as one
of the ablest. The Declaration of Independence was
adopted on the fourth of July, 1776. A month later, the
members of Congress signed it, knowing they were signing
Signing the Declaration of Independen
i 4 8 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1776
their death sentences if the Revolution failed and they fell
into the king’s hands.
At first glance, the contest seemed very unequal. On
the one side, there was Great Britain, a powerful nation
with the best army and navy in the world, provided with
military stores and supplies. On the other hand, there
were the thirteen little colonies with a population of only
3,000,000 people, scattered along the Atlantic coast, with
the wilderness behind and between their settlements.
They had no regular army nor navy, no military supplies
and no factories to provide them. But they had some
things in their favor: they were fighting on their own
.ground and for their rights and liberties. So they cheer¬
fully pulled down the leaden statues of King George III.
and made them into bullets.
Women’s part in the war. — The women were as brave
and patriotic as the men. Wives urged on their husbands,
mothers sent their sons to fight the battles of their country.
Then the women and children set to work to care for and
support the families. This army at home did as much for
the cause of freedom as the army in the field.
State governments. —The colonies, having thrown off the
rule of Great Britain, formed governments of their own.
The new governments were much like the old ones, except
that the officers were elected by the people instead of
being appointed by the king. In the states as in the colo¬
nies, the right to vote was limited to taxpayers and prop¬
erty owners. Each state was separate and independent.
Fighting in the Carolinas. — The fighting of 1776 began
in the South. In the winter, the North Carolina patriots
defeated a large Tory force at Moore’s Creek. That sum¬
mer the South Carolinians beat off a British fleet and army
which attacked Charleston. In expectation of the attack,
the patriots had built a fort of palmetto logs on Sullivan’s
1776]
FROM COLONIES TO STATES
149
Island, which commands the ship entrance to the city.
This was called Fort Moultrie, from the name of its com¬
mander. During the attack, a ball from a British gun
severed the patriots’ flagstaff, and the flag fell outside the
fort. Amid the hail of shot
and shell, brave Sergeant
Jasper jumped over the
wall and rescued the flag.
After this unsuccessful at¬
tack on Charleston, the
British sailed North ; for
more than two years, there
was little fighting at the
South.
Battle of Long Island
[August 27].— As Wash¬
ington had foreseen, New
York was the main place
of attack. The day after
Charleston was assailed,
British troops began to
gather in New York Bay.
Sir William Howe came
from Halifax with an army
and was joined by his brother, Admiral Lord Howe, with
troops from England.
To oppose this army of 30,000 regular soldiers, Wash¬
ington had 18,000 half-trained soldiers stationed on the
heights of Long Island. The troops that guarded the ap¬
proach to the heights were defeated, and the American
army was in danger of being surrounded.
Washington’s retreat. — Washington secretly collected
boats, and one foggy night in August he withdrew from
Long Island, without losing a man or a gun. The patriots
Jasper Monument
150 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1776
retired into New York, stopping to fight bravely but un¬
successfully at White Plains. They then turned southward
and retreated into New Jersey. Washington ordered Gen¬
eral Charles Lee, who had charge of half the patriot forces,
to join him, but General Lee withdrew his troops when
their aid was most needed. Washington’s army, weakened
by defeat, desertion, and illness, consisted of a few thou¬
sand hungry, ragged, discouraged men. As they retreated
through New Jersey, they were followed by a strong
army under General Cornwallis. The two armies were
nearly always in sight of each other. Washington hardly
dared pause until he crossed the Delaware River with his
“wretched fragment of a broken army.” As his last
boats crossed, the British advance guard reached the river.
Washington, with his usual foresight, had seized all the
boats for miles along the stream, and the British were
unable to follow.
“These are the times that try men’s souls,” said a pa¬
triot.
The “ summer soldier and the sunshine patriot ” deserted
the cause. The war so far had been one of failure and
defeat. The Americans had shown skill and courage at
the battle of Bunker Hill and in the defense of Charleston.
But the British had gained important advantages ; they had
made themselves masters of New York and New Jersey.
Battle of Trenton [December 26]. — However, the year
did not close in utter gloom. One blow was struck by Wash¬
ington, who when defeated could yet fight. On a cold,
stormy winter night, he crossed the Delaware River with
2500 picked men. Early the next morning, he attacked
the British at Trenton ; he lost only nine men and captured
1000 of the foreign soldiers called Hessians, besides arms
and ammunition. He carried his prisoners across the river,
then returned to Trenton with about 5000 men.
1777] FROM COLONIES TO STATES 151
Battle of Princeton [January 3, 1777]. — Against these,
Cornwallis led a force of 8000. Washington’s position was
dangerous. Before him was the British army; behind
him was the Delaware River, full of floating ice.
Washington crossing the Delaware
“ We have run down the old fox, and we will bag him in
the morning,” laughed Cornwallis.
But when morning came, Washington was gone. He
had thrown up earthworks and kindled camp fires as if he
meant to hold his position. At midnight, he marched
swiftly to Princeton, ten miles away, and defeated its British
garrison ; then he withdrew to the hills at Morristown. By
the successful attacks at Trenton and Princeton, Washing¬
ton had regained control of New Jersey.
Financial affairs.—His little army was cheered, but it
was in sad condition, suffering greatly from want of supplies.
Washington appealed for aid to his friend Robert Morris,
a wealthy merchant of Philadelphia. Morris devoted his
means and his credit to the patriot cause. He set out on
New Year’s morning, roused his friends from their morn-
i5 2
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1776
ing naps, and raised $50,000 to supply the most pressing
needs of the army.
Washington had asked Congress for help, but had asked
in vain. Congress had little power and did not use that
little well. The general government
had no control over the states and
no power to lay taxes. To pay
soldiers and buy supplies, it issued
paper money; this is merely a
promise to pay silver or gold to the
amount of its face value, and it is
only as good as the government
that issues it. The Continental
money would be worthless if the
Americans failed in their struggle
for independence. Even if they
succeeded, the general government would not be able to
redeem its notes with coin unless the states would pay the
money. People were not willing to sell goods for this
Continental money nor to take it in payment of debts.
Summary [1776]. — The chief event of 1776 was the adoption, on
July the fourth, of the Declaration of Independence; henceforth, the
War of the Revolution was for freedom. There was fighting in both
the South and the North. The British were repulsed in the Carolinas
at Moore’s Creek and Charleston. They evacuated Boston in the
spring, and in the summer gathered in force at New York City. Wash¬
ington retreated from New York through New Jersey. He defeated the
British in the battles of Trenton and Princeton, thus regaining control
of New Jersey. Then he went into winter quarters at Morristown.
Robert Morris
4. The Northern and Western Campaigns of 1777-1779
British plan in 1777. — The next British campaign was
well planned. Its object was to conquer New York, the
importance of which has been described. This was to be
1777 ]
FROM COLONIES TO STATES
153
done by three armies meeting at Albany. General Bur-
goyne,. with 8000 soldiers, was to come from Canada by
way of Lake Champlain. Colonel St. Leger, with 2000
men, was to march down the Mohawk Valley and join Bur-
goyne. Howe was to bring an army of 18,000 men from
New York City up the Hudson to meet Burgoyne and St.
Leger at Albany. This force of 33,000 men was to take
possession of New York and cut off New England from
the other states.
Burgoyne’s march. — General Burgoyne started south in
June, ascended Lake Champlain, took Fort Ticonderoga,
and crossed over to the Hudson. His first disaster came
at Bennington, Vermont, where a force of 1000 men sent
to seize supplies was attacked by patriots [August 16],
and only seventy escaped.
Up to this time, Burgoyne had met little opposition.
The patriot general, Philip Schuyler of New York, had too
small an army to risk a pitched battle. All that he could
do was to delay the British so as to give colonial troops
time to gather. Burgoyne’s communication with Lake
Champlain was cut off. The roads were blocked by felling
trees and burning bridges so that his army could advance
only about a mile a day. Meanwhile, the hardy back¬
woodsmen of New England were gathering to attack him.
St. Leger’s march. — While Bur¬
goyne was meeting difficulties, St.
Leger failed. He left Oswego in
July and was joined by Tories and
by Indians under Joseph Brant, a
famous Mohawk war chief and
missionary. They besieged Fort
^ . ,, i. T , 1 D - First United States Flag
Stanwix, on the Mohawk River,
which was defended by about six hundred patriots. Over
this fort was raised for the first time the Stars and Stripes,
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1777
154
the national flag adopted by Congress, The Stanwix flag
was made of blue jackets, white shirts, and some red cloth.
General Nicholas
Herkimer, marching
with a few hundred pa¬
triots to the aid of Fort
Stanwix, met the British
troops in a wooded - ra¬
vine. Here was fought
the fierce drawn battle of
Oriskany [August 6].
Arnold, at the head of a
volunteer force, hurried
to relieve the fort, send¬
ing before him by re¬
leased prisoners a report
that the whole American
army was on the way.
When he reached Fort
Stanwix, there was no
enemy to fight. The In¬
dians had deserted and
had even attacked their
British allies; the British had been compelled to retreat.
So ended Burgoyne’s hope of aid from that quarter.
Howe’s advance to Philadelphia.— But where was General
Howe with his large army and his safe and easy line of
advance ? By a blunder, his orders to join Burgoyne did
not reach him until late in the summer. Before they came,
he was engaged in an expedition against Philadelphia. He
started in June to march across New Jersey; but Wash¬
ington’s troops blocked the way, and he returned to New
York, put 18,000 men on transports, and took them up Ches¬
apeake Bay, — thence they were to march to Philadelphia.
1777]
FROM COLONIES TO STATES
155
Washington with 11,000 men met him at Brandywine
Creek [September 11], where the Americans were defeated.
Though defeated, they managed to delay Howe so that it
took him two weeks to march the twenty-six miles to Phil¬
adelphia. The patriots attacked the British at German¬
town [October 4], but in the foggy morning they fired on
their own men; this occasioned such confusion that they
were defeated.
When shrewd Dr. Benjamin Franklin, the American
agent in Paris, was told that Howe had taken Philadelphia,
he laughed and said, “ Philadelphia has taken Howe.”
Indeed, the victory was as bad as a defeat. The time and
forces spent in taking Philadelphia caused the loss of the
northern campaign. Instead of going to the aid of Bur-
goyne, Howe had to get troops for himself from New York.
The two battles of Saratoga [September 19, October 7]. —
Meanwhile, Burgoyne’s provisions were almost exhausted;
he could neither advance nor retreat, for all the roads were
guarded by New England troops. Every day his Indian
and Tory allies deserted him. Every day recruits came to
the Americans who were stationed two miles from him at
Bemis’s Heights.
General Schuyler had planned the campaign ably and
had done its work well. Just as victory was in sight, Con¬
gress removed him and put in command General Horatio
Gates, a vain, incapable man.
Burgoyne made a desperate attack on Gates’s army,
but was ably opposed by Generals Lincoln, Morgan, and
Arnold; the battle raged all day, and when night separated
the combatants, neither side could claim the victory. In a
second battle, the patriots had the advantage. Gates, who
won the credit of both battles, took no real part in either
of them.
Burgoyne’s surrender [October 17]. —To avoid being sur-
156 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1777
rounded, Burgoyne withdrew toward Saratoga. He sent
word to Sir Henry Clinton that he could not hold out more
than a week longer. The time passed, and no aid came;
Clinton, indeed, had left New York with his troops and
was on the way up the Hudson. But he had started too
late. Burgoyne could hold out no longer, and he surren¬
dered his army of 6000 men.
This victory greatly encouraged the patriots, and it sup¬
plied arms and ammunition which they sorely needed. It
had other important results. For over a year, Benjamin
Franklin had been urging France to make a treaty witji
the colonies. It hesitated, fearing that the Americans could
not hold their own against Great Britain and not wishing
to espouse a losing cause. After the American victory
over Burgoyne, France made a treaty, acknowledging the
independence of the colonies and agreeing to furnish them
money and a fleet.
About the same time, the British Parliament granted all
that the colonists had asked three years before; the tea
tax was repealed, and it was promised that no tax should
be laid without the people’s consent. But the Americans
refused these terms; independence was now in sight, and
they were resolved to win it.
Winter at Valley Forge. — News of the French treaty
did not reach America until the spring after Burgoyne’s
defeat. That winter was a gloomy time for the patriots in
the Middle States. After being defeated at Brandywine
and at Germantown, Washington’s army went into winter
quarters at Valley Forge near Philadelphia. The men
were worn out with marches and defeats; they lacked
food, clothes, blankets, and supplies of all kinds.
Washington wrote: “To see men without clothes to
cover their nakedness, without blankets to lie upon, with¬
out shoes (for want of which their marches might be traced
1777] FROM COLONIES TO STATES 157
by the blood from their feet), and almost as often without
provisions as with them, marching through the frost and
snow, and at Christmas time taking up their winter quar-
Washington and Lafayette at Valley Forge
ters without a house or a hut to cover them till they could
be built, and submitting without a murmur, is a proof of
patience and obedience which in my opinion can scarce be
paralleled.”
Conway Cabal. —A party, called from one of its leaders
the Conway Cabal, wished to remove Washington and put
Gates in charge of the army. This plan was exposed and
aroused such general indignation that it was dropped.
Foreigners in American service. — During the winter at
Valley Forge, the patriots were drilled by Baron von
Steuben. He was an able German officer, one of the for-
158 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1777
eigners who came over to aid the American struggle for in¬
dependence. Others were the brave German Baron Kalb,
two Polish patriots, Kos¬
ciusko and Count Pulas¬
ki, and best known of all,
the P'rench Marquis de
Lafayette. This French
nobleman, a youth of
nineteen, fitted out a
ship at his own expense,
came to America, and
asked Congress to allow
him to serve without pay
in the patriot army. He
was wounded in the
battle of Brandywine
and shared the dark
days at Valley Forge;
Lafayette
by his influence in his native land, he secured troops and
supplies for the patriots.
Evacuation of Philadelphia.—When Sir Henry Clinton,
who had succeeded General Howe in chief command, heard
of the French treaty, he evacuated Philadelphia, fearing
that the French fleet would come up the Delaware and
blockade that city.
Battle of Monmouth [June 28, 1778].—On his march
through New Jersey, he was attacked by the Americans,
and a fierce battle was fought at Monmouth. General
Charles Lee was ordered to lead an attack; instead, he
began a retreat, and came near turning the battle into a
defeat for the Americans. The day was saved by the
prompt courage of Washington, Lafayette, and other pa¬
triots. Afterward, General Lee was dismissed from the
army; it is now known that he was a traitor who was en¬
deavoring to aid the British cause.
1773]
FROM COLONIES TO STATES
159
Capture of Stony Point. — Clinton hurried on to New
York City, followed by Washington who took up a posi¬
tion at White Plains. The campaign for the possession
of the Middle States ended where it began. The British
drove the Americans from New York; the Americans
drove the British back to New York. Then, for nearly
three years, the two armies remained inactive. Clinton
lay quiet in New York City, and Washington could not
attack him there without the aid of a fleet. Now and then,
the British made a sudden raid to pillage and burn ; but as
soon as the patriot army advanced, they returned to New
York. One of the British strongholds was a fort at Stony
Point on the Hudson. One summer night [July 15, 1779,]
General Anthony Wayne with 1200 patriots took this fort
by a bayonet charge and destroyed it.
Massacres at Wyoming and Cherry valleys [1778].—
While armies moved to and fro in the East, Tories and
Indians waged war on the western borders. The south¬
western settlements were attacked, and the settlers put a
price on Indian scalps, as on wolves’ heads. Tories, aided
by the tribes of the Six Nations, attacked Wyoming Valley
in Pennsylvania. They burned houses, destroyed crops,
and massacred men, women, and children. In the fall, a
similar attack was made on Cherry Valley in New York.
Sullivan’s campaign [1779]. — The next summer, an
American force under General Sullivan made a campaign
in retaliation for these massacres. They marched through
the forest country inhabited by the Six Nations, de¬
feated the Tories and Indians, burned forty villages, and
destroyed the crops.
Clark’s campaign. — The most important blow in the West
was struck by a daring young Virginian, George Rogers
Clark. With the authority of the governor of Virginia,
he planned an expedition from ‘ the county of Kentucky ’
160 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1779
against the British forts and trading posts which dotted
the northwest territory. Clark had neither soldiers nor
money, but he secured
the aid of a hundred
and eighty backwoods
riflemen. Leaving Pitts¬
burg in June, these dar¬
ing men floated a thou¬
sand miles down the Ohio
in flatboats, marched a
hundred miles across the
country, and without the
loss of a man took Kas-
kaskia and other British
posts in the northwest.
Most of the inhabitants
of this country were
French; when they
learned that France was
aiding the colonies, they
willingly submitted.
That winter, a band of British and Indians marched
south from Detroit to
retake the posts that
Clark had seized. Clark
made a wonderful winter
march [February 7-25,
1779] with his little
army from Kaskaskia to
Vincennes, across a
hundred and forty miles
of pathless forests and
flooded lowlands, defeated the British, and made himself
undisputed master of the country.
1779] FROM COLONIES TO STATES 161
It was due to Clark’s conquest, that when peace was
made, the British boundary line was drawn at the Great
Lakes, instead of the Ohio River. This region north of
the Ohio, from the Alleghenies to the Mississippi, was or¬
ganized by Virginia as ‘ the county of Illinois.’ It included
the present states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and
Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota.
Battle between Serapis and Bon Homme Richard
Paul Jones. — The British controlled the seas, and little
was accomplished by the French fleet from which so much
M
162
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1779
had been expected. The Americans, however, made some
brilliant sea fights. One of the most notable was by John
Paul Jones, in Bon Homme Richard , an old merchant
vessel refitted as a warship. Jones attacked a British frig¬
ate, the Serapis [September 23, 1779], lashed it to his ves¬
sel, and engaged in a desperate three-hours’ fight. Jones’s
ship was on fire, riddled with shot, and seemed sinking.
He drove his prisoners to the pumps and made them work
for their lives. When the British captain ordered him to
surrender, he answered, ‘ No; that if he could do no better,
he would sink with his colors flying.’ Jones came off
victor. The ships “ shot each other to pieces ” and both
sank within forty-eight hours.
Summary [1777-1779]. — The first plan of the British was to take
New York, thus dividing the colonies into two sections to be conquered
separately. It was planned that three armies, under Burgoyne, St. Leger,
and Howe, should invade New York and unite at Albany. St. Leger
was checked at Oriskany and Fort Stanwix, and forced to retreat. In¬
stead of going to Albany, Howe occupied Philadelphia, defeating Wash¬
ington’s forces at Brandywine and Germantown. After fighting the
two battles of Saratoga, Burgoyne was forced to surrender. This suc¬
cess encouraged the colonists and led France to make an alliance with
the Americans. The British evacuated Philadelphia and returned to
New York; Washington followed and the fierce drawn battle of Mon¬
mouth was fought. In retaliation for Indian and Tory raids on the
western borders, General Sullivan laid waste the country of the Six
Nations. George Rogers Clark, aided by a few backwoodsmen, made
a wonderful campaign in the Ohio country and conquered the northwest
territory.
5. The Campaign in the South
British plans. — During the first years of the revolution,
most of the fighting was in the North. The main object
of the British was to occupy New York and conquer the
colonies by sections. They failed in this. Then they
779]
FROM COLONIES TO STATES
163
changed their plans and resolved to attack and conquer
the colonies one by one. They began with the South,
where the population was scattered and there were many
slaves and Tories.
Conquest of Georgia [1778, 1779]. — The first colony
attacked was Georgia. Savannah, defended by only six
hundred men, was assailed by land and sea and forced to
surrender. Georgia was overrun by British troops.
Marion visited in Camp by a British officer
Conquest of South Carolina [1780].— After Georgia
was conquered South Carolina was attacked. A British
fleet passed Fort Moultrie and attacked Charleston from
the front, while troops made an attack from the rear.
The city was taken, and General Lincoln’s army of 3000
men was captured. South Carolina was overrun and
conquered.
Partisan bands. — The British troops were aided by
parties of Tories, forming what were called ‘partisan
1 64 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1780
bands.’ The patriots, too, formed partisan bands of men
who were not regular soldiers, but were good horsemen,
excellent marksmen, and fearless fighters. The most
famous of the patriot partisan leaders were Marion, called
‘ the swamp fox,’ Sumter, ‘ the game cock,’ and Pickens.
Their bands were not strong enough to fight pitched battles ;
instead, they lurked in woods and swamps and made
sudden attacks and night marches.
Gates takes charge in South. — Having conquered Geor¬
gia and South Carolina, Clinton returned to New York
with half the troops, and Cornwallis was left with the other
half to control the South. The very month that Clinton
sailed North, Congress appointed General Gates to com¬
mand the southern patriots. Gates, with the army pre¬
pared by Schuyler and led by Lincoln, Morgan, and
Arnold, had won the greatest victory of the war. Many
people regarded him as the ablest officer in the army and
some even wished to have him replace General Washington
as commander in chief. In the South, he was to show his
real lack of ability.
Battle of Camden [August 16]. — At Camden, South
Carolina, Gates with 3000 soldiers met Cornwallis with
2000. The raw colonial troops broke before the charge of
the British regulars, and Gates, ‘the hero of Saratoga,’
led the flight. Kalb, with one-third of the army, held back
the British and died, sword in hand. Camden was the
worst defeat suffered by the patriots during the Revolu¬
tion. A British official said when he heard of the battle,
“ We look on America as at our feet.” But it was a gen¬
eral and not a people that had been defeated, as was to be
proved.
Arnold’s treason. — These were dark days. Defeat was
followed by treason. Benedict Arnold was an able, bril¬
liant officer, and he resented bitterly the fact that his ser-
1780]
FROM COLONIES TO STATES
165
vices were slighted by Congress and inferior officers were
promoted over him. His Tory wife urged him to join the
British army, and at last he resolved to do so. He had
charge of West Point, an important fort which controlled
the Hudson Valley. He agreed to give it up to the British.
For this treason, he was to receive a large sum of money
and be made a British general. The British sent Major
Andre in disguise to West Point to arrange the matter.
On the way back, Andre was stopped and searched by
three patriots, and the papers revealing the plot were found
in his stocking. He was hanged as a spy, but Arnold
escaped to the British.
“ Arnold is a traitor and has fled to the British. Whom
can we trust now?” said Washington, and sobbed aloud,
— the only time that he was seen to give way to grief or
despair.
Financial affairs. — To defeat and treason were added
hardships caused by lack of money. The patriots obtained
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some supplies and money by privateering; some funds
were raised by the states; some money was borrowed by
Congress from France and Holland; but all these means
i66 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1780
failed to supply funds needed to carry on the war. Both
Congress and the states issued paper money which de¬
creased in value till it was almost worthless. A man would
give a hundred and fifty dollars of it for one gold dollar.
A soldier could hardly buy a bushel of wheat with a
month’s pay. Many poor, discouraged soldiers deserted
the patriot cause.
Battle of King’s Mountain [October 7]. — But better
times were at hand. A few days after Arnold’s treason
was discovered, the patriots won a victory in the South.
From that time, the tide turned in their favor.
After the British overran the southern coast, Major
Patrick Ferguson went as far as the mountains, drove off
cattle, and plundered and burned some settlements. This
aroused the hardy backwoods¬
men of the western Carolinas
who up to this time had taken
little part in the war. They
gathered with their rifles and
surrounded Ferguson’s band of
1200 men at King’s Mountain.
Fighting Indian-fashion from
behind trees and rocks, they
killed, wounded, or captured
every man of the British force.
Ferguson died sword in hand,
fighting bravely. The victors
lost only twenty-eight men;
they disbanded and were safe in
their mountain homes before
troops could gather to attack
them.
Greene takes charge in South. — Soon after this fight,
General Nathanael Greene of Rhode Island was sent to take
1
*.1
General Nathanael Greene
4
1780]
FROM COLONIES TO STATES
167
command of the “ shadow of an army ” in the South. It
lacked guns, powder, and shot; the soldiers were hungry
and ragged, often shoeless and hatless. Opposed to them
was a well-equipped army under a skillful general. But
the patriots had now
able commander,
and he was aided by
the bold partisan lead¬
ers already mentioned,
•—Marion, Sumter,
and Pickens, — and
by brave General
and daring #Pff
called
“ Light
Horse
Harry.”
Battle of
Cowpens [Janu-
ary 17, 1781].—
Greene divided his
little army. Morgan
with nine hundred men was
sent into South Carolina to
take the posts held by the
British. Reckless, boastful
Tarleton with 1100 men pursued Morgan and was defeated
at Cowpens, losing in killed, wounded, and prisoners, 800
men ; the Americans lost only seventy-three men in the
battle. Then Morgan was pursued by Cornwallis, but he
hurried north and joined Greene,
Greene’s Carolina Campaign
168 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1781
Greene’s retreat — The patriots withdrew before the
advancing British. In order to escape, they must cross
three rivers, — the Catawba, the Yadkin, and the Dan.
If the British could overtake and attack the little army
where a river cut off retreat, it could easily be defeated
and destroyed. This Cornwallis tried to do. The patriots
tried to keep a river between them and the enemy. The
march thus became a race for the rivers, — a hurried
journey through rain and snow, over muddy or frozen
roads. The Catawba and the Yadkin were passed in
safety ; Cornwallis hastened to the fords of the Dan, where
he thought Greene would go, but Greene collected boats
and crossed the river lower down. The race of two hun¬
dred and fifty miles was ended; the patriots were safe.
In the vain chase, Cornwallis had sustained greater losses
than in battle.
“ Greene is as dangerous as Washington,” he said ; “ he
is vigilant, enterprising, and full of resources.”
Battle of Guilford Courthouse [March 15]. — Greene re¬
ceived reenforcements and then marched back to Guilford
Courthouse, now called Greensboro in his honor. There a
battle was fought. The militia fired and then retired in dis¬
order ; the regulars opened their ranks, let the militia pass,
kept up the fight as long as they could, and finally retreated
in good order. Though the patriots were defeated, they
remained in control of most of North Carolina. Instead
of returning south after the battle of Guilford Courthouse,
Cornwallis marched north into Virginia, leaving Lord
Rawdon in charge of the troops in the Carolinas.
Battles of Hobkirk’s Hill [April 25] and Eutaw Springs
[September 8]. — Greene was defeated at Hobkirk’s Hill
and he fought a drawn battle at Eutaw Springs.
“ We fight, get beat, rise, and fight again,” he wrote to a
friend.
FROM COLONIES TO STATES
169
1781]
By courage and perseverance, the patriots got control of
North and South Carolina and of Georgia. The British
were driven to the seaports, — Savannah, Charleston, and
Wilmington,—where they were protected by their ships.
The South was again in the hands of the patriots.
Summary [1779-1781]. — Failing in their plan to occupy New York
and conquer the colonies by sections, the British resolved to attack and
conquer them one by one, beginning at the South. Savannah was taken
and Georgia was overrun. Charleston was taken and South Carolina
was conquered. The only patriot forces left in the South were partisan
bands led by Marion, Sumter, and Pickens. Gates, sent South to com¬
mand the patriot forces, was defeated at Camden. This was a gloomy
time. The patriots were in sad need of money and supplies. Arnold
turned traitor and joined the British. The patriots, however, won a
victory at King’s Mountain. Soon after this battle, Greene took charge
of the southern army. He made a masterly campaign, and though he
won few victories he regained control of the South.
6. The End of
the War
Cornwallis in
Virginia. —Vir¬
ginia now be¬
came the seat of
war. Arnold
went there with
a British force
and was joined
bv Cornwallis.
W ashington
sent Lafayette
with 1200 New
England sol¬
diers to aid the
Virginians.
Lord Cornwallis
170 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1781
“The boy cannot escape me,” said Cornwallis, when he
learned how small a force the young Frenchman had. But
the ‘ boy ’ kept out of the way skillfully until he was too
strongly reenforced for Cornwallis to risk battle.
Cornwallis expected Clinton to send a fleet to his aid,
and, in order to be in reach of this, he took up a position
at Yorktown. Up to this time, the British had controlled
the sea. Now at last the French fleet was to do good
service. It entered Chesapeake Bay, forced the British
fleet which came to Cornwallis’s help to retire to New York,
and shut in Cornwallis on the east. Lafayette’s force, in¬
creased to 5000 men, was on the other side. Meanwhile,
by threatening to attack New York, Washington prevented
Clinton’s sending aid to Cornwallis.
Cornwallis’s surrender [October 19, 1781]. — Leaving a
small force on the Hudson, Washington marched South
with 6000 men so secretly
and so rapidly that Clinton
did not suspect his pur¬
pose till he had passed
Philadelphia and pursuit
was vain. By a hurried
march of four hundred
miles, he joined Lafayette.
The patriot lines drew
closer and closer around
the little British army, and
at last, in October, 1781,
gallant Cornwallis, the
ablest of the British com¬
manders in America, was
forced to surrender. Clin¬
ton, with a large fleet and
Washington’s March to Yorktown army, started from New
The Surrender of Cornwallis
172
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1781
York to Virginia the day of the surrender. He had
repeated the mistake of the New York campaign of 1777,
and been too slow in giving aid to Cornwallis as to Bur-
goyne. The result was disastrous to the British.
Messengers galloped to Philadelphia, bearing to Con¬
gress tidings of Cornwallis’s surrender. The citizens were
roused by the watchman’s cry, “Two o’clock and Corn¬
wallis is taken.” The next day, Congress marched to
church and gave thanks to God for saving the country.
After five years of hard fighting, the patriots had made
good their Declaration of Independence and the colonies
were in fact “free and independent states.”
Clinton, indeed, wished to continue the war. He knew
that the Americans were weak and had a small army of
unpaid, ill-fed, poorly-clothed men. He told the home
government that if it would send him 10,000 soldiers, he
could and would conquer the colonies. But Great Britain
was in no condition to continue the struggle. India was
in rebellion; France, Spain, and Holland were waging war
against her; Russia and other northern states of Europe
were unfriendly. The 10,000 soldiers were not sent to
America. Instead, a treaty of peace was agreed on.
Articles of Confederation [1781].— It was with a united
country that the treaty was made. In 1781, the states
agreed to the Articles of Confederation proposed nearly
four years before. By this, the thirteen states formed a
Confederation, a “ firm league of friendship ” for common
defense and welfare; each one preserved “ its sovereignty,
freedom, and independence.”
Maryland was the last state to sign the Articles of Con¬
federation ; fearing that the states which had western
* back lands ’ would gain too much power and control the
others, it refused to sign the Articles until the states which
claimed these * back lands ’ gave them up to the Confeder-
r a>:ies Bay
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JVooS
dSanlt
Montreal
Oswe;
mass', i
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IportstnontM
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J1 l S S A Columbia ,
which at once became a popular national song. America
prepared for war. An army was organized and Washing¬
ton was appointed its commander in chief. Ships were
built, and the navy was made a separate department in¬
stead of a division of the War Department.
Peace with France.—War was not declared against
France, but Americans were authorized to attack French
vessels. This they did, and a frigate was captured. As a
patriot said, ‘America gave France the only tribute we
would yield — shot and shell.’ About this time, Napoleon
Bonaparte gained supreme power in France. He had
European wars on his hands, and preferred to keep on
friendly terms with the United States. So the French
government expressed its disapproval of the X Y Z affair
and the conflict — war in all but name — was ended.
Naturalization, Alien, and Sedition Acts [1798]. — Dur¬
ing the excitement of the time, Congress passed the Natural¬
ization, Alien, and Sedition Acts. The Naturalization Act
increased the period of residence required for citizenship
from five to fourteen years. The Alien Acts gave the
president power to send out of the country foreigners whom
he thought dangerous to the government. The Sedition
Act said that persons who ‘ wrote, printed, uttered, or pub-
1708 )
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
195
lished ’ anything calculated to bring the president or Con¬
gress “into contempt or disrepute,” were to be fined and
imprisoned.
People in all parts of the country objected to the Alien
and Sedition Acts, saying that they took away the rights
of free speech and trial by jury. Virginia and Kentucky
issued resolutions of protest [1798, 1799]. These resolu¬
tions said that the Constitution was a compact or agree¬
ment formed by the states which delegated to the general
government certain powers. If it assumed powers not
delegated, its acts were unlawful and could be set aside by
the states.
Jefferson elected president. — In the next election, the
Democratic-Republican candidates were elected by a large
majority. According to the law at that time, the person
who received the most electoral votes became president
and the one who had the next highest number became vice
president. Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, the candidate for
president, and Aaron Burr of New York, the candidate for
vice president, received the same number of votes. The
House of Representatives had to choose one of the two as
president. The House was controlled by the Federalists
who disliked Jefferson so much that they were tempted to
set aside the will of the people and to give the first place
to the man intended for the second one, but, after thirty-
six ballots, Jefferson was elected. In order that such a
case might not occur again, the Twelfth Amendment was
passed, requiring votes to be cast for president and vice
president separately.
Summary [1797-1801]. —John Adams of Massachusetts, the second
president, served one term. The chief event of his term was hostility
with France. On account of this, the unpopular Naturalization, Alien,
and Sedition Acts were passed.
196 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [170^1800
4. The Republic at the End of the Eighteenth
Century
The American republic. — The eighteenth century had
brought many changes to America. During it, the British
had overcome the French in the New World ; the colonies
had been estranged by the government of a foolish, self-
willed king, and had fought a war which secured their
independence ; the thirteen independent states had united
in a republic under one general government.
Population [1800].—The second census showed that
in ten years the country’s population had increased from
First Fire Engine used in Brooklyn, 1785
nearly four millions to over five millions, of which about
one-sixth were slaves. The business and profits of slavery
were shared by all sections. The trade was carried on by
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
1700-1800]
197
New England vessels; the slaves were worked chiefly in
southern fields.
There were only a few cities in the country. These
were dirty and undrained; fevers, smallpox, and other
diseases were common and deadly. There were no police¬
men; instead, citizens served as watchmen or hired men
to serve in their places. These watchmen walked about
the streets, carrying lanterns and calling out the hour and
the weather.
Industries. — The end of the eighteenth century found
all the sixteen states ‘ more forest than field, more wilder¬
ness than plotted ground.’ The vast natural sources of
the country’s wealth—fertile soil, valuable forests, and
rich mines — were hardly touched. Labor and capital
were needed to develop these. America was the land of op¬
portunity. Every man who could use his head or his hands
to advantage could make his way there. Three-fourths of
the people in the country were engaged in agriculture. It
was an important industry in the Middle States and almost
the only one in the South. The Southern States produced
chiefly rice, indigo, cotton, tobacco, and naval stores,—tar,
pitch, and turpentine. The Middle States shipped naval
stores and exported grain, cattle, and furs. New England
had some manufactures and kept hundreds of ships busy
with its trade and fisheries.
Agricultural methods were bad and wasteful. A gentle¬
man of the time said: “ When the forest was first cleared,
laying bare the rich, deep, black, virgin soil, the slow accu¬
mulation of ages of growth and decay, tobacco was grown
for five successive years. That broke the heart of the land,
and it was allowed to rest for awhile. Then tobacco was
raised again until the crop ceased to be remunerative ; and
then the fields were abandoned to nature. They sowed
wheat in the virgin soil among the stumps, next year corn,
198 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1700-1800
then wheat, then corn again; and maintained this rotation
as long as they could gather a harvest of five bushels of
wheat or ten bushels of corn to the acre; after which
nature was permitted to have her way and new lands
were cleared for spoliation.”
Means of transit. — Water was still the chief and most
convenient highway. Most of the travel on land was done
in private carriages or on horseback. There were stage
An Old Stage Coach
lines between some cities. Soon after the French and
Indian War, a stage coach called ‘the flying machine’
made in two days the trip between New York and Phila¬
delphia : usually the journey, which now takes two hours
by rail, occupied three days. The coaches started early
in the morning and traveled until late at night. They
1700-1800]
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
199
jolted over stones and stumps, forded small streams and
crossed large ones in ferryboats. When the ruts were
deep, the driver would call “ To the right! ” or “ To the
left! ” and people would lean in the direction named to
keep from being overturned. Sometimes, men would have
to get out and put their shoulders to the wheels and prize
the coach out of a mudhole. It was no unusual thing for
horses to be drowned and wagons sunk on the highway.
There was more danger in traveling from Boston to
Charleston than there is now in a journey around the
world.
Settlement of West. — One might suppose that the
difficulty of getting about the country would keep people
at home, but it did not. When the first census was taken,
nine-tenths of the people in the United States lived east of
the Allegheny Mountains. Already, the building up of the
country beyond the mountains was beginning. Pioneers,
with their families and cattle, were going west into the
wilderness.
These pioneers — daring, hardy, rough, independent men
— lived like the first colonists. They built log houses or
‘half-faced camps,’—log sheds open on the south side.
Usually they formed settlements for protection against
Indians. A group of cabins was surrounded by a stockade
and had blockhouses for defense and refuge. The settlers
cleared land and raised corn, wheat, hemp, cotton, and
tobacco. They carried their firearms to the field, and a
party of men at work was protected by a watchman, gun in
hand. In any thicket there might lurk Indians, bent upon
killing the hated white men who were seizing their hunting
grounds. The contest between the races was especially
bitter in Kentucky, called “the dark and bloody ground.”
Goods brought by packhorses or boats from the distant
settlements were high in price. Salt, for instance, sold
200
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [170^1800
for ten dollars the pound. The pioneers learned to raise
or make most things that they needed, and bought little
except powder and shot, guns and knives. They obtained
salt by boiling down the water of salt springs. Piles of
skins were used for beds and bedding. Furniture consisted
of a few tables and benches made with ax, auger, and saw.
The men wore buck-skin hunting shirts and leggings,
moccasins of deer-skin or buffalo hide, and ‘coon-skin’
caps. They were seldom seen without their long-barreled
rifles.
The western settlers had no convenient markets. Usu¬
ally, they carried their furs and farm produce in flatboats
to New Orleans and returned home by land. The trip
took three or four months and was dangerous as well as long
and toilsome. Spain, which owned New Orleans and the
Louisiana territory, did not wish the Americans to use the
river. But the pioneers persisted, meeting hardship and
danger cheerfully. They held their own against Spaniards,
Indians, and wild beasts, and built up the great West.
Life in East. — Life in the East was less rough and
dangerous than in the West, but the century since the
French and Indian War had brought few changes in the
manner of living. Each family or neighborhood depended
largely on itself. It grew its own food, spun and wove its
own cloth, and made all its own clothing. For fuel and
lights, people still used chiefly wood and candles.
Food. — People ate plain food and had little variety.
They had wheat and corn bread, salt fish, pork, game, and
a few vegetables raised in their own gardens. Travelers
said even then that southern people were fond of hot
breads, and that baked beans were a favorite Sunday dish
in New England. Much liquor was drunk, and rich men
imported wines and brandies. Tobacco was generally
used ; men and women smoked pipes and used snuff.
1700-1800]
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
201
Dress. — Poor people dressed in coarse homespun;
wealthy ones wore rich fabrics brought from Europe. The
dress of men was very unlike that of to-day. A man of
fashion wore a cocked
hat, a velvet coat, silk
waistcoat, ruffled and
embroidered shirt, satin
or cloth knee breeches,
and long silk stockings.
He wore his hair long,
curled and powdered,
and he carried a sword
and a gold or silver
snuff box. Ladies had
dresses of heavy satin
and beautiful brocaded
silk, made with long
waists, and full skirts
draped over huge hoop-
skirts. Their hair was
dressed high and pow¬
dered.
Tools and inven¬
tions. — People lacked
many things that we regard as necessities. They had no
friction matches, cooking stoves, nor sewing machines.
Farmers plowed their fields with wooden plows drawn by
horses or oxen, they sowed or planted their seed by hand,
worked their crops with hoes, cut grain with sickles and
threshed it with flails.
Almost the only American labor-saving invention of the
century was the cotton gin. James Watt, a Scotchman,
had invented the steam engine and it was being used in
England to run machinery. Two Americans had experi-
202 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [170^1800
mented with steamboats, and both had made successful
trips, — John Fitch on the Delaware River, James Rumsey
on the Potomac, — but neither of the in¬
ventors had money and influence to make
his invention a practical success; people
laughed at them when
they said that steam¬
boats could travel up
and down rivers and
even cross the Atlantic
Ocean.
Architecture. —111
both the North and the
South, there were some
handsome, well-fur¬
nished houses. In the
North, these were usu¬
ally the homes of
wealthy merchants; in
the South, of great
planters. Most of these houses were of the simple, dignified
style used in England during the reigns of the Georges.
Many of these old houses are still standing; two fine
examples are the Longfellow Home in Massachusetts and
Westover in Virginia.
Art. —The halls and parlors of most of these mansions
were adorned with family portraits. Photography had not
yet been invented, and most well-to-do people had their
portraits painted in oils. Artists found portraiture the
most popular and profitable branch of painting. America
produced in the eighteenth century three skillful artists,—
Benjamin West of Pennsylvania, John Copley of Massa¬
chusetts, and Gilbert Stuart of Rhode Island. All three
were good portrait painters, and West’s historical pictures,
are well known.
Lady and Gentleman in the Dress of the End of
the Eighteenth Century
I 7 oo -I ^oo)
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
203
were the chief studies. Longfellow’s Home at Cambridge
The first state uni¬
versity established was that of Pennsylvania, the beginning
of which was an academy founded by Franklin [1771].
Education. —For most people, education was still limited
to reading, writing, and arithmetic. In New England,
some of the public
schools were begin¬
ning to admit girls.
There were a few
colleges in the coun¬
try, of which the best
known were Harvard,
William and Mary,
Yale, and Princeton.
At these institutions,
Latin and Greek
An Old Virginia Mansion, Westover, in Charles City County
204 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE 11700-1800
There were two medical schools in the country, — the
one at Boston, the other at Philadelphia; in these schools,
students were taught to prepare as well as to prescribe
medicines. Each doctor mixed his own drugs and prepared
his powders, salves, and pills.
William and Mary College, Williamsburg, Virginia. The second college
in the United States, founded in 1693.
Literature. — Most of the American writings of the
eighteenth century were books and papers, now little read,
on the subjects of history and politics. Colonel William
Byrd, a Virginia gentleman, wrote an entertaining account
of his travels. Jonathan Edwards of Connecticut was a
deep thinker who wrote ably about theology and philos¬
ophy. His chief work was On the Freedom of the Will.
Few of us will read it, but it will be well for all of us to
remember Edwards’s two resolutions: “To do whatever I
think to be my duty” and “To live with all my might
while I do live.” The Federalist letters by Hamilton,
Madison, and Jay formed an able, well-written statement
and defense of the Constitution. Wise, witty Benjamin
Franklin was the foremost author of the Middle States.
1700-1800]
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
205
He wrote about politics, science, and other subjects in a
clear, shrewd way. His Autobiography is a charming book.
Every year for twenty-five years, he published Poor Rich¬
ard's Almanac , the best of the popular periodicals contain¬
ing weather forecasts, jokes, and advice.
During the closing years of the eighteenth century, there
were born four men who were to be our first great men of
letters. These were Cooper, Irving, Bryant, and Prescott.
Customs and laws. —The customs and laws of the country
were still harsh. Children, servants, and slaves were
severely beaten for small offenses. Insane persons were
chained and whipped. Criminals were herded together in
prison and often cruelly treated. Men were imprisoned
years for a small debt. Kind, just treatment of the unfor¬
tunate and criminals was a matter of slow growth.
There had been a great advance in religious matters.
In all the states, people had religious liberty and were free
to worship as they pleased. This right was secured to
them by the Constitution. In many of the states, the laws
about the observance of Sunday were very strict. Once
when President Washington was going through Connecti¬
cut, he missed his way, and in order to attend the church
where he was expected he had to drive several miles on
Sunday morning. His coach was stopped by a tithing
man, an officer whose duty it was to enforce the law, and
the president was not allowed to proceed until he explained
the circumstances which made it necessary for him to travel
on Sunday.
Summary [1700-1800]. — At the end of the eighteenth century, the
Americans had won independence and established a republic. Nearly
nine-tenths of the people lived east of the Allegheny Mountains, but
the building up of the West had begun. In the manner of living, there
had been few changes during the century. The cotton gin was the only
important labor-saving invention in America; in England, the steam
206 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE Ix8oi
engine was coming into use. During the eighteenth century, America
produced three popular artists, — West, Copley, and Stuart; and two
notable authors, Jonathan Edwards and Benjamin Franklin. In many
respects, customs were still harsh and laws severe, but people now had
religious liberty.
5. Jefferson’s Terms [1801-1809]
Democratic-R epublican
Washington City. — Jefferson was the first president in¬
augurated in Washington City. The seat of government
was first New York City and next Philadelphia. Then
City of Washington in 1800
the capital was moved to the District of Columbia on the
Potomac River, and a noble city was laid out. When Jef¬
ferson became president, however, Washington City existed
only on paper; there were a few buildings scattered here
and there in fields and woods.
Chief Justice Marshall. — The oath of office was admin¬
istered to Jefferson by John Marshall of Virginia, a famous
Federalist lawyer, whom Adams had appointed chief jus-
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
207
1801]
tice of the Supreme Court. Marshall held this office for
over a third of a century. He was a quiet, simple-mannered
gentleman who might be seen
any Saturday walking home with
his market basket in his hand.
Marshall, like Hamilton, be¬
lieved in a strong central govern¬
ment, built up by the use of
‘implied powers.’ In his deci¬
sions of the cases brought before
him, the chief justice set forth
his views of the Constitution,
and did so much to direct the
course of government that he is
called ‘ the second maker of the
Constitution.’
President Jefferson.—Jeffer¬
son resembled Marshall in his
unassuming habits, but their
views about government were very different. The presi¬
dent thought “that government is best which governs
least,” and he wished to have a ‘ simple, inexpensive, un-
meddlesome ’ government. Although he was by birth a
member of the rich planter class, he was ‘ the comrade and
work fellow of the common people.’ “I am persuaded
that the good sense of the people will always be found
the best army,” he said; “ they may be led astray for the
moment, but will soon correct themselves.”
Like Franklin, Jefferson was a ‘many-sided man,’ — in¬
ventor, scientist, scholar, author, philosopher, and states¬
man. He was an expert horseman, an excellent shot, and
a skillful player of the violin ; he was fond of outdoor sports
and of books; his slender body was as active as an Indian’s
and his mind was energetic and well-trained.
2 o8
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1803
Partisan appointments.—Jefferson’s predecessor, Adams,
was a Federalist, and he had appointed men of his own
party to office. Jefferson was urged to follow the plan of
political parties in New York and some other states and
turn out officehold¬
ers to make room
for men of his own
party. Then, as
later, there were
few vacancies in
government offices,
— “those by death
are few,” said Jef¬
ferson ; “ by resig¬
nation, none.” He
said that he would
remove Federalists
and appoint Demo¬
cratic-Republicans
till the officeholders
of the two parties
were about equal in
number, after which
he would “ return
with joy to that state of things when the only question
concerning a candidate shall be, ‘ Is he honest ? Is he
capable? Is he faithful to the Constitution?’”
Ohio admitted to Union [1803]. — While Jefferson was
president, Ohio, the first state formed from the Northwest
Territory, was admitted as a state of the Union.
Louisiana Purchase. — The year that Ohio became a
state, the size of the United States was more than doubled
by the purchase of Louisiana. The United States had
tried to purchase from France, to which this territory had
Thomas Jefferson
»
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*
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Lonlltude 100' Wwt frora Of) Greenwich
THE UNITED STATES IN 1803.
1803]
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
209
been ceded by Spain, a strip of coast including New Orleans,
so as to secure the mouth of the Mississippi River as an
outlet. Napoleon refused to sell a part of the French
possessions in America, but offered to sell the whole. He
was preparing for war with Great Britain; this sale would
supply the funds that he needed, and would rid France
of territory which would be hard to defend against the
British. The Americans accepted his offer, and the Louisi¬
ana territory was bought, in 1803, for $ 15,000,000. Many
Federalists opposed buying “an unmeasured world beyond
the Mississippi,” with rivers leading trade from the east to
the south. Most people, however, approved the purchase,
thinking that the United States, which controlled a part of
the Mississippi River system, ought to control the whole.
The exact boundaries of Louisiana were not given, but
it was understood to extend from the Gulf of Mexico to
Canada and from the Mississippi River to the Rocky
Mountains. Out of this territory were formed, in course
of time, the states of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa,
Nebraska, Montana, North and South Dakota, and Okla¬
homa, and parts of Minnesota, Kansas, Colorado, and
Wyoming. When it was purchased by the United States,
its population consisted of some Indian tribes and about
40,000 white people settled chiefly along the Mississippi
and Red rivers. New Orleans was a flourishing city.
The eastern part of the territory was known to be
fertile and well-watered. Jefferson foretold that the great
Mississippi Valley “ will erelong yield more than half of
our whole produce and contain more than half our inhabit¬
ants.” Of the northern and western parts of the Louisi¬
ana territory, little was known. People still hoped that the
Missouri River would furnish a water-way to the Pacific.
Wonderful tales were told of the unexplored regions. It
was said, for instance, that some distance up the Missouri
p
210
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1804
River there was a great mountain of pure salt, white and
glittering, nearly two hundred miles long and about fifty
miles wide, from which flowed streams of salt water.
Lewis and Clark’s expedition [1804-1806].—A band of
men was sent to explore the northwestern country. The
party consisted of about thirty brave, sensible, energetic
men. They were led by Captain Meriwether Lewis and
Captain William Clark. They left St. Louis, then a little
“ frontier town of’log cabins,” ascended the Missouri River,
following first its south fork and then its western branch,
until they reached its source and stood on the Great Divide
of the continent. Less than a mile from the source of the
Missouri, they found a westward-flowing stream, a branch
of the Columbia River. After eighteen months’ travel,
they reached the mouth of the Columbia and “ saw the
waves like small mountains rolling out in the sea,” — that
is, the Pacific. The Columbia River had been discovered
a few years before by a Boston ship captain who gave it
the name which it now bears.
The American explorers spent the winter, on the Pacific
coast, and then returned home. They had traveled 8000
miles through a region which had never before been
visited by white men. Their journals give interesting
descriptions of the country, its minerals, plants, animals,
and Indian tribes. Among other things, they described
prairie dogs, antelopes, and grizzly bears before unknown
to white men.
First war with Barbary States [1801-1805].—While this
expedition was exploring the northwest, a small American
fleet was making war on Tripoli. For hundreds of years,
the Barbary States — Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco
— had made a business of piracy, seizing ships and cargoes,
and killing or enslaving their crews. The United States
and other countries were in the habit of paying these pi-
1801-1805]
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
211
rates not to molest their vessels. A larger tribute was de¬
manded from the Americans, and when this was not paid,
Tripoli declared war. The American fleet soon brought
the robber-states to terms. Again the safety of American
commerce was secured by shot and shell instead of by
tribute.
British ‘Orders’ and French ‘Decrees.’—During the
early years of the nineteenth century, Europe was swept
by wars. Napoleon made himself Emperor of the French
and conquered most of western Europe. Great Britain
almost alone contended against him. Its chief strength
was its navy, and it tried to use this so as to cut off sup¬
plies from Napoleon. It issued ‘ Orders in Council,’ for¬
bidding neutral ships to go to ports belonging to the
French or friendly to them. Napoleon, in turn, issued
‘ Decrees,’ forbidding neutral ships to trade with Great
Britain and its colonies.
These ‘ Orders ’ and ‘ Decrees ’ were a great hardship
to Americans. It was not safe to send goods in vessels
belonging to nations engaged in war for fear they would
be seized by the enemy. As most of the countries of Eu¬
rope were taking part in the war, the trade of the world
was carried on chiefly in American vessels. The United
States protested to France and Great Britain that the
‘Orders’ and ‘Decrees’ were contrary to our rights as a
neutral state. The protest was disregarded. Warships
attacked our merchant vessels that went to the forbidden
ports. Within a few years, Great Britain seized nearly a
thousand American ships and France seized over five
hundred.
“ England seems to have become a den of pirates and
France a den of thieves,” complained Jefferson.
Impressment. —The British continued to search Ameri¬
can ships and impress sailors. Many of these men really
212 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1807
were deserters; when Great Britain needed every one,
seamen were leaving her service by hundreds and thou¬
sands and shipping on American vessels. But many of
the men impressed were American subjects by adoption or
by birth.
Embargo Act
[1807]. — It
seemed that
America must
fight for her
rights or must
abandon the seas.
She was still too
weak to fight,
if it could be
avoided. Presi¬
dent Jefferson
thought that it
would be better
to abandon the
seas for awhile,
hoping that the
injury to French
and British trade
would cause
these nations to
make terms. Ac¬
cordingly, an
Embargo Act
Caricatures of Jefferson and the Embargo Was passed, for¬
bidding ships to
leave America for foreign ports. Trade was at a standstill.
Northern ships and sailors were idle, instead of plowing
the sea which was ‘ New England’s farm.’ The wheat and
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
213
1807]
live stock of the Middle States, shut out from market, fell
to one-half their value. The South not only had no sale
for its crops of tobacco, rice, and cotton, but had its hosts
of slaves to support as in times of prosperity.
All parts of the country suffered from the Act, but dis¬
content was greatest in New England. There secession
from the Union was threatened unless the Embargo Act
was repealed. It was repealed. In its place, a Non-inter-
course Act was passed [1809], which forbade trade only
with France and Great Britain.
The hardships of this time were not without benefit.
The stopping of foreign trade encouraged home industries.
Manufacturing was established, especially in New England.
Means of transit. — These foreign affairs occupied sev¬
eral years. Meanwhile, two steps were taken to improve
Conestoga Wagon
means of transit: a great western highway was planned
and the steamboat was invented.
At first, pioneer travelers sought water-ways ; then as it
became necessary to cross the land, they followed Indian
trails and buffalo roads. The Indian trails were mere
2! 4 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE (i&o 7
tracks,a few inches wide, along which the savages traveled
single file; they usually followed the divides between
streams and the gaps in mountains. West of the Appa¬
lachians, the buffaloes were the great roadmakers, travel¬
ing in vast herds from one feeding ground to another and
choosing with unerring instinct the best routes through the
mountain gaps and along the watersheds.
Cumberland Road.—The government planned a high¬
way along the old Indian trails, to the common estate in
the West. In course of time, a good road with a hard
surface, easy grades, and substantial bridges was built
from Cumberland in Maryland to the Ohio River. No
railroad of to-day is of so much importance as was this
highway, for it was the only good, safe route to the West.
The Clermont
Fulton’s steamboat [1807]. — About this time, a success¬
ful attempt was made to apply steam to water navigation.
Robert Fulton invented a steamboat with side-wheels
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
215
1807]
turned by machinery. His vessel, the Clermont , looked
“ like a backwoods sawmill mounted on a scow and set on
fire.” But this clumsy little vessel could travel against
wind and tide, and was the parent of our great steam¬
ships which make the
“ once-dividing sea a
silver bridge.” The
Clermont made in thirty-
three hours the hun-
dred-and-fifty-mile trip
from New York City to
Albany which took sail¬
ing vessels several days.
Jefferson retires to
private life. — Jefferson, like Washington, was urged to
accept a third term; like Washington, he refused. The
example of these great presidents has established a cus¬
tom, as strong as law, that no president shall serve more
than two terms.
Summary [1801-1809]. — Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, the third
president, served two terms. While he was president, Ohio was ad¬
mitted to the Union; steps were taken to improve transit by land and
water, by building a highway to the West and by Fulton’s invention of
a steamboat. Louisiana, the vast territory between the Mississippi
River and the Rocky Mountains, was purchased from the French.
A brief, successful naval war was waged against the Barbary States.
On account of French and British attacks on American ships, the
Embargo Act was passed, forbidding foreign trade; it was so unpopular
that a Non-intercourse Act was substituted for it.
6. Madison’s Terms: The War of 1812 [1809-1817]
D cm ocra tic-Repub lican
President Madison. — James Madison of Virginia, ‘the
father of the Constitution,’ succeeded Jefferson as presi-
Monticello, the Home of Thomas Jefferson
216 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1812
dent. Madison was a scholarly, patriotic, peace-loving
gentleman, with grave, modest, courteous manners. His
wife, ‘ Dolly ’ Madison, was a famous social leader.
New states. —
While Madison
was president,
two new states
were admitted to
the Union, Louis¬
iana [1812] and
Indiana [1816].
Louisiana was the
first state formed
from the Louisi¬
ana Territory;
this province was
slave-holding ter¬
ritory and Louis¬
iana was admitted
as a slave state.
Indiana was
formed from a part of the Northwest Territory in which
slavery was prohibited and it was a free state.
War declared against Great Britain [June, 1812].—
Like Jefferson, Madison wished if possible to avoid war.
The Non-intercourse Act was repealed, so that friendly
relations with France and Great Britain might be re¬
sumed if they would stop interfering with American trade.
Napoleon publicly repealed his ‘Decrees.’ Secretly, how¬
ever, he instructed officials to pay no attention to the
public orders; American ships, sailing to ports thought
to be open, were seized with their cargoes.
While France pretended friendship, Great Britain re¬
mained openly hostile. She refused to repeal her ‘Orders,’
1812] the AMERICAN REPUBLIC 217
asserting very truly that Napoleon had not really with¬
drawn his ‘Decrees.’ Impressments continued. A British
sloop, Little Belt , fired on an American frigate, the Presi¬
dent, and was fired on in turn.
To protect the rights of American seamen, war was de¬
clared against Great Britain. The United States were
weak and unprepared for war. The regular army con¬
sisted of only 7000 men; the navy was composed of seven
frigates and a few smaller vessels ; the government income
was only $10,000,000. The Federalists, especially in New
England where was most of the money of the country,
were opposed to war and were unwilling to furnish money
or troops.
Indian wars. — The difficulties of the time were increased
by Indian risings. Tecumseh, a Shawnee chief, and the
Prophet, his twin brother, attempted, like Pontiac, to unite
the tribes of the Northwest against the white settlers.
The Indians led by the Prophet were defeated by General
Harrison at Tippecanoe, an Indian village on a branch of
the Wabash River.
Two years later, the Creeks, a warlike southern tribe,
rose against the whites. They attacked Fort Mims near
Mobile and killed five hundred persons, sparing neither
women nor children. Andrew Jackson of Tennessee led
the militia of Tennessee and Georgia against the Creeks
and defeated them in several battles, winning a final vic¬
tory at Horseshoe Bend on the Tallapoosa River.
Invasion of Canada [1812]. —The War of 1812 was
fought on the borders, — first along the northern frontiers,
then on the eastern shores, and at last on the southern
coast.
At the beginning of the war, the Americans planned
an invasion of Canada. This was to be undertaken by
three armies,—the first coming from Detroit, the second
218 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1812
crossing Niagara River, and the third advancing by way
of Lake Champlain. They were to unite at Montreal and
conquer Canada.
The Army of the Northwest was the first to advance.
With about 2000 men, General William Hull left Detroit,
the most important town of the Northwest, and entered
British territory. General Brock with 3000 men, aided by
Indians under Tecumseh, advanced to meet him. Instead
of fighting, General Hull retreated to Detroit, which he
Scene of the War in the North
surrendered without attempting its defense. This gave
the British control of the Northwest. Hull was tried for
cowardice and sentenced to death, but was pardoned by
the president out of regard to his age and his services in
the Revolution.
That fall, part of the second army which was to invade
Canada crossed Niagara River and took Queenstown
Heights. The militia, which composed the remainder of
the forces, refused to go to the aid of their comrades, say¬
ing that they were not required by law to serve out of
the state. The troops at Queenstown had to surrender.
The third army did not even attempt to enter British terri¬
tory. Thus the planned invasion came to nothing.
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
-*
>
The Constitution
220 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE Ii8i*
Naval battles. —While the Americans were unsuccessful
on land, their navy surprised the world. It had only twelve
warships, and Great Britain, ‘ the mistress of the seas,’ had
a thousand. But the American ships were excellent and
their crews were brave men, skillful sailors, and good gun¬
ners. They had some able captains, too, who had gained
experience in the War with the Barbary States. Their ships
frequented the trade highways of the ocean and attacked
British vessels. Of eighteen ocean duels during the war,
America won fifteen. This was a new record for Great
Britain. During twenty years’ fighting with France, she
had taken hundreds of ships and had lost only five. A
great London newspaper, the Times , said of the American
ships: “ If they fight, they are sure to conquer; if they fly,
they are sure to escape.”
The most famous vessel in the American navy was the
Constitution, called ‘Old Ironsides.’ Her first success was
one of seamanship. She was chased by a British squadron
for three days and nights; more than once the British
were within cannon shot but the vessel succeeded in
getting away. Later, commanded by Captain Isaac Hull,
she attacked the British frigate Gnerrttre in the Gulf of
St. Lawrence [August 19]; after a gallant fight of about
half an hour, in which the British vessel was almost shot
to pieces, the Guerrikre was captured. This was the first
British frigate which had been captured by a frigate for
thirty years.
One of the ships lost by the Americans the second year
of the war was the frigate Chesapeake , commanded by
Captain James Lawrence. It was captured near Boston
Harbor by the British frigate Shannon [June 1, 1813].
Captain Lawrence was mortally wounded; as he was
carried off the deck, he called, “ Don’t give up the
ship,”— words which have become the motto of the
American navy.
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
221
1813]
Campaign of 1813. — The second year of the war, the
Americans again planned to invade Canada. For this
purpose, they put three armies in the field: the Army of
the North near Lake Champlain, the Army of the Center
between Lakes Ontario and Erie, and the Army of the
Northwest on the west shore of Lake Erie.
The Army of the Center crossed Lake Ontario, took
York, — now Toronto, — burned its parliament house, and
destroyed the military stores collected in the town. A
part of the Army of the Northwest, which was commanded
by General Harrison, was defeated at the River Raisin
near Detroit by the British and Indians [January 22]; the
wounded and prisoners were murdered by the savages.
As soon as tidings of this massacre reached the western
settlements, the hardy frontiersmen of Kentucky and Ohio
Perry at the Battle of Lake Erie
this, it was necessary to get control of Lake Erie. Young
Captain Oliver Perry of Rhode Island was sent to Lake
222
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1813
Erie to fight the British fleet. First, he had to build a
fleet of his own. Nails, ropes, sails, tools, guns, and
ammunition were carried by boat up streams and hauled
overland in ox wagons. Captain Perry worked with won¬
derful energy, and in a few months he had at Erie a little
fleet which, as he said, ‘ was growing in the woods the
spring before.’
This fleet attacked a British fleet of about equal
strength [September 10]. Perry’s flagship was destroyed;
he went in a rowboat to another vessel, and in this he
broke through the British line, firing right and left. After
a three-hours’ fight, the British were defeated; it was the
first time that a British squadron ever surrendered. Perry
announced this famous victory in a dispatch to General
Harrison: “We have met the enemy and they are ours,—
two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop. Yours
with great respect and esteem, O. H. Perry.’’
Battle of the Thames.—After the battle of Lake Erie,
the British left Detroit and retired into Canada. They
were followed by the American army under General Har¬
rison which, in the battle of the Thames [October 5],
won a decisive victory over the British and their Indian
allies. Tecumseh was killed and his followers surrendered
to General Harrison. This battle ended the war in the
Northwest. General Harrison resigned, and the next year
younger generals — Brown, Scott, and Ripley — took
the field.
Campaign of 1814.— Again Canada was invaded.
General Jacob Brown, aided by Colonel Winfield Scott,
crossed Niagara River, took Fort Erie, invaded Canada,
and did some good fighting. A battle was fought at
Chippewa [July 5]; the British fell back, but were reen¬
forced, and at Lundy’s Lane near Niagara Falls a stub¬
born drawn battle was fought [July 25]. The Americans
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
223
1814]
retired to their own territory, and the campaign ended
without either side having gained any real advantage.
Napoleon had now been defeated, and Great Britain was
able to send larger forces against the Americans. It
planned to pursue the war with vigor, invading the states
by the Lake Champlain route with a large army and fleet, and
attacking New Orleans with another army and fleet. The
northern campaign was undertaken first.
Battle of Lake Champlain.—Twelve thousand soldiers
were sent down the western shore of Lake Champlain to
attack the American militia at Plattsburg. First, however,
it was important to get control of the lake, on which both
the British and the Americans had small fleets. The British
were superior in ships, guns, and men, but after a hard-
fought battle of less than three hours, the little American
fleet, commanded by young Captain Thomas Macdonough
of Delaware, won the victory [September 11 ]. The British
surrendered some of their vessels
and withdrew the others. Their
army retreated to Canada, and
the planned invasion was aban¬
doned.
British attacks on Atlantic
coast. — British ships swarmed
along the Atlantic coast and
plundered and burned towns
along the undefended coast from
Maine to Virginia. Washington
City was attacked, and the Capi¬
tol and some other buildings were burned. From Wash¬
ington, the British squadron sailed to Baltimore, but it was
repulsed by Fort McHenry which commands the harbor.
During the battle, an American, Francis Key, was de¬
tained on a British vessel. When the firing ceased, he
British Campaign against
Washington, 1814
224 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1814
was ignorant of the result of the fight, and he watched
impatiently till daylight revealed the star-spangled banner
floating above Fort McHenry. Then he expressed his
patriotic joy in a well-known poem, The Star-spangled
Banner.
Hartford Convention. — Despite the successes of the
year, New England’s dislike of the war increased. War
taxes, the attacks on the coast, and the injury to trade
seemed to her to overbalance a few victories by land and
sea. Delegates from Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and
Connecticut met at Hartford and passed resolutions which
amounted to saying that if the war was continued, New
England would withdraw from the Union.
Treaty of peace [December 24]. —While this convention
was in session, a treaty of peace was signed at Ghent.
Great Britain, burdened with a war debt and heavy taxes,
was ready to come to terms. Nothing was said in the
treaty about impressment; but the end of the French war
and the proved ability of Amer¬
ican seamen to defend their
rights had put an end to that
grievance.
Battle of New Orleans [Janu¬
ary 8, 1815]. — The war which
began with defeat ended with a
brilliant victory. Two weeks
after peace was made, before
the slow sailing-ships brought
news of the treaty, a great battle
was fought at New Orleans. This city was attacked by a
British fleet bearing 12,000 men, many of whom were
veterans of European wars. It was defended by General
Andrew Jackson with about 6000 men, chiefly French
Louisianians and militia from Tennessee and other states.
New Orleans and Vicinity
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
225
1815]
General Jackson was cool, brave, and skillful,—the ablest
American general from the time of Washington and
Greene to that of Grant and Lee.
“ Our watchword is victory or death,” he said to his
men. “We will enjoy our liberty or perish in the last
ditch.”
He stationed his troops a few miles below New Orleans,
in a place defended on the left by a swamp and on the
right by the Mississippi River; the front he protected by
earthworks and a ditch. In this strong position, the Ameri¬
cans were attacked by the British under General Edward
Pakenham. The British were driven back, but advanced
again and again to the attack. Finally, they were repulsed
with a loss of 2600 men, including brave General Paken¬
ham himself. The Americans lost only eight men killed
and twelve wounded. This was the worst defeat ever sus¬
tained by a British army.
Results of war. — In the War of the Revolution, the
Americans won political independence of Great Britain;
in the War of 1812, they won commercial independence.
Q
226 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1816
Up to this time, the United States had not been ranked
among the first-class powers of the world, but the naval
exploits of this war gave the republic a new standing.
In order to help pay the war expenses, the Bank of the
United States was reestablished; its charter, which had
expired a few years before, was renewed for twenty years.
American manufactures. — The Embargo Act and the
War of 1812 had stopped American trade and shut in
American produce; they had also shut out foreign goods.
Labor and capital, especially in New England, where both
were most plentiful, were turned from foreign trade to
manufactures and domestic trade.
In a few years, the value of the cotton, woolen, and iron
articles produced at home rose from thousands to millions
of dollars. Factories were started for weaving cotton,
wool, flax, hemp, and even silk. The power loom, run by
steam or water instead of by hand, had been lately in¬
vented and was used in British factories. An American
learned enough about its work to make one, and power
looms were established in New England. A Massachu¬
setts factory received raw cotton in bales; carded, spun,
and wove it, and sent it out as cloth. It was the first
factory in the world to do this.
Tariff. — After the War of 1812, British manufacturers
sought to regain their old markets in the United States and
sent over cargoes of goods which sold readily. Labor was
cheaper and more abundant in Great Britain than in
America; and now that Great Britain was again at peace and
free to devote its energies to trade, there seemed danger of
its controlling the markets of the United States and injur¬
ing or destroying their young industries. American manu¬
facturers asked protection,—that is, they wished a tariff
or tax put on goods brought into the country, so that the
foreign goods, with this tax added to their cost, would have
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
227
1816]
to be sold at a price that would not prevent profits by
home manufacturers. Such a tax is called a protective
tariff.
After some discussion, a protective tariff of about
twenty per cent was put on cotton and woolen goods and
some other articles [1816].
Second war with Barbary States [1815]. — Soon after
the War of 1812, Algerian pirates attacked American ships
to collect tribute. The United States promptly sent a
Calhoun, Webster, and Clay
small fleet against the pirate states in northern Africa,
forced them to release American prisoners, to pay for
captured vessels, and to make a treaty agreeing not to
molest American ships.
The United States never again paid tribute to the
pirates.
Three famous statesmen. — While Madison was president,
there entered Congress three statesmen who were to lead
public affairs during the next forty years. These were
Henry Clay of Kentucky, John C. Calhoun of South Caro-
228
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1816
lina, and Daniel Webster of New Hampshire. Webster
was an able statesman and an eloquent orator, with a person
as “impressive as a cathedral.” Calhoun was a man of
high principle and commanding talents, unsurpassed as a
clear, powerful reasoner. Clay possessed great ability and
remarkable personal charm. He was Speaker of the
House, and under him that office became next to the
president’s in power. He managed the two hundred
members of the House as a skillful coachman manages
his team; on the whole, he managed them for the good
of the country. He lived up to his saying, “ Government
is a trust and the officers of the government are trustees;
and both the trust and the trustees are created for the
benefit of the people.”
Summary [1809-1817]. — James Madison of Virginia, the fourth
president, served two terms. During this time, two new states were
admitted, Louisiana and Indiana.
The War of 1812 was fought against Great Britain in defense of the
rights of American seamen. The war began in 1812 with an unsuc¬
cessful attempt to invade Canada. A British fleet on Lake Erie was
defeated by Perry; then Canada was invaded by General Harrison,
and the battle of the Thames was fought. The British attempted to
invade New York by way of Lake Champlain, but their fleet was de¬
feated by the Americans under Macdonough. The Constitution and
other American ships won brilliant victories. British squadrons
attacked towns on the Atlantic coast and burned the Capitol at Wash¬
ington. In the third campaign against Canada, the Americans, under
Generals Brown and Scott, invaded British territory, and stubborn
battles were fought at Chippewa and Lundy’s Lane. Peace was made
in 1814. Before news of the treaty reached America, a battle was
fought at New Orleans, in which the Americans under Jackson won a
great victory.
About the time of the War of 1812, there were Indian risings, which
ended in the defeat of the northern and southern Indians. In a
second war with the Barbary States, the United States finally defeated
the pirates.
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
1817]
229
7. Monroe’s Terms [1817-1825]
Democratic-Republican
President Monroe. — James Monroe of Virginia, who
succeeded Madison as president, was a tall, broad-shoul¬
dered, fine-looking man ; he had fought at Trenton, Brandy¬
wine, Germantown, and Monmouth, and liked to wear his
Revolutionary uniform of
blue coat, buff small
clothes, and cocked hat.
In manners he was cour¬
teous, dignified, modest.
Jefferson said, “ If his
soul were turned inside
out, not a blot could be
found upon it.” In a
steady, reasonable way, he
defended the rights and
interests of the United
States.
Political affairs. — Dur¬
ing the terms of the first
four presidents, most of
the questions which occupied America dealt with foreign
matters,—Jay’s treaty, ‘the X Y Z papers,’ British
‘ Orders,’ French ‘ Decrees,’ impressment, the Embargo
Act, and the War with Great Britain. After Napoleon
was finally defeated at Waterloo [1815], there was peace
in Europe for the first time since the colonies became a
republic. Foreign affairs ceased to disturb the United
States, and there was deeper interest in domestic affairs.
In the course of time, these divided the people more than
foreign questions had ever done.
James Monroe
2$0 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1*1 1
As a result of the War of 1812, the Federalist party
which opposed it went to pieces and the Democratic-
Republican was the only party left. Monroe’s term is
called the ‘Era of Good Feeling’ because all people be¬
longed to the same party ; during it, however, an issue
took definite shape which was to cause sectional dissension.
This was the question of slavery.
Settlement of West. —The question of slavery was brought
forward by the growth of the country. Steadily, from co¬
lonial days, the frontier moved westward. First, it lay
along the coast; it moved up the streams to their head¬
waters, leaped across the mountains, and passed from the
eastern branches of the Mississippi to the western ones.
A steady stream of pioneers made their way to the pub¬
lic lands west of the Alleghenies. They went down the
water-ways or traveled along the Cumberland Road.
When they found places that pleased them, they built
cabins, set beaver traps, and cleared and cultivated fields.
The chief trade of the West was carried on first by flat-
boats, then by steamboats which went up and down the
Ohio, Tennessee,
Missouri, and
Mississippi rivers.
The flatboats were
often floating
stores, carrying
cloth, knives, pow¬
der, shot, and
other goods to sell
or barter for prod¬
uce,— pork, lum¬
ber, flour, grain,
cotton, tobacco. The boats, laden with produce, dropped
down the Mississippi River to New Orleans. There they
An Ohio Flatboat a Hundred Years Ago
i 8 i 7 l THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
231
and their cargoes were sold, and the crews returned
through the country or came up the river on steamboats.
A Mississippi River Cotton Steamer of To-day
New states.—As the country built up, new states were
formed. In six years, six states were admitted to the
Union, — Indiana [1816], Mississippi [1817], Illinois
[1818], Alabama [1819], Maine [1820], and Missouri
[1821].
Slavery. — The admission of Missouri brought up the
question of slavery. This had now become a sectional
question; it had been almost entirely abolished in the
states north of Mason and Dixon’s line and was practiced
in the states south of it.
The Constitution gave the general government no au¬
thority over the system of slavery; it was a question for
each of the original states to decide for itself and settle by
its own laws. The general government had, however, pro¬
hibited slavery in the Northwest Territory; therefore, the
states formed from it — Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan,
and Wisconsin — entered the Union as free states. Slav¬
ery was allowed in the Southwest Territory, and from it
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1820
slave states were formed. The Ohio River was the bound¬
ary between free and slave states east of the Mississippi.
F'or the original territory, the question was settled.
Missouri Compromise. — But new territory and the mak¬
ing of new states brought the question up again. What
about the vast Louisiana Territory? Under the French
and the Spanish, it was a slave-holding region. Were the
states formed from it to be slave or free ? Its first state
was Louisiana in the extreme south, and that was admitted
with slavery. Its next Missouri, far to the north, had
been settled chiefly by southern men, and it wished to come
in as a slave state also. Northern members of Congress
opposed this. Southern members said that unless Mis¬
souri was admitted as a slave state, they would not agree
to admit Maine, which was also applying for statehood.
Missouri was not a question merely of the future of one
state, but of the balance of power between the two sec¬
tions. There were twenty-two states, of which eleven were
slave and eleven free. The sections had equal power in
the Senate; in the House the North and Northwest had
the majority. Unless slave states were formed west of the
Mississippi, the South would soon be outnumbered in the
Senate as it was in the House, and the free states would
control affairs.
After long and bitter discussion of the matter, each sec¬
tion yielded something and, in 1820, the Missouri Com¬
promise was agreed on: Missouri was admitted as a slave
state; out of the remainder of the Louisiana Territory,
north of the parallel of 36° 30', free states were to be
formed ; south of this line, slave states were to exist. This
compromise gave the South the first state in question, but
it gave the North advantage in the future, as three-fourths
of the Louisiana Territory lay north of 36° 30'. This
decision satisfied, however, neither the North which wished
\
V
»
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%
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
1821I
233
to close the whole territory to slave-holders, nor the South
which wished to open it all to them.
Florida Purchase [1821]. — Slave territory was extended
by the purchase of Florida. This territory, which included
parts of Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, as well as
the present state of Florida, was bought from Spain. For
it the United States paid $5,000,000 and ceded Spain
their claims to Texas, as a part of the Louisiana Territory,
accepting the Sabine River for their boundary on the
southwest.
Monroe Doctrine. — About this time, several of the Span¬
ish provinces in Central and South America declared their
independence and formed republics. The United States,
sympathizing with their desire for liberty and wishing to
trade freely with them, recognized them as independent
states. It was feared that other European nations would
aid Spain to recover the revolted provinces. The United
States were uneasy, too, lest Russia, which owned Alaska,
should attempt to occupy the western coast of North
America.
To prevent these European monarchies from gaining a
foothold on the American continents, President Monroe, in
1823, asserted what is called the Monroe Doctrine. This
says: first, that the United States will not interfere with
the affairs of European nations; second, that the United
States will resent any attempt by European nations to
interfere with any independent American government;
third, that no more European colonies are to be estab¬
lished in North or South America. “The American
continents, by the free and independent conditions which
they have assumed and maintained, . . . are henceforth
not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by
any European power.”
At the beginning of the young republic’s life, Wash-
234
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1823
ington declared, in his Proclamation of Neutrality, the
principle of non-interference in foreign affairs. Monroe
announced formally the principles which had guided the
republic from the first:— that it avoided entanglement in
European politics and it claimed and would keep its place
as the chief power of the western continent.
Lafayette’s visit. —Near the close of Monroe’s second
term, the United States were visited by Lafayette, ‘the
adopted son ’ of the American republic. He who had
come, young, rich, and noble, to aid our struggle for inde¬
pendence, was now old, broken by imprisonment, deprived
by the P'rench Revolution of wealth, estates, and title. He
traveled through all the states, and was received everywhere
as an honored guest. Congress gave him a grant of money
and of land. On the fiftieth anniversary of the battle of
Hunker Hill, he laid the cornerstone of a monument on the
battleground. What wonderful changes had taken place
in the half century since that battle was fought! By two
wars with the mother country, the American states had won
independence and established themselves as a world power.
William Cullen Bryant
Washington Irving
Literature. — In art and literature the young country had
not as yet made much progress. A clever British writer
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
1823]
23 S
asked sneeringly, “ In the four quarters of the globe,
who reads an American book ? ”
Three Americans were beginning to write books that
were worth reading. These were William Cullen Bryant,
Washington Irving, and
James Fenimore Cooper.
Irving and Cooper were
born in New York, and
Bryant made it his
adopted home. Bryant
wrote Thanatopsis, Ode
to a Water Fowl , and
other beautiful poems.
Irving wrote many
charming books. One
of these was Knicker¬
bocker s History of New
York , a humorous ac¬
count of the Dutch col¬
ony. His most popular
work was the Sketch-
Book, containing Rip
Van Winkle , Legend of Sleepy Holloiv , and other tales and
sketches. Later, Irving wrote histories and biographies,
chiefly about Spanish subjects. All young people enjoy
Cooper’s vivid, wholesome sea tales and stories of pioneer
and Indian life. The scenes of three of the best of these—
The Spy , The Deerslayer , and The Last of the Mohicans —
were laid in the state of New York near Cooper’s own
home.
John Quincy Adams elected president. — At the end of
Monroe’s second term, there were four presidential candi¬
dates, all of whom were called Democratic-Republicans.
General Andrew Jackson received most votes and John
236 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1824
Quincy Adams had the next highest number, but the votes
were so scattered that no candidate received a majority; a
second time, the House of Representatives had to choose
the president. Clay and many other public men thought
that Jackson was only “an able military chief,” unfit for
the presidency; they voted for Adams and he was made
president.
Summary [1817-1825]. — James Monroe of Virginia, the fifth presi¬
dent, served two terms. This period is known as t the Era of Good
Feeling 1 ; about this time, however, there came forward the question of
slavery which was to cause strife. The discussion as to whether free
or slave states should be formed from the Louisiana Territory was
settled by the Missouri Compromise ; Missouri was admitted as a slave
state, and it was agreed that the Louisiana Territory north of 36° 30'
should be free and south of that line should be open to slavery. While
Monroe was president, five new states were admitted, — Mississippi,
Illinois, Alabama, Maine, and Missouri. Florida was purchased from
Spain for $5,000,000. The president announced the Monroe Doctrine,
declaring that the United States will not interfere in European affairs
nor allow any European power to interfere in America. Literature was
being developed in America; Bryant, Irving, and Cooper were writing
poems, sketches, and stories.
8. John Quincy Adams’s Term [1825-1829]
Democratic-R epublican
President J. Q. Adams. —John Quincy Adams was the
son of President John Adams. He was a gentleman who
had had every advantage of education and training. He
was able, honest, and hard-working, but his manners were
formal and reserved, and he lacked the gift of winning
friends. In the country at large, he was not popular;
people thought that Jackson, who had received most votes,
ought to have been made president.
Deaths of John Adams and Jefferson. — The year after
1826]
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
237
John Quincy Adams became president, John Adams and
Thomas Jefferson died, both on the fiftieth anniversary
of the Declaration of Indepen¬
dence.
Jefferson’s work for education.
— During the last twenty years
of his life, Jefferson did a work
hardly second to that which he
accomplished as president. He
laid out a system of education,
extending from common schools
where boys and girls were to be
taught free of charge, to a great
university not ruled by any
church or creed. He said that
the schoolhouse ought to be in reach of every man’s door,
John Quincy Adams
Rotunda of the University of Virginia
238 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1826
for “True knowledge and freedom are indissolubly linked
together.”
On Jefferson’s tombstone were inscribed, as he requested,
the three things by which he wished to be remembered,
— not his offices and honors, but that he wrote the
Declaration of Independence and the Virginia statute for
religious liberty and founded the University of Virginia.
Erie Canal [1825]. — While Adams was president, the
Erie Canal was completed. Extending from Buffalo to
Albany, it makes water connection between the Great
Lakes and the Atlantic. Before the Erie Canal was
opened, it cost a hundred dollars to carry a ton of freight
from Albany to Buffalo; soon after it was opened, it
cost one-fifth that sum, and the price fell till it was only
three or four dollars. The crops of the section brought
better prices because it was easier and cheaper to send
them to market. So much freight was carried down the
canal and shipped from New York City that vessels, sure
of cargoes of grain, lumber, etc., came there in preference
to other ports ; New York became the largest and richest
city in the Union.
The Erie Canal gave a new highway to the West. Up
to this time, the chief route had been the southern one
through Cumberland Gap ; now, a route was opened at
New England’s back door, and its hardy, energetic people
sought new homes in the West and Northwest.
Steam railways. — The year that the Erie Canal was
finished, the first steam railway was built in England.
George Stephenson, an English miner, had a few years
before invented a locomotive, or “ traveling engine,” as
he called it. Few people thought that it would ever
furnish a useful means of conveyance, but Stephenson
said : “ Railways will become the great highway for the
king and all his subjects. The time is coming when it
1830]
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
239
will be cheaper for a working man to travel on a railway
than on foot.”
America with its great distances was prompt to adopt
the invention and use ‘ steam coaches ’ and 4 steam wagons ’
An Eirly Railroad Train
to carry passengers and freight. Five years after the first
English railway, short lines were built in Maryland and in
South Carolina [1830].
The first railroads had wooden rails to which strips of
iron were fastened by spikes; these were usually laid on
stone sleepers. The iron strips often came loose and
curled up, causing accidents. Most of the first cars were
drawn by horses and the steam cars ran only fifteen miles
an hour. But, crude as they were, these railroads were
a great benefit. They reduced the cost of travel and of
carrying freight and united the sections of the country.
Democrats and National Republicans. — During John
Quincy Adams’s term, two parties were formed from the
four factions into which the Democratic-Republicans had
been divided in Monroe’s term. Two combined factions
formed the Democratic party and the other two formed
the National Republican party. Both parties disclaimed
any kinship with the Federalists, but their views about the
Constitution were held by the National Republicans and
240 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1828
by the northern branch of the Democratic party. At
that time, party ties were loose, and the northern and
southern branches of the same party were often very far
apart. As a rule, northern men favored a protective
tariff, the Bank, and internal improvements — such as
building roads and canals and improving rivers and
harbors — at national expense; like the Federalists, they
gave the Elastic Clause of the Constitution as authority
for their views. Most southern men, like Jefferson,
interpreted the Elastic Clause strictly; they opposed the
policies mentioned above and approved a low tariff “for
revenue only,” — that is, only high enough to pay the
expenses of the government.
Tariff. —The protective tariff passed after the War of
1812 was supposed to be a temporary measure. Instead
of proving so, a new tariff act was passed a few years
later, and then another which put higher taxes on woolen
and cotton goods, iron, and other articles. This last act,
nicknamed ‘the tariff of abominations,’ raised rates to
nearly fifty per cent. Protests against it came especially
from the South. Naturally, a protective tariff was favored
by the northern states, which manufactured and sold goods.
The southern states, which bought most of their manufac¬
tured goods, wished to buy them as cheap as possible and
wanted a low tariff.
Doctrine of Nullification. — Calhoun — in the name of
his native state, South Carolina, and of the other southern
states that were also by “ soil, climate, habits, and peculiar
labor ” agricultural — protested against the high tariff. By
“ the tyranny of the majority,” he said, it took money out
of farmers’ pockets and put it into manufacturers’ pockets.
If Congress passed a law which sacrificed the interests of
a state, Calhoun said the state could nullify that law, — that
is, forbid it to be executed within its limits. If three-fourths
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
241
1828]
of the states assembled in convention should declare that
the law was constitutional, the objecting state must submit
or leave the Union. Calhoun did not think that a state
could continue to nullify a law and remain in the Union.
Nullification, in his view, was an appeal to the supreme
power of the states. This Doctrine of Nullification was
no new one. It had been proclaimed by Kentucky
against the Alien and Sedition Acts, and by New England
in the Hartford resolutions against the War of 1812. But
it was so clearly set forth by Calhoun and so vigorously
acted upon by South Carolina that it has come to be
regarded as the peculiar doctrine of that statesman and
that state.
Summary [1825-1829]. — John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts, the
sixth president, served one term. The passage of the high tariff, called
i the tariff of abominations, 1 led Calhoun of South Carolina to bring
forward the Nullification Doctrine, asserting that a state could nullify a
law which it considered unjust.
9. Jackson’s Terms [1829-1837]
Democratic
President Jackson. — South Carolina had declared but
not acted upon the Doctrine of Nullification when a new
president came into office. This was Andrew Jackson, the
hero of the battle of New Orleans. All the presidents be¬
fore him had been educated, high-bred gentlemen, and
trained statesmen from the East. Jackson was the first
man of the common people to attain that place; he was a
backwoodsman who made his way upward and onward by
force of will, character, and intellect.
The son of a poor Irish emigrant, he was born in a log
cabin in the Carolina backwoods, and when a boy of only
thirteen, he fought in Marion’s band against the British.
242
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [ifcg
He emigrated to Tennessee and rose step by step, —
farmer, lawyer, judge, general. At sixty*two, he became
president. ‘Old Hick¬
ory,’ as his soldiers
called him, was as
notable in person as in
character. Tall and
slender, he bore him¬
self with dignity, even
stiffness. His eyes
were keen steel-blue;
his face was long, nar¬
row, and sharp fea¬
tured ; his sandy red
hair was growing white.
Hot-tempered, stub¬
born, self-willed, preju¬
diced, he was, as his
friends did not deny;
even his enemies owned
Andrew Jackson that he was fearless,
patriotic, honest, honorable, pure in public and private
life.
‘Kitchen Cabinet.’ — Jackson’s cabinet was composed of
prominent public men, but they were mere figureheads;
he called them together, not to ask counsel, but to inform
them what he intended to do. When he wished advice, he
turned to a group of personal friends, nicknamed ‘the
Kitchen Cabinet.’
Spoils System. — Jackson represented new views, a new
order of things. The country, especially the strong young
West, had grown more and more democratic. People were
in favor of ‘rotation in office,’ especially in the putting out
of office politicians who had been in a long time. Jackson
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
243
1829]
removed low and high officials, and put his friends in their
places. He meant to carry out what he called “ the task of
reform,” and he always claimed that no man was removed
without just cause; but his friends easily persuaded him
From “Historic Towns of Southern States,” used by permission of Messrs. G. P. Putnam’s Sons.
Andrew Jackson’s Birthplace
there was reason for removing men from desired offices.
From the time of John Adams, the first party leader
who became president, offices were filled with men belong¬
ing to the party in power, and it more and more came to be
the custom to turn out opponents in order to make places
for party men. This is called the Spoils System from the
saying of a New York politician: “To the victors belong
the spoils of the vanquished.” This practice of regarding
and using public offices as the ‘victors’ spoils,’ rewards
of party service instead of public trusts, has done more
than any other one thing to corrupt American public life.
The system is being checked by laws to reform civil service.
Removal of Indian tribes to West. — About this time,
several states east of the Mississippi took possession of
244
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1828-42
lands occupied by Indian tribes. The Creek chiefs of
Georgia agreed to cede their lands and move to a reserva¬
tion in the West; but the tribesmen were so opposed to
leaving their homes that they killed the chiefs who had
signed the treaty. The Cherokees, also, refused to give
up their lands. The federal court decided that the states
had no right to take the land granted the Indians by govern¬
ment treaties, but President Jackson upheld the states and
would not enforce the court’s decision. The tribes had to
submit. They were moved to Indian Territory, some peace¬
ably, some by force. Cherokees still tell pitiful tales of the
‘ great removal,’ when, like the Acadians, they were taken
from their homes and carried to a strange region. A few
escaped or made their way back to their old homes, where
their descendants still live.
The Sacs and Foxes refused to leave their homes in
Wisconsin, and were moved West. Many returned, led
by Black Hawk, their chief, but they were defeated and
driven away.
About fifty Seminole ‘braves’ of Florida, led by their
chief, Osceola, retreated to the tangled swamps called
everglades, and for seven years held their own against
the power of the United States. The war to subdue the
Seminoles cost twenty million dollars — four times the cost
of the Florida territory.
All the Indian tribes east of the Mississippi were finally
moved to reservations in the West.
Hayne-Webster debate. —While Jackson was president,
two contrary views of the Union were set forth in a nota¬
ble debate in the Senate. The first speaker was Robert
Y. Hayne of South Carolina. He said that the Constitu¬
tion was a compact, or contract, and the Union a free
partnership from which any state could withdraw when it
pleased.
1830]
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
245
Daniel Webster made a famous speech in reply to Hayne.
Webster denied that the Constitution was a mere compact
and the Union a partnership that could be dissolved. He
said that the Union was a sovereign government which only
revolution could dissolve and that the Constitution was its
“ instrument of government.’’ He pleaded eloquently for
“liberty and Union, now and forever, one and insepar¬
able.”
Relations of states to Union. —The Virginia and Ken¬
tucky Resolutions against the Alien and Sedition Acts and
the New England threats of secession when Louisiana was
purchased and during the War of 1812, had been protested
against as narrow, unwise, selfish. But no one had called
them treason. No one of the statesmen who had aided to
form the Constitution denied the sovereign power of a state
nor claimed that the general government had supreme
authority. Concession was made to reasonable demands,
wise patience was shown with unreasonable ones, and so
the Union was preserved.
To the South, the Constitution and the Union were
the same that they had been to all the states at first, — a
compact and a partnership. The sovereign states had
created the Union ; southern statesmen held that these
states were still sovereign and supreme. But the view
of the rest of the country was changing. By sentiment,
by growth, by interest, by agreement, a new spirit had
risen. In the western states, carved out of the public
lands, the spirit of nationality was strong. These states
naturally regarded the general government which had
formed them as greater than themselves. In the North,
too, a spirit of nationality was growing as the country was
being bound together by railroads and united by wide¬
spread business and industrial interests.
At a banquet in Washington, these two views were ex-
2 4 6 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [183a
pressed in a few words. President Jackson gave as his
toast, “The federal union: it must and shall be preserved.”
Calhoun offered the next toast, “The Union, next to our
liberty the most dear ”; after a pause, he added, “ May
we all remember that it can only be preserved by respect¬
ing the rights of the states and by distributing equally the
benefits and burdens of the Union.”
South Carolina’s Ordinance of Nullification [1832]. — The
South thought that the tariff laws passed near the close of
J. Q. Adams’s term distributed these benefits and burdens
unequally. All the southern states protested against this
high tariff. When no relief was obtained from the Demo¬
cratic Congress after Jackson became president, South
Carolina made a notable protest. It held a convention that
issued an Ordinance of Nullification, declaring the tariff
acts “ null and void and no law, nor binding ” on the state.
Jackson issued a proclamation declaring: “The laws of
the United States must be executed. . . . Disunion by
armed force is treason.” He sent naval forces to Charleston
and ordered the army to be ready for service. Thereupon
the governor of South Carolina called out the state militia.
Compromise tariff of 1833. — Statesmen who thought
the Union supreme and those who thought the state
sovereign now united in efforts to avert the threatened
conflict between a state and the federal .government.
Henry Clay had been the great champion of the protective
tariff, but he thought that, for the sake of harmony, the
rates ought now to be lowered. He was told that if he
favored lower rates he would lose the votes of men who
wanted a high protective tariff and would lessen his
chance of being elected president, — his life-long ambition.
“ I had rather be right than be president,” he answered.
A compromise was carried [1833], which was to lower
rates so as to reach in ten years a 20% rate and form a
1833]
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
247
tax for revenue only. Thereupon, South Carolina repealed
its Ordinance of Nullification.
Bank of United States.—The twenty-year charter of
the Bank of the United States was now about to expire.
Many public men wished to renew the charter, because the
bank gave the country a uniform currency and the gov¬
ernment a convenient agent for transacting its business.
Among the friends of the bank were ‘ the great trio/ — Clay,
Calhoun, and Webster. Jackson was bitterly opposed to
the bank; he did not think that the Constitution gave
Congress the right to establish it; he feared that it was
not sound, and that it was or would become a political
machine and control public affairs by means of money.
Congress passed a bill renewing the bank’s charter, but
Jackson vetoed it. He was the first president to make
use of the veto power, in order to carry out his views in
opposition to Congress. He ordered the public funds to
be withdrawn from the Bank of the United States and
distributed among state banks. For this he was censured
by the Senate, but later the vote of censure was removed
from the records of Congress.
New states. — While Jackson was president, the country
grew and prospered. Two new states were admitted,
Arkansas [1836] and Michigan [1837].
Prosperity. — The debt of the republic was paid; the
tariff brought in more money than the government needed
for its expenses and the surplus was divided among the
states.
The United States were winning the respect of the
world. A clever young Frenchman, De Tocqueville, who
came over to examine American prison systems, wrote a
famous book, Democracy in America. In it he said, “It is
true that in the United States the people govern themselves
and they govern well ”; he thought that one great cause
248 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1829
of their prosperity was that “ among the Americans all
honest callings are honorable.”
Inventions. — About this time, many useful inventions
and labor-saving improvements were made. One of these
was the friction match [1829]. Before matches were in¬
vented, it was so much trouble to start a fire with flint and
tinder that people tried to keep fire in their houses all the
time. Coals were covered with ashes in the fireplace; if
these went out, often a child was sent to a neighbor to
“borrow a shovelful of fire.”
Another important invention was McCormick’s reaping
machine drawn
by horses [1834].
Up to this time,
grain had been cut
with a sickle or
scythe, gathered in
bundles and tied
by hand. This was
slow and tiresome
work. By McCor¬
mick’s invention,
horses and machin-
McCormick’s First Reaper
ery did the work of many human hands. At first, it was
hard to persuade farmers to use the reaper, and for several
years not one was sold. By degrees, people saw its ad¬
vantages, and now hundreds of thousands are used every
year. Wonderful improvements have been made; there
are great machines which cut, thresh, and bag grain ready
for the mill. Mowing machines are used to cut hay, and
horse-rakes and hayforks handle it and save much time
and labor.
Two important inventions were made a little later by
which the work of women was lightened. One of these
1840]
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
249
was the iron cooking stove [1840] ; the other was the sew¬
ing machine, the ‘ iron needle woman/ invented by Elias
Howe [1846]. The important part of
his invention was putting the eye in the
point of the needle, thus enabling a
machine to replace the work of the
hand. In the invention, manufacture,
and use of improved tools, America
has led the world.
About this time, a Frenchman made
an invention which has been the source
of much pleasure and useful informa¬
tion. This was a way of taking pic¬
tures by exposing a sensitive plate to
the sun. Many improvements have been made in the
methods of photography, and they have been so simplified
that even a child can use them. By means of photographs,
we are made familiar with the people, buildings, and
scenery of all parts of the world.
Summary [1829-1837]. — Andrew Jackson of Tennessee, the
seventh president, served two terms. While he was president, two
new states were admitted, Arkansas and Michigan. Two Indian wars,
the Black Hawk and the Seminole, were caused by the removal of
Indian tribes to western reservations. South Carolina, dissatisfied
with the high tariff, passed an Ordinance of Nullification; President
Jackson threatened to enforce the law by arms, but Congress lowered
the tariff rates, and this compromise avoided conflict between the state
and federal governments.
10. Van Buren’s Term [1837-1841]
Democratic
President Van Buren. — Martin Van Buren, who suc¬
ceeded Jackson, was our first president born an American,
not a British subject. He was a ‘ slender little gentleman,
Howe’s Original Sewing
Machine
250
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1837
always courteous, always placid,’ with ability and firmness
under a bland, gentle manner.
Panic of 1837. — The year that Van Buren became presi¬
dent, the country suffered the worst financial panic it has
ever known. There had been a period of great prosperity.
The West was being developed
rapidly, and many railroads
were being built. People carried
on business on credit and by
means of paper money issued
by state banks. So many of
these banks were unsafe that
President Jackson, near the end
of his second term, issued a
‘ specie circular,’ ordering gov¬
ernment agents to take only coin
in payment for public lands.
This circular was “ the pin which
pricked the bubble of speculation.” People everywhere
followed the government’s example and demanded gold
and silver instead of paper money. Banks did not have
coin to pay their notes, and so had to shut their doors;
among those that failed were many ‘pet banks’ in which
government money was deposited.
Men could not collect money due them nor pay their
own debts. Mills and factories closed. Thousands of
people were out of money and out of work. A poor crop
year, making provisions scarce and high, added to the wide¬
spread distress. The poor suffered for food, and there
were bread riots in New York City. Even states were
bankrupt; and the general government, which not long
before had been dividing money among the states, now
needed funds for its own expenses.
Many people thought that the government could help
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
1&37)
2St
matters by issuing paper money and reestablishing the
Bank of the United States. But President Van Buren
thought that the government would do harm by meddling,
and that the only real relief would be that which would
come by degrees from the use of sound business methods.
Gradually matters improved and prosperity returned.
Independent Treasury plan. — One good result of the
panic of 1837 was that government money was removed
from private banks. By Van Buren’s Independent Treas¬
ury or Sub-treasury plan, the government took charge
of its own funds. Instead of being deposited in banks,
these funds were kept in the treasury at Washington and
in branches called sub-treasuries in other cities.
Mormons. — About this time, a religious sect called
Mormons, or Latter Day Saints, attracted serious attention.
It was founded by Joseph Smith of New York, who said
that an angel appeared to him and told him where to find
a golden plate containing a revelation from heaven, the
‘ Book of Mormon.’ Later, Smith said that he was in¬
spired to tell good Mormons that they might practice
polygamy, — that is, have several wives at once. The
Mormons laid out a city in Illinois and built a temple.
The sect was disliked by the people of the neighborhood ;
it was attacked by a mob and ‘ Prophet ’ Smith was killed.
The Mormons resolved to move West and make a settle¬
ment of their own,. where polygamy could be practiced.
Their leader was Brigham Young, one of their ‘ Twelve
Apostles.’ They went West in bands, crossing the prairie
and the arid plains from which people had been held back
by lack of wood, water, and food. They crossed the
Rocky Mountains — then the western boundary of the
United States — settled on territory which belonged to
Mexico, and founded Salt Lake City. They irrigated the
land and made the desert a garden.
252 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1B41
Religious revivals. —This was a period of great religious
revivals throughout the country. Most of these were led by
earnest, uneducated men who urged people to make ‘ per¬
sonal peace with God,’ and live better lives. Sunday schools,
missionary societies, Young Men’s and Women’s Christian
Associations, and other religious unions were organized.
Harrison elected president. — Many men in as well as out
of President Jackson’s party disapproved his policies,
especially his action about the United States Bank; his
proclamation against nullification and secession drove from
his party many southern States’ Rights men. A new
party called Whig was formed, composed of men unlike in
views and policies, but united in their opposition to Jackson.
The Whigs could not agree upon measures and nominated
and elected without a platform William Henry Harrison,
a hero of Indian fights and of the War of 1812.
Summary [1837-1841].—Martin Van Buren of New York, the
eighth president, served one term. The chief events of his term were
the financial panic of 1837 and the adoption of the Independent Treas¬
ury plan by which the government took charge of its own money.
11. Harrison and Tyler’s Term [1841-1845]
Whig
Harrison’s death [April4,1841].—President Harrison died
one month after his inauguration, and was succeeded by John
Tyler, the first vice-president to hold the office of president.
Tyler was one of the men who had left the Democratic
party on account of its policy under Jackson. He believed
in States’ Rights and disapproved a high tariff and the
Bank of the United States. The faction of the Whig
party which wished to pass a protective tariff and to re¬
establish the Bank of the United States was strong enough
in Congress to pass these measures, but Tyler vetoed them.
The Whigs succeeded, however, in passing an act which
1842]
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
253
upset the Compromise Tariff made ten years before;
instead of being reduced to twenty per cent, as had been
agreed, the duty was raised to thirty-five per cent.
Dorrs Rebellion [1842]. — While Tyler was president,
there were insurrections
in Rhode Island and in ill!
New York.
According to the
Rhode Island law, only
property-owners could
vote. This caused dis¬
satisfaction and finally
a rebellion led by
Thomas Dorr. The re¬
bellion was put down,
but soon afterward a
new constitution was
adopted, extending the
suffrage.
Anti-rent Riots [ 1844].
— In New York, tenants
refused to pay rents to the patroon owners. These rents
were usually small, — some fowls, a few days’ work, a few
dollars for each hundred acres of land. At last, the land¬
lords sold their claims, and the old patroon system came to
an end.
Maine boundary [1842].—The boundary between Maine
and Canada had been in dispute ever since the Revolution.
It was settled during Tyler’s term by a treaty in which
both America and Great Britain made compromises.
Oregon Country. — The western boundary was still un¬
settled. Both Great Britain and the United States claimed
the region called the Oregon Country, lying between
Mexico and Alaska. For about twenty-five years, the
John Tyler
254 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1842
Oregon Country was held as neutral ground. People in
the eastern states knew little of this region. The maps of
the time called the western country ‘ the Great American
Desert,’ because it was thought to be a barren waste,
like the Desert of Sahara. Webster asked, “ What do
we want with this vast worthless area, this region of
savages and wild beasts, of deserts of shifting sands and
whirlwinds of dust, of cactus, and prairie dogs?” But
settlers, with their rifles, axes, and plows, went to the
Oregon Country, made homes there, and claimed the
The Oregon Trail
whole region for the United States. The popular cry
was “fifty-four forty or fight,” — 54 0 40' being the southern
boundary of Alaska.
Florida admitted to Union [1845].—While Tyler was
president, Florida was made a state, and Texas asked to
be admitted into the Union.
Texan War for Independence [1836]. — Texas had been
Spanish territory, but it rebelled against Spain and became
a state of the Mexican republic. Thousands of American
i8 3 6 ]
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
255
emigrants went to the fertile, well-watered country and
settled there to trade, raise cotton, and herd cattle. Find¬
ing the government of Mexico harsh and unjust, they de¬
clared their independence and formed the Republic of
Texas. Samuel Houston, a brave, able, adventurous man,
was made president of the young republic.
A Mexican army of several thousand men took the field
to crush the revolt, and attacked the Alamo, a fortified
convent near San Antonio. The Alamo was defended
bravely by two hundred Texans until only six were left ;
these were killed after they surrendered. At Goliad, five
hundred Texans were massacred after they had given up
their arms. Instead of being daunted by this severity, the
Texans were roused to desperate resistance. “Remem¬
ber the Alamo” was their fierce cry in the battle of San
Jacinto. In this battle, eight hundred Texans, armed with
rifles and bowie knives, defeated a Mexican army of 1600
men. They killed or wounded over half the Mexicans,
and took prisoner the others, including the general, Santa
Anna. The Texan loss was only six killed and twenty-
five wounded. Soon after this battle, the independence of
Texas was acknowledged by the United States and by
European nations.
Texas annexed to United States.—
The Texans were really only ‘Americans
across the border,’ and they asked to
have their ‘ Lone Star State ’ made one of
the United States. The South was in
favor of granting this request; it did « Lone star" Flag
not wish the vast fertile country to
form a separate republic in the southwest; it wished to
add it to the Union as a slave state to balance northern
free territory. The North opposed the admission of
Texas, because it was a slave state and because its annexa-
teisi
256 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1844
tion would probably cause war with Mexico which refused
to acknowledge its independence.
The question about Texas was made the chief issue
in the next presidential campaign. The Democrats
declared in favor of annexing Texas and of occupying
the Oregon Country. Their candidate, James Knox
Polk of Tennessee, defeated the Whig candidate, Henry
Clay, and Texas was annexed.
Invention of telegraph. — The tidings of Polk’s nomina¬
tion was the first news message sent by telegraph. Samuel
Morse had been working many
years to utilize as a news car¬
rier the force of electricity
which passes almost instanta¬
neously along copper wire.
Through ridicule, discourage¬
ment, and poverty, he perse¬
vered, and at last he made the
wire carry a message and in¬
vented an instrument to receive
it. He secured from Congress
an appropriation of $30,000
for a telegraph line between
Baltimore and Washington.
Morse’s First Instrument Many people opposed this ;
one Congressman said that
they might as well appropriate $30,000 to construct a rail¬
road to the moon. The line was put up [1844], and it
worked perfectly. Side by side with the railroad, the
telegraph extended over the country, carrying news, pro¬
moting trade, binding sections together, increasing the
growth and prosperity of the Union.
Other inventions and reforms. — This was a period of
advance in many ways. The rotary printing press was
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
1847 ]
257
invented, by which the number and cheapness of publica¬
tions were greatly increased.
One of the world’s greatest medical discoveries was that
of anesthesia; rendering persons insensible to pain, anes¬
thetics relieve and prevent suffering and have made pos¬
sible the wonderful modern advance in surgery. It had
been known for some time that ether could produce insen¬
sibility, but Dr. Crawford Long was the first physician
who used it [1842] to prevent the pain of an operation.
Laws were made less harsh. People were indignant
at the hardships caused by the laws against poor debtors;
for instances, a Revolutionary soldier was kept in jail
seven years for a debt of a few dollars, and in his old
age the patriot Robert Morris was thrown into a debtor’s
prison. One state after another passed laws releasing
debtors who could not pay. The condition of jails and
penitentiaries was improved. Homes were established for
the deaf, dumb, and blind. A noble woman, Dorothea
Dix, persuaded people that it was their duty to care for the
insane in hospitals instead of confining them in jails.
Temperance and total abstinence societies were formed.
The Maine law was passed, forbidding the manufacture
and sale of intoxicating liquors in that state.
The condition of workmen was improved. In mills and
factories, the working day had been fourteen, fifteen, or
even sixteen hours long. A ten-hour system was adopted,
first in Baltimore, then in other places.
Education. — Many improvements were made in the
public schools established to teach and train the children
who were to control the future of the republic. Horace
Mann of Massachusetts and Henry Barnard of Connecticut
were two leaders in this work for education. They urged
the building of good schools and the establishing of normal
schools to train teachers.
s
258 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1847
Immigrants. — This time of prosperity in America was a
period of distress in many parts of Europe. There were
crop failures and revolutions. People came by thousands
and hundreds of thousands to seek food and freedom in
America. These immigrants were chiefly from the north
of Europe, — Irish, Germans, Swedes, Norwegians,—
people of the same stock as the Americans. Few of these
immigrant laborers went to the South, where they would
have had to compete with slave labor. Instead, they
settled in the cities of the North and on the farms of the
West, where they found good work and good wages. They
learned the language and habits of our people, loved their
adopted country, and became good citizens. To them, the
Union was one country like their native nations, and they
aided to build up the spirit of nationality.
Summary [1841-1845].—William Henry Harrison of Ohio, the
ninth president, died one month after his inauguration. The tenth
president, John Tyler of Virginia, was the first vice-president who
became president. During his term, Florida became a state, and Texas,
which had won its independence from Mexico, was annexed to the
Union. The dispute with Great Britain about the Maine boundary was
settled by compromise. There was a rebellion, called Dorr’s Rebellion,
in Rhode Island and Anti-rent Riots in New York. This was a period
of invention and reform. The electric telegraph was perfected, the
rotary printing press was invented, hospitals and insane asylums were
established, temperance societies were formed, and schools were im¬
proved. Immigration to America greatly increased.
12. Polk’s Term: The War with Mexico [1845-1849]
Democratic
Oregon boundary. — When Polk became president, he
faced the prospect of two wars: with England over the
Oregon Country and with Mexico about.Texas. The first
was avoided by a treaty in which both countries made
i8 4 6 ]
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
259
concessions. It was agreed [1846] that the parallel 49 0 ,
which was the boundary between American and British
territory from the Lake of the
Woods to the Rocky Moun¬
tains, should be the boundary
westward to the Pacific. This
gave to Great Britain the
northern part of the dis¬
puted territory; it gave to the
United States the southern
part, from which have been
formed the states of Oregon,
Washington, Idaho, and parts
of Wyoming and Montana.
War with Mexico. — War be¬
tween the United States and
Mexico followed the annexation of the southern republic.
Mexico refused to
acknowledge the
independence of
Texas. Moreover,
there was a bound¬
ary dispute; Texas
claimed the Rio
Grande River as its
southern line, Mex¬
ico said that the
Nueces River was
the boundary. Mex¬
ico was in no condi¬
tion to fight. Its
affairs were in dis¬
order ; it had an
empty treasury and
James K. Polk
260 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1846
poor generals. Its soldiers were brave, but they were un¬
trained, “poorly clothed, worse fed, and seldom paid,” ob¬
served a young American officer, Lieutenant U. S. Grant.
Taylor’s campaign. —When American troops under Gen¬
eral Zachary Taylor were sent to occupy the disputed
territory between the Rio Grande and Nueces rivers, the
Mexicans, too, sent forward troops, and a skirmish took
place [April 26, 1846]. As soon as news of this fight
reached the American government, war was declared
against Mexico. Meanwhile, two battles had been fought
near the Rio Grande. The Americans won a victory on
General Taylor at the Battle of Buena Vista
the plains of Palo Alto [May 8] and another the next
day in the ravine of Resaca de la Palma [May 9]. Then
General Taylor crossed the Rio Grande and gained control
of the northern part of Mexico.
1847]
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
261
Battle of Buena Vista.—Troops were withdrawn from
General Taylor’s army for a southern campaign, and he
was left at Buena Vista with about 5000 men. General
Santa Anna marched against him with an army of 20,000
men and summoned him to surrender.
“ General Taylor never surrenders,” was the answer.
The little American army was skillfully placed on broken
ground, protected by cliffs on the one side and ravines on
the other. For two days [February 22, 23, 1847] the
Mexican army attacked the little force, but was beaten
off. The gallant charge of the Mississippi rifles led by
Colonel Jefferson Davis, aided by the artillery under
Captain Bragg and Lieutenant Sherman, compelled the
Mexicans to retreat.
Seizure of New Mexico and California [1846]. — The
campaign in northern Mexico was followed by two others:
one in the Southwest, the other in the heart of Mexico.
General Stephen Kearny made an eight-hundred-mile
march from Kansas to Santa Fe, and without firing a
shot took possession of New Mexico in the name of the
United States. He then went on to California. This had
already been wrested from Mexico by a few hundred
Americans who had settled there, attracted by the fertile
soil, mild climate, and fine harbor. As soon as these men
heard that war was going on, they formed the Bear Flag
Republic and declared themselves independent of Mexico.
They were aided by a little American fleet, and by Captain
John C. Fremont who had been sent West to explore the
passes of the Rocky Mountains. The vast, thinly-settled
country along the Pacific coast was seized for the United
States.
March to Mexico [1847]. — An American army of 10,000
men under General Winfield Scott made a brilliant cam¬
paign in Mexico. It began by taking the city of Vera
262 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE (i«47
Cruz [March 29]. Santa Anna’s army was strongly posted
in the mountain pass of Cerro Gordo. Two young Ameri¬
can engineers — Colonel R. E. Lee and Lieutenant G. P.
Beauregard — opened a road through the mountains,
along which the army marched and attacked the Mexicans
from the rear [April 18]. The Mexicans were defeated
and retreated, and for some weeks there was no more
fighting.
Then the Americans climbed the mountains and made
their way across the hilly table-land, through the heart of
the enemy’s country. There were so many forts along
the highway that the Americans turned aside and cut
new roads across the rough country. In August, they
came to a height of the Cordilleras and looked down on
the valley of Mexico, surrounded by mountains with peaks
shining snow-capped in the distance. In this beautiful
valley lies the City of Mexico. It occupies a strong
natural position on an island in what was once a lake but
is now a great marsh; the marsh is crossed by narrow
causeways, the entrances to which are protected by for¬
tresses.
When the Americans were about ten miles from the
City of Mexico, fighting began again. From the middle
of August to the middle of September, victory followed
victory, — Contreras, San Antonio, Churubusco, Molina
del Rey, Chapultepec. Two days after the commanding
fortress of Chapultepec was taken, the American army
entered the capital city [September 13].
Results of War with Mexico. — The United States dic¬
tated their own terms of peace to their defeated neighbor
[1848]. Mexico agreed to the Rio Grande as the boundary
of Texas and ceded to the United States for the sum of
$18,500,000 the territory that they had seized. This terri¬
tory was almost equal in extent to the great Louisiana
tr
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1848]
THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC
263
Territory; out of it were formed Texas, California, New
Mexico, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, and parts of Colorado and
Wyoming.
Among the young officers who gained military experience
and training in the War with Mexico, were Lieutenant U. S.
Grant, Lieutenant W. T. Sherman, Captain George Mc¬
Clellan, Captain J. E. Johnston, Colonel Albert Sidney
Johnston, Colonel Robert E. Lee, and Colonel Jefferson
Davis. Alas! these Americans, fighting so bravely side
by side, were a few years later to fight as bravely against
each other, in the great War of Secession.
New territory brought forward the old question of
slavery. While the War with Mexico was going on, David
Wilmot of Pennsylvania urged in Congress a measure
called the Wilmot Proviso [1846]. This forbade slavery
in all the territory acquired from Mexico. The proviso
was not carried, and for some time the question was un¬
decided, the North contending that the newly-acquired
territory should be free and the South desiring it to be
slave territory.
New states.—While Polk was president, three new
states were admitted,—Texas [1845], Iowa [1846], and
Wisconsin [1848]. There were now fifteen free states
and fifteen slave states.
Summary [1845-1849]. — James Knox Polk of Tennessee, the
eleventh president, served one term. While he was president, three
new states were admitted, — Texas, Iowa, and Wisconsin. The annex¬
ation of Texas caused war with Mexico. The Americans made three
successful campaigns: first, General Taylor marched against northern
Mexico and defeated the Mexicans in several battles; second, General
Kearny seized New Mexico, and California was taken possession of;
third. General Scott marched from Vera Cruz to the City of Mexico,
winning brilliant victories on the way. By the War with Mexico, the
United States gained a vast increase of territory and the control of the
Pacific coast. For the ceded territory, it paid Mexico $18,500,000.
CHAPTER VI
DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR
i. Taylor and Fillmore’s Term [1849-1853]
Whig
President Taylor. — The next president was General
Zachary Taylor. ‘Old Rough and Ready,’ as he was
nicknamed, was a pop¬
ular soldier who had
never taken any part in
politics.
“ I have no private
purpose to accomplish,”
he said, “ no party proj¬
ects to build up, no
enemies to punish, —
nothing to serve but
my country.” In the
campaign in which Tay¬
lor was elected, neither
of the great parties took
a decided stand on the
slavery question. But
events forced its prompt
consideration in connection with the organization of the
Mexican cession.
Discovery of gold in California [1848]. — The month that
the treaty of peace with Mexico was made, gold was dis-
264
(gt ,
. '• *|*.
V I
V
7v
* • *.
. -
:
: v- ■* •
Zachary Taylor
i8 4 9.i DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 265
covered in California. It was found by an American laborer
who was digging a mill race on a branch of the Sacramento
River. The news spread like wildfire through the adjoining
country, and there was a rush to the gold regions. Farm¬
ers left their fields, tradesmen their shops, sailors their
ships, to dig for gold.
The news reached the eastern states late that fall.
Early the next spring, thousands of men started to Cali¬
fornia. It was a long, toilsome, dangerous journey.
There was not a mile of railroad west of the Mississippi
River; there were not even roads across the continent.
Some adventurers followed by ship the long route around
South America. Some crossed the fever-infested isthmus
of Central America and made their way by land or water up
the coast. Others — on foot, on horseback, in wagons —
crossed the arid plains and the steep mountains occupied
only by wild beasts and hostile Indians. Many were killed
by these foes or perished for lack of food and water. In
spite of all difficulties, about 80,000 men reached the gold
fields that year. Of these famous ‘ Forty Niners/ as they
are called, some gained great fortunes and many died in
poverty.
Vast quantities of gold were obtained in dust and
nuggets. Some of these nuggets were as large as an
acorn, a walnut, or an egg. Ore, or * dust/ was used for
money; miners carried scales and paid their debts with
gold at the rate of sixteen dollars an ounce. Food was
less plentiful than gold. Potatoes and eggs sold readily
for one dollar each, flour was a hundred dollars a barrel.
After the surface gold was exhausted, mining companies
were organized. In course of time, men turned to agri¬
culture, and developed the rich resources of the region.
Pony express. — A pony express was established to
carry mail from Missouri to California, charging five dollars
266 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1849
for each letter or small package. The trip from St.
Joseph to San Francisco, 2000 miles away, was made
in ten or even
in eight days.
A man on a
stout pony raced
from one station
to another fif¬
teen miles away.
There the bag
was slung on a
fresh horse, and
in two minutes
the rider was
galloping on his
way to the next station, where another man on a fresh
horse took charge of the bag. In sunshine, in storm,
across the plains, over the mountains, the pony express
sped on its way.
California applies for statehood. — Before Congress de¬
cided on what terms to organize the territory of California,
its settlers were numerous enough to wish to form a state.
President Taylor advised them to draw up a constitution
and apply for admission. They promptly did this and
asked to be admitted as a free state. The North wished
to admit California on these terms. The South opposed it,
urging that, since much of California lies south of 36° 30',
this would set aside the Missouri Compromise.
Northern attitude to slavery. — Slavery was a moral and
political question on which the North and the South
honestly differed. There was growing, especially in New
England, a strong feeling against slavery in the South.
Within a few years, 2000 northern societies were formed
for the abolition of slavery.
Pony Express
i8so] DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 267
The leader of the Abolitionist party was William Lloyd
Garrison, the publisher of a paper called the Liberator.
Garrison thought that slave-owners were no better than
so many robbers and murderers. He proposed that
Massachusetts should lead a movement of the free states
to withdraw from the Union and to form a republic sepa¬
rate from the slave states. Because the Constitution
recognized slaves as property and protected the owners of
this property, Garrison publicly burned it, calling it “ a
covenant with death and an agreement with hell.”
There was a more moderate party, called anti-slavery
men; they thought that outsiders had no right to interfere
with slavery in the states where it was established, but
they wished to prevent its spread in the territories.
In the free states, there was a growing disposition to
disregard or evade the Fugitive Slave Law which re¬
quired that runaway slaves be returned to their masters
on demand. For years, individuals had more or less
openly disobeyed this law. There was an organization of
several thousand persons who received and hid slaves,
passing them by night from one place to another into free
states and even into Canada. Thousands of' slaves
escaped by means of this “ underground railroad,” as it
was called.
Southern view. — The southern people considered slaves
lawful property and regarded the Abolitionists’ plans to
free them as men to-day would regard plans to deprive
them of their land. Men who disagreed with Garrison in
everything else thought that it would be well for the free
and the slave states to separate. Calhoun said in his last
speech in the Senate, “ If you who represent the stronger
portion cannot agree to settle the great questions at issue
on the broad principles of justice and duty, say so; and let
the states we both represent agree to separate and depart
in peace.”
268 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1850
Slavery was an evil, but it was not without redeeming
features; the negroes were trained in habits of industry,
taught trades, and governed firmly but not unkindly.
There were some cruel masters, but as a rule the negroes
were better fed and clothed than the laboring classes in
most countries, and the sick, children, and aged were
cared for. A northerner who examined the system care¬
fully said: “ On principle, in habit, and even on grounds
of self-interest, the greater part of the slave-owners were
humane in the treatment of their slaves, — kind, indulgent,
not over-exacting.”
Most people who looked at the matter without passion
or prejudice thought that slavery was a disadvantage to the
South. It seemed impossible to establish manufactures or
to introduce improved methods of agriculture, requiring
expensive tools and machinery, where the laborers were
ignorant, unskilled slaves. The South’s natural resources
were neglected, its trade and manufactures passed into other
hands. In wealth and population, it fell behind other parts
of the country. Immigrant laborers avoided it and flocked
to the free states. Some other civilized peoples had re¬
cently abolished slavery, and if let alone the South would,
of its own accord, have put an end to the system, prob¬
ably by degrees.
Compromise of 1850. — It was evident that only by steering
between extremes would it be possible to preserve the
Union in peace. Clay, now a feeble old man, left his Ken¬
tucky home and returned to public life to make a final
effort to keep peace between the sections. For the third
time, he suggested compromise measures, urging both sec¬
tions to make concessions in order to settle the slavery
question and preserve the Union. He was aided by Cal¬
houn and Webster. For the last time, * the great trio ’ met
in Congress and labored to secure the country’s welfare.
1850]
DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR
269
Calhoun pleaded for the preservation of the Union ; he urged
the North to “cease the agitation of the slavery question.”
Webster said that according to the Constitution it was the
right of southern states to hold slaves as property and the
duty of northern ones to surrender fugitive slaves. If
the North disregarded the Constitution, the South could not
be expected to obey it; a bargain cannot be broken by one
side and still bind the other.
For seven months, compromise measures were discussed
in Congress, and at last ‘the Compromise of 1850’ was
adopted. The slave trade in the District of Columbia was
abolished, and California was admitted as a free state.
On the other hand, it was agreed that two territories,
Utah and New Mexico, should be formed out of the re¬
mainder of the Mexican cession, which should be open to
slavery; the Fugitive Slave
Law was to be enforced
by Federal officers.
Death of notable men. —
While these compromise
measures were being dis¬
cussed, death removed two
of the foremost public men
of the country, Calhoun of
South Carolina and Presi¬
dent Taylor. Taylor was
succeeded by the vice pres¬
ident, Millard Fillmore of
New York. Two years
later [1852], there passed
away the last great states¬
men of the compromise period, Clay and Webster. Into
the place of the old leaders stepped younger men, many
of whom were animated by strong sectional feeling,—
270 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1852
Salmon P. Chase of Ohio, Jefferson Davis of Mississippi,
William H. Seward of New York, Charles Sumner of
Massachusetts.
Personal liberty laws. — It was soon evident that the
Compromise of 1850 settled nothing. Attempts to enforce
the Fugitive Slave Law in the free states caused disputes
and riots; officers and slave-owners were attacked and
killed, and slaves were set free. Many northern states
passed laws, called ‘ personal liberty bills,’ to protect run¬
away slaves; southern states complained that these laws
really nullified, or set aside, the law of the Constitution.
Uncle Tom's Cabin. — The very year that Clay, the great
peacemaker, died, there was published a book which did
more than the writings of Garrison to excite hostility
against slavery and the Fugitive Slave Law. This was
Uncle Tom s Cabin , by Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe. Hun¬
dreds of thousands of copies were sold in the United
States, and it was translated into many languages. It
was a romance, full of humor and pathos, about slave life.
It was accepted by Abolitionists as a true picture of negro
life and character and of the system of slavery. In vain
temperate men on both sides pointed to the facts in the case,
and showed that the story did not truly represent these.
Summary [1849-1853].—Zachary Taylor of Tennessee was the
twelfth president. The year that California was ceded to the United
States, gold was discovered there. People rushed to the gold fields,
and the country was soon populous enough to apply for statehood,
requesting to be admitted as a free state. After much discussion, the
Compromise of 1850 was adopted. The slave trade in the District of
Columbia was abolished, and California was admitted as a free state;
the remainder of the Mexican cession was left open to slavery, and the
Fugitive Slave Law was to be enforced by Federal officers. While this
compromise was being discussed, President Taylor died. Millard Fill¬
more of New York was the thirteenth president and the second vice
president to hold the office.
DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR
271
1853]
2. Pierce’s Term [1853-1857]
Democratic
Franklin Pierce. — Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire,
the next president, was an earnest, hard-working man of
attractive manners, but without great ability.
Treaties with China and Japan. — While Pierce was
president, Commodore
Matthew Perry made an
expedition to Japan and
secured a treaty [1853],
by which American ships
were allowed to enter two
ports of Japan. Some
years before [1844], a
treaty had been made with
China, by which five Chi¬
nese ports were opened
to American trade.
Gadsden Purchase [1853]. — While trade and power
were being extended, new territory was being added.
In order to settle a boundary dispute, the United States
bought from Mexico a tract of land south of the Gila River,
containing about 45,000 square miles. Ten million dollars
was paid for it. This is called ‘ the Gadsden Purchase’ from
the name of the statesman who negotiated the transaction.
Kansas-Nebraska Bill [1854]. — The question of slave
and free territory was being discussed with ever-increasing
bitterness. Most people approved the Missouri Compro¬
mise. The Abolitionists disliked it because they wished the
government to prohibit slavery everywhere. Some states¬
men disapproved the Missouri Compromise because they
thought it contrary to the law of the Constitution; as the
Constitution recognized slave property, they said, the gov-
272 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1854
ernment had no more right to shut slaves out of territories
than to forbid men to carry watches or any other property.
Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois suggested that slavery
be settled by popular sovereignty, or ‘squatter sovereignty,’
as it was called. According to this plan, communities would
deal with slavery as they now, through local option, deal with
the liquor question; this had been practically done in the
case of California. Douglas proposed that the prairie region,
called ‘the Platte Country,’ should be organized into two terri¬
tories, Kansas and Nebraska, and that the people of these
territories should decide for themselves the matter of slavery.
The Kansas-Nebraska Bill was passed. Many men ob¬
jected to it because it set aside the Missouri Compromise
and opened to slavery territories north of 36° 30'; others
said that the Missouri Compromise was really set aside
when California, much of which lies south of 36° 30', was
admitted as a free state.
Contest in Kansas. — Nebraska was so far north and so
thinly settled that slave-holders made little effort to estab¬
lish themselves there; but Kansas at once became a scene
of contest. Abolitionists contributed money and sent bands
of immigrants to make it a free state. Slave-holders settled
there to make it a slave state. Men of one party tried to
drive out men of the other. There were quarrels, fights,
and riots; houses and towns were burned; people were
murdered in their own homes. The motto of the lawless
men on both sides was “ War to the knife and the knife
to the hilt.”
New political parties. — While this struggle was going on
in ‘ bleeding Kansas,’ a presidential election took place.
Two new parties put forward candidates. One was the
American party that wished to keep the ballot and offices
from foreigners; its members, when asked about its plans,
so often answered “ I don’t know,” that it was called the
1856]
DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR
273
Know Nothing party. The other new party was the Re¬
publican ; its main principle was opposition to the intro¬
duction of slavery into the territories. The Democrats
declared in favor of ‘ popular sovereignty,’ — that is, of
letting the people of territories decide the question of
slavery for themselves, — and elected their candidate,
James Buchanan of Pennsylvania.
Summary [1853-1857]. — Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire, the
fourteenth president, served one term. While he was president, the Kan-
sas-Nebraska Bill was passed, by which the Missouri Compromise was set
aside and the decision of the question of slavery was left to the people
of the territories. A tract called ‘ the Gadsden Purchase’ was bought
from Mexico for $10,000,000, in order to settle a boundary dispute.
3. Buchanan’s Term [1857-1861]
Democratic
Panic of 1857. — The spring that Buchanan became
president, all parties united
in Congress to reduce the
tariff. Before the new rates
could take effect, there was
a serious business depres¬
sion. As before the panic
of 1837, a period of pros¬
perity had led to speculation
and reckless credit. A re¬
action came. Banks sus¬
pended payment, railroads
failed, thousands of busi¬
ness men were bankrupt,
trade and manufactures
were at a standstill.
Natural resources. — Prosperity returned by degrees.
Crops were abundant and there could not be long-continued
T,
James Buchanan
274
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1857
hard times in a country so rich in natural resources and
energetic people. The gold mines of California continued
to yield vast wealth, and gold was discovered in Colorado
and in Montana. Rich deposits of silver were found in
Nevada and later in Colorado, Utah, and Arizona. There
were valuable lead, coal, and copper mines in the West.
The rich coal and iron mines of the East were worked.
Oil wells were sunk in Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, and
West Virginia. These wells produced daily thousands of
barrels of petroleum of which kerosene is a refined form.
Later natural gas was discovered and used extensively
for lighting and heating.
Atlantic Cable [1858]. — Commodore Matthew F. Maury,
‘the pathfinder of the sea,’ thought that an under-ocean
telegraph could be established by laying a cable on the
flat ocean bed between Ireland and Newfoundland. At
his suggestion, Cyrus Field undertook to lay this Atlantic
cable. After repeated failures, the task was accomplished,
and Queen Victoria and President Buchanan exchanged
telegraphic greetings. The cable soon ceased to work
and again failure followed failure. Mr. Field devoted his
time and money to the attempt to perfect the ocean-tele¬
graph and at last succeeded. Now, by means of these
cables, the nations of the world are bound together in one
community.
Literature. — It was not only in material ways that
America was advancing. This was ‘the golden age’ of
its literature. During the middle of the nineteenth
century, Irving, Bryant, and Cooper were still living, and
many younger writers were at work. Henry Wadsworth
Longfellow, our best-known and best-loved poet, wrote
Evangeline , Hiawatha , and many other popular poems.
John Greenleaf Whittier, the Quaker poet who loved nature,
books, and freedom, wrote chiefly about New England life
1857]
DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR
275
and scenes; his
best long poem,
Snow-Bound , is
a picture of
New England
country life in
winter. James
Russell Lowell
was essayist and
critic as well as
poet, with a wide
range of thought
and subject,
from the beauti¬
ful Vision of Sir
Launfal to the
witty Biglow
Papers. Ralph
Waldo Emerson
was a thinker
who by his lec- Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
tures and essays
sounded the chord of self-reliance. Nathaniel Hawthorne
wrote exquisite
stories and ro¬
mances, many
of which de¬
scribe old Puri¬
tan life; besides
the Scarlet Let¬
ter and other
romances, he
wrote Tangle-
James Russell Lowell Wood TClleS and Ralph Waldo Emerson
276 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1857
other charming books for
children. Edgar Allan
Poe, whom Tennyson
called the chief literary
glory of America, wrote
The Raven and other mu¬
sical, imaginative poems
and vivid, powerful stories.
Sidney Lanier was a
poet musician whose
Marshes of Glynn and
other poems have musical
“ tone color ” as well as
great originality, beauty,
and loftiness of thought.
Henry Timrod and Paul
Nathaniel Hawthorne T , TT
Hamilton Hayne were two
other Southern poets who, amid hardships and disease, pro¬
duced some beautiful short poems.
George Bancroft
spent a half century of
labor on a great History
of the United States.
John Lothrop Motley
wrote an interesting
history of the Rise of
the Dutch Republic.
William Hickling Pres¬
cott, bearing with cheer¬
ful courage his affliction
of blindness, told in a
clear, vivid style the
history of Spain in
America, in his Con-
Edgar Allan Poe
DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR
277
1857]
quest of Peru , Conqjiest of Mexico , and other books. Later
Francis Parkman, in spite of ill health and failing eye¬
sight, gave, in the vol- ____’
umes of his great history,
France and England in
North America , the story
of the contest of the two
nations for supremacy in
the New World.
America produced
noteworthy scientists as
well as poets, novelists,
and historians. The bot¬
anist Asa Gray wrote
about plant life, John
James Audubon described
the birds and animals of
America, Louis Agassiz, Sidney Lanier
a Swiss-American, wrote
about natural science, and Matthew Fontaine Maury
studied and charted the winds and
ocean currents.
New states.—While Buchanan was
president, three new states were ad¬
mitted to the Union, — Minnesota
[1858], Oregon [1859], and Kansas
[1861], — all three free states. There
were now nineteen free states and
only fifteen slave states; the balance
of power between the two sections
was finally upset.
[1857]. — The whole country listened
with Interest t® the Dred Scott decision. Dred Scott was
a negrro slave. His master, an army surgeon, carried Dred
William pickling Prescott
Dred Scott exse
278 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1857
to Illinois and Minnesota and then brought him back to
Missouri. Dred claimed that his freedom was secured by
residence in a free state and a free territory. His case
was carried from one court to another; finally, the
Supreme Court of the United States decided against him.
The decision went on to say that, according to the Consti¬
tution, slaves were not citizens but property, and that their
owners might carry them about, like any other property.
Like the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, this decision set aside the
Missouri Compromise as contrary to the Constitution.
Most northern men disapproved this decision, saying that
it would open all the country to slavery, and many said
that they would not accept it as binding. Most southern
men were pleased with it and said that it only protected
their property rights.
John Brown’s raid [1859]. — Two years later, an event
took place which the South thought threatened greater
danger than the North had foreseen from the Dred Scott
decision. This was John Brown’s raid.. John Brown of
Connecticut was an Abolitionist who had gone to Kansas,
rifle in hand, to aid in making it a free state, and had taken
bloody part in the lawless work there. After the Kansas
question was decided, he settled near H irper’s Ferry, Vir¬
ginia. One Sunday night, with eighteen followers, he
attacked the arsenal at Harper’s Ferry, hoping to secure
weapons and establish a camp for runaway ^ftgroesdri the
mountains of Virginia. He was captured, tried, "onvicted
of murder and treason, and hanged. His> raid shewed, m a
notable way, how widely the South and the No. h now
differed. The southern people regarded John Bro' ; n as a
murderer who was trying to incite the black men against the
white; in many places in the North, bells were tolled and
flags were lowered on the day of his execuion, and he was
called a martyr to the cause of freedom.
1859]
DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR
279
Southerners began to fear that the North would arm
slaves to attack their masters and would attempt to free the
negroes by force.
John Brown’s raid recalled the * Bloody Monday ’ of Nat
Turner’s insurrection, a slave-rising in Virginia [1831].
In this insurrection, sixty white men, women, and children
were killed in their homes, as in old Indian wars. Such
massacres and worse were feared, if the negroes were
urged on by men like Brown.
Lincoln elected president. — While the North was still
excited over the Dred Scott decision and the South over
John Brown’s raid, there was a presidential election in
which the slavery question was the chief issue. The north¬
ern and southern Democrats were divided ; some of them
even voted with a third party, calling itself the Constitu¬
tional Union party. Its brief platform avoided disputed
questions and urged only “ the Constitution of the country,
the union of the states, and the enforcement of the laws.”
Abraham Lincoln, the candidate of the Republican party
which opposed the extension of slavery, was elected. He
received a large majority of the electoral votes, but less
than half the popular vote.
Abraham Lincoln was an able man from the middle
West who described himself as belonging “ to what
they call down South the scrubs,” or poor whites. He was
born in Kentucky; when he was seven years old, his
father, a poor, shiftless, ignorant man, moved to Illinois.
The family lived a year in a ‘ half-faced camp,’ before a
rude cabin was built. In the West, Abraham Lincoln
grew up and lived the life of the rough, vigorous frontiers¬
man. He went to school “ by littles,” as he said, less
than a year in all. But he learned to read, write, and
cipher, and he read and studied at home. His big, bony
hands were familiar with hard work. He cut wood,
2 8o SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [i860
plowed, cut grain with a sickle and threshed it with a flail,
felled trees, split rails, and did rough carpenter work. By
common sense, patience, and wisdom, and by force of in¬
tellect, will, and character, Lincoln made his way to the
front. He studied law and became an able public speaker
and a brilliant debater. He was shrewd, full of quaint
humor, and ready with a joke. He was opposed to the
extension of slavery, but he thought that the government
had no right to interfere with it where it was established
and that the states ought to obey the Fugitive Slave Law.
The South did not know much about Lincoln, but it
knew that he hated slavery and it thought that he
wished to destroy the system; in a famous debate with
Senator Douglas, he had said, “A house divided against
itself cannot stand. I believe this country cannot endure
half slave and half free. I do not expect the house to fall,
but I expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all
one thing or all the other.”
Secession of Cotton States [i860, 1861]. — The North
had now control of both the Senate and the House. Many
people in the South feared that this power would be used
to their disadvantage. True, the Constitution protected
slavery in the states. But John Brown’s raid made people
feel that there were men ready to break the laws of the
land in order to destroy slavery. Some states resolved to
leave the Union, in which there was now discord instead
of harmony. Soon after Lincoln was elected, the seven
southern states, called the Cotton States, seceded from
the Union. South Carolina was the first to take this step.
In December, i860, it called a convention which passed
an Ordinance of Secession, declaring the union between
South Carolina and the other states dissolved. Soon after¬
ward, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana,
and Texas seceded.
i86i] DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 281
Secession. — Before beginning the story of the great war
in which the South contended for and the North against
secession, let us consider this doctrine and the reasons why
the South seceded. You will understand these better if
you review what you have learned about the formation of
the Constitution (pages 175-181), the Alien and Sedition
Acts (page 195), Chief Justice Marshall (pages 206-207),
the sectional contests about the tariff (pages 240-241, 246)
and slavery (pages 231-232, 266-270, 277-279), and the
contrary views about the Union declared by Hayne and
Webster (pages 244-246).
The North, as a whole, had come to feel more and more
strongly that the states formed an indissoluble Union,
making a nation which no one could leave without being
guilty of treason and rebellion. It held that the Constitu¬
tion was an “ instrument of government ” and that it and
the acts of Congress were the supreme law of the land.
According to this view, states’ rights must be subordinate
to Federal rights, in case of conflict, and there was no right
of secession, for that meant the destruction of the Union.
The South, as a whole, held the States’ Rights doctrine
that the Union was a partnership of independent states.
After the Revolution, Great Britain recognized each of
the thirteen states as “free, sovereign, and independent.”
The Union had only the rights which these states had
given to the central organization in order to form a nation ;
no state had ceded the greatest, the fundamental right of
a sovereign state, the allegiance of its citizens; instead of
being ceded, this right was reserved in the Constitution,
which spoke of the “ citizens” of each state. Three states—
Virginia, New York, and Rhode Island—reserved the right
of secession when they adopted the Constitution, and this res¬
ervation of course gave, the same right to all their partners.
Why did the southern states in i860 put in practice
*>? .. ?'-•
Jefferson Davis
DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR
283
1861]
this States’ Rights doctrine and secede from the Union?
The seceding states claimed that the Union was under
sectional control, hostile to their institutions and interests,
and that it was best to withdraw and establish a government
safeguarding their Constitutional rights. The South was
set apart from other sections, its industries were almost
entirely agricultural, and it had the institution of slavery.
The North and the West had grown more rapidly than
the South in wealth and population and they now had
political dominance. This gave them the power to control
legislation, and increasing sectional bitterness—largely due
to the agitations of the Abolitionists — tended to cause them
to use that power to the injury of the South. Already,
that section complained, federal and state legislation was
unfair to it. The burdens of federal taxation — particu¬
larly the results of high protective tariffs — bore with great
severity upon its agricultural interests. Some of its Con¬
stitutional rights were being violated, in many northern
states, by bills which nullified the Fugitive Slave law.
Now a president had been elected who did not receive
a single electoral vote in the South and whose party was
founded on hostility to slavery. The growing inequality
and bitterness between sections made the outlook gloomy.
While nearly all southern men thought that a state had
a right to secede, many thought that it was unwise to use
this right. They loved the government which their fore¬
fathers had helped create and make great and glorious, and
they thought that the questions which divided the sections
could and should be settled in the Union. Still, most of
them regarded the state’s claim as first and foremost. When
their native states seceded, southern men withdrew from
cabinet, Senate, House, army, navy, and civil service,
returned home, and offered their services to their states.
Peace convention. — Many men, North and South, still
284 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE L&61
hoped that the Union could be saved by compromises.
Compromise measures were proposed in Congress, and at
the request of Virginia a peace convention was held, to which
twenty-one states sent delegates. But these efforts failed.
It was too late for such measures.
Formation of Confederate government [1861]. —The very
day that the peace convention met, delegates from the se¬
ceding states assembled at Montgomery, Alabama, to form
a new government, the Confederate States of America.
Later, when Virginia seceded, Richmond was made the
Confederate capital. Jefferson Davis of Mississippi was
chosen president and Alexander Hamilton Stephens of
Georgia was elected vice president. President Davis was a
resolute, energetic man, and an extreme secessionist. In the
War with Mexico, he proved himself a brave officer. After¬
ward he filled with honor high civil positions. He was a year
older than President Lincoln and was born in Kentucky
less than a hundred miles from Lincoln’s birthplace. Vice
president Stephens was a brilliant statesman who believed
that states had a legal right to secede, but that secession
was ‘ the height of madness and folly.’ When Georgia
seceded, he “bowed to the will of the people” and went
with his state.
The Constitution of the Confederate States was much
like the Constitution of the United States, but it stated
clearly what southern people believed to be the meaning
of the Federal Constitution about slave property and state
sovereignty. It forbade a protective tariff. It said that
the president was to serve six years, and could not be
reelected; he could remove officials only for dishonesty,
unfitness for office, or neglect of duty.
President Buchanan looked on with regret at the seces¬
sion of the states. He thought that they ought not to
secede, but he did not think the Constitution gave the
DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR
iSoiJ
285
Capitol of the Confederacy, showing Washington Monument in Foreground
general government any authority to compel them to stay
in the Union.
Summary [1857-1861]. — James Buchanan of Pennsylvania, the fif¬
teenth president, served one term. While he was president, three new
free states were admitted, — Minnesota, Oregon, and Kansas. The
North was angered by the Dred Scott decision, in which the Supreme
Court declared the Missouri Compromise unlawful and said that slave¬
owners could carry slaves like other property into territories. The
South was alarmed by John Brown’s raid, the attempt of an Abolitionist
to free slaves by force. During this excitement, Abraham Lincoln was
elected president. The Cotton States — South Carolina, Mississippi,
Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas — seceded from the
Union and formed a new government, the Confederate States, of which
Jefferson Davis of Mississippi was elected president.
4. Lincoln’s Presidency : The Beginning of the War
of Secession
Lincoln’s attitude toward secession. — With sad face and
anxious heart, Lincoln took his place as president of the
286 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE
[1861
United States. He regarded the secession of the southern
states as a big riot. “ I hold that . . . the union of these
states is perpetual,” he said, and he was resolved to pre¬
serve it, ‘peaceably if he could, forcibly if he must/ His
first efforts were to save the Union without war. In his
inaugural address, he assured the southern states that their
rights would be safe in the Union. “I have no purpose,
directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of
slavery in the states where it exists,” he said; “ I believe
I have no lawful right to do so; and I have no inclination
to do so.” “We are not enemies, but friends. We must
not be enemies. Though passion may have strained, it
must not break our bonds of affection.”
Capture of Fort Sumter [April 14]. —The seceded states
no longer regarded themselves as members of the Union.
They took posses¬
sion of the Federal
property within
their limits, — post
offices, custom
houses, forts, and
arsenals. They
said that they
were entitled to
their share of the
common property
and that they were willing to assume their share of the
common debt. They demanded the surrender of the few
southern forts which remained in the possession of the
United States. One of these was Fort Sumter, on an
island in the channel of Charleston, which had a garrison
of seventy men under command of Major Robert Ander¬
son. Lincoln refused to surrender Fort Sumter and sent
supplies and troops to its aid. The Confederates then
Fort Sumter before the Bombardment
DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR
1861I
287
attacked the fort and took it, after a bombardment of
thirty-six hours. Not a man was killed on either side.
The capture of Fort Sumter was the bloodless beginning
of a bloody war. Each side claimed that the other was
the aggressor. The
North asserted that the
South began the war
by firing on the fort
over which floated the
Federal flag. The
South said that the
attempt to send armed
men to a fort in the
territory of a seceded
state was an act of war.
Call for troops [April
15].— The day after
Fort Sumter sur¬
rendered, President
Lincoln issued a proclamation calling on the state govern¬
ments for 75,000 men to suppress what he regarded as an
insurrection in the South; in three days, more than the
required number enlisted. President Davis called for
troops to oppose the invaders, and the response was as
prompt and eager as in the North.
Course of border states. —The border states did not wish
to secede ; but most of the people in them believed in States’
Rights and thought that the Federal government had no
authority to use force against the seceded states. Virginia,
Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina refused to send
troops at Lincoln’s call and joined the Confederacy. Mary¬
land, Kentucky, and Missouri were divided in sympathy;
Union sentiments or forces were strong enough to prevent
formal secession, but Confederates organized governments.
288 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1861
A Confederate Flag
Cause of war. — Congress passed a resolution declaring
that the war was not waged to overthrow or interfere
with an established institution of the southern states —
that is, slavery — but “to preserve the Union with all the
dignity, equality, and rights of the
several states unimpaired.” The
great question, then, which the war
was to decide was the right of a
state to secede. Was the Union
supreme or was each state free
and independent ? Which had the
first claim on a citizen’s obedience ?
The North said ‘the Union,’ the South said ‘the state.’
The North appealed to the love for the Union and for
the flag, the symbol of glory and nationality. The South
appealed to the love for the state and for the right of
self-government.
Both sides thought that the war would be brief, and most
of the soldiers enlisted for only three months. Instead,
there followed a great four-years’ war in which hundreds
of battles were fought and hundreds of thousands of lives
were lost. We can follow only the main lines and give a
bird’s-eye view of the conflict.
Condition of two sections. — The two sections arrayed
against each other were very different. The South was
rich in natural advantages, — fine water-power, good sea¬
ports, navigable rivers, fertile soil, valuable forests, rich
deposits of metals and minerals ; but most of these resources
were undeveloped. It was engaged almost entirely in
agriculture, raising a few crops for market, — tobacco, rice,
sugar, and, above all, cotton, of which it produced the
world’s supply; with these crops, it bought clothes, tools,
guns, powder, shot, medicine, — nearly all the articles that
it used. It had a few cotton mills and woolen factories,
Abraham Lincoln
290 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1861
but only one-fortieth of its cotton was manufactured at
home; the remainder was sent to the North and to Eng¬
land. All the manufactures of the eleven Confederate
States were less in value than those of the one state of
Massachusetts. The case was hardly overstated when it
was said : “ From the rattle with which the nurse tickled
the ear of the child to the shroud for the dead, everything
that the southerners used came from the North.”
The North was a great manufacturing region. It had
many mills, factories, and machine shops. It had a great
trade, too, with all the world, and it had the credit of an
established government. In population, as in wealth and
resources, the North excelled the South. In the twenty-
three states of the Union, there were 22,000,000 people;
in the eleven states of the Confederacy, there were only
9,000,000, of whom 3,700,000 were slaves. The South had
only one-fourth as many fighting men as the North, and
throughout the war, the Union soldiers outnumbered the
Confederates in every campaign and in nearly every battle.
The southern soldiers, however, had certain great advan¬
tages; they fought, in the main, on their own ground a
defensive campaign; most of them were accustomed to
outdoor life, and were fearless horsemen and skilled
marksmen. Many northern men who enlisted in the army
had to learn to load and fire a gun.
In courage, in devotion to the cause they thought right,
northerners and southerners were equal.
Blockade proclaimed. — When President Lincoln called
for troops, he proclaimed a blockade of the southern coast.
Ships were collected as rapidly as possible to blockade the
southern coast from Chesapeake Bay to the Rio Grande
River, so as to keep the Confederates from carrying on trade
and getting guns and other supplies from abroad. The
Confederacy had no navy and small facilities for building
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291
i86i] DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR
ships; but under difficulties some good vessels were con¬
structed.
Confederate frontiers. — The South was naturally well
defended along most of its frontiers. Its eastern and
southern coasts were easily fortified, and the western coun¬
try was still a wilderness. The northern boundary between
the Union and the Confederacy followed the Potomac
River; leaving this river, it passed through Cumberland
Gap and crossed Kentucky and Missouri. East of the
mountains, the Confederacy was protected against attack
from the North by swamps and forests and eastward-flow¬
ing rivers. West of this region, the rough, thickly-wooded
Appalachian Mountains formed a natural defense for the
Confederate frontiers. West of these mountains, however,
the Federals had geographical advantages. The country
was level and open ; the Mississippi and its branches led,
like roads from the North, into the southern states.
Task of invasion. — As the North was trying to bring
the South back into the Union, it had to take the offensive
and invade the country. An invading army must keep
communications open behind it in order to receive supplies,
and this the Union troops found often a difficult task.
Moreover, the fact that the North was the attacking party
made sentiment stronger in the South; southern men
flocked to the army to defend their native states.
First battle of Manassas [July 21]. — The troops on
both sides were eager for battle. The northern cry was,
“ On to Richmond! ” and Confederate troops were sent
northward to meet the invading Federal forces. The first
real battle of the war took place at Manassas, a railroad
junction, about twenty-five miles south of Washington.
The Union troops under General McDowell advanced and
attacked the Confederates, under Generals Beauregard and
Joseph E. Johnston. The raw, undisciplined troops
292 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1861
fought bravely, and for awhile the result seemed in doubt.
Then General Thomas Jackson checked the Federal ad¬
vance with a bayonet charge.
“There are Jackson and his Virginians standing like a
stone wall,” said one of the Confederates, and from that
day the great general was known as Stonewall Jackson.
The Union troops retreated in disorder through the
pouring rain to Washington, having sustained heavy loss
in killed, wounded, and captured.
Treatment of prisoners. — The Union government had
refused to acknowledge the Confederate government. It
regarded the war as a big riot and said that it would treat
southern seamen as pirates and southern soldiers as crimi¬
nals who had murdered Union soldiers. Now the Con¬
federate government threatened to retaliate on the prisoners
taken at Manassas. To protect these, the Federals finally
agreed to treat captives as regular prisoners of war.
Fighting along borders. — With the exception of the
battle of Manassas, the fighting during the first year of
the war was confined to skirmishes and contests for the
possession of the border country. In the mountains of
western Virginia and eastern Tennessee, most of the people
were opposed to secession. The Union general, McClellan,
secured control of western Virginia by the battle of Rich’s
Mountain. Federal troops occupied most of Kentucky
and Missouri also.
Trent affair [November 8]. — An event took place in
the autumn which threatened to bring on war between the
United States and Great Britain. At the beginning of the
war, France and Great Britain declared their neutrality.
The Confederate government, hoping to secure these coun¬
tries as its allies, sent James M. Mason of Virginia and
John Slidell of Louisiana as commissioners to them.
These gentlemen went from Charleston to the West Indies
DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR
293
1861]
and took passage on a British steamer, the Trent. It was
stopped by an American warship, commanded by Captain
Charles Wilkes ; Messrs. Mason and Slidell were taken off
and carried as prisoners to Boston.
Wilkes’s action was contrary to the law of nations,
but the North generally approved of it. Great Britain,
however, protested against the act as an insult to her flag,
and ordered troops to Canada to be ready to enforce
the protest. President Lincoln admitted that Captain
Wilkes was in the wrong, and released Messrs. Mason and
Slidell.
Confederate cruisers. — Great Britain did not declare in
favor of the Confederacy, but its attitude was friendly.
The Alabama , Shenandoah , and several other ships were
built in England for the Confederacy. These cruisers
captured many merchant vessels and did much damage to
northern commerce. The most noted of them was the
Alabama , commanded by Captain Semmes, which captured
sixty-nine vessels in its two-years’ cruise.
Summary [1861]. — Before Abraham Lincoln of Illinois, the six¬
teenth president came into office, seven southern states seceded from
the Union. President Lincoln was resolved to preserve the Union.
He attempted to reenforce Fort Sumter, whereupon the Confederates
attacked and took the fort. Lincoln then called for troops to invade
the South. Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina refused
to send troops and joined the Confederacy. There began the great
four-years’ War of Secession to determine whether the Union was su¬
preme or the states were sovereign, a question which the contest over
slavery had rendered acute. The North was superior to the South in
wealth, resources, and population. The South had the advantage of
fighting on its own ground against invasion. The first great battle
of the war, Manassas, was a Confederate victory. The Trent affair
came near involving the Union in war with Great Britain.
294 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1862
5. The Events of 1862
Points of Federal attack. — During the first year of
the War of Secession, both sides were occupied chiefly
in preparing for the contest; there were no regular cam¬
paigns. The next spring, there came the clash of arms
along the frontiers of the Confederacy. The Federals
had three main objects : first, to get control of the Mis¬
sissippi River, which would give them a great highway
and cut the Confederacy in two ; second, to blockade the
South’s coast and capture its Seaports, so as to shut it
from the outside world; third, to capture Richmond, the
Confederate capital.
Capture of Forts Henry [February 6] and Donelson [Feb¬
ruary 16].— General Halleck commanded the Union forces
in the West. Under him were some able officers, — Gen¬
erals Pope, Grant, Thomas, and Buell. The Union troops
moved southward along the valleys, supported by fleets of
gunboats on the rivers. Commodore Foote took Fort
Henry on the Tennessee River. A few days later, Gen¬
eral Grant attacked Fort Donelson on the Cumberland
River. The Confederate garrison asked what terms Grant
would give.
He answered, “ No terms except an unconditional and
immediate surrender can be accepted.”
The Confederates surrendered on these hard terms, and
from that time Grant was known by the nickname of ‘ Un¬
conditional Surrender.’
General Grant. — Ulysses S. Grant was, like Lincoln,
‘one of the plain people.’ He was educated at West
Point and served with honor in the War with Mexico.
Later he left the army. For awhile, he lived in a log
cabin on a little farm which he called ‘ Hardscrabble ’;
then he became a clerk in his father’s leather shop. At
General Ulysses S. Grant
296 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1862
the beginning of the war, he entered the army and was
put in command of Illinois troops. Grant was a quiet, re¬
served man, prompt and firm in action, and with the power
of handling great masses of men; he possessed the ability
to form a good plan and then to stick to it, in spite of dis¬
couragement and defeat, until he was successful. Lincoln
soon learned his value, and said, “ I can’t spare this man;
he fights.”
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ROUTES OF
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Second Union Army West -- —
Confederate Armies —
Minor Raids _
SCALE OF MILES
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BORMAV ENG. CO., N.Y.
Fighting in West.—The capture of Forts Henry and
Donelson gave the Federals control of the Tennessee
River which, like a road, leads through Tennessee into
Mississippi and Alabama. The powerful northern armies
and fleets advanced along this highway into southern terri¬
tory. The Confederates were forced back, till their line
of defense extended from Memphis to Chattanooga. There
were sharp conflicts in Missouri and in Arkansas. The
1862]
DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR
297
battle of Pea Ridge broke up the Confederate army west
of the Mississippi.
Battle of Shiloh [April 6, 7]. — General Grant marched
toward Corinth, a railway center in northern Mississippi,
expecting to be joined on the way by troops under General
Buell. General Albert Sidney Johnston, one of the ablest
of the southern commanders, hurried north with his army,
in order to engage Grant in battle before he was reen¬
forced.
The two armies met near Pittsburg Landing, one Sun¬
day morning. A fierce battle was fought in the woods
around Shiloh Church, and the Union troops were forced
back to the river. But Confederate success ended with
the day. General Johnston was killed in the battle, and
night brought General Grant large reenforcements under
Buell. The next day, the battle was renewed, and for six
hours the Confederates, led by General Beauregard, fought
bravely. Then they were forced to retreat. The Federals
followed, and General Beauregard had to abandon Corinth
and move southward.
Vicksburg and Port Hudson. —The Federals took Mem¬
phis, thus gaining control of the Mississippi River down
to Vicksburg, Mississippi, a natural stronghold, which was
held by the Confederates. From the Ohio, the Mississippi
pursues a winding course to the sea, with a fall of a little
over three hundred feet in its thousand-mile course. The
surrounding country is covered with a network of swamps,
channels, and streams. These lowlands are bordered on
the east by bluffs which draw near the Mississippi at
Vicksburg and Port Hudson. At Vicksburg, the river
bends and almost doubles on its course, leaving a tongue
of land about a mile wide and three or four miles long.
Vicksburg is situated on bluffs two hundred feet in height,
out of reach of the guns of ships on the river; it is sur-
298 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1862
rounded by rough country broken by ravines and a net¬
work of streams.
Port Hudson, Louisiana, two hundred and fifty miles
lower down the river, is almost as strongly situated
as Vicksburg; it
also was occupied
by the Confed¬
erates. Between
the two, the Red
R.iver empties
into the Missis¬
sippi. This was
a great road, on
which men and
supplies came
from the western
to the eastern
part of the Con¬
federacy.
After the Con¬
federates aban¬
doned Corinth,
they fell back to
a line extending from Vicksburg to Chattanooga. They
made unsuccessful attempts to take Louisville and to retake
Corinth. On the other hand, Generals Grant and Sherman
tried in vain to capture Vicksburg.
Farragut’s fleet. — Meanwhile, a Union fleet was forcing
its way up the Mississippi. Captain Farragut entered the
river with fifty vessels, the strongest fleet that had ever sailed
under the American flag. Seventy-five miles below New
Orleans w.ere two strong forts, nearly opposite each other.
Below these forts, the Confederates had stretched chains
across the river; above the forts, they had a small fleet.
Map of Vicksburg
General' Stonewall ’ Jackson
General J. E. B. Stuart
General Robert E. Lee
General J. E. Johnston
General A. S. Johnston
CONFEDERATE COMMANDERS
3 °°
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1862
After bombarding the forts five days and nights and
failing to take them, Farragut cut the chains, passed the
forts [April 25], destroyed the little Confederate fleet,
and took New Orleans. General Butler was left in con¬
trol of the city which he ‘ ruled like a conquered prov¬
ince.’ Farragut forced his way up the river as far as
Port Hudson.
Blockade runners. — Union fleets blockaded the Confed¬
erate coast and almost destroyed its commerce. Its crops
were shut in from the markets of the world ; the value
of the cotton exported fell in two years from $200,000,000
to $4,000,000. Some trade was carried on from southern
ports by small, swift vessels called blockade runners.
These were painted dull gray and burned hard coal so as
not to make much smoke ; on dark nights, they slipped
past the blockading vessels. They carried cotton and
other stores from Confederate ports to the West Indies,
and brought back guns, powder, salt, medicine, and other
supplies. Many blockade runners were captured, but the
profits of the trade were so great that two successful trips
would pay for a vessel.
Federal success in West.—At the end of the year,
the F'ederals had been successful in two of their three
objects. They had established a strict blockade of the
coast, and they had gained control of the Mississippi
except between Port Hudson and Vicksburg. But they
had failed in their third object, —the capture of Richmond.
In this attempt, they had been checked at every turn by
able Confederate generals who made skillful use of the
natural defenses of the region.
Merrimac and Monitor [March 8]. — In the spring of 1862,
a contest took place which changed the sea fighting of
the world. This was the battle between the Monitor and
the Merrimac or Virginia . The frigate Merrimac had
1862]
DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR
3 01
been fitted up by the Confederates as an ironclad vessel;
it was covered with plates of iron and fitted with an iron
beak. This floating fort attacked the Union fleet of five
wooden battleships near Fortress Monroe. Their shot
and shell glanced from it ‘like so many peas.’ Its beak
crushed like, an eggshell the sides of the sloop Cumber¬
land , which went down with its flag flying. The frigate
Battle between the Monitor and the Merrimac
Congress surrendered and was burned. The destruction
of the other vessels seemed only a question of a few
hours, when at nightfall the Merrimac paused in its deadly
work. This battle proved that wooden ships are helpless
against iron ones.
That night help came to the Federal fleet. The Moni¬
tor arrived in Hampton Roads. This was an iron-plated
vessel, invented by John Ericsson, a Swedish engineer
making his home in America. The Monitor looked like
302 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1862
“a cheese box on a raft”; it had a low, flat body, only a
foot or two above the water, and a revolving turret con¬
taining two immense guns.
There took place in Hampton Roads a notable battle
between these ironclad vessels. For hours, they fired at
each other volleys which would have destroyed wooden
vessels, but which glanced harmless from their iron sides.
A man on the Merrimac said, “ After two-hours’ incessant
firing, I find that I can do about as much damage by
snapping my thumb at her [th e Monitor] every two minutes
and a half.” After five-hours’ fighting, the Monitor retired
out of range of shot and the Merrimac withdrew to Norfolk.
Realizing the value of ironclads, the Union authorities
promptly began to build other vessels on the order of the
Monitor. Now the warships of the world are ironclad.
General McClellan. — The first year of the war, General
George McClellan was put in command of the Union
forces. He was a brave, honorable man, and in many
respects an able general, but he was very cautious and
fearful of failure. He never liked to attack unless he was
sure to win, and he was apt to overestimate his oppo¬
nent’s strength.
General McClellan took charge of an army made up
largely of civilians who had never handled guns; he spent
the winter drilling them, and by the spring of 1862 he had
an excellently-equipped army of 185,000 well-trained men.
Peninsular Campaign [April-July]. — What route should
he pursue in his advance toward Richmond ? He thought
that it would be unwise to march directly forward because
the country between Richmond and Washington, broken
with rivers, swamps, and forests, presented many difficul¬
ties to an invading army. So McClellan made what is
called the Peninsular Campaign. He took his troops
down Chesapeake Bay to Fortress Monroe, thence up the
1862]
DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR
303
peninsula between the James and York rivers. The army
was protected in the rear by the fleet in Hampton Roads;
on both sides, there were rivers up which came gunboats
and supply ships.
General McClellan had trained his army well, and made
an excellent plan of campaign. If he had advanced
promptly up the peninsula, he might have made his way
to Richmond before the Confederates could collect troops
to oppose him. But at the beginning of his campaign,
he was held in check a month at Yorktown by a small
Confederate force. The Confederates had about one man
to McClellan’s four, and they had so few guns that they
put ‘ Quaker guns,’ mere painted logs, on their fortifica¬
tions to deceive the Federals.
Battle of Seven Pines, or Fair Oaks [May 31, June 1].—
While McClellan lingered, the Confederate force increased
from a handful to an army. It was still smaller than the
Union army, but the Federals were in a swampy region
and their troops were divided by the Chickahominy River.
The Confederate general Joseph E. Johnston attacked and
defeated the troops on the south side of the river, at Seven
Pines, or Fair Oaks, a few miles below Richmond.
General Lee. — In this battle, General Johnston was
wounded, and General Robert E. Lee took charge of the
Confederate army. General Lee was the son of ‘ Light-
horse Harry’ Lee of the Revolution. He had been edu¬
cated at West Point, had distinguished himself in the War
with Mexico, and was now to prove himself one of the
world’s great captains. In ability to accomplish much
with small means, he resembled Washington. He had
done signal service in the old Union army, and at the be¬
ginning of the war, he was offered command of the Union
army; he declined because he did not believe that the
general government had a right to use force against the
304 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1862
southern states and he thought that his first duty was to
his native state, Virginia.
“ Though opposed to secession and deprecating war,”
he said, “ I could take no part in an invasion of the south¬
ern states.”
An English officer described him thus: “ General Lee
is the handsomest man of his age that I ever saw. He is
The Lee Mansion, Arlington, Virginia
tall, broad-shouldered, — a thorough soldier in appearance.
His manners are most courteous and full of dignity. He
is a perfect gentleman in every respect. He has none of
the small vices, such as smoking, drinking, chewing, or
swearing, and his bitterest enemies have never accused
him of any of the greater ones. His only faults arise from
great amiability.”
Stonewall Jackson. — McClellan was now so near Rich¬
mond that he could hear the ringing of its bells. He
waited to attack the city until he should receive reenforce-
DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR
305
General Robert E. Lee
X
306 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1862
ments under McDowell. Meanwhile, a Confederate gen¬
eral made a brilliant campaign in the Shenandoah Valley
and prevented the sending of these reenforcements. This
general was Jackson, who on the battle field of Manassas
had won the name of Stonewall. He was a shy, grave
man, with a solemn, steadfast face. Like Grant, he was ‘ a
man of the plain people/ with wonderful military ability.
He was firm and prudent, energetic and daring. He
was as noted for piety as for skill in fighting; his bulletins
after battle usually said, “God gave us victory.” His
motto was, “ Do your duty and leave the rest to Provi¬
dence.”
Jackson’s Valley Campaign [March-June].— By a series
of marches—so swift and sudden that his little band was
called * Stonewall’s foot cavalry ’ — Jackson drove the Fed¬
eral troops out of the Shenandoah Valley. The Shenan¬
doah Valley opens from the southwest toward Washington,
and the Union authorities were afraid that Jackson would
come through this ‘ back door * and attack their capital.
Instead of going to the help of McClellan, McDowell was
recalled from Fredericksburg to attack Jackson. The Con¬
federate general slipped between two divisions which united
could have crushed him, and attacked and defeated them
separately; then he joined Lee near Richmond.
With 15,000 men, he had kept 60,000 busy in the valley.
In thirty-two days, he had marched nearly four hundred
miles, fought five battles against superior forces, and come
off victor with many prisoners and large stores. This
campaign is studied in military schools as a remarkable
instance of handling a small force so as to make it effec¬
tive against a larger one.
The Seven Days’ Fighting [June 25-July 1]. — General
Lee took advantage of General McClellan’s inaction to
strengthen his army and his position. General J. E. B.
1862]
DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR
307
Stuart, with a small body of cavalry, was sent to find out
the exact position of McClellan’s forces. He rode around
the Union army and brought back stores and prisoners as
well as the desired information. Then, instead of the
looked-for McDowell, came Jackson. Lee and Jackson
attacked McClellan in daily battles called the Seven Days’
Fighting. The Confederates and Federals both lost
heavily, but the Confederates succeeded in defending their
capital. The Union troops were forced to fall back to
the James River where they were protected by their
gunboats.
Change of generals and plans. — McClellan had not ac¬
complished as much as had been expected with his great
army. So Halleck, the commander of the victorious army
in the West, was called East and put in charge. General
Pope was given command of the Union army in Virginia.
Second battle of Manassas [August 29, 30]. — Instead of
taking a roundabout course like McClellan, Pope tried to
advance directly to Richmond, so as to attack it and pro¬
tect Washington at the same time. He went as far as the
field of Manassas, the scene of the first great battle of the
war. There he was met and defeated by Lee and Jackson.
Battle of Antietam [September 16, 17]. — After the battle
of Manassas, Pope withdrew toward Washington. Jackson
marched his ‘ foot cavalry ’ north and took Harper’s Ferry ;
then he rejoined Lee who had crossed the Potomac into
Maryland. At Antietam Creek, near Sharpsburg, they
met the Federal forces which had again been put in charge
of McClellan. A great drawn battle was fought. The
advance of the Confederates was checked, and they re¬
crossed the Potomac and withdrew into Virginia.
Two weeks later, President Lincoln visited the battle
field of Antietam, and looking at the long lines of graves, he
said sadly, “ Brave men all—and both sides Americans.”
308 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1862
Battle of Fredericksburg [December 13].—After Antietam,
General McClellan was again removed. General Ambrose
Burnside was put in command, and promptly proved him¬
self the wrong man for the place. With over a hundred
thousand men, he attacked a much smaller Confederate
army strongly posted at Fredericksburg, on the heights
Battle of Antietam
south of the Rappahannock River. The Federals were
repulsed with a loss of 13,000 men; the Confederate loss
was only 4000.
The second year of the war ended with Union victories
in the West balanced by defeats in the East.
Hardships caused by blockade. — At sea, the Federals
had the advantage. By the end of this year, most of the
Confederate vessels were captured, and the great Union
fleet lay like a wall along the southern coast. As the
1862]
DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR
309
blockade grew closer, it became more and more difficult
for the South to get supplies. Parched wheat and other
grains were used as substitutes for coffee; sage and rasp¬
berry leaves took the place of tea. Looms long unused
were brought out and homespun clothes were made. Car¬
pets were cut up for blankets. People went barefoot or
wore wooden clogs or shoes made of old felt hats. Soldiers
had scanty rations of
coarse food; many of
them were ragged, tent¬
less, hatless, shoeless; as
in the days of the Revolu¬
tion, the line of march
was marked by blood from
the soldiers’ bare feet. At
home and in the field, the
sick suffered for lack of
medicines.
Women’s part in war. —
In the South and in the
North, the women at home
did a noble part in helping
carry on the war. They
sent blankets from their
own beds to the soldiers,
they made bandages and
clothing, knitted socks, collected food, — working hard and
denying themselves the comforts of life in order to send
supplies to camps and hospitals.
Summary [1862]. — The second year of the war, the Federals
attempted to do three things : first, to get control of the Mississippi
River ; second, to blockade the Confederate coast; third, to capture
Richmond. They gained control of the western country and the Mis¬
sissippi River as far down as Vicksburg, and the fleet under Farragut
An Army Nurse
3 io SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1863
took New Orleans and moved up the river to Port Hudson. A block¬
ade of the coast was established. A notable event was the fight of the
Monitor and the Merrimac , the first battle between ironclad warships.
The Federals were unsuccessful in their attempts to take Richmond,
which was protected by able Confederate generals, — Johnston, Lee,
and Jackson. McClellan was defeated in the Seven Days 1 Fighting,
Pope in the second battle of Manassas, and Burnside at Fredericksburg.
Lee and Jackson marched into Maryland, and a fierce drawn battle was
fought at Antietam.
6 . The Events of 1863
Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation [January 1, 1863].
— At first, the North was doubtful what position to take
about slavery, or even what to do about runaway slaves
who came to the Union camps. One of the rules of civi¬
lized war is that private property must not be taken with¬
out paying for it. As slaves were private property, the
southerners said that runaways ought to be given up.
General Benjamin F. Butler, a sharp lawyer who was in
command of Fortress Monroe, refused to return runaway
negroes, saying that as they were useful in building forts,
etc., they were ‘contraband of war,’ like guns and powder.
This was a shrewd way out of the difficulty, and most of
the Federals treated slaves as ‘contraband.’
Some officers went so far as to declare them free, but
President Lincoln said that this must not be done. The
Constitution allowed slavery, and neither he, the president,
nor any one else had a right to abolish it. He declared
in a public letter: “ My paramount object in this struggle
is to save the Union, and is not either to save or to destroy
slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any
slave, I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing all
the slaves, I would do it.”
At last he decided that it was “ a fit and necessary war
measure ” for him, as commander in chief of the army, to
x86 3 ] DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 311
emancipate the slaves in the seceded states. So he
issued an Emancipation Proclamation, declaring the slaves
in the seceded states free. This proclamation did not free
the slaves in the border Union states nor abolish the sys¬
tem of slavery anywhere.
Exchange of prisoners. — After the Emancipation Proc¬
lamation, regiments of negro soldiers were formed. The
South refused to recognize the Emancipation Proclamation
or the right of the North to enroll negro soldiers, many
of whom were runaway slaves. It refused to exchange
negroes, and the North insisted that all prisoners must be
on the same footing. The Union government had at first
refused to exchange prisoners; and soon after it began to
make exchanges this dispute put a stop to them.
Captured soldiers were crowded by thousands in prisons,
and many died from disease and hardships. The prisons
on both sides were badly managed. The Confederate
government had for its own soldiers only scanty rations of
coarse corn meal and bacon. It was unable to care for
its captives; well men suffered for lack of food and sick
ones died for lack of medicine. At last, the Confederates
were reduced to such straits that they offered to exchange
negroes like other prisoners, but the offer was refused.
The North, with its large population and abundant means,
could replace its lost men; the South could not, and each
man that the Confederates lost weakened their army and
brought them a step nearer defeat.
Formation of West Virginia. — The year that the Eman¬
cipation Proclamation was issued, Congress admitted as a
separate state, called West Virginia, the western counties
of Virginia which opposed secession. The Constitution of
the United States forbids the division of a state without its
own consent, but Congress accepted the theory that these
counties represented the state of Virginia.
3 12
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1863
Draft Acts. —At first, the army ranks on both sides were
filled by volunteers, but as time passed it grew more diffi¬
cult to get soldiers. Instead of depending on volunteers,
both governments passed Draft Acts, requiring men to
serve in the army. In the South, the age limit was extended
time after time until it included boys of sixteen and men of
seventy; General Grant said that the Confederates “ robbed
the cradle and the grave ” to get soldiers.
Lincoln’s orders for drafting troops caused great excite¬
ment and even resistance. In New York City, there
were Draft Riots. Several hundred persons were killed
and wounded; millions of dollars’ worth of property was
destroyed. For days, the city was almost at the mercy of
mobs. Troops intended for southern service had to be
called on to suppress the riots. By degrees, order was
restored and the act was enforced.
Battle of Chancellorsville [May 2, 3]. —After Burnside’s
defeat at Fredericksburg, the command of the Army of
the Potomac was given to General Hooker. ‘ Fighting
Joe,’ as he was called, fared worse even than his prede¬
cessors. He did not attempt to attack the Confederates,
still strongly posted on the Fredericksburg heights; in¬
stead, he crossed the river with an army of about 95,000
men and halted in the woods near Chancellorsville.
Although Lee had only about 45,000 men, he divided his
army and sent Jackson to make a fifteen-mile march
through the woods and attack the Union flank while he
attacked the front. The Confederates won a brilliant vic¬
tory, but they sustained a far greater loss than that of
many battles. General Jackson, who had advanced at
nightfall between the lines to examine the Union position,
was shot by mistake by his own men and died a few days
later.
General Lee well said to the wounded officer, “You
86 3 ]
DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR
313
have lost your left arm; but I, in losing you, have lost my
right arm.”
Battle of Gettysburg [July 1, 2, 3]. —After defeating
and driving back Hooker, Lee crossed the Potomac and
advanced into Pennsyl¬
vania. He gave strict
orders that private
property should not be
molested and advanced
in orderly march as far
as Gettysburg. There
he was met by the
Federals under brave
General George Meade
and a great battle was
fought. The Union
troops were strongly
posted south of Gettys¬
burg on Cemetery
Ridge, a fishhook¬
shaped rocky ridge
about two miles long.
The Confederates occu¬
pied Seminary Ridge
nearly opposite.
On the open ground between the hills, the troops met in
battle during the first three days of July, 1863. On the
first day, the Confederates attacked one end of the Federal
line without gaining any real advantage. On the second
day, they attacked the other end, and the Union troops
were forced back, but delay in obeying General Lee’s
orders to attack gave the Federals time to strengthen and
hold their position. The last hope of the Confederates
was to break the Federal center; on the third day, they
314
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1863
attempted to do this. ‘ Pickett’s charge ’ is world-famous.
As his division advanced, supported by troops under Petti¬
grew and Trimble, men fell before the Union guns like
grain before the reaper, but the ranks closed, and the troops
marched up the ridge. Their daring charge broke the
Union line, but they could not hold the position and fell
back, — a shattered remnant.
In this bloody battle, the Federals lost one-fourth of their
88,000 men and the Confederates one-third of their 75,000.
Lee withdrew his army into Virginia. At Gettysburg, the
tide of war turned in the East against the Confederates.
Surrender of Vicksburg [July 4].— Meanwhile, Federal
success continued in the West. The day after the battle
of Gettysburg, Vicksburg surrendered. For months,
General Grant had been attempting to take the city. Plan
after plan of attack had been tried and had failed. At
last, Generals Grant and Sherman gained control of the
surrounding country and their army drew a line, fifteen
miles long, around Vicksburg. As the besieging army came
closer, shot and shell rained in the city so that people left
their homes and took refuge in caves dug in the bluffs.
Provisions were scarce. People had scanty rations of corn
meal mixed with pea meal; they had no meat except rats
and * mule steak.’ After a six-weeks’ siege, the garrison,
reduced by sickness and starvation, surrendered to the
Federals.
Surrender of Port Hudson. — Five days later, Port Hud¬
son was surrendered. This gave the Federals control
of the Mississippi River, and cut off Louisiana, Arkansas,
and Texas from the eastern states of the Confederacy. To
the end of the war, however, Confederate troops made their
way across the river, in spite of the blockade.
Fighting in Tennessee and Georgia.—While fleets and
armies were fighting for the control of the Mississippi, a
i86 3 ]
DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR
315
struggle was going on for the possession of Tennessee and
northern Georgia. At Murfreesboro, the Confederates,
under General Bragg, were repulsed by the Federals under
General Rosecrans [December 31, 1862-January 2, 1863],
and compelled to retreat. In the autumn, General Bragg
retired toward Chattanooga; he remained in that neigh¬
borhood several months; then he abandoned the city and
met the Union army in the open field.
Battle of Chickamauga [September 19, 20]. —At Chicka-
mauga Creek, in northwestern Georgia, there was fought
one of the most fiercely-
contested battles of the
war. In the second-
day’s fight, the Union
line was broken; the
Confederates pushed
forward into the gap
and drove back the
right and center. Only
the left held firm. With
defeat around him and
disorder behind, Gen¬
eral Thomas, ‘the rock
of Chickamauga,’ held
his men steady and
with the bayonet forced
back the Confederates.
His firm courage kept
the defeat from being
a disastrous rout. Gen¬
eral Rosecrans retreated to Chattanooga, followed by
General Bragg.
Fighting around Chattanooga. —Chattanooga, ‘ the south¬
ern gateway in the Appalachian wall,’ is on the east bank
* 7*1
General W. T. Sherman
General George B. McClellan
General U. S. Grant
Admiral David G. Farragut
General George Thomas
UNION COMMANDERS
DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR
317
1863]
of the Tennessee River. Chattanooga Valley, two miles
wide, lies between the city and a steep, narrow mountain,
called Missionary Ridge; on the other side of Mission¬
ary Ridge is Chickamauga Valley, the scene of the battle
already described. Three miles south of Chattanooga is
Lookout Mountain. Bragg’s army extended in a semi-circle
Battle of Lookout Mountain
on the hills from Missionary Ridge to Lookout Mountain
and cut off supplies from the city.
The most important task before the Federals in the
autumn was the relief of the hard-pressed forces shut up in
Chattanooga. This was undertaken by a great army led
by Grant who had been put in charge of the Army of the
West; he was aided by three other famous general,—
Sherman, Thomas, and Sheridan.
To dislodge Bragg, it was necessary to capture Lookout
318 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1863
Mountain and Missionary Ridge. This was done in three-
days’ fighting [November 23-25]. Under cover of a thick
fog, the Federals stormed the heights of Lookout Moun¬
tain ; this battle is often called ‘ the battle above the clouds.’
Then the Federals pressed up steep Missionary Ridge,
obstructed by rocks and fallen timber, lost one-fifth of their
number, but never faltered, and took the ridge. These
victories at Chattanooga gave the Federals control of east¬
ern Tennessee; Bragg withdrew into Georgia.
State of affairs. — By the end of the year, it was evident
that the South was losing ground. Gettysburg, Vicks¬
burg, Chattanooga, all told the same tale. In the West,
the Confederates had been forced back everywhere, resist¬
ing stubbornly but in vain. The whole southern coast was
blockaded by northern fleets. In the East, Lee still kept
back the Federal army, and it seemed as far as ever from
its goal, Richmond. But every day the Union army grew
larger and the Confederate smaller. The North had
abundant men and means. The South was nearing the
end of its resources. Nine-tenths of the southern men were
in the army; there were not men at home to replace the
killed, wounded, and captured.
Summary [1863]. — In January, President Lincoln issued his Eman¬
cipation Proclamation, declaring the slaves free in seceded states. A
few months later, the western counties of Virginia were formed into a
state called West Virginia. In the East, the Confederates held their
ground. The Federals under Hooker were defeated in the battle of
Chancellorsville, where Jackson was killed. Lee then marched into
Pennsylvania, and after a great battle at Gettysburg retreated to Vir¬
ginia. In the West, Federal successes continued. Vicksburg and Port
Hudson were taken, giving the Federals control of the Mississippi.
Several fierce battles were fought in Tennessee and Georgia, at Mur¬
freesboro and Chickamauga and around Chattanooga, which secured
Tennessee for the Federals.
1864]
DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR
319
7. The Events of 1864
Grant in command in East. — Grant, the victorious leader
of the Union armies in the West, was made lieutenant-
general and given command of all the Federal troops.
He took the field at the head of the Army of the Poto¬
mac against Lee in command of the Army of Northern
Virginia. A final struggle was at hand between the two
great generals. Both had veteran troops, seasoned by
battles and campaigns. Lee had 62,000 men and could
get no more; his ragged troops lacked not only military
supplies, but often bread and meat. Grant had 122,000
men and could get as many more as he wanted; his army
was well equipped and was followed on its march by a
wagon train, fifty miles long, bearing supplies.
Battle of the Wilderness [May 5, 6]. — Grant advanced
into the swampy, wooded region south of Fredericksburg,
called the Wilderness. Near the field of Chancellorsville,
there was a bloody two-days’ battle. Where the fight was
fiercest, dead and wounded men lay in heaps. The forest
caught fire, and many wounded men were burned alive.
From this field of horror, Grant sent a dispatch, saying,
with grim resolve, “ I propose to fight it out on this line if
it takes all summer.”
Lee’s retreat. — The Union and Confederate armies
marched south on parallel lines. By pressing forward on
the flank, Grant compelled Lee to fall back in order to
protect Richmond. Lee retreated, handling his army so
that the march was like a long battle or a moving siege.
At favorable places, he made a stand and gave battle.
Sheridan, at the head of a body of cavalry, made a
famous raid [May 9-24], riding around Lee’s army and
destroying supplies and telegraph and railroad lines; in
two weeks, he rejoined Grant.
320 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1864
Battle of Spottsylvania [May 10]. — At first, Grant tried
to win victories by vigorous fighting, as he had done in the
West; but Lee managed his army so skillfully that this
‘ hammering ’ plan did not succeed. There was a hard-
fought battle at Spottsylvania Courthouse ; at ‘ the bloody
angle’ the fighting was so fierce that trees were cut down by
shot and shell. Grant was repulsed, but his purpose was not
shaken. He ordered the army to advance. Formerly the
Federals had fallen back after defeat; now as the troops were
ordered South, cheers greeted Grant’s resolve to ‘ fight it out.’
Boys in battle. — The most famous of the minor battles
was that at New Market [May 15], known as ‘ the battle of
the boys.’ The cadets from Virginia Military Institute joined
the small Confederate force sent to repel the Federals in
the Valley of Virginia. These schoolboys advanced like
veterans, charged, and took the Federal guns. Without
faltering they bore heavy losses and won the battle.
:86 4 ]
DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR
321
Battle of Cold Harbor [June 3]. — At Cold Harbor, fifteen
miles from Richmond, Lee occupied a strong position, de¬
fended by swamps and thickets, and again gave battle.
In an hour, the Federals lost 10,000 men. But after
victory as after defeat, the Confederates had to fall back.
By November, Grant had lost 80.000 men, — more than
Lee had to begin with,—but others had taken their places,
and the Union army moved forward with full ranks.
Siege of Petersburg. — Richmond was so well protected
on the north and the east that Grant resolved to attack it
from the south. He attempted to take Petersburg, twenty-
two miles south of Richmond. Petersburg was an im¬
portant Confederate stronghold through which passed
railroads to the south and west; it was defended with des¬
perate valor. In order to protect Richmond and Peters¬
burg, Lee’s little army had to form a line twenty-five miles
long; it was necessary to place the men far apart so as to
cover this distance, and they had to be constantly on guard
against attack. The great Federal army was drawn up
beyond them, in a line thirty-five miles long.
The Federals dug a mine near Petersburg and attempted
to blow up the Confederate works [July 31]; but the
Crater, as it was called, proved a death trap ; about 4000
Federals were killed or taken captive, and the charge was
repulsed. Grant resolved not to sacrifice more lives in
attacks like the Crater and Cold Harbor. His army built
earthworks and settled down opposite the Confederates in
a nine-months’ siege.
Campaign in Shenandoah Valley. — Meanwhile, there
was fighting in the Shenandoah Valley which had been the
scene of Jackson’s masterly campaign. During the spring,
there were several skirmishes and battles. In the summer,
a Confederate force under General Jubal Early was sent
to make a campaign in the valley and threaten Washington,
y
322
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1864
It was hoped that this would draw off Grant from Peters¬
burg. Early’s troops marched in sight of the Capitol at
Washington and burned Chambersburg, Pennsylvania.
Grant, however, did not loosen his grip in Virginia.
General Sheridan was sent with troops against General
Early. The Confederates were defeated in the battle of
Winchester [September 19] and retreated up the valley.
Sheridan followed. He found the fertile valley a scene of
harvest plenty, its barns heaped with grain and hay, its
pastures full of sheep and cattle. He burned mills, houses,
and tools, destroyed crops, drove off stock, and left the
valley “a barren waste,” so that “ crows flying over it . . .
will have to carry their provender with them.” Sheridan
wished to deprive Confederate soldiers of supplies; in order
to do this, he reduced to want all of the Valley people,
most of whom were helpless women and children.
Campaign in West. — While Grant was marching through
Virginia, a Union army of over 100,000 men under com¬
mand of General Sherman was going through Georgia.
The day that Grant began his march to Richmond, Sher¬
man started from Chattanooga to Atlanta [May 4]. At¬
lanta was an important place for several reasons: it was a
great railroad center; from it supplies of all kinds were
shipped, and in its shops and foundries war materials were
manufactured. The Confederates had about 70,000 men
in Georgia under General Joseph E. Johnston, who had
replaced Bragg after the defeat at Chattanooga.
General Johnston was a brave, prudent, and able gen¬
eral, who, like Lee, could use a small force with good
effect against superior numbers. He realized that with
his small army his only hope of victory was in waiting
until the Federals were far from their sources of supplies
and in choosing his own ground for attack. Avoiding all
Sherman’s attempts to force a decisive engagement, he
86 4 ]
DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR
323
made a skillful, cautious retreat through northern Georgia,
fighting almost daily battles in favorable places.
Johnston replaced by Hood.—The Confederate govern¬
ment grew impatient of Johnston’s course and removed
him. General Hood, a brave officer who lacked Johnston’s
cautious judgment, was put in charge. Instead of pursu¬
ing a guarded retreat, Hood fought several battles in which
he was outnumbered and defeated. Sherman finally threw
part of his army south of Atlanta, and Hood had to abandon
the city in order to avoid being shut up there. He moved
north into Tennessee, hoping by cutting off Sherman’s sup¬
plies to force the Federals to follow. But Sherman’s army
was so large that he left Thomas with troops to outnum¬
ber and fight Hood, and continued his southward march.
Hood was defeated at Nashville [December 15]. This
defeat practically ended the war in the West.
Sherman’s march to the sea. — Sherman took Atlanta,
destroyed its mills, foundries, factories, railroads, and tel¬
egraph lines, and made the city a military garrison. When
protests were made against this ‘cruelty,’ he answered,
“War is cruelty, and you cannot refine it.”
With an army of 60,000 men, Sherman left the smok¬
ing ruins of Atlanta and started to the southern coast.
Instead of depending on the North for supplies, he foraged
on the country. Like Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley,
he treated the whole country as ‘contraband of war.’ He
reported that on this march his army used property worth
$20,000,000 and destroyed property to the value of
$80,000,000. He was followed by thousands of negroes
and by lawless stragglers called ‘ Sherman’s bummers.’
On the march of three hundred miles, a belt of fertile
country sixty miles wide was laid waste. Houses were
robbed and burned, crops and supplies were consumed or
destroyed, railroads were torn up. The country was filled
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1864
3H
with hungry women and children who had fled from their
burning homes. A few days after Hood was defeated at
Nashville, Sherman entered the city of Savannah [Decem¬
ber 22], where he was joined by the fleet.
Sherman’s March to the Sea
Capture of coast cities. — Before Sherman entered Savan¬
nah, the fleet had gained control of nearly all cities on the
southern coast. The summer before, Admiral Farragut had
taken Mobile [August 5]. Knowing that the harbor was
defended by mines, he lashed his ships together in pairs,
so that if one were disabled it might have help at hand.
The first vessel which entered the harbor was sunk by a
torpedo. Instead of hesitating or drawing back, Farragut
signaled “go ahead,” entered the harbor, and took the
city. After Mobile was captured, Charleston, South Caro¬
lina, and Fort Fisher, which defended the approach to
Wilmington in North Carolina, were the only important
ports in the hands of the Confederates. Through these, a
few daring blockade runners brought arms, clothing, and
medicine to the Confederacy. Fort Fisher was taken after
i86 5 ] DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR 325
a bloody struggle early the next year, and Charleston was
occupied by the Federals a few weeks later.
Summary [1864]. — General Grant was given charge of the Union
armies. He took the field in the East and advanced with a large army
toward Richmond, being opposed on the way by an army under General
Lee. Several bloody battles were fought, — the Wilderness, Spottsyl-
vania, and Cold Harbor, — and then Grant began a nine-months’ siege
of Richmond and Petersburg. General Sherman marched southward
from Chattanooga with a great army. He was opposed, first, by General
Johnston who led a skillful retreat; then, by General Hood who en¬
gaged in battle, was defeated, returned to Tennessee, and was finally
defeated at Nashville by General Thomas. Sherman took Atlanta,
then marched to Savannah, laying waste the country. Mobile was
taken by the fleet, and a few months later Charleston and Fort Fisher
were taken.
8. The End of the War
Peace Conference [February 3, 1865]. — Early in February,
President Lincoln met some Confederate officials at Hamp¬
ton Roads to discuss terms of peace. The Confederates
demanded the recognition of their government and Lin¬
coln’s first requirement was that the seceded states should
return to the Union, — so nothing was accomplished by
the conference.
Sherman’s march through Carolinas. — That same
month, Sherman started with his army from Savannah to
join Grant in Virginia. It was a long, difficult march of
several hundred miles, through swampy, wooded country.
Roads had to be cut and bridges built on the way. In the
Carolinas as on the march through Georgia, Sherman’s
army left ruin behind it. Columbia, the capital of South
Carolina, was taken and burned. Until North Carolina
was reached, there was practically no fighting. There the
Federals encountered an army under Johnston. He
fought stubbornly and managed his small force skillfully,
326 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1865
but he could not check the march of Sherman’s great
army.
Lee’s retreat from Richmond. — In Virginia, Lee, who
had been made general in chief of the Confederate forces,
still confronted Grant. His army, wasted by disease and
battle, consisted of 57,000 men. Among Lee’s losses was
A Pontoon Bridge
the death of his able lieutenant, General A. P. Hill. Early
in April, the line which had so long protected Richmond
was broken, and the Confederate government had to aban¬
don its capital. Hoping to unite with Johnston’s army, Lee
attempted to march toward Danville. But supplies were
sent past the point he had ordered them, and he had to wait
to get food for his soldiers. This gave the Federals time
to cut off the southern route. Lee turned toward Lynch¬
burg, only to find Sheridan’s cavalry between him and that
place. In the rain and mud, his hungry, tired, heroic men
1865]
DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR
327
kept up a running fight for fifty miles. The Confederate
army was reduced to 27,000 men ; the Federals had 125,000.
To continue the hopeless contest would be a useless sacrifice
of life.
“There is now but one course to pursue,” said General
Lee. “We must accept the situation ; these men must go
home and plant a crop; and we must proceed to build up
our country on a new basis.”
Lee’s surrender [April 9]. — On the ninth of April, 1865,
General Lee met General Grant at Appomattox Court¬
house to arrange terms of surrender. It was a courteous,
grave interview. Honorable terms were granted. The
Confederate soldiers were to go home, and Grant said that
they were “not to be disturbed by the United States au¬
thority so long as they observed their parole and the laws
in force where they reside.” They were allowed to keep
their horses, “because,” Grant said with kindly thought¬
fulness, “they would need them for the spring plowing
and farm work.” When Lee said that his soldiers had no
food except parched corn, Grant promptly agreed to supply
them rations.
Lee drew up his troops and bade his soldiers farewell:
“ Men, we have fought through the war together,” he said ;
“ I have done my best for you.”
Johnston’s surrender [April 26]. — Two weeks later,
Johnston in North Carolina surrendered to Sherman.
The end had come. The great Union army of a million
men was disbanded and returned home, amid the rejoicings
of victory ; the little Confederate army of fewer than 200,000
men, saddened by defeat, turned homeward to a country
ruined by war, which had to be built up “ on a new basis.”
Results of war. — The War of Secession settled forever
two questions which had long been sources of dissension:
secession as a right of states, and slavery. The seced-
328 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1865
ing states had been forced back into the Union by the
majority which said that a state had no right to leave
the Union. Henceforth, there might be questions as to
the exact powers of a state, but there was no longer any
question as to secession. After the War of Secession,
the Union was an ‘indestructible union of indestructible
states/ Slavery, so long a source of discord between
the sections, was abolished. The slaves in the seceded
states had been freed by Lincoln’s Emancipation Procla¬
mation. Near the close of the war, Congress adopted and
submitted to the states the Thirteenth Amendment to
the Constitution, abolishing slavery forever in the United
States.
These ends had been gained at frightful cost. Nearly
a million lives had been sacrificed in battle, prison, or
disease. Thirty thousand Union soldiers died in Confed¬
erate prisons; about the same number of Confederate
soldiers died in Union prisons.
Condition of South. — That the war lasted so long, in
spite of the South’s inferiority in population, wealth, and
resources, was due to its able generals and to the devoted
efforts of its people. ‘The North spent freely of its abun¬
dance, but the South gave all that it had.’ One-fourth of
ihe men of the South gave their lives for the ‘ Lost
Cause.’ The country was laid waste, and people were
reduced to desperate straits. Railroads, bridges, mills,
houses, and farm tools were destroyed. Crops, stock, and
supplies of all kinds were used by the southern armies or
seized by the northern ones. A southern woman told a
Union soldier that ‘she herself drew the plow while her
feeble old husband held it to prepare the soil for all the
corn they raised.’
Throughout the war, most of the slaves proved faithfui
and devoted servants. They planted, tended, and gath-
:86 5 ]
DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR
329
ered the crops, and cared for the women and children.
A slave-rising would have destroyed the Confederacy, for
every southern man would have turned from northern
battle fields to defend his home. But no slave-rising came.
The private and public means of the South were spent
to raise and support armies. The Confederate government
issued bonds and notes, and heaped up a great war debt.
The value of its paper money steadily decreased as it be¬
came more and more probable that the government would
never be able to redeem it with coin. During the last year
of the war, a Confederate paper dollar was worth only one
cent and a half in coin. A newspaper sold for a dollar, a
barrel of flour cost $1500, and a pound of butter twenty
dollars. A few days before Lee retreated from Peters¬
burg, a boy came to that city bringing on his arm a basket
containing a few newspapers and some apples and pea¬
nuts; he spld them for $14,000 in Confederate money.
330
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1865
Condition of North. — During the war, the North ad¬
vanced in wealth and population. Agriculture flourished,
and trade and manufactures increased. Thousands of miles
of railway were built, and over four million acres of public
land were occupied. Immigrants were attracted by a new
Homestead Act [1862], under which a tract of land was
given to the head of each family that would settle on it.
New states. — During the war, two new states were
admitted to the Union : West Virginia was formed [1863],
and Nevada was admitted [1864]. Nevada, the third state
formed from the Mexican cession, was settled rapidly after
the discovery of its silver mines, which are among the
richest in the world.
Financial affairs. — During the war, the Federal govern¬
ment laid income, stamp, and other taxes to raise money,
‘ the sinews of war.’ Tariff rates were raised. Money was
borrowed on government credit, by issuing bonds, — in¬
terest-bearing notes promising payment at a certain time.
Paper money, called ‘ greenbacks’ from the color, was
issued and was made legal tender,—that is, it must be
accepted if offered in payment for debts. Its value de¬
clined, at one time, to less than half its face value, and for
many years it was worth less than ‘ hard money,’ or specie.
Specie almost went out of circulation ; people who had gold
and silver coins kept them, being unwilling to exchange
them for paper money of varying and doubtful value.
National banks were formed which bought United States
bonds and issued, on the security of these bonds, notes
that, like greenbacks, had behind them the credit of the
government.
At the end of the war, the United States had a debt of
three billion dollars. Many people thought that the gov¬
ernment would never pay this vast sum, the interest on
which was $150,000,000 a year. But its payment was
i86sl
DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR
331
begun the year after the war ended and every dollar of this
war debt has been settled.
Cost of War of Secession. — It is estimated that in money
this great war cost the North about $10,000,000,000, and
the South twice as much; both sides had armies to sup¬
port, and the South was deprived of its slave property and
impoverished, and laid waste by Federal forces. Think
what it would have meant in the advancement of the
country if the vast sums spent to support armies had
been devoted to the progress of peace!
In addition to war-time expenses, billions of dollars have
been paid in pensions to soldiers and their families. The
Federal pension system has become so wasteful, so corrupt,
so burdensome to the nation that it is condemned by the
best men, North and South ; but it continues and flourishes.
Besides the tremendous cost in money, the war cost
nearly a million lives. That means that hundreds of
thousands of the country’s best — for it is the brave, able
young men that war claims as its victims — lost their lives;
that nearly a million homes were made desolate by their
deaths ; that the physical, mental, and moral upbuilding of
the nation was checked by the loss of so many of its best
citizens.
Nor does the cost of this great war end here. As we
read, in the story of the following years, about unjust sec¬
tional legislation, about dishonest ‘rings’ controlling cities
and business, and about corruption in high places, let us
remember that these, too, were a part of the cost of war.
During those four years of strife, law and order were set
aside and there followed a demoralization of which wicked
men took advantage and by which weak men were cor¬
rupted.
From this terrible conflict, let us learn that differences
between states and nations, like those between individuals,
332 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1865
ought to be decided according to the principles of law and
justice and that peace should be the constant aim and
demand of every civilized nation.
Lincoln assassinated.—While Grant was facing Lee at
Richmond and Sherman was marching northward through
the Carolinas, President Lincoln began his second term.
One month later, in Ford’s Theater in Washington, the
president was shot and he died the next day [April 15].
The assassin, John Wilkes Booth, an actor, escaped for
the time, but was overtaken and shot. Four persons, in¬
cluding one woman, who were suspected of having been
engaged in a conspiracy with him were hanged.
The death of Lincoln was a great loss to the country.
He had guided the United States in troubled times with
tact, moderation, firmness, wisdom. His loss to the South
was even greater than to the North, for his supreme desire
was to have peace and harmony in the restored Union.
The words of his second inaugural address yet echoed in
men’s ears : “ With malice toward none, with charity for
all, with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the
right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind
up the nation’s wounds ... to do all which may achieve
and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves and
with all nations.”
He believed that a state had no right to leave the
Union, and so he regarded the seceded states as in the
Union but controlled by rebellious persons. Thus, he
thought, the ‘proper relations’ of the state to the Union
were destroyed. As the end of the war drew evidently
near, he was planning to restore these ‘ proper relations.’
He offered pardon and restoration to citizenship and
property to all except a few classes of persons if they
would take the oath of loyalty to the Union; he invited
these to reorganize the governments of their states.
: 86 S ]
DISCORD, SECESSION, AND WAR
333
The negro question Lincoln considered settled by the
Thirteenth Amendment, of which he said, “ It winds the
whole thing up.”
Davis’s imprisonment [1865-1867]. — The president of
the fallen Confederacy, too, was a victim to the excited
passions of the time. Mr. Davis was confined two years
in Fortress Monroe on a charge of treason, and then was
released without being tried, although he and his friends
desired his trial in order to bring into court the legal ques¬
tion of secession and States’ Rights. His high character
and ability and the fact that he was imprisoned as the
representative of their ‘ Lost Cause ’ endeared him to the
southern people.
Summary [1865]. — Sherman marched from Savannah through the
Carolinas to join Grant. He met no resistance, except in North Caro¬
lina from a small Confederate army under Johnston. Lee’s lines around
Richmond were broken, and he retreated westward ; but he was hemmed
in, and at Appomattox Courthouse, on April 9, 1865, he surrendered to
Grant. Two weeks later, Johnston surrendered to Sherman. The
War of Secession settled the questions of secession and slavery; it
cost nearly a million lives and billions of dollars. Five days after
General Lee surrendered, President Lincoln was assassinated.
CHAPTER VII
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
i. Johnson’s Term [1865-1869]
Republican
President Johnson. — When Lincoln died, Andrew John¬
son of Tennessee became president. Johnson was a self-
made man, able, honest, and resolute, who belonged to the
class called in the South
‘ poor whites.’ As a child,
he went from a North Caro¬
lina cabin to a workshop.
He learned to read by study¬
ing at night after doing his
day’s work as a tailor ; after
he was married, his wife
taught him to write. Like
Lincoln, this unschooled,
untrained man made his way
in public life by his own
energy and ability. There
the resemblance ended. Rising from humble place to high
position, Lincoln gained breadth and wisdom at every step.
Johnson was a self-willed m&n who made enemies where
he should have gained friends.
Spirit of times. — Never was a great, wise man more
needed at the head of the government than now. Sec-
334
Andrew Johnson
i86 S ] NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 335
tional feeling had blazed higher and higher during the
four long years of war, and was made more intense on
the one side by defeat and on the other side by victory
and by Lincoln’s tragic death. Could the opposing flames
be united and made to burn with the spirit of patriotism
and national unity ? The greatest men of both sections
believed that this could and should be done.
“ We are all one country now. Dismiss all sectional
feeling,” said General Lee.
“ I am satisfied the mass of thinking men in the South
accept the present situation of affairs in good faith,” said
General Grant. “ The questions which have hitherto
divided the sentiment of the people of the two sections —
slavery and state rights — or the right of the state to
secede from the Union—they regard as having been
settled forever.”
Southern state governments. — Southern men set to
work to build up their communities “ on a new basis,” as
free states. They formed state governments on the plan
adopted by Lincoln; they repealed their secession ordi¬
nances ; they ratified the Thirteenth Amendment, freeing
the slaves ; they elected senators and representatives to
Congress.
In addition to the disorder caused by war, there was
the disorder caused by 4,000,000 newly-freed slaves, “a
laboring, landless, homeless class,” as Lincoln described
them. The old course of their life was upset, and they
could not at once adjust themselves to a new one. They
roamed about the country, refusing to work and supplying
their needs by begging or stealing. To check idleness,
which was breeding want and crime, several southern
states passed strict labor and vagrancy laws.
Attitude of Congress. — Such was the condition of affairs
when Congress met after eight-months’ recess. Congress
336 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE fi866
disapproved the presidential plan of dealing with the
seceded states, formed by Lincoln and being carried out by
Johnson. It resolved to take control of southern affairs
and regulate them according to its own will.
Fourteenth Amendment [1866].— The names of the rep¬
resentatives and senators elected by the southern states were
omitted from the roll call of Congress. Before the southern
states were restored to a share in the government, Congress
wished a new amendment added to the Constitution. This,
the Fourteenth Amendment, said that all persons born or
naturalized in the United States should have equal rights
under its laws, and that all persons who had held state or
Federal office and had taken part in secession should be
excluded from office. It gave the negro freedmen all the
rights enjoyed by white men, except the ballot.
The Republican congressmen who offered this amend¬
ment said that, in order to keep the negroes from being
reenslaved by their former masters, it was necessary to
make the freedmen citizens of the United States. They
asserted that the southern labor and vagrancy laws — which
were much like those of some New England states — were
plans to reenslave the negro. They did not stop to con¬
sider that if the southern people were foolish enough to
make such plans, they would be powerless to carry them
out; all affairs concerning the negroes’ work, contracts,
homes, and schools were in the hands of the Freedmen’s
Bureau, a branch of the War Department.
The northern states, one after another, accepted the Four¬
teenth Amendment; the southern states, one after another,
rejected it. Many people at the North thought, like the
people of the South, that the ignorant, untrained negroes
were as unfit for citizenship as so many children. Why,
then, did they vote to give the freedmen citizenship ?
Some believed that the negroes could soon be educated to
1867]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
337
fulfill their duties as citizens; the radicals were animated
by a bitter desire to “ put the white South under the heel
of the black South ” ; the politicians desired negro citizen¬
ship because they thought that it would give their party
control of the South,— for it was supposed that every
negro would always adhere to the party which gave him
civil equality.
Reconstruction Acts [March-July, 1867]. — The rejection
of the Fourteenth Amendment by ten southern states only
made Congress more determined to carry out its measures.
It passed a series of Reconstruction Acts for the govern¬
ment of the southern states whereby they were deprived of
statehood and were grouped in five military districts, under
command of military governors. By a strange contra¬
diction, Congress held that the southern states were not
out of the Union—but that they had to come back into
it; that they had no share in the United States gov¬
ernment— yet their votes were counted in adopting the
Thirteenth Amendment, and they were required to accept
the Fourteenth.
The leader in reconstruction measures was Thaddeus
Stevens of Pennsylvania. He wished to confiscate the
estates of ‘ rebels ’; to give each negro forty acres of
this land and to use the balance to pay the war debt. He
proposed that South Carolina be divided between North
Carolina and Georgia, so as to blot from the map the state
which led in secession.
Impeachment of President Johnson [1868]. — President
Johnson opposed the reconstruction plans of Congress.
Like Lincoln, he said that no state had a right to leave the
Union and that ‘the Union was unbroken ’; he held that
the president, to whom the pardoning power belongs,
could restore secessionists to their rights as citizens, and
that these citizens could form state governments and elect
338 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1868
members to Congress. He said that if Congress refused to
receive these members, it had no right to make laws for the
unrepresented southern states. Johnson vetoed the acts
of Congress and it ‘ vetoed his veto ’ by passing bills in spite
of his opposition. It went farther. It passed an act saying
that the president must not remove civil officeholders — as
all the presidents before him had done — without the
consent of the Senate.
Johnson refused to obey this act, and dismissed the
Secretary of War. The president was impeached by the
House, — that is, he was accused of having disobeyed
the laws and was tried ; if found guilty by the Senate, he
would be removed from office. Only one vote was lacking
of the two-thirds necessary to convict him.
Nebraska admitted to Union [1867].— While Johnson
was president, Nebraska, a fertile farming state, was ad¬
mitted to the Union.
Alaska purchase. -— By purchase and by protest, the
Monroe Doctrine was upheld.
Alaska was bought from Russia for $7,200,000. People
at the time complained that the purchase was “ a waste of
money on rocks and ice fit only for a polar-bear garden.”
We now think that $7,200,000 were well spent to acquire
this territory which contains a half million square miles of
land, is rich in gold, coal, furs, and timber, and has valua¬
ble seal, cod, and salmon fisheries.
Revolution in Mexico.—The year that Alaska was bought,
there was a revolution in Mexico. During the War of
Secession, the Emperor of France sent troops to Mexico
and established an empire there. The United States
protested against this interference with an American
republic, but the protest was unheeded. After the war,
when the United States was able to enforce its protest by
arms, it informed the French that it would be “ gravely
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
339
1867]
inconvenient ” for the army to remain in Mexico. France
yielded and withdrew its troops. A revolution took place,
and the Mexican republic was reestablished.
Summary [1865-1869]. — Andrew Johnson of Tennessee, the sev¬
enteenth president, was the third vice president to hold that office.
During his presidency, Nebraska was admitted to the Union. Alaska
was purchased from Russia for $7,200,000, and the French were re¬
quired to withdraw from Mexico. Congress ruled the South by means
of severe Reconstruction Acts; ten southern states were divided into
five districts under military governors. President Johnson was im¬
peached by Congress because he opposed its reconstruction plans, and
only one vote was lacking of the number necessary to convict him.
2. Grant’s Terms [1869-1877]
Republican
President Grant. —Johnson was succeeded as president
by General Grant, the great soldier who had led to success
the army of the Union. Grant was an honest, straight¬
forward, simple-hearted man; he had had little experience
in politics, and he was influenced and sometimes misled by
shrewd and corrupt men. “ Let us have peace,” he said,
weary of sectional strife after the war was over; but the
radicals continued to control Congress, and there was no
real peace nor harmony.
Fifteenth Amendment [1870]. —The Fifteenth Amend¬
ment was passed in order to give the negro the right to vote,
— the only civil right not given to him by the Fourteenth
Amendment, — and to secure this right by making it a part
of the Constitution. This amendment said that “ the right
of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be
denied or abridged by the United States or by any state
on account of race, color, or previous condition of
servitude.”
340 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1870
Lee’s death. —The year that the Fifteenth Amendment
was passed, General Robert E. Lee died at Lexington, Vir¬
ginia. After the war, he refused high-salaried positions, be¬
came the president of a small college, now Washington and
Lee University, and devoted himself to training youths for
capable, useful manhood. He urged the men of the South
to do their duty as citizens in the restored Union.
“ Duty,” he said, “ is the sublimest word in our language.
Do your duty in all things, like the old Puritan. You
cannot do more, you should never wish to do less.”
‘ Carpetbag ’ rule in South. — After ratifying the Thir¬
teenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth amendments, according
to the requirements of Congress, the seceded states were
readmitted to the Union. The radical reconstruction plan
had now been carried out. What was the result ?
There was distress and disorder throughout the South.
Acts of Congress required every officeholder to take the
‘ iron-clad oath,’ saying that he had not taken part in seces¬
sion. This shut out nearly all native white men, except
the lowest class called ‘ scalawags.’ Most of the voters
were ignorant, untrained negroes. They were under the
control of the ‘ scalawags’ and of ‘ carpetbaggers,’ — men
from the North who came South to get political power.
Important and profitable offices were held by these
scalawags and carpetbaggers. Many small offices were
held by negroes who could not read nor write.
The carpetbag governments passed bad laws and wasted
or stole the public money. People impoverished by war
were burdened with heavy taxes, and vast state debts were
piled up. During carpetbag rule in South Carolina, taxes
increased tenfold. In Mississippi, about six hundred and
fifty thousand acres of land — one-fifth of the state—were
sold for taxes. Less than five years of this rule cost
Louisiana over a hundred million dollars. Reconstruction
1870]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
34 i
misrule welded all men, all parties, all states together, and
formed the ‘solid South.’
The greatest harm done was to the negroes, the inferior
race which was dealt with as an equal. The ignorant,
credulous freedmen were told by the scalawags and carpet¬
baggers that the property of their former masters would
be divided among them, and they were assured that if
southern white men returned to power, they would be made
slaves again. Expecting to be supported whether they
worked or not, the negroes became idle and disorderly;
crime increased rapidly. Old kindly relations between
them and the white people were destroyed, and feelings of
distrust, dislike, and hate were excited. The race just
emerging from savagery and bondage was arrayed against
the race which has back of it the civilization of a thousand
years.
Ku Klux Klan. — Southern white men resolved to rid
themselves by any means of the. incapable, extravagant,
corrupt carpetbag governments. Denied public rights,
they used private means. The Ku Klux Klan, formed
first as a secret social club, widened into a secret police
force. Bands of armed, masked men rode abroad at night
on horses draped in white. These night riders frightened,
whipped, drove away, or eveft murdered mischief-making
negroes and whites. Other societies on the order of the
Ku Klux Klan were formed. Their purpose was to put
down disorder and crime, and to protect the oppressed.
When they were controlled by good men, they accomplished
a valuable work; when they were directed by reckless,
mischievous men, they added lawlessness and violence to the
evils of the time. Severe laws enforced by Federal troops
crushed these secret organizations, but did not bring peace.
Alabama claims. — During the war, several vessels for
the Confederates had been fitted out in British ports.
342 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1872
The United States regarded this as a breach of neutrality,
and presented claims for the damage done by the cruisers.
These are called the * Alabama claims,’ from the name of
Driving the Last Spike in the Transcontinental Railway
the most famous of the vessels. After years of discussion,
the United States and Great Britain agreed to settle the
matter by arbitration. The arbitrators awarded the United
1872]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
343
States $15,500,000 damages [1872]. More valuable than
the damages, was the example set by the two great coun¬
tries of settling disputes by arbitration instead of by war.
Railway across continent [1869]. — A noteworthy event
during Grant’s presidency was the completion of the
first railway across the continent, the Union Pacific Rail¬
road. On it, men could cross the great continent in less
time than it took a century before to travel from New York
to Boston. The Union Pacific was followed by two other
transcontinental railroads, the Northern and the Southern
Pacific. Along these railroads came crowds of emigrants
seeking homes in the great West. Buffalo grounds gave
way to wheat farms and cattle ranches. Copper, silver,
and gold were discovered and mined. Forts and trading-
stations became villages and towns. The states along the
railroad built up rapidly; territories began to look forward
to statehood.
Credit Mobilier. — The building of a railroad across the
continent was a vast and expensive undertaking. As these
roads were useful to the government as well as to the gen¬
eral public, government aid was asked. Congress gave
them financial aid and immense grants of public land.
Many men thought that the Union Pacific Railroad was
given more than was necessary or just. It was charged
and proved that, in return for help in securing these ap¬
propriations, public men were given stock in the Credit
Mobilier, the corporation formed to carry on the business
of the railroad.
Salary grab [1873]. —For many years, Congress had
gone far and often beyond what thoughtful men regarded
as its proper limits according to the law of the Constitu¬
tion. Good men were demoralized by this course, weak men
were corrupted, bad men were made bold. Congress
passed an act increasing the salaries of its members;
344
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1873
the act was made to apply to the past two years as
well as to the future. This ‘ Salary Grab/ as it was called
throughout the country, aroused such general indignation
that it was repealed.
Panic of 1873. —The year of the ‘Salary Grab,’ there
was a financial panic. Some people said that it was caused
by an act of Congress—later called ‘the crime of ’ 73 ’ —
which dropped the silver dollar from the list of authorized
coins. Up to this time, both gold and silver had free coin¬
age, — that is, either metal could be taken to the treasury
and exchanged for an equal weight of coin. If a man
wished, he might get gold coins for his silver or silver coins
for his gold, at the rate of sixteen ounces of silver to one
of gold. This is called ‘ coinage at the ratio of sixteen to
one/
Other people said that the panic was the natural result
of speculation, credit business, and extensive railway build¬
ing. There was not enough money in the country to carry
on the vast business undertaken, and people used notes,
bonds, and mortgages. When they were called on to pay
‘ hard money,’ they could not do so. Whatever the cause,
the panic came. Failure followed failure ; for many years,
business felt the effects of that winter of panic.
‘Whisky Ring’ [1875]. — Panic was followed by new
public scandals. A ‘ Whisky Ring ’ in the West was
brought to light. Manufacturers of whisky were bribing
government officials, and selling liquor without paying the
government tax, thus robbing the government of millions
of dollars.
About the same time, the Secretary of War was accused
of selling the privilege of trading at army posts, and he
avoided investigation by resigning his office.
Chicago and Boston fires. — Cities were growing rapidly,
and their affairs were badly managed. They had poor
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
345
1871]
police and fire departments. A great fire swept the heart
of Chicago [1871], making 100,000 people homeless and
destroying many lives. The next year, there was a great
fire in Boston. Safer and more beautiful buildings went
up promptly in place of those destroyed, but improvements
in city governments were slow.
4 Tweed Ring’ [1869-1872]. — Taxes were high, and
public officials grew rich, while cities had poor pavements,
inadequate water supply, and bad sewerage systems. A
notorious instance of mismanagement was New York City.
Tweed Ring Cartoon
For three years, it was ruled by a gang of corrupt men
who took plunder to the amount of $100,000,000. ‘ Boss’
Tweed, the leader of the gang, openly defied those who
protested.
“ As long as I count the votes, what are you going to do
about it ? Say ! ” he asked.
346 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [187
Samuel Tilden and other able, honest citizens showed
him. They exposed the ‘ Tweed Ring,’ broke up the gang,
and sent Tweed to prison.
Affairs in South. — Meanwhile, reconstruction rule con¬
tinued in the South. Federal troops were used to uphold
the carpetbag governments, but as the ‘ironclad oath 7
was relaxed, southern white men came back into power.
They were resolved to rule their states. Fair means seemed
powerless against the force of arms and the number of
ignorant and hostile voters. By various means — persua¬
sion, bribery, threats, fraud, and force — they gained and
kept control of their state affairs. Government was re¬
formed, taxes were lessened, expenses were reduced.
Woman’s Christian Temperance Union. — In these troubled
times, a great reform
was spreading through¬
out the country. This
was the anti-liquor move¬
ment. Frances Willard
and other earnest women
formed the Woman’s
Christian Temperance
Union [1874], now the
largest organization of
women in the world. It
secured laws against
liquor, and it insisted on
having literature put
into school textbooks to
warn children of the injurious effects of alcohol.
Centennial Exhibition of 1876. — In honor of the hun¬
dredth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, a
Centennial Exhibition, or World’s Fair, was held at Phila¬
delphia. For America, this had been a busy, hard-work-
1876]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
347
ing century. When leisure and wealth came, naturally
the New World was far behind the Old in the beautiful
arts. The exhibits from Europe were object lessons in
beauty to millions of visitors to the Philadelphia Exposition.
From this time, art and architecture were appreciated and
cultivated in America as they had never been before.
Colorado admitted to Union [1876].— During the centen¬
nial year, Colorado was admitted to the Union. A few
years before, it had been a wilderness. It was settled
rapidly after railroads were constructed and its rich de¬
posits of gold and silver were discovered.
Indian wars.—Westward growth caused at each step
new trouble with the Indians. They were crowded from
their hunting grounds by the steadily-increasing number
of immigrants, — cattlemen, miners, and farmers. During
the War of Secession, there was a rising of the Sioux
tribes in Minnesota, Iowa, and Dakota; a thousand white
settlers were killed and thousands were driven from their
homes before the savages were defeated. Ten years later,
the Modocs fiercely but vainly resisted removal from Cali¬
fornia to a reservation in Oregon.
The centennial year was darkened by war with the Sioux
tribes of Dakota. Gold was discovered in the Black Hills,
a part of their reservation, and white men pushed into the
country and thrust aside the red men. The tribes rose
under Chief Sitting Bull and defeated three bodies of
troops sent against them. Brave General Custer and his
troops were surrounded near Big Horn River in Montana
and every one of the two hundred and fifty soldiers was
killed [1876]. After months of fighting, the Indians were
overcome. The settlement of the West went on unchecked.
Tilden-Hayes contest. — While the Sioux War was going
on, there was a presidential election. Other parties put
forward candidates, but the real contest was between the
348 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1876
Republican candidate, Rutherford Birchard Hayes of Ohio,
and the Democratic candidate, Samuel Jones Tilden of
New York. Tilden received the votes of all the southern
states, and of enough northern and western ones to give
him one hundred and eighty-four electoral votes. Only
one hundred and eighty-five were required for election.
There were twenty votes in dispute, — one contested vote
in Oregon and nineteen in Louisiana, Florida, and South
Carolina, which were still under carpetbag rule. Only one
of the twenty disputed votes was needed to elect Tilden;
all of the twenty were needed to elect Hayes.
How was the matter to be decided ? There was no hope
that the Democratic House and the Republican Senate
would agree. Finally Congress appointed an Electoral
Commission to decide the matter. The commission con¬
sisted of five senators, five representatives, and five judges
of the Supreme Court. Of these, seven were Democrats
and seven Republicans ; it was expected that the fifteenth
would be an independent, but instead a Republican was
chosen. By a strictly party vote, — eight Republicans to
seven Democrats, — every one of the twenty contested votes
was given to Hayes, and he was declared elected.
Summary [1869-1877].^-Ulysses Simpson Grant of Illinois, the
eighteenth president, served two terms. While he was president, the
Union Pacific Railroad was completed, a Centennial Exposition was
held at Philadelphia, Colorado was admitted to the Union, and there
were two Indian wars, — with the Modocs in California and with the
Sioux tribes of Dakota. The Alabama claim was settled, the United
States being awarded $15,500,000 damages. There was a business panic
and several public scandals, — the Credit Mobilier, the Salary Grab, the
Whisky Ring, and the Tweed Ring. Reconstruction rule continued,
and the southern states suffered from the corrupt ‘carpetbag 1 govern¬
ments. By degrees, southern white men regained control of state affairs.
Great excitement was caused by the disputed Tilden-Hayes election;
it was finally decided by an Electoral Commission in favor of Hayes.
1877]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
349
3. Hayes’s Term [1877-1881]
it';"
Republican
End of reconstruction. — Mr. Hayes was an upright,
public-spirited man. “The president . . .’* he said, “should
strive to be always mindful of the fact that he serves his
party best who serves his country best.” He squared his
actions with his words. He made
reforms in government and with¬
drew Federal troops from the South.
The carpetbag governments of
Louisiana, Florida, and South Caro¬
lina were put aside. Reconstruction
was over.
For twelve years, the seceded
states had been ruled by the abso¬
lute authority of Congress. In the
twenty years following the recon¬
struction period, the Supreme Court
decided, in one case after another,
that Congress had exceeded its powers under the Constitu¬
tion and had assumed powers belonging to the states ; one
after another, the acts passed during that period were
put aside, and the citizens and states of the South regained
their rights.
Strikes [1877].— During the first summer of Mr.
Hayes’s term, there were serious labor troubles. On account
of hard times, many employers lowered the wages of their
workmen. Thousands of coal miners and railroad men
struck, — that is, they refused to work for the wages
offered. The mine owners and railway officials tried to
hire other men, and the strikers endeavored by persuasion
and by force to prevent these laborers from taking their
Rutherford B. Hayes
350 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1877
places. There were riots in which many men were killed
and wounded, and millions of dollars’ worth of property
was destroyed. Troops were called out to restore order.
Organization of capital and labor. — These strikes were
the beginning of a great struggle between capital and labor,
or employers and workmen. Business men were forming
corporations and trusts, — that is, combinations to control
certain products and industries. Their object was to make
larger profits by reducing expenses in various ways and
by getting better prices through control of markets. While
Grant was president, the Standard Oil Company, under
John D. Rockefeller, was organized [1872]. It became
rich and powerful, gained control of the oil trade, and
drove many of its rivals out of business. Similar trusts
were formed to control sugar, tobacco, and other prod¬
ucts.
Laboring men, on the other hand, united to advance
their interests ; they formed trades unions and labor unions.
Through these, they sought to make better terms with
their employers, demanding higher wages and shorter
hours for a day’s work. First men of the same occupa¬
tion drew together; then men of different occupations
came into line; later a great Federation of Labor was
formed.
Financial affairs. — Many people thought that the coun¬
try would be more prosperous if changes were made in
the currency system and more silver coins were issued.
Accordingly, the Bland Silver Act was passed [1878], re¬
quiring the coinage each month of not less than two million
and not more than four million dollars’ worth of silver.
For seventeen years, the government had paid its debts
with paper money. Specie payments had been stopped
during the war, because the government did not have coin
to redeem the notes that it issued. This caused the paper
1879 ]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
351
money to fall in value. At last, the government was able
to resume specie payments, — that is, it began to redeem
its greenbacks in silver and gold [1879]. People could
get coin for greenbacks whenever they wished, and they
willingly took the convenient paper money at its face
value. For the first time for seventeen years, a paper
dollar was equal in value to a gold dollar.
Growth of the country. — In spite of hard times, the
country steadily advanced in population, in agriculture, in
manufactures, in commerce. The tenth census [1880]
showed that in ten years, population had increased thirty
per cent and wealth had increased about forty-five per cent.
The South had a wonderful share in this growth. Negroes
and white people worked better in the ‘free’ South than
under the system of slavery. Crops were improved by
the use of better tools and wiser methods. Larger crops
of cotton were raised than before the war, and other
things were produced, — corn, hay, meat, vegetables for
market. Other industries besides agriculture were built
up ; lumber was shipped, mines were developed, factories
were established.
Eads’s jetties [1877]. — As merchant vessels increased
in size, shoals and sandbars in the Mississippi and other
rivers interfered more and more with navigation and com¬
merce. Large vessels were unable to go to New Orleans on
account of the sandbars formed by the sediment dropped
by the great, slow stream.
Captain James Eads devised a way to remove these
sandbars. He constructed jetties, or piers, which narrowed
the river; thus the current was made swifter, and it carried
the sediment to the sea and deepened the river channel.
The jetties made the main channel of the Mississippi
twenty feet deep and opened the harbor of New Orleans
to large ocean steamers.
352
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1881
Summary [1877-1881]. — Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio, the nine¬
teenth president, served one term. Reconstruction rule in the South
came to an end, specie payments were resumed, and, in spite of hard
times and strikes, the country advanced in wealth and prosperity.
4. Garfield and Arthur’s Term [1881-1885]
Republican
Garfield assassinated [July 2, 1881]. — James Abram
Garfield of Ohio succeeded Hayes as president. The
incoming president was
beset by greedy parti¬
sans, clamoring for office.
Public offices had come
to be regarded as party
spoils. Even the floor
scrubbers of public build¬
ings were changed with
each election. Congress¬
men expected and even
demanded that appoint¬
ments in their states
should be made according
to their wishes. Garfield
James A. Garfield
refused to submit to this dictation. The two senators from
New York resigned because he would not make the
appointments which they desired.
The country watched with disgust the scramble for office,
but in the summer disgust was changed to horror. The
president was shot by Charles Jules Guiteau, a half-crazy
office-seeker, who had failed to obtain the place he sought.
After lingering for weeks between life and death, Garfield
passed away.
President Arthur. — Vice president Chester Alan Arthur
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
353
1881]
of New York became president and performed with dignity
and ability the duties of the high office which had come
to him in so tragic a way.
Merit system. — The president’s assassination drew the
attention of the country to the
great and growing evils of the
spoils system. While Garfield
was on his deathbed, a National
Civil Service Reform League
was organized. Public opinion
was so strong that it forced
Congress to make reforms.
Democrats and Republicans
united in passing an act to re¬
form public service [1883].
This act required that persons
should be chosen for clerkships
and other small offices by means of competitive examina¬
tions, and it forbade the removal of these persons for po¬
litical reasons. The tendency of this ‘merit system’ is to
make office-holders the faithful and capable servants of
the government, instead of the pets of politicians.
Panic of 1884. —Speculation, credit business, and reck¬
less railroad building again caused hard times. One of
the New York firms which went down in ruin and disgrace
was Grant and Ward, in which General Grant was a
partner. In business as in politics, shrewd, dishonorable
men had used him and had made his honest name cover
dishonest dealings. The great soldier met reverses bravely;
suffering from a painful and incurable disease, he wrote
his Memoirs as a means of support for his family.
Inventions. —This was a period of many inventions and
improvements. The force of electricity was utilized in
various ways. Electric railways took the place of street
Chester A. Arthur
354 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1883
cars drawn by horses. The electric telephone which
enabled persons far apart to carry on conversation came
into use.
Standard time [1883].—As people traveled more and
as transit became more rapid, confusion was caused by
running timepieces according to sun time. The watches
of a hundred persons meeting in a railway station in a
central city, such as St. Louis, might all be correct accord¬
ing to the owners’ home time, and yet no two would agree.
They would vary by seconds, minutes, or even hours. To
avoid confusion, the railways of the United States adopted
a standard time by which their timepieces were set and
their trains run. The United States was divided into four
sections — Eastern, Central, Mountain, and Pacific, each
including 15 0 of longitude, using the same time in all parts
of it, and each section being an hour behind the section
east of it. Standard time proved so convenient that soon
it was generally adopted.
Summary [1881-1885]. — James Abram Garfield of Ohio, the twen¬
tieth president, was assassinated four months after his inauguration by a
disappointed office-seeker. Chester Alan Arthur of New York was the
twenty-first president and the fourth vice president to hold that office.
During his presidency, an act was passed to check the spoils system by
making many civil service appointments according to the merit system.
About this time, the telephone came into use and standard time was
adopted.
5. Cleveland’s First Term [1885-1889]
Democratic
President Cleveland.—Grover Cleveland of New York
was the first Democratic president who had been elected
for twenty-eight years. He was elected by the Democrats
and independent voters nicknamed ‘ Mugwumps,’ from an
Indian word meaning ‘ chief,’ which has a local meaning in
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
355
1885]
New England of ‘a person who has a high opinion of him¬
self.’ The Mugwumps supported Cleveland because, as
mayor of Buffalo and governor of New York, he had
worked for reform and
had lived up to his ex¬
pressed opinion that
public affairs “ should
be conducted as far as
possible upon the same
principle as a good
business man manages
his private concerns.”
Cleveland was a public-
spirited man with a
strong will and a high
sense of duty and right.
As president, he held
fast his belief that “pub¬
lic office is public trust.” He was a great advocate of
civil service reform, and used with moderation his power
to confer office. Indeed, his moderation seemed too great
to many of his party which, having been out of power so
long, was “ very hungry and very thirsty.”
Legislation. — The House was Democratic and the
Senate was Republican; this made it impossible for any
party measure to be carried. Several important non¬
partisan measures were passed.
The Presidential Succession Act was passed in order to
remove all danger of the government’s ever being left
without a head. This act provided that in case of the
death of the president and vice president, the office of
chief executive should devolve on the cabinet members in
the order that their offices were established.
The Electoral Count Act was passed in order to prevent
Grover Cleveland
356 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1887
a disputed presidential election, like the Tilden-Hayes one.
This act said that each state should determine for itself by
its own law any contest in it about a presidential elector.
The Interstate Commerce Act was passed to regulate
rates on railway lines extending through more than one
state, so as to give equality of treatment to shippers and
communities. This was the beginning of government reg¬
ulation of railways for which there was a growing popular
demand. At first, railways had seemed only blessings,
reducing the expense, toil, and danger of travel and opening
new regions to market. But people found that they might
cause hardships. Sometimes railroads disregarded the law
that a common carrier must haul all men’s goods on the
same terms ; they made special freight rates to big dealers,
thus putting small shippers and manufacturers at a dis¬
advantage. By differences in freight rates, some sections
and industries were built up at the expense of others.
Sometimes rates were so high that they destroyed profits
and shut certain crops and products from market.
Immigration laws. — At the wish of the Pacific states,
an act was passed to exclude Chinese laborers, who had
come by hundreds of thousands to these states. They
were thrifty men who could live on a scanty ration of
rice and prosper on lower wages than white laborers could
live on.
The United States was taking a new attitude toward
white immigrants, also. During the early years of the
republic, its doors were wide open to the world. Then its
immigrants were chiefly from the north of Europe,—
thrifty, enterprising men of the same stock as the people
who settled America. Later there began an immigration
of people of a different stock, from Hungary, southern
Italy, and Russia. Among these were lawless men who
used bombs instead of ballots to secure measures they
im]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
357
wished. It was felt necessary to protect the United States
against such persons. A small tax was laid on each immi¬
grant entering, the country, and laws were passed to
shut out convicts and idiots; later contract laborers were
excluded; afterward laws were passed to exclude polyg¬
amists, diseased persons, paupers, and anarchists. Every
year, thousands of persons are turned from our shores
as ‘ undesirable citizens.’
Cleveland’s vetoes.—Cleveland had been nicknamed
the ‘ veto mayor.’ He might well have been called the veto
president, for he vetoed over three hundred bills — more
than double the number that had been turned down by all
the presidents before him. Many of these were pension
bills. President Cleveland thought that only poor or
disabled persons ought to receive pensions and that to
give them merely for service in the Union army was a
misuse of public money.
Tariff.—After being for many years secondary to
other matters, the tariff question was again coming to the
front. From the formation of the government, there had
been two opinions on this subject. The Federalists, the
Whigs, and the Republicans in turn wished a high tariff
to protect American manufactures. The Democratic-
Republicans and the Democrats wished a low tariff ‘ for
revenue only,’ claiming that a high tariff favored a few
manufacturers at the expense of many consumers. Finally,
a moderate tariff was agreed on, and this was not greatly
changed until the War of Secession. Then, to raise
needed funds, tariff rates were greatly increased. After
the war, they were not lowered; duties were even raised
on wool, steel, and some other things.
President Cleveland thought that the high tariff was at
the root of the trouble between capital and labor; any
advantage to laborers from high wages, he said, was over*
358 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [i 887
balanced by the greater cost of living. In a message about
the tariff, he used the famous words, “ It is a condition
which confronts us, — not a theory,” — a condition, he said,
in which the tariff was piling up a surplus in the treasury,
while consumers were carrying a burden of taxes.
Harrison elected president. — In the next election, the
tariff was made the chief issue, — the Democrats favoring
a lower tariff and the Republicans supporting the high
protective tariff. Cleveland was a second time the Demo¬
cratic candidate. The Republican candidate, General
Benjamin Harrison of Indiana, the grandson of President
William Henry Harrison, was elected.
Summary [1885-1889].—Grover Cleveland of New York was the
twenty-second president. The chief events of his first term were the
passing of the Presidential Succession, Electoral Count, and Interstate
Commerce acts. The tariff question was again brought forward, the
Democrats favoring and the Republicans opposing the reduction of tariff
rates.
6. Harrison’s Term [1889-1893]
Republican
Oklahoma opened [1889].—-By this time, settlements
extended from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and there was
little new land to be occupied. The government purchased
from the Indians a part of Indian Territory, called Okla¬
homa, ‘ the beautiful land.’ This was opened to settlers.
At noon one spring day, a bugle was sounded. Fifty
thousand persons who had camped on the boundary lines
rushed forward and settled the territory in a day. At
noon, Guthrie was prairie land ; at night, it was a town
with 10,000 inhabitants. How different this was from the
slow, laborious growth which had marked the settlement
i88 9 ]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
359
of Virginia or even of the early border states, such as
Kentucky!
New states. — The year that Oklahoma was opened
[ 1889], four new states were ad¬
mitted, — North Dakota and
South Dakota in the great
wheat belt, Montana, a rich
mining country, and Washing¬
ton on the Pacific coast. The
next year [1890], two new
states were admitted, — Idaho
and Wyoming, rich grazing
and mining regions which a
generation before were mere
wilderness.
Wyoming was the first state
in which women were allowed to vote and hold office on
an equality with men. Later women were given the suf¬
frage in several other western and middle states; in many
A View of Oklahoma City as it appeared April 22, 1889
other states, they were given the right to vote about
schools and some other matters. A steadily-growing party
in all states demands for women equal voting rights with
men, on the ground that they are citizens, taxed to sup¬
port the government, and subject to its laws.
Benjamin Harrison
360 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1890
Legislation. — During Harrison’s term, the Sherman
Anti-trust Act was passed to regulate manufacturing and
trading companies that do an interstate business. The
purpose of this act was to keep trusts from controlling
markets and oppressing the people.
A View of a Part of Oklahoma City to-day
The Bland Silver Act was repealed and the Sherman
Silver Act was passed, requiring the government to pur¬
chase 4,500,000 ounces of silver each month; for this, it
issued treasury notes which were to be redeemed in either
gold or silver.
The McKinley Tariff Act was passed, increasing
duties, especially on silk, woolen, and cotton goods, making
the average rate of duty about fifty per cent. In this act,
the principle of reciprocity was brought forward; lower
rates of duty on certain articles were given to countries
the tariff rates of which favored the United States.
Australian ballot system.—There was a steady move¬
ment toward better government for cities and states. The
Australian ballot system was adopted in one state after
another; now some form of it is in use in almost every
state. In this system of voting, the names of all candidates
for each office are printed on a list. A copy of the list is
given to each voter, and in a booth, alone, he marks the
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
36 !
1890]
names of the candidates that he prefers; thus no one can
know how he votes nor direct his voting. This method
of private voting has done away with much bribery and
unfairness at elections.
Southern state constitutions. — Several of the southern
states drew up new constitutions; under these, by tax
and educational qualifications, ignorant voters were ex¬
cluded. Other sections saw the South put aside the evils
of unlimited negro suffrage and did not try to interfere.
A better understanding between sections was growing
up.
‘Billion Dollar Congress.’ — The Fifty-first Congress
spent more money than had ever been spent by any
Congress before; it was called ‘ the Billion Dollar
Congress ’ because its appropriations amounted to that
sum.
Cleveland reelected president. — In the next election,
the tariff was again the chief issue between Democrats
and Republicans. The Republicans put forward Harrison
for a second term and the Democrats nominated Cleve¬
land a third time. The decision of the former election
was reversed. Harrison was defeated and Cleveland
was elected. For the first time for thirty-two years, the
Democrats controlled all three branches of the govern¬
ment.
Summary [1889-1893]. — Benjamin Harrison of Indiana, the
twenty-third president, served one term. While he was president,
Oklahoma was opened for settlement and six new states were ad¬
mitted,— North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Washington, Idaho,
and Wyoming. The Sherman Anti-trust Act, the Sherman Silver Act,
and the McKinley Tariff Act were the chief legislative acts during
Harrison’s term.
362 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1893
7. Cleveland’s Second Term [1893-1897]
Democratic
Currency question. — President Cleveland heartily fa¬
vored the low tariff desired by the Democratic party. But
he disagreed with the majority of his party on the currency
question ; it wished a double standard, using both gold and
silver as the standard of our money system, whereas the
president approved the single, or gold, standard. The
Democrats elected him in spite of this difference of opinion,
thinking that the first work of the party was to reform the
tariff. But the currency question forced itself to the front.
By the Sherman Silver Act, the government had agreed
to buy a certain amount of silver every month. It issued
notes for this, and when the notes were presented, it had to
redeem them in either gold or silver. As the silver dollar
was worth only about fifty cents in gold, gold was usually
demanded. The government supply of the yellow metal was
being exhausted, and it was piling up larger and larger un¬
used heaps of the white one. Unless something was done
to relieve the situation, the government would soon be un¬
able to pay its notes in gold.
The president thought that it ought to stop buying silver
and issuing new notes. He called an extra session of
Congress, and asked the repeal of the Sherman Act requir¬
ing the purchase of silver. After weeks and months of
delay, this act was repealed. Meanwhile men were not
sure of the value of the paper money that they handled,
not knowing whether it would be redeemed in ‘ cheap ’
silver or ‘ dear ’ gold. They did as little business as pos¬
sible. Trade and manufactures were at a standstill.
Failure followed failure.
Wilson Tariff Act.—This was a bad time in which to
1894]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
3 6 3
make tariff changes, but the Democrats felt bound to
make good their promises of reform. Congress passed the
Wilson Act, extending the free list and lowering rates of
duty. The Senate put in so many protective duties that
Cleveland would not sign the bill and allowed it to become
a law without his signature.
Income tax. — As the government income was lessened
by lowering the tariff, it was necessary to raise money by
other means. An income tax was passed. This laid a tax
of two per cent on incomes of over $4000. Income taxes
had been laid before, and the Supreme Court had said that
they were lawful, but now it declared that they were con¬
trary to the Constitution. The setting aside of the income
tax left the government without sufficient money for its
expenses.
Financial distress.—The business depression grew
deeper. The South suffered from the low price of cotton.
The West suffered from the decline in value of its wheat
and its silver. Droughts and crop failures deepened the
distress. Even a year which brought a bountiful supply
of wheat did not relieve the situation in the West. The
world’s wheat crop was huge, and the price fell in the
United States to forty-nine cents a bushel. Times grew
harder and harder. Cities were crowded with people out of
work, face to face with starvation. People in fertile farming
regions did not have money to buy clothes; they wore
garments made of grain bags and wrapped rags around
their shoeless feet. ‘Armies of the unemployed’ came to
Washington City from the western plains and even from
the Pacific coast, to beg relief.
In these hard times, the wages of workmen were low¬
ered, and there were strikes in many places, — at the
Homestead Iron Works near Pittsburg, in Pennsylvanian
coal mines, and at the shops of the Pullman Car Com-
364 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1894
pany near Chicago. The strikers tried to keep other men
from working in their places, and there were riots in which
many persons were killed. The mine strikes caused a short-
Ruins after the Pittsburg Riot
age of fuel. This stopped many factories, and hundreds
and thousands of people were thrown out of work.
People’s Party. — It seemed to many people that the
farming, mining, and cattle-raising states of the South and
West were at a disadvantage with the Northeast, the money
center of the country. Its capital, its banks, its railroads,
controlled markets and prices. The People’s Party, called
by the newspapers the Populists, urged that the govern-
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
1893]
365
ment ought to pass an income tax, control railroads, and
restore the coinage of silver.
Expositions. — Even in this time of depression, great ex¬
positions were held in different parts of the country. There
was a World’s Fair in Chicago [1893] to celebrate the four
hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America. It
was remarkable for the excellence and variety of its exhib¬
its and the beauty of its buildings. Two years after the
Chicago fair, there was a great exposition at Atlanta. It
showed that the South had made a wonderful advance
since the war. Buildings designed, built, and furnished by
negroes bore witness to the industrial progress of their
race.
Utah admitted to Union [1896]— During Cleveland’s
second term, Utah was admitted to statehood. Its admis¬
sion had been delayed because polygamy was practiced
there by the Mormons. The government thought that
this was contrary to the good morals and welfare of a
state ; Utah was admitted with a pledge in its constitution
that it would henceforth not allow polygamy.
Foreign affairs. — Several important foreign matters
came up during Cleveland’s second term.
The queen of the Hawaiian Islands had been deposed
and a republic formed which asked to be annexed to the
United States. American citizens had taken such a promi¬
nent part in the insurrection that Cleveland thought it
was unfair to the native government to uphold the revo¬
lutionists. Therefore, he opposed annexation.
For years, Great Britain had been engaged in a dispute
with Venezuela about the boundary between Venezuela
and British Guiana. It seemed impossible for them to
come to terms, and Great Britain refused to arbitrate the
matter. Finally President Cleveland said that if Great
Britain refused to submit the matter to arbitration, it would
366 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1895
be necessary for the United States to inquire into the
merits of the case and to insist upon the acceptance of just
terms. This was a new and vigorous assertion of the
Monroe Doctrine. Great Britain yielded, and the dispute
was submitted to arbitration.
The year that Cleveland took this stand about the Vene¬
zuelan matter, the Cubans began a rebellion against Spanish
misrule. From its settlement by Spaniards early in the
sixteenth century, the island had been regarded merely as
a source of revenue to Spain, not as a part of the nation.
It was burdened with heavy taxes and unfair trade laws.
Soon after the War of Secession, the Cubans raised a
revolt that lasted ten years; Spain promised to make
reforms, but did not keep the promise.
The Cubans revolted again and demanded “ independ¬
ence or death.” The war was conducted on both sides
in savage fashion. Sugar plantations were destroyed,
houses and villages were burned, prisoners and wounded
men were shot. General Weyler, the Spanish military
governor, formed ‘camps of concentration’; these were
fields surrounded by ditches and barbed wire fences, with
guardhouses at intervals. In these camps, men, women,
and children were herded together like cattle, and died by
thousands of disease and starvation.
Americans watched with growing impatience the misery
at their doors, thinking that it was ‘not war but barbarism.’
President Cleveland expressed the feelings of the people
when he said that there would be “a limit to our patient
waiting for Spain to end the contest.”
Spain heeded this warning and recalled General Weyler.
Still the struggle continued, and America took no part.
But its protest had been made to the world. Sooner or
later, if Spain did not come to terms with Cuba, the United
States would intervene.
1896]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
367
Discovery of gold in Alaska [1896]. — For many years,
Alaska was regarded by most people in the United States
as “ nothing but an iceberg with a few seals roosting on
it.” This opinion was changed by the discovery of gold
in the Klondike, on the border between British and Ameri¬
can territory. The deposits were of wonderful richness.
Preparing to climb ‘ the Golden Stair ’ and Peterson’s Trail,
Chilkoot Pass, Alaska ,
Nuggets were found weighing many ounces; some weighed
several pounds.
As soon as the news reached the states, there was a
rush to Alaska like that to California a half century before.
Many persons were discouraged by the dangers and diffi-
368 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1896
culties of the way and turned back; many were lost in
the wilderness and fell victims to the bitter cold of the
climate which often registers thirty degrees below zero.
The most direct route to the Klondike was by Chilkoot
Pass, up a moun¬
tain so steep that
it had to be climbed
on foot by steps
cut in the hardened
snow. Up this
‘golden stair,’
there pressed for
months a line of
weary, toiling,
hopeful men. They
carried their sup¬
plies on their
backs, and no one
was allowed to
descend the nar¬
row, crowded stair.
If a man’s strength
and courage gave
out, he used his
pack as a sled and
tobogganed down
the mountain.
Thousands of
hardy adventurers made their way to the Klondike by one
route or another, and millions of dollars’ worth of gold
dust and nuggets were obtained.
Boundary dispute. — After the discovery of gold in the
Klondike, there arose a dispute between the United States
and Great Britain as to the exact boundary of Alaska.
William McKinley
1897]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
369
The United States claimed that the boundary followed
the mountain range at a certain distance from the bays
and harbors; Great Britain claimed that it cut across the
bays and followed the headlands. Finally the matter was
submitted to arbitration, and the greater part of the terri¬
tory in question was awarded to the United States.
McKinley elected president. — The next election turned
from the tariff to the currency issue. The Republicans
declared against free coinage of silver, except by agree¬
ment with the leading commercial nations of the world.
They said that the world is one commercial community and
that the United States must fall into line with the great
European nations and adopt a gold standard.
The Democrats thought that the United States ought to
have its own standards of value. They declared in favor
of “ the free and unlimited coinage of both gold and silver
at the present legal ratio of sixteen to one, without waiting
for the aid or consent of any other nation.” The Demo¬
crats nominated for the presidency William Jennings
Bryan of Nebraska. The Republicans nominated and
elected William McKinley of Ohio, and secured control of
both the Senate and the House.
Forest reserves. — One of Cleveland’s last public acts
was to withdraw forest lands from settlement and to form
reservations in several western states. This was the begin¬
ning of the policy of conserving national resources.
Summary [1893-1897]. — Grover Cleveland of New York, the
twenty-fourth president, was reelected and served a second term.
While he was president, Utah was admitted to the Union, Congress
passed the Wilson Tariff Act and laid an income tax which was set
aside by the Supreme Court. There was a financial panic which was
followed by long-continued business depression; hard times were in¬
creased by crop failures. A revolution took place in Hawaii and a
republic was formed, which asked to be annexed to the United States.
Through the influence of Cleveland, a boundary dispute between Vene¬
zuela and Great Britain was submitted to arbitration.
370 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1897
8. McKinley’s First Term : The War with Spain
[1897-1901]
Republican
Dingley Tariff Act [1897].-—The Republicans, having
again control of the government, proceeded to carry out
their tariff and currency plans. They passed the Dingley
Act, raising tariff rates. Later an act was passed making
gold the single standard [1900].
Steel Trust [1897]. —The month that McKinley was in¬
augurated, a great steel trust was formed with a capital of
over a billion dollars. It united under one management
mines to supply iron, plants to produce steel, railroads and
steamship lines to carry its products to the markets of the
United States and of the world. It was claimed that the
object of the trust was to reduce expenses, — by production
on a large scale, by cutting out unnecessary expenses, by
using by-products, by checking ‘cut-throat’ competition.
Its wealth and organization gave it power to control the
markets and prices of the product which was becoming
the chief building material of the world.
War declared against Spain [April 25, 1898]. — At last,
the day came of which Cleveland had warned Spain,
— the day when the United States lost patience with the
course of affairs in Cuba. This was hastened by a tragic
incident. A United States battleship, the Maine , had been
sent to Cuba to protect American citizens there. The
Marne was blown up in Havana Harbor [February 14,1898],
and nearly three hundred lives were lost. Examinations of
the wreck have convinced most experts that an outside ex¬
plosion caused the Maine's magazine to explode. There
was no evidence that Spanish officials were responsible for
the disaster — but within two months Spain and the United
States were at war. The Maine incident was like a spark
to powder, firing popular desire for war.
1898]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
371
The president sent a message, asking Congress to inter¬
vene in Cuba. “ In the name of humanity, in the name of
civilization, in behalf of endangered American interests,
which give us the right and the duty to speak and act, the
war in Cuba must stop,” he said.
Two weeks later, war was formally declared against
Spain, and a fleet was sent to blockade the Cuban ports.
The American navy was small, but it had first-class vessels
and well-trained crews. There were only 28,000 men in
the regular army, but the ranks were soon filled with vol¬
unteers. In a few weeks, over
200,000 men were enrolled.
Southerners came forward
eagerly. Old Confederate offi¬
cers volunteered and were given
charge of troops. There was
a new sense of union as north¬
ern and southern men marched
side by side under the old flag.
Battle of Manila [May 1]. —
The first blow was struck. by
the navy far out in the Pacific.
The Pacific squadron, consist¬
ing of six battleships under Commodore Dewey, was in
Chinese waters. As soon as war was declared, Dewey
was ordered to go to the Philippines, Spanish islands near
the Asian coast, and “ capture or destroy ” the fleet under
Admiral Montojo. This fleet was in Manila Harbor.
Dewey entered the Bay of Manila by night, crossing the
mines in its channel as in boyhood he had sailed with Far-
ragut over the mines in Mobile Harbor.
Early the next morning, he attacked the Spanish fleet,
which was superior to the American in number of vessels
but inferior in quality. Dewey ordered his ships to move
Admiral Dewey
372 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1898
slowly up and down the line of Spanish vessels, raking
them with a deadly fire. By noon, the work was finished.
The Spanish
ships were all
sunk, burned,
or abandoned;
the Americans
had not lost a
man nor a boat.
Cervera’s fleet.
— The battle in
Pacific waters
was soon fol¬
lowed by fight¬
ing on the At¬
lantic side. The
Spanish squadron under Admiral
Pascual Cervera entered the har¬
bor of Santiago de Cuba. There
Philippine Islands k shut in b Y hills > nearly tw °
weeks before the Americans dis¬
covered its whereabouts. Then a squadron under Com¬
modore Schley blockaded
the port; three days later,
Rear Admiral Sampson, the
commander in chief, brought
up his vessels. To enter
the long, narrow channel,
protected with mines, com¬
manded by forts and bat¬
teries on the surrounding
heights, would have been a
useless waste of life. The
Operations around Santiago de Cuba
Americans waited for an army to land on the island and
aid them by taking Santiago and the batteries around it.
1898]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
373
In order to prevent the
escape of the Spanish
fleet, a young naval offi¬
cer, Lieutenant Rich¬
mond Pearson Hobson of
Alabama, made a daring
attempt to block the har¬
bor by sinking a coal ship
in the channel [June 3].
He and the seven men
with him were taken pris¬
oners by the Spaniards,
but were afterward ex¬
changed.
Battles of El Caney and
San Juan Hill [July 1].
— A few weeks later, an
American army was
landed near Santiago to
help take the town and
the Spanish fleet. Be¬
tween the landing-place
and the city lay several
miles of rough country,
broken by steep hills,
with narrow, miry roads
winding through dense,
tropical forests.
Spanish troops occu¬
pied El Caney, about
seven miles east of Santi¬
ago. This strong natural
position was protected by
a stone fort. South of
Santiago Harbor and City
374 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1898
El Caney was San Juan Hill, a height surmounted by a
fort and protected by tangles of barbed wire. To attack
El Caney and San Juan Hill, the Americans had to march
in the open, exposed to the fire of protected foes. They
advanced gallantly and took the fort and th’e hill after
several hours of severe fighting. The next day, the Span¬
iards made a b^ave but unsuccessful attempt to retake
these places; the Americans held their own and advanced
their lines.
Cervera’s fleet destroyed [July 3].—Admiral Cervera
now feared that he would be caught between the American
fleet and army. He put to sea, not to fight but to escape,
hoping to slip out of the harbor unseen or to break
through the blockading fleet. But the Americans attacked
promptly, each captain aiming at the vessel nearest him.
Within four hours, every one of the Spanish ships was
taken or destroyed. Several were set on fire, and at the
risk of their lives the victors saved the crews of the
burning ships.
“ Don’t cheer, boys; the poor fellows are dying,” said
one gallant American captain to his men.
The Spaniards lost their entire fleet; several hundred
men were killed in the fight or drowned and the survivors
were taken prisoners. Not one American ship was injured.
Cuba and Porto Rico taken. — After a brief siege by the
fleet and the army, Santiago was surrendered. Then
Major General Miles went with a small force to Porto Rico
and took possession of the southern and western portions
of the island. Soon after this, terms of peace were agreed
on [August 12].
Capture of Manila [August 13]. — The war ended
where it had begun. The city of Manila was taken the
day after peace was agreed on, before news of it reached
the city.
1898]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
375
Results of war.—The War with Spain lasted only
four months. It cost the United States about $300,000,000
in debt and taxes. By the treaty of peace, Spain gave up
its island possessions in the New World, which it had held
since the days of Columbus. Control of Cuba was to be
granted to the Cubans. The Americans were to retain
Porto Rico and Guam, and also the Philippines for which
they were to pay Spain $20,000,000.
The American republic acquired colonial possessions by
annexation, also. Soon after the war began, the Hawaiian
Islands were annexed [July, 1898], and two years later
Philippine Natives and Cattle
they were organized into a territory. The Hawaiian and
the Philippine Islands are fertile tropical countries, and
they are convenient trading stations on the way to Asia.
The War with Spain marked a new period in the history
of the United States. Before this time, several great addi¬
tions to territory had been made. But they were all on
the American continent, and all, with the possible excep¬
tion of Alaska, were expected to become organic parts of
the Union, occupied as well as controlled by people of our
nation. There was much discussion about how the Philip-
376 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1900
pines should be governed, and finally a new kind of govern¬
ment was established. This was by means of a commission
appointed by the president. Judge William Howard Taft
of Ohio was put at the head of the first commission [1900].
Aguinaldo. —While Dewey was waiting in the Philippines
for an American army to come to the aid of his fleet, he made
use of native allies. The leader of these was Emilio Agui¬
naldo, only twenty-nine years old, yet already a man of
note as leader of a rebellion against Spanish misrule. The
Filipinos expected that at the end of the war they would
be given control of the Philippines as the Cubans were of
Cuba. Soon after peace was declared, they formed an in¬
dependent government with Aguinaldo as president. Con¬
gress, however, voted to make the islands a colony of the
United States. This seemed to the Filipinos merely an ex¬
change of masters, Spanish for American. For three years,
they kept up the struggle for independence. At last, they
were defeated, and their leader Aguinaldo was captured.
Affairs in China. — Soon after the War with Spain, the
attention of the world was turned to China. A party called
Boxers, which was opposed to the presence and influence
of foreigners, raised a revolt, took the city of Peking, killed
many foreigners, and threatened to massacre them all.
The United States and European nations protested against
these outrages and sent troops to protect their citizens.
The Hague Conference. — About this time, there began a
great world-movement in favor of peace. Delegates from
twenty-seven countries, including the United States, met at
The Hague and agreed to settle disputes by arbitration
instead of by war, whenever it was possible.
McKinley reelected president. — In the next presidential
election, eleven parties put forward candidates. William
Jennings Bryan was again the Democratic candidate;
William McKinley, the Republican candidate, was reelected.
1800-1900]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
377
Summary [1897-1901]. — William McKinley of Ohio was the
twenty-fifth president. The year after he became president, war was
declared against Spain. This war, which lasted four months, was
marked by two brilliant naval victories, — one by Dewey over Montojo
at Manila, and the other by Schley and Sampson over Cervera at
Santiago. An American army landed in Cuba, won victories at El
Caney and San Juan Hill, and took the city of Santiago. The city of
Manila was taken by an American army and fleet. The treaty of peace
granted Cuba to the Cubans, and gave to the United States Porto Rico
and Guam and the Philippines for $20,000,000. The Filipinos, led by
Aguinaldo, declared their independence, but were subdued by the
Americans. The chief domestic events during McKinley’s term were
the passage of the Dingley Tariff Act, and the adoption of a gold
coinage standard for the United States.
9. The Nation at the End of the Nineteenth
Century
American nation. — Daring the nineteenth century, the
American nation made enormous advances. Starting as a
struggling young republic, it became one of the great
nations of the world. Its territory was increased in several
ways. By purchase, it acquired the great Louisiana
Territory from France, Florida from Spain, the Gadsden
Purchase from Mexico, and Alaska from Russia; by
occupation and by treaty with Great Britain, it obtained the
Oregon Country; by annexation, it gained Texas and the
Hawaiian Islands; and by war, it won vast territory from
Mexico and the Philippines and other islands from Spain.
America’s increase in population was even more rapid
than its increase in territory. During the nineteenth cen¬
tury, there were few great wars, and people learned
much about preventing and controlling diseases; therefore,
the world’s population increased more rapidly than in
any previous century. Our country shared this general
advance; moreover, it gained largely from other nations.
378 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1800-1900
During the century, there came to the United States over
20,000,000 immigrants. One-fourth of the whole Scandi¬
navian race sought homes in America, and people of this
stock — Germans, Swedes, and Norwegians — settled great
regions of the Northwest. As steamships took the place
of sailing vessels and ocean travel became cheaper and
speedier, hosts of immigrants came from Russia and the
countries of southern Europe. When the twelfth census
was taken [1900], the United States had 76,000,000 peo¬
ple, — twenty persons for every one at the time of the first
census.
When the first census was taken, only three per cent of
the people of the United States lived in cities. At the
Chicago in 1832
end of the nineteenth century, one-third of the Ameri¬
can people lived in cities, one-sixth was in villages and
small towns, and only about one-half of the population was
in the country. New York City contained almost as many
people as were in the United States when the first census
was taken.
. . 1 . .
fetih y t lloiostonp
Wsputcrf' h
ijloxJcd ami i
2'Grccawich liiT
IlS-Laat iron. 1 ;
SCALE OF MILES
MlNDOR
negr<
PALAWAN/,
TJATW
■'BORN I.
(British
.ATTU I.
SCALE OF MILES
™ ISLANDS
Greenwich
(The different Scales used should
be noted with particular care.)
.
1800-1903]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
379
Cities did not always improve in government as they
increased in size. They had to wrestle with problems
about lighting, drainage, schools, water systems, sewerage,
and of transit by means of surface, elevated, and subway
railroads. City after city suffered from ‘boss ’ rule ; public
funds were misused and public interests neglected by
officials who regarded government as “ a cow to be milked.”
One abuse after another was corrected.
Industries.—The country which only three hundred
years before was a wilderness, inhabited by half-naked
savages, had become a great, wealthy nation. Its rich re¬
sources were being developed. It produced all the raw
materials needed by a great nation, — wheat, corn, cotton,
lumber, coal, oil, iron, gold, silver, and other things. Many
of these products were manufactured so as to increase
their value. The raw and manufactured products were
used at home and shipped to all parts of the world. A
clever Frenchman said truly: “The United States is not
only the richest country in the world in coal, in iron, in
copper, but also in human energy.”
America made wonderful advances in agriculture, which
is the basis of the prosperity of a great industrial nation,
since without it no other business can exist. The govern¬
ment took a hand in agricultural education. It established
in every state colleges to train farmers in better methods.
A Department of Agriculture was organized, and its secre¬
tary became the eighth member of the president’s cabinet.
Farmers learned to make their brains help their hands;
they increased crops and reduced expenses by the use of
fertilizers, improved machinery, and good farming methods.
Former waste products were utilized. Cotton seed, for¬
merly thrown away, was made into feeds, bread stuffs,
fertilizers, and oil, and brought farmers more money than
the whole cotton crop was worth fifty years before. In-
380 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [180^1900
stead of raising only one crop, such as cotton or tobacco,
farmers raised, in addition to their market crop, grain,
A Hatvester
hay, and meat for home use. Truck farming was found
profitable along the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts;
cabbage and lettuce for northern markets brought more
Steam Plow
money to South Carolina every year than it received for
rice when that was the staple crop.
Most of the old southern plantations were divided into
1800-1900]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
381
small farms, worked by their owners. The great farms of
the country were chiefly in the thinly-settled regions of the
West; some Dakota wheat farms and Texas ranches had
miles of land inclosed in one field. On the grassy plains
from Texas to Montana were great herds of cattle and
sheep. These were sent by rail to Chicago and other cities
to be slaughtered and shipped to all parts of the world.
The fertile Northwest became the great wheat farm of the
country. A small force of laborers, using gang plows and
reaping machines, was able to raise and save its huge crops.
Improvements and inventions. — Improved tools and
machinery, which relieved farm life of much of its drudgery,
raised its standards. It requires more intelligence to use
and care for machinery than to work with a hand hoe and
a plow. Country life was made pleasanter, too, by tele¬
phones, better roads, free delivery of mails, and many home
comforts.
In all pursuits and trades, improved tools
and labor-saving machines were more and
more used. The powers of steam and elec¬
tricity were utilized in many ways.
Wonderful advances were made in methods
of heating and lighting houses
and of traveling and of carrying
news. Instead of wood fires, candle
people used coal stoves, hot-air
furnaces, hot-water pipes, electric radiators.
Tallow candles and whale-oil lamps gave
place to kerosene lamps, gas, and electric
lights. In place of goose-quill pens and hand
presses, there were typewriters and cylinder
Lamp printing presses. Instead of traveling in sail
or row boats and on horseback or in coaches,
people went about in boats and cars propelled by steam or
382 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1800-1900
electricity. By means of railroads and steamships, the
products of distant sections and countries were exchanged.
Refrigerator cars cooled with manu¬
factured ice delivered fresh fruits
and vegetables in perfect condition
thousands of miles from the fields
Gas Bracket . ,, r- i r
where they grew. Speedy, safe
mail systems, the telegraph, and the telephone took the
place of old, slow methods of communication. Early in the
twentieth century, cables were laid
across the Pacific and telegraph
communication was established
around the world. A message
made the circuit of the globe in
twelve minutes; a century before, it
would have taken many months.
War was made more prompt and deadly by the invention
of steel battleships, high explo¬
sives such as dynamite and Max¬
imite, and improved firearms.
One of the modern guns which
fires several hundred shots a min¬
ute is equal to a little army in the
days of the Revolution.
Education. — Great improve¬
ments were made in education.
The public-school system was
extended all. over the country and
equipped with better methods and
better-trained teachers. In the
schools of the United States,
there were gathered at the end of the nineteenth century
over 17,000,000 children with nearly 500,000 teachers.
More and more attention was being paid to industrial edu-
Linotype Machine
i 8 oo-iqoo]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
383
cation and to fitting young people for the duties of life.
The average American now spends over a thousand days
in school, whereas his grandparents spent fewer than a
The Flatiron Building, a Steel Frame Building in New York City
hundred. Moreover, periodicals, books, libraries, and
museums put knowledge within reach of all people. Great
colleges and universities in all parts of the country offered
men and women advantages for higher education. In these
institutions, people read less Latin and Greek and learned
more science than did their college-bred forefathers.
384 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1800-1900
Science. — In many branches of science, Americans did
botanist Asa Gray, the ornithologist
John James Audubon, the zoologist
Louis Agassiz, the geographer Mat¬
thew Fontaine Maury, and other
American scientists made valuable
contributions to the world’s fund of
knowledge. The most widely-known
American inventor at the end of
the nineteenth century was Thomas
Edison; like Franklin, he investi¬
gated the force of electricity and
invented methods of making it useful.
He improved electric lights, invented
a phonograph, a moving-picture machine, and many other
things which add to the comfort and pleasure of millions
of people.
Medicine. — During the latter part of the nineteenth
century, there was greater advance in the science of
medicine than during all former centuries. American
physicians took rank among the best in the world, doing
a noble work to reduce pain and disease. Two great steps
in medical advance were the discovery of what is called
the germ theory of disease and of the agency of insects in
carrying diseases; flies spread the ‘ filth disease,’ typhoid
fever, and mosquitoes convey malaria and yellow fever.
Louis Pasteur, a French chemist, discovered the germ
theory of disease, and Robert Koch, a German physician,
carried on Pasteur’s work and discovered the germ of
cholera and the bacillus of tuberculosis. The germs that
convey many other diseases have been discovered and
physicians are learning to prevent, control, and cure many
maladies once regarded as incurable. “ It is in the power
of man,” said Pasteur, “ to cause all infectious diseases to
notable work. The
Thomas A. Edison
1800-1900]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
3 «s
disappear from the world.” Hydrophobia is curable when
taken in time, and antitoxin relieves most cases of diph¬
theria, formerly one of the most fatal diseases of children.
Tuberculosis, ‘the great white plague,’ which claims as
its victims in the United States 160,000 persons every
year, has been proved to be a preventive and transmissible
disease. It is curable in the earlier stages by fresh air,
good food, and rest. All civilized people are joining in the
war against this scourge, and its ravages are being greatly
lessened.
For over a century, yellow fever was one of the most
dreaded of diseases. Time after time, it laid waste cities
and communities, especially in the South. A Cuban phy¬
sician who studied the disease advanced the theory that
yellow fever is transmitted by mosquitoes. Some brave
Americans set to work, at the risk of their lives, to test the
truth of this theory. One of these men, Dr. Jesse Lazear,
was bitten by an infected mosquito, developed yellow fever,
and died a martyr to science and humanity. By means of
many experiments, it was proved that yellow fever is trans¬
mitted from one person to another only by the bite of a
certain species of mosquito. By destroying the breeding
places of these mosquitoes and by keeping fever patients
screened against insects, the pestilence has been practically
stamped out.
Literature. — In the first third of the nineteenth century,
Irving, Bryant, and Cooper were the chief American authors.
The second third of the century is often called ‘the
golden age ’ of literature in America on account of its host
of brilliant writers — poets, novelists, essayists, and his¬
torians— Longfellow, Whittier, Poe, Lanier, Lowell, Haw¬
thorne, Holmes, Emerson, Bancroft, Motley, Prescott,
Parkman, and others.
As these passed away, younger authors came forward. It
386 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1800-1900
Samuel Clemens
(Mark Twain)
is possible to name here only a few of the authors notable
during the last third of the nineteenth century, most
of whom are still at work. John Fiske and Woodrow
Wilson relate the history of America with charm of
style and scholarly ability. Samuel
Clemens, better known as ‘Mark
Twain,’ wrote with vigor and shrewd
humor on many subjects; Huckle¬
berry Finn and other stories picture
vividly life in the Middle West. Bret
Harte wrote vivid tales of the ‘ Forty-
Niners’ in California, Winston
Churchill is the author of The Cross¬
ing and other popular historical
novels, George W. Cable describes
the Creoles of Louisiana, Margaret Deland, in Old Chester
Tales and other stories, tells about village life in Pennsyl¬
vania, W. D. Howells and Mary Wilkins Freeman depict
New England scenes and character. Joel Chandler Harris
won world-wide fame by his Uncle
Remus tales and other stories about
Georgia negroes, and Thomas Nel¬
son Page describes, with rare fidelity
and power, life in Virginia before
and during the War of Secession and
in reconstruction days.
Progress in arts. — In useful in¬
ventions, America led the world, but
it was behind older nations in the
fine arts, — music, painting, and
sculpture. In those, however, it was
making notable progress. Good work was done by Amer¬
ican painters and sculptors, — Edwin A. Abbey, John S.
Sargent, J. McNeill Whistler, Elihu Vedder, William M.
Thomas Nelson Page
i 8 oo-igoo]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
3^7
Chase, and John La Farge, and by Frederick Macmonies,
Augustus St. Gaudens, and Daniel French. After pho¬
tography was invented, other branches of art became more
popular than portrait-painting. Landscape painting was
developed, and scenes from history and mythology were
favorite subjects for
the pictures for
which there was
growing demand as
noble public build¬
ings and handsome
residences were
erected.
Many of these
buildings were de¬
signed by Ameri¬
cans. Two noted
American architects
were Henry Richard¬
son and Charles
Me Kim. They
created no new
styles, but used
European ones and Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N.Y.
. . . Toel Chandler Harris (Uncle Remus)
adapted them to
American conditions. Home makers throughout the
country tried to unite beauty and comfort in their buildings.
They learned to give houses the setting of attractive
grounds, beautified by the skillful use of natural features
and native plants. Much of this improvement was due to
two landscape gardeners, A. J. Downing and Frederick
Law Olmstead, who laid out beautiful public and private
grounds.
Conservatories of music were established, and music
388 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [iSoc^igoo
lovers took pride in the work of John K. Paine, the composer,
and of Theodore Thomas, the conductor, whose orchestral
concerts made thousands of people familiar with good music.
Race problems.—As the country advanced, it faced at
each step new problems. Some arose from the presence of
other people besides the ruling white race. Of the copper-
colored people called Indians, whom Europeans found in
possession of the American continent, there were at the
end of the nineteenth century about 250,000 in the United
States, not including Alaska. Most of these were on res¬
ervations set aside for them by the general government.
Some of the tribes were civilized and had schools and
churches ; others were wandering bands of savages. All
were ‘ government wards,’ ruled like children and not recog¬
nized as citizens unless they left their tribes.
At.the end of the nineteenth century, there were about
eight million negroes in the United States. After the War
of Secession, the freedmen were given the suffrage for
which they were unfit. By degrees, suffrage in the South
was limited, by tax and educational requirements; these
excluded most negroes. Slowly the evils of slavery and
reconstruction were put aside, and the negro race began
to advance in the only possible way, — through its own
efforts,, by means of industry and morality. In the indus¬
trial training of his race, Booker Washington has taken a
foremost part by his writings and by means of a model
industrial school at Tuskegee in Alabama.
With the Indian and negro problems on hand, at the end
of the nineteenth century, the United States cheerfully took
up another race problem, bringing under its rule Malay
races of the Pacific, to whom it gave good schools and reli¬
gious freedom.
Is the Declaration of Independence to apply to white
people and to favored black ones, and not to red and brown
l 8 oo-igoo]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
389
races ? Are all men or only a selected part to share the
government ? These questions remain to be answered.
But more and more, the suffrage is coming to be regarded
as a privilege rather than a right.
Trusts. — During the last quarter of the nineteenth cen¬
tury, business men, by the power of capital and organiza¬
tion, began to control markets and prices in a way hitherto
unknown. John D. Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegie, Edward
H. Harriman, and other great ‘ captains of industry ’ gained
control of oil, steel, railways, and various other products
and public services. Most of these men started life as
penniless boys, and by their genius for finance acquired
vast fortunes. Laboring men complained that the corpo¬
rations and trusts which built up the fortunes of these
multi-millionaires did so by unfair control of markets and
prices. It was proved that some of these organizations
were using dishonest methods and were breaking the laws
of the land, and public opinion began to demand govern¬
ment investigation and control of trusts.
American laws and ideals. — It is a grave question as to
how laws are to protect at once the interests of *he poor
and the rights of the rich. Americans believe that this can
be done. They believe that it must be done, and that all
men, rich and poor, must have fair dealings and must share
the burdens and the opportunities of the nation. The ques¬
tions before the country must be decided, not in the inter¬
ests of one section nor one class, but in the interests of the
whole people. As compromises were necessary in order to
form the government, compromises are necessary to carry
it on. True patriots see to-day, as Washington saw, that
men, states, and sections must sometimes sacrifice their
wishes and even their interests to the welfare of the
whole country. Americans have faith in their govern¬
ment founded on the principles of liberty, equality, and
3Q0 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1800-1900
fraternity, and they believe that during the twentieth cen¬
tury as during the nineteenth the history of the nation will
be one of progress and of noble achievement.
Summary [1800-1900]. — During the nineteenth century, the United
States advanced rapidly in many ways. By purchase, by treaty, by an¬
nexation, and by war, it extended its territory. By growth and by im¬
migration, it increased in population. Its resources were developed,
many useful inventions were made, and it increased in material wealth.
An excellent system of free schools was extended over the country and
many colleges and universities were established. Good work was done
by American authors, scientists, artists, architects, and musicians. The
end of the nineteenth century found serious problems before the country,
but with faith in its educational and political institutions, America faced
the twentieth century.
10. McKinley and Roosevelt’s Term [1901-1905]
Republican
McKinley assassinated [September 14, 1901]. — The
policies of McKinley were approved by his party, and he
was reelected. The autumn after he began his second term,
he went to an exposition at Buffalo, New York. A man
approached as if to shake hands, and shot the president,
inflicting a wound which proved fatal. The murderer, Leon
Czolgosz, was an anarchist, the son of a Polish immigrant.
President Roosevelt. — Vice president Roosevelt suc¬
ceeded McKinley. Roosevelt, although only forty-two
years old, had had varied experiences of life. He was a
member of an old Dutch family and his home was New York
City; he had lived on a western ranch, and had written
books about hunting and about American history. He
was appointed Assistant Secretary of the Navy during
McKinley’s first term, but resigned to organize a volunteer
cavalry regiment in the War with Spain. This regiment,
known as Roosevelt’s Rough Riders, did good service in
the battle of San Juan Hill. After the war, Roosevelt was
igoi]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
391
elected governor of New York and he took an active interest
in politics, proving shrewd, resolute, vigorous, and aggres¬
sive. Politicians were in favor of making the active young
reformer vice president, thinking he would be safely bottled
up in an honorable
position of little in¬
fluence. By a turn
of fate, he became
chief executive.
Strikes. — Soon
after Roosevelt be¬
came president,
there was a great
strike of coal miners
in Pennsylvania.
The strike lasted
several months.
Coal was scarce and
high, and thousands
of poor people suf¬
fered for want of
fuel. By the con¬
sent of employers and employees, the president appointed
a commission which settled the strike. This was extend¬
ing the power of arbitration in a way to secure the best
interests of the country.
Conservation of national resources. — By degrees, there
was being made an organized effort to conserve the re¬
sources of the country, — to save forests, reclaim deserts,
improve water-ways, and use them to advantage. Year
by year, people are realizing more clearly the importance
of this work, and individuals, states, and the national gov¬
ernment are trying to use and improve instead of destroy¬
ing our natural resources.
Theodore Roosevelt
392
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1901
Forests are important to the welfare of a country. They
not only supply lumber, but they prevent soil waste and
regulate the flow of streams so as to make them more
valuable for water power, navigation, and agriculture. The
National Forest Service was organized in order to check
the destruction and waste of American forests. Instead
of leaving all the country open to men who wish to take
up claims, Congress set aside forest reserves around the
headwaters of streams. The forest reserves, national
parks, and Indian reservations are largest and most numer¬
ous in the thinly-settled western states where most of the
land is still owned by the government. More than half the
territory of Idaho and over one-fourth of several other
states are included in reservations.
By the beginning of the twentieth century, most of the
well-watered, fertile public land had been settled. There
were in the arid and semi-arid regions of the West several
hundred million acres of land which needed only water to
make it highly productive. The work of irrigating these
regions was too vast to be undertaken by individuals or
even by states. Congress devoted the money paid for cer¬
tain public lands to the purpose of building reservoirs and
canals to supply arid regions with water. This money was
afterward to be repaid by the sale of irrigated lands.
For three-quarters of a century, the government had
been appropriating large sums of money for the improve¬
ment of rivers and harbors; but little permanent benefit
was gained on account of lack of system in planning and
executing the work. Now plans were made for the system¬
atic improvement of American water-ways. Among the
schemes suggested were a deep water-way from Chicago
to the Mississippi River, the improvement of the Ohio,
Missouri, and Mississippi rivers, and the construction of an
inland water-way along the Atlantic from Maine to Florida,
1902]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
393
Panama Canal. — During Roosevelt’s first term, the
American government engaged in an enterprise of world¬
wide importance. This was the construction of a canal
across the isthmus between North and South America.
A French company had undertaken to build a sea-level
canal across the Isthmus of Panama. After spending
eight years and $260,000,000 in the attempt, the company
failed. The War with Spain made the United States feel
more than ever the need of a water-way through the isth¬
mus. When the war began, the battleship Oregon was at
Map of the Panama Canal Zone
San Francisco, and it had to come 13,000 miles to join the
Atlantic squadron. The United States resolved to build a
great canal which would shorten by 8000 miles the water
route from New York to San Francisco. It purchased the
394
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOTLE [1902
French company’s property and canal rights for $40,000,000
and paid the republic of Panama $ 10,000,000 for a ‘ Canal
Zone’ ten miles wide. Across this the Americans con¬
structed a great lock canal which they agreed should be
open to all nations of the world on equal terms. Work on
the canal was prosecuted with such vigor that it was
finished in ten years [1914]. Colonel George Goethals
was in charge of the canal construction. The two chief
engineering tasks were the great Gatun Dam, a mile and a
half long, and the Culebra Cut, half a mile wide and five
hundred feet deep, through the mountain system which is
the ‘backbone of the continent.’
The sanitation of the Canal Zone was almost as great
an undertaking as these engineering feats. The French
failure to construct a Panama Canal was due largely to the
unwholesome conditions of the hot, wet, fever-stricken
region, which for four centuries had been known as ‘ the
white man’s grave.’ The first work that the Americans
undertook was the sanitation of the Canal Zone. Under
the direction of Surgeon-General W. C. Gorgas, the country
was cleaned, swamps were drained, sanitary methods of
living were adopted, and the isthmus was rendered a
wholesome home for the army of 50,000 workmen. The
death rate, which had been 170 to the 1000 under French
rule, was reduced to 9 to the 1000.
The Panama Canal will have great and far-reaching
effects not only in the United States but throughout the
world. The sea distance from the east to the west coast
of the United States is cut in half, and the efficiency of
our navy is practically doubled by making it possible to
unite the Atlantic and Pacific squadrons promptly so as to
use them together. The routes from Europe to western
America and the islands of the Pacific are greatly lessened.
In fact, the canal changes and shortens the trade routes of
1903]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
395
the world. This means, of course, a great saving of time
and money. The southern states will be especially bene¬
fited by their nearness to this new highway of the world’s
trade. There will be increased demand at better prices
for their products, their industries will thrive and become
more varied, their ports and cities will grow.
American ships.—The War with Spain and the acquir¬
ing by the United States of island possessions led to the
building up of the American navy. Appropriations were
made for mammoth warships having, in addition to other
batteries, twelve-inch guns so arranged in turrets that all
can be fired in a broadside. Within a few years, the navy
was doubled in size and strength.
The growth of the American merchant service did not
keep pace with the increase in naval power. Early in the
nineteenth century, the United States had ships which
carried on nine-tenths of the country’s export trade. At
the beginning of the twentieth century, less than one-tenth
of the exports were carried in American ships.
Department of Commerce and Labor. — During Roose¬
velt’s first term, a new department was established [1903],
including bureaus or divisions, dealing with questions about
transportation and labor. The Secretary of Commerce and
Labor became the ninth member of the president’s cabinet.
A few years later, this department was divided, forming
the Departments of Commerce and of Labor.
Summary [1901-1905]. — William McKinley of Ohio, the twenty-
fifth president, was assassinated by an anarchist a few months after he
began his second term. Theodore Roosevelt of New York became the
twenty-sixth president, being the fifth vice president to hold that office.
During Roosevelt’s first term, the Alaskan boundary question was
settled, the Panama Canal was begun, forest reserves were extended,
and a National Irrigation Act was passed.
396 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE (1905
11. Roosevelt’s Second Term [1905-1909]
Republican
Roosevelt’s policies. — Roosevelt’s first term was so popu¬
lar that he was reelected by a large majority. He said that
during his first term his
main object had been to
carry out the policies
of McKinley; he an¬
nounced that during his
second term his object
would be to carry out his
own policies, the chief
of which were the regu¬
lation of “big business”
and the conservation
of national resources,
especially of forests.
“Big business.”—The infant industries of the United
States had been protected until they had become giants.
The combinations called trusts had increased rapidly.
They controlled nearly all the output of the sugar and
three-fourths of the steel, oil, and paper of the country ; in
fact, they controlled about one-third of the products of all
the nation’s industries, excluding agriculture. This con¬
dition of affairs was attributed by most people to the
failure to enforce strictly the anti-trust laws and much was
hoped from the prosecution of trusts which were breaking
the laws by crushing out competition and controlling
markets. Despite these prosecutions, during Roosevelt’s
presidency the number of “ big business ” combinations
increased enormously.
Industrial laws. — Steps were taken to conserve forests
and waterways, and the greatest of all national resources,
Roosevelt Dam, Arizona, — to Irrigate Arid
Region
igo6]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
397
the health and lives of the citizens. Congress passed laws
to regulate the working hours of railroad employees in
interstate service, and to provide for the regulation of the
rates of railroads engaged in interstate traffic. It passed
pure food laws that forbade the use of injurious substances
in foods and drugs entering interstate trade, and required
labels stating the adulterations, if any were used.
Cuban affairs.—For several years after the War with
Spain, the United States kept troops and a military gov¬
ernor in Cuba. Under this military government, order was
restored, schools were established, roads were built, and
sanitary regulations were adopted to prevent the Cuban
cities from being, as before, breeding places of disease.
After these reforms were made, the Americans with¬
drew and left a native government in charge of affairs.
In a short time, there arose disorder and revolts which the
government could not control. The United States again
took a hand in Cuban affairs, and sent a military governor
to the island. Three years later, when it seemed that
order was again restored, the Americans withdrew a sec¬
ond time from the island, leaving it in control of a native
president and Congress.
Philippine government.—The American policy for the
Philippine Islands was announced to be ‘ self-government
when the Filipinos are fit for it.’ Vast sums were spent
on sanitation and education and the industrial develop¬
ment of the islands. The Filipinos became more friendly
as they saw the Americans carry out the promise to
govern the islands for the benefit of the natives. The
first step in self-government was adding a Philippine
national assembly [1907] to act with the commission
appointed by the president. The day set for the election
of the native delegates to this assembly was July 30, the
anniversary of the day on which the first legislative
39B SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1905
assembly in America met at Jamestown. That year was
the three hundredth anniversary of the establishment of
the Jamestown colony, for the ‘ welfare of the Kingdom
of God and the Kingdom of England.’ From that small
beginning had come a mighty self-governing nation,
extending its civilizing influence to islands of the Atlantic
and Pacific.
Yellow fever in New Orleans. — In various ways, medical
science was changing living conditions. It was robbing
many germ diseases of their terrors. One midsummer
day [1905], New Orleans discovered that yellow fever was
raging in its midst. Only eight years before, it had
brought panic and thousands of deaths to the city. There
was no panic now; people had learned that the disease is
carried by mosquitoes and can be checked by destroying
these insects. The citizens of New Orleans organized ‘an
army of sanitation,’ and held a great house cleaning.
“ Kill the mosquitoes,” was the cry.
All pools and vessels containing standing water were
coated with oil or screened with netting or cloth. The
work was just finished when a terrific storm tore loose
the screens and washed off the oil. The labor of weary
days and nights was undone. The next day, the people
began to do the work over again and do it better than
before. Old men, children, millionaires, street waifs,
clergyman, bar keepers, worked side by side. Trained
men of the Federal service took charge of affairs. Within
two months, the yellow flags were taken down. New
Orleans had won the greatest victory ever gained over an
epidemic. For the first time in the history of yellow fever,
it was conquered by man.
Anti-liquor campaign. — The opening of the twentieth
century witnessed a widespread movement against the use
and sale of intoxicating liquors. Towns, counties, and
1906]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
399
states passed prohibition laws, until more than half the
area of the United States was ‘dry,’ — that is, with laws
prohibiting the sale of liquor. The growth of temperance
sentiment is largely due to the work of two organizations,
the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union and the Anti-
Saloon League. These send out hosts of books, papers,
and lecturers to teach people the evils of the use of
intoxicating drinks. For thirty years, the W. C. T. U. has
been insisting on having literature put into school books
to teach the injurious effects of alcohol; a generation of
the children so taught have grown to manhood and are
writing into the laws of our land the temperance prin¬
ciples learned at school.
California earthquake [1906]. — Early in the twentieth
century, there occurred the most destructive earthquake
ever known in the United States. There were severe
shocks along the Pacific coast. The city of San Francisco
was destroyed by the earthquake and by the fire that
followed it. Property to the value of $400,000,000 was
destroyed and many lives were lost. Even before the
ashes were cold, the brave Californians set to work to
build a safer and more beautiful city.
Oklahoma admitted to Union [1908]. — During Roose¬
velt’s second term, Oklahoma and Indian Territory were
united and admitted as a state of the Union under the
name Oklahoma.
Wireless telegraph. — Marconi, a clever young Italian
inventor, learned to utilize the waves of ether to carry
messages instead of depending on instruments connected
by wires. This system was promptly adopted, and in a
few years, large ocean vessels were equipped with wireless
apparatus and the globe was encircled with wireless
stations. An event which occurred soon after the system
was introduced illustrates its life-saving value. One foggy
400 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1909
winter night there was a collision between two ocean
steamships, one of which, the Republic , was equipped with
the wireless. Its operator sent out ‘ the ambulance call of
the sea.’ Across the waves, through the foggy night,
sped the cry for help, and ship after ship hundreds of
miles away heard the call and hastened to the rescue.
Without the wireless, the injured vessel might have sunk
with all its crew and passengers, while ships a few miles
away were ignorant of the disaster.
‘Two Billion Dollar Congress.’ — The Sixtieth Congress
was notable for the friction between it and the president.
Members of Congress complained that President Roose¬
velt assumed powers which belong to the legislative and
judicial departments, and they resented this assumption.
This Congress is called the ‘Two Billion Dollar Congress’
from the amount of its appropriations. As our country
grows, the expenditures of the government of course
increase, but many people think they have become greater
than is necessary or justifiable. During Roosevelt’s second
term, the appropriations amounted to over $3,500,000,000,
— the expenditures of the government during these four
years being twice as much as its expenses during the
seventy-two years from Washington’s inauguration to the
War of Secession. The national expenses during Roose¬
velt’s two terms were nearly eight billion dollars.
Taft elected president. — Roosevelt was so popular that
his party would have nominated him for another term, but
he repeated his statement of four years before that “under
no circumstances ” would he “ be a candidate for or accept
another nomination.’’ He used his influence to secure the
nomination and election of Secretary-of-War William
Howard Taft of Ohio. A third time the Democrats put
forward Bryan ; a third time he was defeated. Demo¬
crats, Republicans, and several other parties that put for-
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
401
1909]
ward candidates declared in favor of better banking,
currency, and tariff laws, and of other reforms for which
there was general popular demand.
Summary [1905-1909]. — During Roosevelt’s second term, Okla¬
homa was admitted to the Union, the United States intervened a
second time in Cuban affairs, the Filipinos were granted a national
assembly, there was an earthquake in California, Congress passed sev¬
eral useful industrial laws, and the use and sale of liquor were restricted
in many states.
12. Taft’s Term [1909-1913]
Republican
Taft’s policies. — President Taft had had twenty-seven
years’ experience in public life before he became president.
He set to work to give the country a business-like, economi¬
cal rule. During the first
year of his term, the govern¬
ment’s expenses were re¬
duced $53,000,000, without
lessening its efficiency.
Many people wished to
have new laws made to con¬
trol trusts and business com¬
binations, but the president
declared himself in favor of
enforcing the existing laws
instead of making new ones.
There were government suits
against the Standard Oil
Company and the American
Tobacco Company for breaking the Sherman anti-trust
law, and verdicts were obtained to dissolve these great
trusts. Suits were begun against the Harvester Trust,
the Steel Trust, and other combinations.
402 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1909
Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act [1909]. — The president called
an extra session of Congress for the purpose of carrying
out the Republican promise to revise the Dingley Tariff
Act. After five-months’ discussion, the Payne-Aldrich
Bill was passed. It was opposed by most of the Demo¬
crats and by progressive, or insurgent, Republicans,
because it did not reduce the high protective rates. It
lowered twenty per cent of the rates of the Dingley Act,
left unchanged sixty-five per cent, and increased fifteen
per cent; goods in common use — cottons, woolens, and
rubber — were among those on which the duties were in¬
creased. There were two amendments to the Payne-
Aldrich Act which were generally approved : one laid an
annual tax of one per cent on the earnings of all corpora¬
tions; the other provided for a Tariff Board consisting of
three experts whose duty was to investigate the cost of
products at home and abroad, and to make reports to
Congress as a basis for further tariff legislation. This
Tariff Board passed out of existence two years later
because funds were not appropriated to keep it up.
Thirteenth Census [1910]. — The Thirteenth Census
showed that the first ten years of the new century had
been a period of wonderful growth and prosperity. The
population of the United States was over 91,000,000 —
twenty-five persons for every one when the first census
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
403
1910]
was taken ; including territories, the population was over
93,000,000; and including the Philippines and other de¬
pendencies, it was over 100,000,000.
A noteworthy fact was the rapid increase of cities. In
Washington’s time, there were in the United States only
Courtesy of Literary Digest
This Map shows Percentages of Population Increase, 1900-1910
six cities having a population of 8000 or over; at the time
of the Thirteenth Census, there were forty-seven cities with
a population of over 100,000 each, the forty-seven contain¬
ing 28,000,000 people.
One-third of the 91,000,000 people in the United States
was of foreign birth or foreign parentage. Immigrants
were no longer going only to the North and the West.
The South was building up in a wonderful way; in twenty
years, its population had increased nearly seventy per cent
and its manufacturing capital had increased over seven
hundred per cent. Instead of sending its cotton to the
North and to England, it manufactured at home a large
and increasing part of the crop.
Agricultural advance. — The cotton crop held its place
404 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1910
as the greatest of all the agricultural products of the
United States, being valued in 1910 at over $800,000,000;
the total value of that year’s agricultural products was
nearly $9,000,000,000. The United States had become the
granary of the world, being the greatest of all food-export¬
ing countries. The development of this great industry is
aided by the Department of Agriculture with its thousands
of trained specialists. Every community in the nation
feels its helping hand —encouraging agricultural education,
establishing experimental farms, aiding in the control of
plant and animal pests, and introducing profitable scientific
methods in place of old haphazard ones.
Gunnison Tunnel. —The exploits of men of our own race
and time in developing the resources of the continent are
as interesting as the adventures of De Soto, Coronado, and
other early explorers. One of many instances was the
exploration of the Gunnison River, in order to decide if it
were feasible to use the stream to irrigate a desert region
in southwestern Colorado. A. L. Fellows and W. W.
Torrence, two engineers of the government reclamation
service, entered the Black Canon, which had been pro¬
nounced impassable, and followed the Gunnison River
thirty miles down its course. Three thousand feet above
them rose the rock walls of the canon, narrowing at the
bottom to a width of thirty or forty feet. Down its
boulder-strewn bed, in rapids, over falls, through grim
underground channels, the stream rushed with the speed
of a mill race. By day, the explorers toiled on, climbing,
crawling, limping, wading, swimming, taking notes, and
making records; by night, they snatched a few hours’ rest,
lying on narrow ledges of rock, drenched with spray from
the snow-fed stream. Under all these difficulties, they
made a survey which proved that it would be feasible to
use the stream for irrigation. After ten years’ labor, the
1909 ]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
405
Gunnison Tunnel, the first of the great irrigation systems
of the national government, was completed. The wild
torrent was turned from its canon bed, carried through a
six-mile tunnel under the mountains, and made to bring
fertility to the desert. It supplies a canal four hundred
miles long with water, and has changed 200,000 acres from
a desert where no creature could live into a fertile region
with herds, crops, orchards, and gardens.
Discovery of North and South Poles. — For four centu¬
ries, expedition after expedition had explored the polar
regions and hun¬
dreds of brave
men had lost their
lives in attempts
to reach the poles.
At last an Ameri¬
can, Commander
Robert N. Peary,
who had spent
t w e n ty-t h r ee
years in Arctic
explorations,
reached the north¬
ern goal [1909].
He made a rapid
sled journey from
his ship across the
ice of the polar
sea and with five
companions reached the Pole. About two years later, the
South Pole was reached by two explorers ; first by a Nor¬
wegian, Captain Roald Amundsen, and a few weeks later
by a brave Englishman, Captain Robert Scott, who perished
on the return journey toward his base of supplies.
Commander Peary and his Dogs
406 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [w*
Air and ocean travel. — Another long-cherished scheme
was carried out when men learned to navigate the air. A
pioneer in air travel was an
American, Samuel P. Lang¬
ley, who made a flight of
nearly a mile in a machine
driven by a small steam
engine [1896]. A few
years later, several suc¬
cessful flying machines
were invented. Among
the foremost “ bird men ”
were Orville and Wilbur
Wright, Glenn Curtiss, and
other Americans. Within
a few years, there were
made cross-country flights
of two or three thousand
miles, a speed of over a hun¬
dred miles an hour was at¬
tained, and ascensions were
made to a height of eighteen thousand feet. Flying ma¬
chines were adopted as a part of army service, to be used
instead of cavalry for scouting purposes. Practical scientists
are laboring to make machines reliable for passenger service.
While mastery of the air was being gained, new records
were made for ocean travel. The steamship time across
the Atlantic was lowered by one great ‘ ocean greyhound ’
after another until the ocean was crossed in less than
four and a half days. Huge vessels were built that
were floating palaces. Despite safety devices, some of
these great vessels met with appalling disasters. One of
them, the Titanic , struck an iceberg at midnight off the
coast of Newfoundland [1912]. Over 1600 persons were
Wright’s Biplane
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
1911]
407
drowned; 700 were rescued by the Carpathia , summoned
by the sinking ship’s wireless calls.
Postal savings banks and parcel post. — In two ways the
service of the postal department was increased while Taft
was president. Postal savings banks were established
[1911] to provide a depository for small savings. These
banks receive sums ranging from one dollar to five hun¬
dred dollars, and pay two and a half per cent interest. The
first depositor in the first bank was an eleven-year-old boy,
who proudly put in his two-dollar ‘ nest egg.’
As popular as the postal savings banks and of even
more widespread usefulness is the domestic parcel post.
Begun as an experiment with special stamps [1913], in a
few months it was handling a large share of the small pack¬
ages of the country. Its efficiency has been increased by
decreasing its rates and increasing the size and weight of
the packages that may be carried by it.
Arbitration treaties. — After continuing nearly a century,
a fisheries dispute between the United States and Great
Britain was settled by arbitration [ 1911 ] to the satisfaction,
in the main, of both parties. The next year [1912],
treaties of arbitration were made by the United States with
France and Great Britain. It was agreed that their dis¬
putes should be submitted to arbitration, these great nations
being “ resolved that no future difference shall be a cause
of hostilities between them or interrupt their good relations
and friendship.”
New states. — During Taft’s presidency, two new states
were admitted, Arizona and New Mexico [1912]. There
were now forty-eight states, and no territories were left
within the borders of the United States.
Wilson elected president.—The Payne-Aldrich Tariff
Act was approved by the regular, or ‘ stand pat,’ Republi¬
cans and was opposed by the progressives, or ‘ insurgents.’
408 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1912
Dissension in the Republican ranks increased when Roose¬
velt announced himself again a candidate for the presidency.
Republicans in favor of Taft secured his renomination
and the Roosevelt followers formed a new party called
the Progressive. The Progressives proclaimed a “ new
nationalism”; they declared in favor of government control
of “ problems which have expanded beyond the reach of the
individual states” and “equal suffrage to men and women
alike,” and nominated Roosevelt for the presidency.
The Democrats had made use of their majority in the
House to change its rules so as to lessen the power of the
speaker to direct and block legislation; they declared in
favor of other reforms, — “downward revision ” of the tariff,
better currency laws, anti-trust legislation, an income tax,
and election of senators by popular vote; on this platform
they nominated Woodrow Wilson of Virginia, a Southerner
of national training, who was governor of New Jersey.
Wilson was elected, receiving 435 of the 531 electoral votes.
For the first time since the War of Secession, a South¬
ern man was chosen for chief executive; here was proof
that after half a century the separation of sections was
over and there was a real Union. And for the first time since
that war, the Democratic party really controlled the three
branches of the government and was to take its turn at
‘ constructive ’ statesmanship. That party had had nominal
control in Cleveland’s second term, but it divided on the cur¬
rency question and never came together as a working force.
Summary [1909-1913]. — William Howard Taft of Ohio, the twenty-
seventh president, served one term. During his presidency, the Payne-
Aldrich Tariff Act was passed, postal savings banks and a domestic parcel
post were established, and the states of Arizona and New Mexico were
admitted to the Union. Other interesting events of the time were the
discovery of the North Pole by an American, the invention of airships,
the settling by arbitration of a fisheries dispute with Great Britain, and
the making of arbitration treaties with France and Great Britain.
1913]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
409
13. President Wilson [1913 -]
Democratic
President Wilson. — With each election during the last
century, the personality of the president has become a
matter of more importance. By making use of his Consti¬
tutional power to
suggest legisla¬
tion and his veto
power, the presi¬
dent has become
really, as Presi-
dent Wilson
phrased it, “ the
head of the gov¬
ernment and the
responsible leader
of the party in
power.”
When Wilson
became president,
people knew him
chiefly as the
able president of
Princeton Univer¬
sity, the reform
governor of New
Jersey, a Student Woodrow Wilson
and scholar who
had written with wisdom and refreshing common sense and
charming lucidity of style about American history and
politics. He promptly showed himself a great leader,
masterful and tactful, who stated simply and held steadily
4io SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [19x3
fine ideals. With due regard to the party that elected him,
but with chief regard to the welfare of the whole people,
he led the work for which his party had been put in power.
The most important of this legislative work was the reform of
tariff and currency systems and the better control of trusts.
Glass of Virginia, Clark of Missouri, and Underwood of Alabama, — three leaders of
the first Democratic working majority in Congress for over sixty years.
Underwood Tariff Act [1913]. — Under the leadership of
Oscar Underwood, the Democrats passed a law which
greatly reduced the general average of tariff rates; the
rates on cotton and woolen goods were lowered, and sugar
and wool were put on the free list. In order to raise needed
revenue, the Underwood Tariff Act carried an income tax
of 1 % on incomes above $3000.
Federal Reserve Act [1914]. — After the tariff act was
passed, Congress turned to the banking and currency ques¬
tion. A bill introduced by Carter Glass was passed, which
was approved, on the whole, by bankers and the general
public and which established a banking system that may
be of as great service to the United States as the famous
Bank of England is to Great Britain. The Glass-Owen
Bill, or Federal Reserve Act, upheld the gold standard. It
planned to replace, within twenty years, national bank
1 914 ]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
411
notes by federal reserve notes which are to be redeemed,
on demand, in gold by the Treasury Department.
There are twelve Federal Reserve Banks supervised by
a Federal Reserve Board, with a Federal Advisory Board.
The Reserve Board, consisting of seven members, by its
supervision unites the banks in a national policy and gains
cooperation among them. The banking business of issuing
notes, discounting paper, and using deposits is conducted
by the Reserve Banks [opened November 16]. The
capital of each bank is provided by banks in its district,
national banks being required to come into the system and
state institutions being allowed to do so. The Reserve
Banks are the “ financial trustees of the nation ” ; they are
to supervise and control their member banks; to keep large
reserve funds, especially of gold, so as to assist members
in need; and to promote banking and business safety and
prosperity. The Federal Advisory Board is composed of
members chosen by Reserve Banks.
A complement to the Federal Reserve Act is a “rural
credits ” bill to provide banking accommodation for the
412
SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [iqm
farmers, enabling them to obtain loans with land as
security.
Anti-trust legislation.— Trust-controlling legislation
finally took shape in three bills. The Clayton Anti-trust Bill
supplements the Sherman Act; it forbids certain business
methods which restrain competition and it holds the in¬
dividuals in a law-breaking corporation personally responsi¬
ble as criminals. The Trade Commission Bill established
an Interstate Trade Commission the duty of which is to
investigate the organization and management of corpora¬
tions so as to see that they conduct their business in ac¬
cordance with the law. The Rayburn Railroad Bill gives
the Interstate Commerce Commission power to control
railway stock and bond issues.
Constitutional amendments.—Two amendments to the
Constitution passed by Congress during Taft’s presidency,
having been approved by the required three-fourths of
the states, became a part of the law of the land [1913].
The Sixteenth Amendment gives Congress power to lay
an income tax. The Seventeenth Amendment provides
that senators shall be elected by the direct vote of the
people, instead of by state legislatures. These were
the first amendments since the three passed after the
War of Secession, to give freedom and civil rights to
the negro.
New political methods. —The Seventeenth Amendment
shows the growing disposition of the people to take
direct governing power; fortunately, this is united with
a growing disposition to put affairs into the hands of
experts, directly responsible to the electors. In public
matters, people are beginning to use the methods they
take to secure efficient service in private business. A
noteworthy instance of this was the adoption by Galveston
and other cities of the commission form of government.
IQI 4 ]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
413
By this effective and economical plan, a small group of
persons, usually five, is made responsible for the manage¬
ment of a city, as a board of directors is of a railway
or other business. Some cities have a manager, instead
of a commission.
In electing a commission or manager, the people usually
reserve for themselves the rights of initiative, referendum,
and recall. The initiative gives the people the right to
initiate, or begin, legislation; if a certain per cent of voters
state their views to their legislature, it must take action on
the subject. The referendum refers laws from the legisla¬
ture to the people for final adoption or rejection; on peti¬
tion of a certain per cent of voters, any measure passed by
the legislature must be ratified by the popular vote in order
to become law. The recall gives electors the right to
recall, or dismiss, an official with whom they become dis¬
satisfied and to replace him with another, without waiting
for a regular election. In many states, especially in the
West, the initiative, referendum, and recall have been
adopted for state-wide use.
Equal suffrage. — Changed industrial conditions bring
women in ever-increasing numbers into the ranks of wage-
earners, and so tend to bring them into the political world.
Twelve states have adopted equal suffrage, — Wyoming,
Nevada, Colorado, Utah, Idaho, California, Washington,
Oregon, Arizona, Kansas, Illinois, and Montana. In many
other states, women vote about school matters and women
tax-payers vote on questions of taxation.
Welfare work. — Women are leading many great welfare
movements. Chief among these is the Woman’s Christian
Temperance Union, founded by Miss Frances Willard,
which has now a membership of over half a million and
has auxiliaries in over fifty countries and provinces.
Miss Clara Barton and Miss Mabel Boardman directed the
414 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1914
work of the Red Cross Society, at first established to care
for ill and wounded soldiers, then broadened to serve
sufferers from flood, fire, and other calamities. Miss Julia
Lathrop is in charge of the
Children’s Bureau, recently
established to investigate mat¬
ters concerning the welfare of
children. Miss Jane Addams
is a leader in the work to uplift
the submerged classes in great
cities. Among these welfare
workers was Mrs. Woodrow
Wilson, the wife of the presi¬
dent, in response to whose
dying wish Congress passed a
bill eliminating objectionable
alleys in Washington City,
jane Addams Mexican affairs. — Early in
Wilson’s presidency, the state
of affairs in Mexico attracted serious attention. Mexico
is a very rich- country, but its people are very poor.
Its resources have been exploited largely by foreigners
who have obtained mining, oil, commercial, and banking
interests and concessions and who have stirred up revolts
and insurrections to further their business schemes.
President Wilson broadened the Monroe Doctrine, prac¬
tically taking the position that not only must Europe keep
out of our hemisphere in a political sense, but that the
Spanish-American states of the western continent must
be left free to manage their own affairs, without the
interference of foreign business interests. He refused
to recognize as president Victoriano Huerta, an adventurer
who obtained control of the Mexican government. No
active part was taken in Mexican affairs, however, until
1914]
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
415
Huerta’s soldiers at Tampico seized unarmed marines
on a boat carrying the flag of the United States. Then
demand was made that the Mexicans salute the Ameri¬
can flag, as apology. Huerta
refused and American forces,
sent to uphold our national
rights and dignity, occupied
Vera Cruz. Argentina, Brazil,
and Chile offered their services
as mediators. Through their
influence and by the skill,
patience, and wisdom of the
American government, the with¬
drawal of Huerta was effected
and war was averted.
Arbitration treaties. — The
‘ABC’ conference about Mexi¬
can affairs is significant of the
growing feeling that war is
brutal and wasteful, foolish and wicked. “There is no
difference so fundamental that it cannot be settled in
peace and mutual respect if both sides are willing to be
just and patient.”
One of the leaders in a movement for international
peace is Secretary-of-State Bryan, by whom twenty-six arbi¬
tration treaties have been made between the United States
and other countries, — including Spanish-American re¬
publics, China, and several European countries. These
treaties provide for commissions of inquiry in case of dis¬
putes between nations, and require a year’s investigation
before the declaring of war, thus causing nations to act
with sober good judgment.
National peace and reunion. — 1914 rounds out a cen¬
tury of peace among English-speaking people, being the
Confederate Monument in Arlington National Cemetery
to the South as the home of General Robert E. Lee and
consecrated to the North by being a national cemetery.
On this monument are a plow and a pruning-hook and
these words: “ They have beaten their swords into plow¬
shares and their spears into pruning-hooks.” One of the
contributors to this monument was a New Jersey regiment
416 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE [1914
hundredth anniversary of the treaty of Ghent which ended
the war of 1812.
Significant of the reunion of sections is the monument
to Confederate soldiers, erected at Arlington, a place sacred
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
417
1914]
which had shortly before given a striking instance of mag¬
nanimity. It erected a battlefield monument having on
one side an appropriate inscription in honor of its own
dead and on the other side a tablet: “ To the brave Ala¬
bama boys who were our opponents on this field and whose
memory we honor.”
Thus this chapter of our history ends, with peace and
good-will in our land. The LInited States and Great Brit¬
ain, estranged by two wars, have been reconciled during a
century of peace; the sister sections, after a bitter era of
discord and war, are going forward side by side, a great
reunited nation.
New chapters of our history will be made by the boys
and girls who are to-day studying history. In their hands
is the future of our nation, the keeping of it true to the
great ideals of its founders, —liberty, peace, and righteous¬
ness.
European war. —While we have peace at home, there is
raging the most colossal war in the history of the world.
The murder of an Austrian archduke by a Serb was fol¬
lowed by a declaration of war by Austria against Servia
[July 28]. Through military alliances and business and
political interests, one country after another was drawn
into the contest, until the war involves most of Europe
and Africa and the greater part of Asia.
This great war is being fought with new and deadly
weapons, — long-range rifles, powerful howitzers, guns of
twenty-mile range, air-craft of all kinds, armed and armored
automobiles. With all these new devices, the story of the
war is the old, old one. Brave, strong young men are
busy killing one another, nations are being impoverished
and filled with feeble men, widowed women, and fatherless
children.
Common interests have so bound the world into one
418 SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICAN PEOPLE Nu
great community, that even a neutral nation, like the
United States, suffers in this war. The price of many
commodities — especially cotton, of which crop Europe
usually takes two-thirds — declined, and the decrease of
tariff receipts made it necessary to lay a war tax to
raise $100,000,000 revenue.
The people of the United States being drawn chiefly
from the warring nations, “ it is natural and inevitable that
there should be the utmost variety of sympathy,” but the
president wisely urges all Americans to “act and speak in
the true spirit of neutrality which is the spirit of impar¬
tiality and fairness and friendliness to all concerned.”
Thus this great country of ours will be “ fit and free to do
what is honest and disinterested and serviceable for the
peace of the world,” — a peace that may be, not the quiet of
an armed camp like modern Europe, but a lasting concord.
APPENDIX
TOPICS FOR STUDY
CHAPTER 1
Geographical Studies
Locate on the map all places mentioned in the text.
1. Draw an outline map of North America. Mark on it the ranges
of the chief crop plants ; of the chief mineral and metal deposits.
2. Mark on a map of North America the range of savage Indian
tribes ; of barbarous ones ; of partly-civilized ones.
3. Trace the probable course of Leif the Lucky.
4. Trace on the map the principal trade routes from Venice and
Genoa to India. How far is it from Italy to India by way of the ocean
route south of Africa ?
5. Trace on the map the course of the four voyages of Columbus;
the two of Cabot; the voyage of Da Gama. Use different-colored
crayons for each.
6. Trace on the map the probable route of Narvaez ; of De‘ Soto ; of
Coronado. Trace the course followed by Magellan’s ship and by Drake
on their voyages around the world.
Suggestive Questions
1. Tell some ways in which America is adapted to be the home of a
great nation. Name some ways in which men may improve a country;
some ways in which they may injure it.
2. Was there a fair division of duties between Indian men and
women? Give reasons for your opinion. Compare an Indian boy’s
education with your own. Why did the English adopt into their
language such words as ‘wigwam,’ ‘moccasin,’ and ‘tobacco’? De¬
scribe Indian relics that you have seen. Is it more or less difficult for
Indians in America to lead a savage life now than it was four hundred
years ago ? Why ?
3. Name five words describing the Northmen and mention facts to
prove that they possessed the qualities named.
1
11
TOPICS FOR STUDY
4. Make a list of products which Europeans obtained from India.
Give reasons why Venice and Genoa obtained control of the eastern
trade. Tell why land travel was so much slower and more difficult
during the Middle Ages than it is now; sea travel. Describe the
mariners compass and its uses.
5. Contrast Columbus’s reception on his return from his first voyage
and from his fourth. Name some traits of Columbus’s character and
give incidents to prove them. Why was so little attention paid at the
time to Cabot’s voyage? Was it more or less important than Da
Gama’s? Why? Name three European nations which sent expedi¬
tions to America; tell what regions were discovered by each.
6. Why did early discoverers make so few investigations in the
interior of America? Tell about the explorers who first visited the
interior. Tell about three discoverers connected with the Pacific
Ocean. Why did Spain excel other countries in discoveries and ex¬
plorations in the New World? Tell what effect the Great Armada had
on American colonization. Name other events that took place about the
time that the Armada was destroyed. What facts did Europeans learn
about the United States between 1497 and 1600? What important
facts did they fail to learn? Make in your notebook a list of Spanish,
of French, and of English discoverers of the sixteenth century according
to the following plan: —
Name
Region visited
Date
Exercises
1. Resolved: that short, rapid rivers are more useful in the develop¬
ment of a country than long, slow ones. Write an account of Indian
corn, telling its history, range, uses, and value ; illustrate the sketch
with drawings of the plant and its parts.
2. Resolved: that it was right for Europeans to take land from the
Indians. Write an account of the life of an Indian from babyhood
to manhood; illustrate the sketch with pictures of Indian tools and
utensils.
3. Write an account of a Northman’s voyage. Draw a picture of a
Norse vessel.
4. Resolved: that the Turkish conquests were a benefit to Europe.
Tell the story of a pearl from its discovery in Ceylon to its wearing by
TOPICS FOR STUDY
in
& \ enetian lady ; illustrate the story with pictures of the people through
whose hands the gem passed.
5 Describe Columbus’s first voyage, in a letter purporting to be
from a sailor on his vessel. Draw a picture of a caravel. Compare a
caravel with a Norse ship and an Indian canoe.
6. Resolved: that Spain had a just claim to the whole continent of
North America. Write an account of the United States, purporting to
be by a European in 1600. Describe the journey of one of the Spanish
explorers of the United States ; illustrate the sketch with pictures of the
regions visited.
Suggested Readings
Contemporary Writings. — The voyage to Vinland, from the Saga
of Eric the Red; Marco Polo’s account of Japan and Java; Columbus’s
letter to Gabriel Sanchez, describing his first voyage; Coronado’s
journey to New Mexico and the Great Plains; Pasqualigo’s and Sou-
cino’s letters about Cabot’s first voyage.
Illustrative Literature. — Hiawatha, “ Discovery of the North
Cape,” and “Skeleton in Armor” by H. W. Longfellow; “Voyage to
Vinland” by J. R. Lowell; “Columbus” by Joaquin Miller; “The
Triumph” from Psalm of the West by Sidney Lanier; “Columbus” by
Alfred Tennyson ; Westward Hoi by Charles Kingsley.
Picture List
The Rocky Mountains by Bierstadt ; other pictures of American
scenes: the illustrations in Catlin’s North Aitierican Indians; Fred¬
erick Remington’s pictures of Indians, especially his Hiawatha illustra¬
tions ; statue of Erikson by Anne Whitney; Columbus before the
Council of Salamanca by Barabino; Columbus at the Court of Ferdi¬
nand and Isabella by Brozik; Departure of Columbus from Palos by
Balaca; Landing of Columbus by Vanderlyn; Reception of Columbus
after his First Voyage by Balaca; statue of John Cabot and his Son
Sebastian by Cassidy; the Grand Canon by Louis Akin; pictures of
Spanish life, especially those of Murillo and of Velasquez.
CHAPTER II
Geographical Studies
Locate on the map all places mentioned in the text.
2. Is the northwest passage around America useful for commerce ?
Give reasons.
IV TOPICS FOR STUDY
3. Mark on the map the New England colonies in the order of
settlement.
4. Draw a map of Manhattan Island and the surrounding country.
Why was this island a good site for a trading post ?
8. Mark on a map of North America the chief settlements made during
the seventeenth century, using different-colored crayons for the English,
Spanish, French, Dutch, and Swedish. Indicate with the colored crayons
changes in ownership. Tell how geographical conditions determined
the industries of the different colonies.
Suggestive Questions
1. Why did not the Spaniards occupy the United States? What
motives led the English to colonize America? Tell briefly what was
accomplished by the Spanish, by the French, and by the English in the
New World during the sixteenth century. Compare the French and the
Spanish treatment of the Indians.
2. What mistake did early explorers and settlers make about the
width of the United States? What facts misled them? Give some rea¬
sons for the suffering of the early colonists. Could all of it have been
avoided? Could some of it have been avoided? If so, how? In which
is it necessary for men to work harder, a new or an old country ? Give
reasons for your opinion. Compare the industries of Spanish, French,
Dutch, and English colonies. Which was the best foundation for a
colony? Give reasons for your opinion. Give an account of the first
House of Burgesses. Tell some reasons urged in favor of slavery;
some reasons against it. What was accomplished by the first English
colony before a second one came over?
3. Describe the religious conditions of Europe in 1600. Compare
them with the conditions in our time and country. Mention points of
likeness between the Pilgrims and the Puritans ; of unlikeness. Why
did the Massachusetts Bay colony grow so much more rapidly than the
other New England colonies? Compare Hooker’s and Winthrop’s views
about government. Ought Rhode Island to have been included in the
New England Union? Give reasons for your opinion. Define Sepa¬
ratist, Pilgrim, Puritan, dissenter. Write an account of the person
in early New England history that you like best. In what ways was
life in Virginia like that in New England? In what ways was it unlike?
4. Did the Dutch pay a fair price for Manhattan Island ? Give
reasons for your opinion. Describe the life of a Dutch trader; of a
patroon. Describe the life of a rich planter in Maryland.
TOPICS FOR STUDY
v
5. Write an account of Oliver Cromwell. Describe the effect of the
Commonwealth on the different colonies. Why were the Navigation
Acts not obeyed in the colonies ? Did the English have a just claim to
New Netherland ? In what way was the Dutch colony a disadvantage
to the English? How might it become dangerous to them? Why did
there come to be two Carolinas instead of one? Why did the Hugue¬
nots settle in South Carolina instead of in New France?
6. Write an account of Bacon. Was he a patriot or a rebel? Why
did the Indians become hostile to the colonists ? Could conflicts be¬
tween the two races have been avoided ? Give reasons for your opinion.
7. In what respects were the Quakers like the Puritans? In what
respects were they unlike? Why did Penn purchase Delaware? Why
was a water outlet more important to a colony than it is to a state now?
Write a brief account of what the English accomplished in America
during the three-quarters of a century beginning with 1607. What
power did the English Parliament assume in the Revolution of 1688?
8. Tell some European events of the seventeenth century which in¬
fluenced affairs in the American colonies. Make in your notebook a
list of English sovereigns from 1584 to 1692. Tell some events of
colonial history during the reign of each. What three nations had
claims in America in 1700? What were they doing to make these good?
What two nations had been deprived of territory during the century ?
Give reasons why people came from Europe to the American colonies.
Tell some things that the English learned from the Indians; some
things that they got from them. Why did settlements follow the
coast and rivers? Why did people of a certain religion make settle¬
ments ? What was the difference between an indented servant and a
slave? Compare the life of slaves in Massachusetts, Virginia, and
South Carolina. Were slavery and the slave trade regarded then as
they are now? Give reasons. Write in your notebook a list of persons
prominent in the colonial history of the seventeenth century according
to the following plan : —
Name
Colony
Important fact
Exercises
1. Write an account of the three crop plants obtained from the
Indians by Ralegh’s colonists; illustrate the sketch with drawings.
Write a story describing the fate of a member of the Lost Colony.
VI
TOPICS FOR STUDY
2. Resolved: that the settlement of Jamestown was the most im¬
portant event in the early history of America. Write two letters pur¬
porting to be from a colonist, — one describing the Jamestown colony
the year after its settlement; the other describing it eighteen years
later.
3. Resolved: that the Massachusetts Bay colony acted wisely in
banishing Roger Williams. Write a letter purporting to be from one
of the Pilgrims, describing the voyage of the Mayflower and the first
winter at Plymouth. Dress dolls in garments like those worn by the
Puritans.
4. Resolved: that the Swedes had as just a claim to Delaware as the
Dutch had to New York. Write a description of Maryland, purporting
to be written by a New England trader. Write an account of a day
spent in New Amsterdam. Draw pictures of Dutch children engaged
in characteristic sports.
5. Resolved: that the English were justified in seizing New Nether-
land. Describe the industries carried on in a North Carolina pine
forest. Write an account of rice and its cultivation in South Carolina;
illustrate the sketch with pictures.
6. Resolved: that Bacon’s Rebellion was, justifiable. Write an
account of King Philip’s War, in the form of a diary by a Connecticut boy.
7. Describe Penn’s treaty with the Indians, in a letter purporting to
be from a Quaker colonist. Dress dolls in garments like those worn
by the Quakers.
8. Resolved: that it would have been easier to colonize America
if it had not been inhabited by Indians. Write three letters describing
a trip through the colonies, purporting to be from three fellow-trav¬
elers,— one a Puritan merchant, one a Dutch fur trader, and one a
Maryland planter. Describe a day in a New England school; illus¬
trate the sketch with pictures of the schoolhouse, teacher, and pupils.
Make drawings and collect pictures of colonial houses and furniture.
Suggested Readings
Contemporary Writings. — Hakluyt’s reasons for the English
colonization of America; Barlowe’s account of his voyage to Virginia
in 1584; Smith’s account of the founding of Virginia, from the True
Relation; Hamor’s description of Pocahontas; Juet’s account of
Hudson’s discovery of the Hudson River; Bradford’s account of why
the Pilgrims left England and their life at Plymouth, in his History of
Plymouth Plantation; Winthrop’s account of the Massachusetts Bay
TOPICS FOR STUDY
Vll
colony, from his History of New England; Winthrop’s account of the
founding of Connecticut; White’s description of Maryland in 1634;
Van der Donck’s description of New Netherland; Hegeman’s account
of a schoolmaster’s duties in New Netherland in 1661 ; Roger Williams’s
letter in 1670 on toleration in Rhode Island; Penn’s account of the
condition of his colony in 1683.
Illustrative Literature. — “ Sir Humphrey Gilbert ” and Court¬
ship of Myles Standish by H. W. Longfellow ; “Mystery of Cro-a-tan ”
by M. J. Preston ; “ Smith and Pocahontas” by W. G. Simms ; To Have
and to Hold and Prisoners of Hope by Mary Johnston; “Landing
of the Pilgrims” by Felicia Hemans; “First Proclamation of Myles
Standish ” by M. J. Preston ; Grandfather's Chair by Nathaniel Haw¬
thorne ; Stories of the Old Dominion byj. E. Cooke; Knickerbocker's
History of New York by Washington Irving.
Picture List
Marriage of Pocahontas and Rolfe by Brueckner; paintings and
photographs of Dutch scenes, especially the pictures of Ruysdael, Potter,
and Rembrandt; Departure of Pilgrims from Delft Haven by Cope;
Landing of the Pilgrims by Lucy; Pilgrims going to Church, and other
Pilgrim pictures by Bough ton; the Hidden Foe by Pierce; Priscilla
Spinning by Barse; Penn making a Treaty with the Indians by West.
CHAPTER III
Geographical Studies
Locate on the map all places mentioned in the text.
1. Compare Canada and Louisiana as sites for colonies. Compare
the geographical advantages of the French and the English colonies.
2. Trace the line of French forts from the mouth of the St. Lawrence
to the mouth of the Mississippi.
3. Make a war map of North America in the French and Indian War,
marking French and British victories in different-colored crayons.
Draw a map of Quebec and the surrounding country, to illustrate the
siege of the city. Mark on the map the possessions of France, Spain,
and Great Britain at the beginning of the war; at the end.
Suggestive Questions
1. What influence did the enmity of the Five Nations to the French
have on colonization ? Contrast Spanish, French, and English treat-
Vlll
TOPICS FOR STUDY
ment of the Indians. Tell about the chief explorers connected with the
Mississippi River. Why was the ownership of Acadia important to New
England ?
2. Name two colonies to which women were sent as wives for
colonists. Describe the treatment of poor debtors in the eighteenth
century. What were the objects of the Georgia colony ? Write the
names of the thirteen British colonies, in the order of their settle¬
ment; in the order of their position on the coast, from north to south. In
honor of what royal persons were the six southern colonies named ?
Which colonies had English names? Which had Indian names?
Explain the three forms of government, — royal, proprietary, and
charter. Make in your notebook a list of the thirteen original colonies
according to this model: —
Colony
When settled
Where
By whom
Form of government
Why were the British willing to exchange Louisburg for Madras ?
Why were the colonists opposed to the exchange ?
3. Compare the position and strength of the French and the British
at the beginning of the French and Indian War. Why did the British
claim the Ohio Valley ? Why did the French claim it ? Why was its
possession important to each ? Why did not the French government
send aid to Montcalm ? Compare Montcalm and Wolfe. Write an
account of Pitt. What great question was settled by the French and
Indian War ? Why did some people think the victory might prove a
disadvantage to the British ? Write a brief sketch of the French in the
New World, from the exploration of Verrazano to the end of the French
and Indian War.
Exercises
1. Resolved: that Canada was a more desirable region for a French
colony than was Louisiana. Give an account, purporting to be from an
English captive, of an Indian raid on a New England town. Describe
the capture of a merchant ship by Blackbeard.
2. Describe the cultivation of rice and of indigo ; illustrate the sketch
with drawings.
3. Resolved: that the British colonies were justifiable in removing
the Acadians. Write two letters, one from an English soldier, the
other from a French woman, each describing the capture of Quebec.
TOPICS FOR STUDY
IX
Suggested Readings
Contemporary Writings. — Champlain’s account of his adventures
on Lake Champlain in 1609; Castelman’s description of Philadelphia
in 1710, from The Voyage, Shipwreck , and Miraculous Escape of
Richard Castelman , Gen.] Eliza Lucas’s account of South Carolina,
from her Journal and Letters] Oglethorpe’s account of the plan of
Georgia, from his Brief Account of the Establishment of the Colony
of Georgia; Captain Knox’s account of the fall of Quebec from his
Historical Journal] Washington’s Journal describing his Journey to
the Ohio.
Illustrative Literature. — Story of Tonty by Mrs. M. H. Cather-
wood ; “ Ballad of the French Fleet” and Evangeline by H. W. Long¬
fellow ; Yemassee by W. G. Simms ; Virginians by W. M. Thackeray;
Last of the Mohicans by J. F. Cooper; Seats of the Mighty by Gilbert
Parker; Grandfather's Chair by Nathaniel Hawthorne; Stories of the
Old Dominion by J. E. Cooke; Struggle for a Continent by Francis
Parkman.
Picture List
Colonial Days by Henry; Evangeline by Faed, by Douglass, and
by Taylor; Franklin and Braddock by James ; Death of Montgomery
by Trumbull; Death of Wolfe by Trumbull and by West.
CHAPTER IV
Geographical Studies
Locate on the map all places mentioned in the text.
1. Trace the route followed by pioneers, from Pennsylvania to the
Ohio country ; from Virginia to Kentucky ; from North Carolina to
Tennessee.
2. Draw a map of Boston to illustrate the battle of Bunker Hill.
3. Explain the geographical importance of New York to the British.
4. Trace the line of march planned for the British campaign of 1777.
Trace the line of march followed. Draw a map to illustrate the battles
of Saratoga. Trace the course of Clark’s expedition down the Ohio
to Kaskaskia ; from Kaskaskia to Vincennes.
5. Draw a map to illustrate Greene’s campaign in the Carolinas.
Explain how Greene made the rivers an advantage to his army. Tell
how they might have been a disadvantage.
X
TOPICS FOR STUDY
6. Make a map of the United States in the War of the Revolution,
marking British and American victories with different-colored crayons.
Mark the territory of the United States, Great Britain, and Spain at
the close of the Revolution. Trace the ‘back lands,’ showing the
claims of each state.
Suggestive Questions
1. Explain the chief causes of colonial discontent. Ought the
colonists to have shared the expenses of the French and Indian War ?
Give reasons for your opinion. Why is a stamp tax an easy tax to
collect ? Why did the colonists resent the Stamp Act ? Compare
Samuel Adams and Patrick Henry, Tell about some famous English¬
men who sympathized with the colonists. Why were the colonists less
dependent on the home government after the French and Indian War
than before it ? Name ten words that tell traits of King George III.’s
character and mention an incident in proof of each. Why did the
other colonies take the part of Massachusetts ? Describe the move¬
ment to the West. Write a sketch of Daniel Boone.
2. Compare the First and the Second Continental Congress. Com¬
pare the views of the Whigs and the Tories. Why did the colonists
resent the sending of Hessians more than of British soldiers ? Give
an account of the battle of Bunker Hill. Describe the movements of
the British troops during 1775; of the Continental troops. In what
contest had the colonists been trained in fighting ? What did the
British call the colonial war ? What is the difference between a re¬
bellion and a revolution ?
3. Compare land and naval warfare during the War of the Revo¬
lution. Give reasons why the British wished to occupy New York.
Write a one-page sketch of the Declaration of Independence, giving its
main parts. What rights does it claim for all ? Why are these rights
called “ inalienable ” ? What solemn promise did the signers of the
Declaration of Independence make ? What advantages did the Ameri¬
cans have in the War of the Revolution ? What disadvantages ?
4. Explain the plan of the British campaign of 1777. Describe the
steps taken to carry it out and their results. How did the flag of 1777
differ from that of to-day ? Tell why the flag has been changed. Give
a full account of the battles of Saratoga and their results. Which was
more trying to patriot courage, — a defeat such as Brandywine or a
winter of inaction like that at Valley Forge ? Give reasons for your
opinion. Name five foreigners who aided the Americans, giving a
brief account of the services of each. Tell about the part that Indians
TOPICS FOR STUDY
xi
took in the Revolution. Explain how Clark was able with so small a .
force to make such extensive conquests. Write a sketch of Clark.
5. Describe the two British plans of conquering the colonies. Tell
the advantages and disadvantages of each. Which plan do you think
the better ? Give reasons for your opinion. Write a sketch of John
Paul Jones. Compare the way in which Schuyler and Arnold received
unjust treatment. Give an account of Continental paper money, relat¬
ing incidents to show its lack of value. Why was the Continental
currency less'valuable in 1780 than in 1778 ? Why does the value of a
paper dollar vary more than that of a gold one ? Contrast the charac¬
ters and military careers of Greene and Gates.
6. What were the advantages and disadvantages of Cornwallis’s
position at Yorktown ? Was Cornwallis wise in occupying this po¬
sition ? Give reasons for your opinion. Compare the surrenders at
Saratoga and Yorktown. Compare Burgoyne and Cornwallis. Write
an account of the three men who, in your view, did most to make good
the Declaration of Independence. Give instances to prove that a
defeat may be as valuable as a victory. Name and describe the most
important battles of the Revolution. Tell some battles in which Wash¬
ington took part; Gates; Greene; Arnold. Explain the following
terms, — militia, regulars, privateer, campaign, evacuate, siege, advance
guard, earthworks, drawn battle, volunteer, recruit, winter quarters,
partisan bands, spy. What was the basis of the claim of each colony
to ‘ back lands ’ ? Which colonies had no western claims ?
Exercises
1. Resolved: that Great Britain had a right to require the colonies
to help pay the expenses of the French and Indian War. Write a
dialogue between a New England merchant and a Carolina planter,
comparing their burdens under the Trade and Navigation Acts.
2. Resolved: that the Boston Tea Party was a justifiable destruc¬
tion of private property. Write an account, in the person of a British
soldier, of the expedition from Boston to Concord. Describe the
journey of a Regulator family from North Carolina to Tennessee and
its life in the new country. Write a dialogue between a Whig and
a Tory, each explaining and defending his course. Draw pictures of
British and Colonial soldiers.
3. Write a sketch, comparing our country on July 4, 1776, with it
on the last Fourth of July. Illustrate the sketch with pictures of the
costumes, furniture, and homes of both periods.
xii
TOPICS FOR STUDY
4. Resolved: that the French alliance was necessary to the success
of the colonists. Write a letter, purporting to be from a British soldier
under Burgoyne, describing his campaign. Write an account of the
winter at Valley Forge, in the form of a journal by a Continental
soldier. Write an account of the territory secured by Clark’s cam¬
paign; illustrate the sketch with pictures of the country.
5. Resolved: that partisan lighting was a fair method of carrying
on war. Give an account, purporting to be. from a Continental sailor,
of the fight between the Bon Homme Richard and the Serapis. Write
an account of Continental money; illustrate the sketch with drawings
of coins and paper money used during the Revolution.
6. Resolved: that a republic is the best form of government. In
the form of a journal written by a girl during the Revolution, tell how
she aided the patriot cause. Make as full a collection as you can of
pictures illustrating American life from the founding of Jamestown to
the winning of independence.
Suggested Readings
Contemporary Writings. — Patrick Henry’s speech against the
Stamp Act and his speech in the Convention of 1775 ; Pitt’s Protest
against the Taxation of the Colonies; Burke’s speech urging Concili¬
ation with the Colonies; Declaration of Independence; Dr. Waldo’s
description of camp life at Valley Forge in his Journal ; account of
the fight with the Serapis , in Paul Jones’s Life and Correspondence;
Greene’s account of affairs in the South in his Life and Correspondence
by Reed ; Cornwallis’s letter to Clinton about the surrender at York-
town ; Clark’s account of his campaign in the Illinois country ; Filson’s
description of Boone’s adventures in The Discovery , Settlemetit , and
Present State of Keniucke; Autobiography of Benjamin Frankiin.
Illustrative Literature. — “ Paul Revere’s Ride ” by H. W. Long¬
fellow ; ‘‘Lexington” from Psalm of the West by Sidney Lanier; “Con¬
cord Hymn” by R. W. Emerson; “The Rising” from Wagoner of the
Alleghenies by T. B. Read ; “ Grandmother’s Story of the Battle of Bunker
Hill” by O. W. Holmes ; oration at the laying of the cornerstone of the
Bunker Hill monument by Daniel Webster; “ Washington ” from Under
the Old Elm , and “ Ode for the Fourth of July, 1876” by J. R. Lowell;
“ Boasting of Sir Peter Parker ” by Clinton Scollard ; “ Ballad of Sweet
P ” by V. W. Cloud; “ Little Black-eyed Rebel ” by Will Carleton ;
“Betty Zane” by T. D. English; “American Flag” by J. R. Drake;
Hugh Wynne by Weir Mitchell; “ Song of Marion’s Men ” by W. C.
TOPICS FOR STUDY
xm
Bryant; Horse-Shoe Robinson by J. P. Kennedy; Partisan by W. G.
Simms; “Eutaw Springs 11 by Philip Freneau,; Pilot and Spy by J. F.
Cooper; Richard Carvel and Crossing by W. Churchill; “ England and
America in 1782” by Alfred Tennyson; Grandfather's Chair by
Nathaniel Hawthorne; Stories of the Old Dominion by J E. Cooke.
Picture List
Call to Arms by F. O. C. Darley; Arousing the Minutemen by
Dunsmore ; statue of a Minuteman by Daniel French ; Battle of Bunker
Hill and other Revolutionary pictures by Trumbull; All’s Well by
Winslow Homer; statue of Nathan Hale by Frederick MacMonies;
Mrs. Murray receiving the British Officers by Brownscombe; Washington
crossing the Delaware by Leutze; Washington, at Trenton by Faed;
Betsy Ross making the Flag by E. M. Hallowed; Washington and
Lafayette at Valley Forge by Dunsmore; Washington at the Battle of
Monmouth, and Wyoming Massacre by F. O. C. Darley; Arnold and
Andre by Blauvelt; Mrs. Steele and General Greene by Chappel;
American Peace Commissioners in 1782, from the unfinished painting
by West; Washington’s Farewell to his Officers at Whitehall by Fleury ;
Washington and Lafayette at Mount Vernon by Rossiter and Mignon ;
Washington and his Mother by Fournier; Peace Ball at Yorktown by
Brownscombe.
CHAPTER V
Geographical Studies
Locate on the map all places mentioned in the text.
4. Make an industrial map of the American states at the end of the
eighteenth century. Name the six cities in the states, and tell the
natural advantages of the location of each. Name and locate the first
four colleges in the United States.
5. Trace the route of Lewis and Clark’s expedition.
6. To prove that it was 1 a border war,’ mark on a map of the United
States the chief points of attack in the War of 1812. Draw a map to
illustrate the campaigns against Canada. Draw a map to illustrate the
battle of New Orleans.
7. Mark on the map the three lines between free and slave regions, —
Mason and Dixon’s line, the Ohio River, the line of the Missouri Com¬
promise. What natural advantages has New England for manufactures ?
XIV
TOPICS FOR STUDY
8. Mark on the map the region which the Erie Canal opened to the
market of New York City.
n. Locate on the map the so-called ‘Great American Desert.’ Lo¬
cate the Oregon Country and tell its natural resources.
12. Locate on the map the territory in dispute between Mexico and
Texas. Indicate the territory ceded by Mexico to the United States at
the end of the war.
15. Mark on a map of the United States its chief deposits of gold,
silver, lead, coal, copper, iron, petroleum, natural gas.
Suggestive Questions
1. What were the defects of the Articles of Confederation? Were
these more noticeable in times of war or of peace? Give reasons.
Describe some influential members of the Convention of 1787. Give a
brief, clear account of the plan of government drawn up. Tell some
compromises necessary to form the Constitution. Was it wise and right
to make these compromises? Give reasons for your opinion. What
powers were given the general government by the Constitution of 1787
which it did not have under the Articles of Confederation? Why did
the general government need to have power to lay taxes? Is there any
one who does not pay taxes in some way? Explain. Why was the
Constitution submitted for adoption to the votes of the states instead of
the people? Give some arguments in favor of a state’s agreeing to the
Constitution; some arguments against it.
2. What is a direct tax? an indirect tax? To which are people most
likely to object? Why? Give reasons in favor of the doctrine of implied
powers; give reasons against it. Compare the American Revolution
with the French Revolution. What reasons were there why France
should expect aid from America? What reasons were there why
America should not give aid? Tell why it is fair to make certain articles
‘contraband of war.’ Ought food to be considered contraband? Give
reasons. Describe the cotton gin and tell how it affected the life of the
South. Why were the western states more democratic than the eastern
ones? Write a sketch of Washington’s life.
3. If Congress passes an unjust or unconstitutional law, ought a state
to nullify it? Give reasons for your opinion. Write a sketch of John
Adams’s life.
4. Name instances during the eighteenth century when European
events influenced American affairs; instances when American events
influenced European affairs. Give an account of the chief labor-saving
TOPICS FOR STUDY
xv
inventions of the eighteenth century. Describe the education of an
American boy soon after the Revolution ; of an American girl. Describe
religious conditions at the end of the eighteenth century. Compare
them with those of the seventeenth century.
5. Compare Chief Justice Marshall and President Jefferson. Ought
Jefferson to have removed Federalist office-holders? Give reasons for
your opinion. Give an account of the Louisiana Purchase. Did the
Constitution give the general government power to make such a pur¬
chase? Was the purchase a wise or an unwise one? Why? Was the
attitude of Federalists and of Democratic-Republicans toward the Louisi¬
ana Purchase consistent with their political principles? Explain. Give
an account of Lewis and Clark’s expedition. Why did America refuse
bribes to France and pay bribes to the pirate states? Give an account
of Fulton’s invention of the steamboat. Write a sketch of Jefferson’s life.
6. Why did the early presidents make such efforts to avoid war?
Tell the causes of the War of 1812. Why did the Americans win so
many sea victories? Give an account of some ocean duels between
British and American ships. Describe the battle of New Orleans.
Mention one unjustifiable act committed on each side during the war.
What were the results of the War of 1812? Describe the effect of
the War of 1812 and the Embargo Act on American manufactures.
Explain free trade, tariff for revenue only, and a protective tariff. Which
do you think best of the three? Why? Write a sketch of Madison’s life.
7. Why is Monroe’s term called the ‘ Era of Good Feeling’ ? What
sectional question came forward about this time? Compare the life of
pioneers in Indiana with that of the Jamestown colonists. Describe
the system of agriculture a century ago. What effect did this system
have on the settlement of the West? Give some arguments in favor of
the Missouri Compromise ; some against it. Did the War of 1812 make
European nations more or less disposed to respect the Monroe Doc¬
trine? Give reasons. Write an account of three famous authors who
lived in New York. Write a sketch of Monroe’s life.
8. Describe and explain two ways in which transit was improved.
Why is it cheaper to haul freight by canals than by natural streams?
From what two states did the first six presidents come ? What two
presidents during the first half century served only one term? Write a
sketch of John Quincy Adams’s life.
9. Compare the early life of John Quincy Adams with that of An¬
drew Jackson. In what respects was each fitted for the presidency ? On
the whole, which of the two was the better fitted for the position?
XVI
TOPICS FOR STUDY
Give reasons for your opinion. Compare dress and manners in the
times of Jackson and of Washington. What were some of the bad
effects of the Spoils System ? Did it have any good effects ? If so, what ?
In what way do Indians usually own land? Compare it with our
method of ownership. As a rule, which thought the general govern¬
ment was stronger, the original states or the states formed from terri¬
tories? Why? How does a president veto a bill? Write a sketch of
Jackson’s life.
10. Describe the Independent Treasury plan. What were its ad¬
vantages? Write a sketch of Van Buren’s life.
11. Give a sketch of Harrison’s life. Having been elected by the
Whigs, ought Tyler to have aided them to carry out their plans, contrary
to his own views ? Give reasons for your opinion. Give reasons for the
annexation of Texas by the United States; reasons against it. De¬
scribe the most important inventions of the first half of the nineteenth
century. Describe some of the chief reforms in laws and social condi¬
tions. Name some causes and some results of the increased immigra¬
tion of this period. Write a sketch of Tyler’s life.
12. Tell the direct and the indirect causes of the War with Mexico.
Give an account of the three American campaigns against Mexico.
Why were the Americans so successful? Name some officers who
fought in this war and in the War of Secession. What troublesome
question was brought up by the acquisition of new territory? Write a
sketch of Polk’s life.
13. Explain how natural causes and self-interest made the northern
states free ; the southern states slave. In what respect did the ‘ personal
liberty’ laws resemble the South Carolina Ordinance of Nullification?
Write a sketch of Taylor’s life. As the old leaders died, what kind of
men took their places ? Describe the bright side of slavery ; the dark
side. Write a sketch of Fillmore’s life.
14. What was the main motive in forming the Republican party?
Write a sketch of Pierce’s life.
15. Compare the effect of the Dred Scott decision on the North with
that of John Brown’s Raid on the South. How did public lands add
to the prosperity of the Union? How did they cause discord? Did
the Constitution deny a state’s right to withdraw from the Union?
Did it affirm it? Name some cases in which secession had been as¬
serted as a right. Why did Compromise measures succeed in 1820, in
1834, and in 1850, and fail in i860? Tell the direct and the indirect
causes of the secession of the Cotton States.
TOPICS FOR STUDY
XVII
Exercises
1. Resolved: that the president ought to be elected by the direct
vote of the people. Make a list of the chief duties of each of the three
departments of the government.
2. Resolved: that Washington’s services to his country were greater
as statesman than as general. Write a dialogue between two New
York merchants, one a Federalist, the other a Democratic-Republican,
giving reasons for their political opinions. Give an account of the
voyage of a New England slave-trading vessel. Describe slave life on
a rice plantation.
3. Resolved: that a state had a right to nullify a law that was unfair
to it.
4. Give an account of a settler’s journey from his home on the Ohio
River to New Orleans, to carry his hogs to market. Collect and com¬
pare pictures by West, Copley, and Stuart. Read one American book
of the eighteenth century and write an account of it. Have a Martha
Washington tea party, reproducing dress and manners of the Revolu¬
tionary period as exactly as you can. Make a collection of pictures
illustrating the homes, furniture, dress, and domestic life of the United
States in the eighteenth century.
5. Resolved: that the Embargo Act was beneficial to the American
people. In the person of a passenger on the Clermont , write an account
of the trial trip from New York to Albany. Read Lewis’s and Clark’s
journals, and give, in the form of a journal by one of the party, an
account of the chief events in the journey ; illustrate the account with
pictures and photographs of the country explored.
6. Resolved: that a protective tariff is beneficial to the country at
large. Write a letter, purporting to be from an American sailor, describ¬
ing the voyages and victories of ‘ Old Ironsides.’ Write an account,
in the person of a British drummer boy, of the battle of New Orleans.
Write the story of cotton from the time its seed was planted till its fiber
was made into a garment; illustrate the story with pictures of the
cotton plant and of the tools and machinery used in the processes of
making it into cloth.
7. Resolved: that the United States ought strictly to regard the
Monroe Doctrine. Write a description, from the standpoint of a per¬
son at Cumberland Gap, of pioneers passing along the Cumberland
Road in one day. Read Thanatopsis , To a Waterfowl , and Death of
the Flowers; Rip Van Winkle and Legend of Sleepy Hollow; Last of
the Mohicans.
XV111
TOPICS FOR STUDY
8. Resolved: that the invention of the steam car was more beneficial
to America than the invention of the steamboat.
9. Resolved: that a machine which does the work of ten men is an
advantage to the laboring classes. Write the speech of an Indian
ordered to leave his home in the East for a reservation in the West.
Write a dialogue between a farmer and his wife as to the relative ad¬
vantages of the reaping machine and the sewing machine. Draw a pic¬
ture of a sickle; of a reaping machine ; of a flail; of a threshing machine.
10. Resolved: that during a panic city people suffer more than
country people.
11. Write an account, purporting to be from a Texas settler, of the
Texan War for Independence. Write a dialogue of immigrants on
shipboard, giving their reasons for coming to America.
12. Resolved: that the War with Mexico was unjustifiable. Write a
description of the march from Vera Cruz to the city of Mexico, pur¬
porting to be by an American soldier who took part in it ; illustrate
the story with pictures of the country.
13. Resolved: that the Fugitive Slave Law ought to have been en¬
forced. Describe, in the person of a Forty-Niner, the journey from
Pennsylvania to California and life in a mining camp.
14. Resolved: that it was right to let territories decide for them¬
selves the question of slavery.
15. Resolved: that a citizen’s first duty was to his state. Describe
the efforts to lay the Atlantic cable ; illustrate the sketch with drawings.
Write an account of the ‘golden age’ of American literature. Collect
pictures of American authors of the middle of the nineteenth century.
Read some of these poems and books: Hiawatha , Evangeline , and
some of Longfellow’s shorter poems ; Snow-Bound, , Maud Muller , and
In School Days; Vision of Sir Launfal; Concord Hymn and The
Mountain and the Squirrel; Tanglewood Tales and Twice-told Tales;
The Raven , Annabel Lee, and The Gold Bug; selections from Ban¬
croft’s, Motley’s, Prescott’s, and Parkman’s histories; Song of the Chat¬
tahoochee; Battle of King's Mountain; Spring, and The Cotton Boll.
Suggested Readings
Contemporary Writings. —The Constitution of the United States;
Washington’s Farewell Address; Webster-Hayne Debate; Monroe’s
message in 1823 announcing the Monroe Doctrine; Calhoun’s speech
on the Slavery Question, March 4, 1850; Webster’s Seventh of March
speech, in 1850, on the Constitution and the Union; Clay’s speech in
TOPICS FOR STUDY
xix
favor of Compromise, July 22, 1850; Jefferson Davis’s speech on with¬
drawing from the Senate in 1861.
Illustrative Literature. — “ Hail Columbia” by Joseph Hopkin-
son ; Little Jarvis by M. E. Seawell; “ Star-Spangled Banner” by F. S.
Key; “Old Ironsides” by O. W. Holmes; “First Fruits in 1812” by
Wallace Rice ; “ Battle of New Orleans ” by T. D. English ; Pioneers and
Prairie by J. F. Cooper; “ Pioneers ” by Walt Whitman ; Huckleberry
Finn by ‘Mark Twain’; Man without a Country by E. E. Hale;
“ Hunter of the Prairies ” by W. C. Bryant; Two Years before the Mast
by R. H. Dana ; “ Death of Jefferson ” by H. Butterworth ; Georgia Scenes
by A. B. Longstreet; Old Times in Middle Georgia by R. M. Johnston ;
Uncle Remus stories by J. C. Harris ; “ Defense of the Alamo ” by
Joaquin Miller ; Tales of the Argonauts by Bret Harte ;* Biglow Papers,
First Part , by J. R. Lowell; “ Buena Vista ” by Albert Pike ; “ Angels of
Buena Vista ” by J. G. Whittier; “ Bivouac of the Dead ” by Theodore
O’Hara; “How Cyrus laid the Cable” by J. G. Saxe; “Arsenal at
Springfield ” by H. W. Longfellow.
Picture List
Washington portraits and statues ; pictures of colonial houses, furni¬
ture, and dress ; paintings by West, Stuart, and Copley ; Battle of New
Orleans and Emigrants crossing the Plains by F. O. C. Darley; pic¬
tures of American authors of the middle of the nineteenth century and
of their homes ; Travel in the South in the ’30’s by Henry.
CHAPTER VI
Geographical Studies
Locate on the map all places mentioned in the text.
1. Trace on the map the boundary between the Union and the Con¬
federacy at the beginning of the war. Where and how did the Con¬
federacy have the advantage? the Union?
2. Locate on the map the course planned for the Federal campaigns
of the second year. Trace the routes followed by the Federal armies
and fleets in the West. Describe the country between Richmond and
Washington. Describe the situations of Vicksburg and Port Hudson.
Compare the advantages and disadvantages of the direct and the pen¬
insular route from Washington to Richmond. Draw a map of the
Shenandoah Valley, to illustrate Jackson’s valley campaign.
3. Draw a map of Gettysburg and the surrounding country, to illus¬
trate the battle of Gettysburg.
XX
TOPICS FOR STUDY
4. Draw a map of the region called the Wilderness, and make a list
of the battles fought there. Why were there in each campaign along
this route battles at or near the same place ? Draw a map of the country
around Richmond and Petersburg, to illustrate the positions of the two
armies during the siege. Trace Sherman’s line of march from Chatta¬
nooga to Atlanta.
5. Trace Sherman’s line of march from Atlanta to Savannah; from
Savannah to Petersburg. Compare the country that he crossed with
that between Washington and Richmond. Trace the line of Lee’s
retreat from Petersburg to Appomattox Courthouse.
Suggestive Questions
1. What was the direct cause of the War of Secession ? Name
some indirect causes. Explain how the interests of the states were
at first like, then unlike, then conflicting. Which side do you think
began the War of Secession ? Give reasons for your opinion. To which
government did Fort Sumter belong if a state had a right to secede ?
To which, if it did not have a right to secede ? Name some advantages
that each side had in the contest; some disadvantages. What right
for .which the Americans contended in the War of 1812 was violated by
the seizure of Mason and Slidell?
2. Describe the three Federal plans for the second year. Explain
the reason of each. Explain the effect of the battle between the
Monitor and the Merrimac on the naval warfare of the world.
As Lee loved the Union, why did he leave the army of the United
States and join the Virginia army ? Why is Jackson’s campaign in the
Shenandoah Valley studied and admired ? Compare Generals Lee and
Jackson. In what ways did the military movements of Lee and Jackson
differ from those of McClellan ? of Pope ? Would McClellan have
fought a battle at Fredericksburg ? Give reasons for your opinion.
Explain the following terms: gunboat, unconditional surrender, line of
defense, civilians, divisions, cavalry, arsenal.
3. On what grounds was Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation
justifiable ? Describe prison life on both sides. Why did the Con¬
federates oppose the use of negro troops and refuse to exchange negro
prisoners? Was Congress justifiable in dividing the state of Virginia?
Give reasons for your opinion. Write a sketch of General Stonewall
Jackson’s life. Describe the battle of Gettysburg. Why is Gettysburg
regarded as the turning point of the war? Why was the siege of Vicks-
TOPICS FOR STUDY
xxi
burg so prolonged ? Tell about the four great Federal generals who
took part in the fighting around Chattanooga.
4. Why were there so few changes in the Federal army in the West ?
Why were there so many in the East ? Compare Grant’s plan of Vir¬
ginia campaign with McClellan’s. Which plan do you think the better ?
Why ? Compare Generals Grant and Lee. Why did Grant lay siege
to Petersburg instead of trying to take it by storm ? What are the
rules of civilized warfare with regard to private property ? Are these
always respected ? Name Federal and Confederate generals who re¬
garded them. Name one Confederate and some Federals who disre¬
garded them. Write an account of Farragut’s life. Why were there
so few sea fights in the War of Secession ? How did the victories of
Sherman and Farragut affect Lee’s army ?
5. What two questions did the war settle forever ? Give an account
of slavery in the United States, from its introduction in the Jamestown
colony to its abolition at the end of the War of Secession. Name five
great Federal generals; five great Confederates. Name the chief battles
in which Lee fought; Grant; Jackson ; Thomas; Joseph E. Johnston;
Sherman. Write a sketch of Lincoln’s life. Why was his death a
calamity to the South ? Describe the conduct of the slaves during the
war. Make a list of ways in which the South suffered more from the
war than did the North. Why is paper money now worth more than
it was in 1865 ?
Exercises
1. Resolved : that the United States began the War of Secession by
attempting to send reenforcements to Fort Sumter. Write a dialogue
between two brothers in Kentucky, the one in the Union army, the other
in the Confederate service, each explaining and defending his course.
Draw pictures of Confederate and Federal soldiers in uniform.
2. Resolved: that the peninsular route was preferable to the direct
route to Richmond. Describe in the person of an eyewitness the
ficrht between the Merrimac and the Monitor. Describe a trip on a
©
blockade runner between Wilmington and Havana. Write in journal
form an account of a girl’s life on a southern plantation during the war.
3. Resolved: that the Federal government ought to have agreed to
the exchange of prisoners. Write two accounts of the battle of Gettys¬
burg, — one purporting to be from a Pennsylvania farmer, the other
from a Confederate drummer boy. Write a letter from a cave dweller
at Vicksburg, giving an account of the siege of the city.
4. Resolved: that Sheridan was justifiable in laying waste the Shenan-
XXII
TOPICS FOR STUDY
doah Valley. Write a letter from a Federal soldier, describing camp life
during the siege of Petersburg. Describe life in the Confederate camp.
5. Give an account of the part taken in the War of Secession by
soldiers from your community. Collect portraits of the chief Union
and Confederate officers. Write a sketch of Confederate money, ex¬
plaining the decrease of its purchasing value ; illustrate the sketch with
drawings of notes.
Suggested Readings
Lincoln’s two inaugural addresses and his Gettysburg address;
Artemus Ward: His Book by C. F. Browne; “ Our Country’s Call ”
by W. C. Bryant; “A Cry to Arms” by Henry Timrod; “Dixie”;
“Battle Hymn of the Republic” by Julia Ward Howe; “Maryland, my
Maryland” by J. R. Randall; “Brave at Home” and “Sheridan’s
Ride” by T. B. Read; “Picket Guard” by E. L. Beers; “How are
you, Sanitary?” by Bret Harte; Hospital Sketches by L. M. Alcott;
“Stonewall Jackson’s Way” by J. W. Palmer; “Little Giffen of
Tennessee” by F. O. Ticknor; “Dirge for a Soldier” and “Before
Vicksburg” by G. H. Boker; “Boston Hymn” by R. W. Emerson;
“John Burns of Gettysburg” and “Reveille” by Bret Harte; “High
Tide at Gettysburg” by W. H. Thompson; “Kentucky Belle” by
C. F. Woolson; “Ballad of Chickamauga” by Maurice Thompson;
On the Plantation by J. C. Harris; Among the Camps and Two Little
Confederates by T. N. Page; Long Roll and Cease Firing by Mary
Johnston ; “ O Captain, my Captain ! ” by Walt Whitman ; “ Conquered
Banner” and “ Sword of Lee ” by Abram Ryan ; “ Blue and the Gray ”
by F. M. Finch.
Picture List
Statute of Lincoln by Augustus St. Gaudens; Massachusetts Troops
marching through Baltimore by F. O. C. Darley; In Hampton Roads
by Zogbaum ; statue of General Thomas by J. Q. A. Ward ; Sherman’s
March to the Sea by F. O. C. Darley ; statue of Lee by E. M. Valentine ;
Virginia Mourning her Dead and statues of Jackson by Sir Moses
Ezekiel; Photographic History of the Civil War (Brady photographs) ;
other pictures of generals and scenes of the War of Secession.
CHAPTER VII
Geographical Studies
Locate on the map all places mentioned in the text.
2. Trace the course of the first railway across the continent; the
second ; the third. In what ways was the site of Chicago advantageous
for a great city ?
TOPICS FOR STUDY xxiii
3. Draw a diagram of Eads's jetties. Explain their effect on the city
of New Orleans.
4. Trace on the map of the United States the divisions of standard
time. In what division is your home ? Explain the cause of the dif¬
ferences in time, as one travels from east to west.
6. Locate on the map the six states admitted during Harrison’s
presidency. Name some geographical advantages of each.
8 . Draw a map of Manila Bay, to illustrate the battle of Manila.
Draw a map of Santiago de Cuba, and the surrounding country, to il¬
lustrate the movements of Cervera’s fleet and the battles of El Caney
and San Juan Hill. Give reasons why the annexation of the Hawaiian
Islands and the possession of Porto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines were
desirable for the United States ; reasons why they were undesirable.
9. Draw two maps of the United States, — one in 1800, one in 1900,
— to illustrate acquirements of territory.
10. Mark on the map the headwaters of the chief rivers of the United
States. Draw a map of the Panama Canal. Describe the geographical
conditions of the Canal Zone.
11. Mark on a map of the United States the earthquake belt. Make
a map of your state, marking in black the counties where liquor is sold.
Suggestive Questions
1. What reasons were there for a closer union between the North
and the South after the war than before ? What sources of discord
were there ? How can a bill be made law, in spite of the president’s
veto ? State reasons for giving the suffrage to the freedmen; state
reasons against it. Why did southerners say that it was unjust to call a
secessionist a ‘ rebel ’ and ‘ traitor ’ ? Why do they think that it would
be right now to call any one who opposed the general government a
‘rebel’ ? Why did the United States object to the French occupation
of Mexico ? How did the Monroe Doctrine apply to this case ? Write
an account of Andrew Johnson’s life.
2. Did the South approve the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amend¬
ments ? Why did it agree to them ? Give an account of General
Lee’s life after the war. In what way was the negro race injured by re¬
construction rule ? Compare the effect of railroads on the settlement
of the western states with the effect of rivers on the settlement of the
eastern states. Tell some good results of the Ku Klux Klan ; some evil
results. Give an account of the public scandals that came to light
while Grant was president. Why are affairs demoralized by war ?
XXIV
TOPICS FOR STUDY
Name the chief causes of demoralization after the War of Secession.
What is the 11 solid South’ ? Why has it remained unbroken ? De¬
scribe the anti-liquor movement. Compare the condition of the United
States in 1776 with that in 1876. What was the chief cause, from
colonial days to the present time, of Indian wars ? Write an account
of Grant’s life.
3. Tell in what way workmen have a right to carry on a strike.
Tell some unjustifiable things that are sometimes done during a strike.
For what purposes is it fair for capitalists to form business combina¬
tions ? In what ways do trusts and corporations misuse their power ?
Name some advantages of labor unions; some disadvantages. What
change did the resuming of specie payment make in the value of paper
money? Why, when the face value is the same, do people usually
prefer paper money to coin? Was slave or free labor better for the
South? State facts in proof of your answer. Write an account of
Hayes’s life.
4. Ought a president to remove any officials for political reasons ?
If so, which? Why? Write an account of Garfield’s life. Name as
many ways as you can in which the force of electricity is utilized.
Write an account of Arthur’s life.
5. Can the general government regulate the rates of a railroad
extending through only one state ? Can it regulate a line passing
through two or more states ? Explain the difference. Mention reasons
against the admission of each class of immigrants excluded by the
present laws of the United States. Why did Cleveland think that
tariff rates ought to be reduced?
6. Compare the settlement of Oklahoma with that of Virginia ;
of Tennessee. What voting rights have women under the laws of the
state in which you live? Do you think they ought to have more or
less rights ? Why ? Describe the plan and purpose of reciprocity in a
tariff bill. Explain the Australian ballot system. Why was it adopted
in so many states ? Write an account of Harrison’s life.
7. Why did most people ask to have notes paid in gold instead of in
silver? Why was it necessary for the government to pay whichever
was demanded? Explain the two ways in which a bill may become
law without a president’s signature. Give reasons for the financial
distress during Cleveland’s term. Give reasons in favor of the United
States interfering in Cuba; reasons against it. Describe the gold fields
of Alaska. Write an account of Cleveland’s life.
8. Describe the great steel trust. What were the causes of the War
TOPICS FOR STUDY
xxv
with Spain? its results? Give a history of the Philippines from their
discovery by Magellan to the present time.
9. Name the chief territorial acquirements of the United States and
tell how each was gained. Why did the world’s population increase in
the nineteenth century more rapidly than ever before? Tell some of the
causes of the growth of cities. Why has America grown more rapidly
in population than other countries? Give an account of the chief labor-
saving inventions of the nineteenth century. Tell ways in which laws
and customs changed during the century. In what ways has country
life improved ? Why are most of cur cities worse governed than our
counties and states? Describe and explain the rapid improvement of
the South after the War of Secession. Describe the advance in edu¬
cation during the nineteenth century. Name the chief American authors
of the first third of the nineteenth century ; of the second third; of the
last third. Name a famous American scientist; an artist; an architect;
a musician; tell something about each. Why has America more im¬
migrants than emigrants ? From what country did your ancestors come ?
Why did they come to America? Name some problems before the
United States at the end of the nineteenth century.
10. How many presidents have been murdered ? Write an account
of McKinley’s life. Tell about the need and value of forest reserves.
Give an account of the Panama Canal.
11. Tell some ways in which railroads are regulated by the general
government. Why are rate laws passed by states instead of by the
general government ? Give an account of the anti-liquor movement.
Compare a ‘wet’ town with a ‘dry’ one. Name some germ diseases.
In what way can they be checked and destroyed ? Compare the out¬
break of yellow fever in Philadelphia in 1793 with that in New Orleans
in 1905. In what ways can tuberculosis be prevented ? How can it be
cured in its early stages ? Tell some of our health duties to ourselves
and to others.
12. Give a history of the tariff from 1792 to the present time. Is
the present tariff a benefit or an injury to your family ? to your neigh¬
borhood ? to your state ? to the United States ?
Exercises
1. Resolved: that Congress had no right to make laws for the
southern states while they were not represented in it. Write a letter
from a southern man describing his home in 1865. Collect pictures of
Alaska, — scenery, products, and people.
XXVI
TOPICS FOR STUDY
2. Resolved; that all disputes between nations ought to be settled
by arbitration. Describe a journey across the continent on the Union
Pacific Railroad soon after it was completed. Write a story describing
a child’s escape from the Chicago fire. Write a letter from a woman
telling her reasons for joining the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union.
3. Resolved: that labor organizations are a benefit to a country.
Write a dialogue between a union and a non-union workman, each
explaining and defending his position. Draw a picture of Eads’s jetties.
4. Resolved: that all civil service appointments should be governed
by the merit system. Describe the changes after election in a govern¬
ment office, under the spoils system. Write a story about an old
man’s first conversation over the telephone; illustrate the story with
drawings.
5. Resolved: that the general government does right in excluding
paupers and illiterate immigrants. Describe the immigrants landing in
New York in one day, illustrating the sketch with pictures.
6. Resolved: that the suffrage should be given to women. Write a
letter, purporting to be from an Oklahoma settler, describing his ride to
take up a claim. Hold an election for class president, vice president,
and secretary, using the Australian ballot system and marking the
ballots properly.
7. Describe work in a coal mine and a strike there. Collect pictures
of Hawaii, illustrating scenery, products, and native life. Write in
journal form an account of a miner’s trip to Alaska.
8. Resolved: that trusts ought to be prohibited by law. Write a
letter purporting to be from one of Roosevelt’s Rough Riders, describ¬
ing army life in Cuba. Collect pictures to illustrate Cuban and Philip¬
pine life.
9. Resolved: that the force of electricity is more useful to man than
that of steam. Make drawings of ten labor-saving inventions used by
your family or friends. Write an account of a family’s attempt to do
for one day without the labor-saving inventions of the last half century.
Write a dialogue between a city and a country boy, each describing the
advantages of his home. Describe a day in your school; compare it
with a day in an American school a hundred years ago. Read three
American books of the nineteenth century and write an account of the
one you like best. Make a picture gallery of American authors of the
nineteenth century ; of American statesmen ; of American generals.
10. Describe a visit to a western forest reserve ; illustrate the sketch
with pictures. Give an account of a day’s work on the Panama Canal.
TOPICS FOR STUDY
XXVll
11 . Resolved: that all ocean vessels ought to be equipped for wire¬
less telegraphy. Describe the war on tuberculosis in a city, such as
New York; illustrate the sketch with drawings.
12. Make a list of things used in your family, the price of which is
affected by tariff rates. Collect portraits of all the presidents from
Washington to Wilson and tell one noteworthy fact about each. Make
a list of reasons why you are glad that you are an American.
Suggested Readings
Speech on Reconstruction by Thaddeus Stevens : December 18,1865 ;
‘‘The Stricken South to the North ” by P. H. Hayne; speech on Civil
Service Reform by Carl Schurz: December 12, 1894; Shame of the
Cities by Lincoln Steffens; ‘‘Cuba Libre” by Joaquin Miller; “Word
of the Lord from Havana” by Richard Hovey; Old Creole Days by G.
W. Cable ; In Ole Virginia , and Red Rock by Thomas Nelson Page;
Uncle Remus stories by J. C. Harris; In the Tennessee Mountains by
‘Charles Egbert Craddock’; “Ship of State” by H. W. Longfellow;
“ Gone Forward ” by Margaret J. Preston ; Up from Slavery by Booker
Washington; “Centennial Hymn” by J. G. Whittier; How the Other
Half Lives, and Children of the Poor by J. A. Riis ; Ramona by H. H.
Jackson ; Panama: the Canal , the Country , and the People by A. Bul¬
lard ; “ Song of the Flags ” by S. Weir Mitchell; “ Grover Cleveland”
by Joel Benton; “Unguarded Gates” by T. B. Aldrich; “Makers of
the Flag” by Franklin Lane.
Picture List
Cowboy Mounting, and Lost in a Blizzard by Borglum; pictures of
American authors and their homes; works of art by Americans, espe¬
cially portrait of his Mother and other pictures by J. McNeil Whistler;
Cumaean Sybil and other pictures by Elihu Vedder; Christmas Chimes
and other pictures by Blashfield; and the Puritan, Lincoln, Grief, and
other statues by Augustus St. Gaudens.
LIST OF BOOKS
FOR REFERENCE AND TEACHER’S USE
Those marked with asterisk form a brief, comprehensive school
library at moderate cost.
Most of the contemporary accounts in the lists of Suggested Readings
are published, in inexpensive forms, in Hart’s Source Book of American
History , Hart’s American History Told by Contemporaries , the Old
South Leaflets, Channing and Hart’s American History Leaflets , and
similar series.
Aftierican History and its Geographic Co 7 iditions by E. C. Semple
The European Background of American History by Max Fernald
Story of the American India 7 is by G. B. Grinnell
* The Discovery of A 7 /ierica by John Fiske
Christopher Columbus by C. R. Markham
John and Sebastian Cabot by C. R. Beazley
* The Colo 7 iies by R. G. Thwaites
Principal Navigations , Volumes 12-16, by Richard Hakluyt
English Colonies in America by J. A. Doyle
A Short History of the English Colo 7 iies in America by H. C. Lodge
Old Virgmia and her Neighbors by John Fiske
Works of John Smith edited by E. Arber
The Begimiings of New England by John Fiske
The Story of the Pilgrims by E. Arber
Dutch and Quaker Colonies by John Fiske
* The Struggle for a Continent by Francis Parkman
The American Revolution by John Fiske
The War of Independence by John Fiske
The Federalist Papers
* The Formation of the Unio 7 i by A. B. Hart
George Washington by Woodrow Wilson
Franklin’s Autobiography
The Ma 7 iy-sided Franklin by Paul Leicester Ford
Daniel Boone by R. G. Th waites
xxviii
LIST OF BOOKS
xxix
The Winning of the West by Theodore Roosevelt
Industrial History of the United States by Katherine Coman
History of Literature in America by Wendell and Greenough
Thot?ias Jefferson by James Schouler
* Division and Reunion by Woodrow Wilson
Henry Clay by Carl Schurz
John C. Calhoun by H. E. von Holst
Daniel Webster by H. C. Lodge
Battles and Leaders of the Civil War published by the Century Co.
Bird's Eye View of our Civil War by T. A. Dodge
Abraham Lincoln by J. T. Morse
Robert E. Lee by W. P. Trent
Robert E. Lee , Man and Soldier by Thomas Nelson Page
Confederate Portraits by Gamaliel Bradford
Photographic History of the Civil War
Twenty Years in Congress by J. G. Blaine
Thirty Years in the Senate by Thomas H. Benton
The New South and Other Addresses by Henry Grady
* History of the American People by Woodrow Wilson
The American Commonwealth by James Bryce
The State by Woodrow Wilson
CHARTS AND OUTLINES
Some
Eastern
Indians
Some
Western
Tribes
NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
Algonquins
Iroquois
Maskoki
Dakotas
Comanches
Shoshones
Aztecs
Mohegans
Pequots
Narragansetts
Wampanoags
Massachusetts
Delawares
Powhatans
Shawnees
Five Nations
Six Nations
after being
joined by
Senecas
Cavugas
\ Onondagas
Oneidas
l Mohawks
Tuscaroras
( Hurons
Eries
l Cherokees
Seminoles
Creeks
Chocktaws
Chickasaws
XXX
EUROPE IN AMERICA
xxxi
EUROPE IN AMERICA, 1492-1614
For Spain
Columbus
Magellan
Balboa
De Leon
Narvaez
De Soto
Coronado
| For England
Discoverers and Ex- \
plorers
The Cabots
Drake
Gilbert
Ralegh
I Verrazano
Cartier
Champlain
it id * if Cabral
For Portugal \ TT
[ Vespucci
For Holland Hudson
Spanish
f St. Augustine, 1565
[ Santa Fd, 1582
First Settlements in
United States and
Canada
English
French
Jamestown, 1607
Quebec, 1608
Dutch
Manhattan, 1613
XXX11
NEGRO SLAVERY IN AMERICA
NEGRO SLAVERY IN AMERICA
In Spanish Colonies
In English
Colonies
Slaves first imported: i. When ? 2. Whence ?
3. Why ? 4. By whom ?
English government’s part in slave trade.
Slave and free labor.
How slavery was regarded during sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries.
In the American
Republic
Effect of climate and industries on institution of
slavery.
Ordinance of 1787.
Law of the Constitution about slavery :
1. Counting slaves. 2. Importing slaves.
3. Returning runaway slaves.
Change of opinion about slavery.
Views of statesmen on subject.
Antislavery movement in South.
Effect of cotton gin.
Influence of slavery on: 1. Settlement
2. Labor. 3. Industries.
Louisiana Purchase.
Missouri Compromise.
Admission of states in pairs, free and slave.
Annexation of Texas.
Wilmot Proviso.
Antislavery movement in North: 1. Aboli¬
tionists. 2. Uncle Toni's Cabin. 3. ‘ Under¬
ground railroad. 1 4. Personal liberty laws.
Compromise of 1850.
Kansas-Nebraska Bill.
Dred Scott decision.
John Brown’s raid.
Influence of slavery on secession.
Emancipation Proclamation.
Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amend¬
ments to Constitution.
Slaves 1 conduct during war.
Freedmen during reconstruction period.
Comparison of negroes as slaves and citizens.
LIST OF PRESIDENTS
LIST OF PRESIDENTS
xxxm
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THE UNITED STATES AND ITS POSSESSIONS
xxxiv
THE UNITED STATES
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THE UNITED STATES
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XXXVI
TERRITORY ACQUIRED
TERRITORY ACQUIRED
Louisiana Territory from France, in 1803, for $15,000,000
By Florida Territory from Spain, in 1821, for $5,000,000
Purchase j Gadsden Purchase from Mexico, in 1853, for $10,000,000
Alaska from Russia, in 1867, for $7,200,000
By Annexation
Texas, in 1845
Hawaii, in 1898
By War
Mexican cession, in 1848, for $15,500,000
Porto Rico and Guam from Spain, in 1899
Philippines from Spain, in 1899, for $20,000,000
IMPORTANT DATES IN AMERICAN HISTORY xxxvii
IMPORTANT DATES IN AMERICAN HISTORY
1492. The New World discovered by Columbus.
1497. The continent of North America discovered by Cabot.
1565. The first permanent settlement in the United States made by Spaniards
at St. Augustine, Florida.
1607. The first permanent English settlement in the United States
made at Jamestown, Virginia.
{ Representative government established in the English colony of
Virginia.
Slavery introduced into the English colony of Virginia.
1620. The second permanent English settlement established at Plymouth,
Massachusetts.
1636. The first college in the United States founded at Harvard, Mass.
1664. The English seized New Netherland.
1 733 - Georgia, the last of the thirteen British colonies, founded.
1759. Capture of Quebec.
1763. Peace of Paris, ceding to the British the French possessions in America.
1765. Parliament passed the Stamp Act.
x 775-i78i. War of the Revolution.
1775. Battle of Bunker Hill.
1776. Declaration of Independence.
1781. Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown.
1783. Treaty of Paris, making peace between the United States and Great
Britain.
1787. Constitution of the United States drawn up by convention.
1789. Washington inaugurated first president of the United States.
1792. Whitney invented the cotton gin.
1803. Louisiana territory purchased from France.
1807. Fulton’s steamboat made a successful trip.
1812-1815. War with Great Britain.
1813. Battle of Lake Erie.
1814. Battle of Lake Champlain
1815. Battle of New Orleans.
1820. Missouri Compromise between free and slave states.
1823. Monroe Doctrine announced.
1844. First telegraph line established by Morse.
1846-1848. War with Mexico.
1846. Battle of Buena Vista.
1847. March to Mexico.
1848. Mexican cession of territory.
1850. Compromise of 1850 between free and slave states.
1861-1865. War of Secession.
1862. Monitor and Merrimac fight, the first battle between
iron-clad vessels.
1863. Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation.
Battle of Gettysburg.
Surrender of Vicksburg.
1865. Lee surrendered at Appomattox.
1869. First transcontinental railway completed.
1898. War with Spain.
Battle of Manila.
Defeat of Cervera’s fleet at Santiago de Cuba.
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE
In Congress , July 4., 177b,
The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States
of America
When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one
people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with
another, and to assume among the Powers of the earth, the separate
and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God
entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that
they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created
equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable
Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happi¬
ness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among
Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.
That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these
ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to insti¬
tute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and
organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely
to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate
that Governments long established should not be changed for light
and transient causes ; and accordingly all experience hath shown, that
mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to
right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed.
But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably
the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Des¬
potism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government,
and to provide new Guards for their future security. — Such has been
the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity
which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government.
The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated
injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment
of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be
submitted to a candid world.
xxxviii
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE
xxxix
He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and neces¬
sary for the public good.
He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and
pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent
should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected
to attend to them.
He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large
districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of
Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and
formidable to tyrants only.
He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncom¬
fortable, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, for
the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.
He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing
with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.
He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others
to be elected; whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihila¬
tion, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State
remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from
without, and convulsions within.
He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States ; for
that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners;
refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising
the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.
He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his
Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers.
He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of
their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.
He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms
of Officers to harass our People, and eat out their substance.
He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without
the Consent of our legislature.
He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior
to the Civil Tower.
Pie has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign
to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his
Assent to their acts of pretended legislation:
For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:
For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from Punishment for any
Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:
For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:
For imposing taxes on us without our Consent:
For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury;
xl
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE
For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:
For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring
Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging
its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument
for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies:
For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws,
and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:
For suspending our own Legislature, and declaring themselves in¬
vested with Power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.
He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Pro¬
tection and waging War against us.
He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and
destroyed the lives of our people.
He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to
com pleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun
with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most
barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.
He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high
Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners
of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.
He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeav¬
oured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian
Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction
of all ages, sexes and conditions.
In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress
in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered
only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by
every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free
People.
Nor have We been wanting in attention to our Brittish brethren. We
have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to
extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them
of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have
appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured
them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations,
which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence.
They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity.
We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our
Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies
in War, in Peace Friends.
We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America,
in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of
the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE
xli
Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and
declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free
and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to
the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and
the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and
that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War,
conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all
other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do.
And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the
Protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our
Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.
JOHN HANCOCK.
New Hampshire — Josiah Bartlett, Wm. Whipple, Matthew
Thornton.
Massachusetts Bay — Saml. Adams, John Adams, Robt. Treat
Paine, Elbridge Gerry.
Rhode Island —Step. Hopkins, William Ellery.
Connecticut — Roger Sherman, Sam’el Huntington, Wm. Will¬
iams, Oliver Wolcott.
New York — Wm. Floyd, Phil. Livingston, Frans. Lewis, Lewis
Morris.
New Jersey — Richd. Stockton, Jno. Witherspoon, Fras. Hop-
kinson, John Hart, Abra. Clark.
Pennsylvania — Robt. Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benja. Frank¬
lin, John Morton, Geo. Clymer, Jas. Smith, Geo. Taylor, James
Wilson, Geo. Ross.
Delaware — Oesar Rodney, Geo. Read, Tho. M’Kean.
Maryland— Samuel Chase, Wm. Paca, Thos. Stone, Charles
Carroll of Carrollton.
Virginia— George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Th. Jefferson,
Benja. Harrison, Thos. Nelson, jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee,
Carter Braxton.
North Carolina— Wm. Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn.
South Carolina — Edward Rutledge, Thos. Heyward, Junr.,
Thomas Lynch, Junr., Arthur Middleton.
Georgia — Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, Geo. Walton . 1
1 This arrangement of the names is made for convenience. The
states are not mentioned in the original.
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED
STATES OF AMERICA 1
We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more per¬
fect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquillity, provide for
the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the
Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and
establish this Constitution for the United States of America.
Article. I.
Section, i. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in
a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and
House of Representatives.
Section. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of
Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States,
and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for
Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature.
No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to
the Age of twenty-five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the
United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of
that State in which he shall be chosen.
Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the
several States which may be included within this Union, according
to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to
the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service
for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all
other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within three
Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and
1 Reprinted from the text issued by the State Department,
xlii
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xliii
within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they
shall by Law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed
one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one
Representative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of
New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight,
Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New-
York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Mary¬
land six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and
Georgia three.
When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the
Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such
Vacancies.
The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other
Officers; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment.
Section. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed
of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for
six Years; and each Senator shall have one Vote.
Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the
first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three
Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated
at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expira¬
tion of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the
sixth Year, so that one third may be chosen every second Year; and if
Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of
the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make tempo¬
rary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which
shall then fill such Vacancies.
No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the
A^e of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States,
and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for
which he shall be chosen.
The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the
Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided.
The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President
pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall
exercise the Office of President of the United States.
The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments.
When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation.
When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice
xliv CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES
shall preside: And no Person shall be convicted without the Concur¬
rence of two thirds of the Members present.
Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than
to removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any
Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States : but the Party
convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial,
Judgment and Punishment, according to law.
Section. 4. The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections
for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by
the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make
or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of chusing Senators.
The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such
Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall
by Law appoint a different Day.
Section. 5. Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections,
Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of
each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller Number
may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the
Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penal¬
ties as each House may provide.
Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, Punish
its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of
two thirds, expel a member.
Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from
time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their
Judgment require Secrecy; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of
either House on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those
Present, be entered on the Journal.
Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the
Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any
other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting.
Section. 6 . The Senators and Representatives shall receive a
Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid
out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases,
except Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from
Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective
Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any
Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any
other Place.
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xlv
No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he
was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of
the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments
whereof shall have been encreased during such time; and no Person
holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either
House during his Continuance in Office.
Section. 7. All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the
House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur
with Amendments as on other Bills.
Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives
and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the
President of the United States; If he approve he shall sign it, but
if not he shall return it, with his Objections, to that House in which it
shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their
Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two
thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together
with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be
reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall
become a law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall
be determined by Yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting
for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House
respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within
ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him,
the same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless
the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case
it shall not be a Law.
Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the
Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a
question of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the
United States^; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved
by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds
of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and
Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill.
Section. 8. The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect
Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for
the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States; but all
Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United
States;
To borrow Money on the credit of the United States;
xlvi CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES
To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several
States, and with the Indian Tribes;
To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws
on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States ;
To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and
fix the Standard of Weights and Measures ;
To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the securities and
current Coin of the United States;
To establish Post Offices and post Roads;
To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing
for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to
their respective Writings and Discoveries;
To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court;
To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high
Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations;
To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make
Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water;
To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that
Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years;
To provide and maintain a Navy;
To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and
naval F orces;
To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the
Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions;
To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and
for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service
of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appoint¬
ment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according
to the discipline prescribed by Congress;
To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over
such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of
particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of
the Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority
over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the
State in which the same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines,
Arsenals, dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings ; — And
To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying
into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by
this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any
Department or Officer thereof.
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xlvii
Section. 9. The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any
of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be pro¬
hibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred
and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not
exceeding ten dollars for each Person.
The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended,
unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may
require it.
No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed.
No Capitation, or other direct, Tax, shall be laid, unless in Propor¬
tion to the Census or Enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken.
No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State.
No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or
Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another: nor shall
Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay
Duties in another.
No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence
of Appropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account
of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be pub¬
lished from time to time.
No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no
Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, with¬
out the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument,
Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or for¬
eign State.
Section. 10. No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or
Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money;
emit Bills of Credit; make any thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender
in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law
or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of
Nobility.
No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Im¬
posts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely
necessary for executing its inspection Laws: and the net Produce of all
Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be
for the Use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such Laws
shall be subject to the Revision and Controul of the Congress.
No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of
Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into
xlviii CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES
any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power,
or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger
as will not admit of Delay.
Article. II
Section, i. The executive Power shall be vested in a President
of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the
Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for
the same Term, be elected, as follows
Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof
may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of
Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in
the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an
Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed
an Elector.
The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by
Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabit¬
ant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of
all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each ; which
List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of
the Government of the United States, directed to the President of
the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the
Senate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the
Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number
of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the
whole Number of Electors appointed; and if there be more than one
who have such Majority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the
House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of
them for President; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the
five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the
President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by
States, the Representation from each State having one Vote; A quo¬
rum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two
thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be neces¬
sary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the
Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be
the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have
equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice
President.
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xlix
The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and
the Day on which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be the
same throughout the United States.
No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United
States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligi¬
ble to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to
that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty-five Years,
and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States.
In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his
Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of
the said Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the
Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resig¬
nation or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring
what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act
accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be
elected.
The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a
Compensation, which shall neither be Increased nor diminished during
the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive
within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any
of them.
Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the fol¬
lowing Oath or Affirmation: —
“ I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the
Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my
Ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United
States.”
Section. 2. The President shall be Commander in Chief of the
Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several
States, when called into the actual Service of the United States; he
may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of
the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of
their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and
Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of
Impeachment.
He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the
Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present
concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Con¬
sent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers
1
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES
and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of
the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise pro¬
vided for, and which shall be established by Law: but the Congress
may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think
proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of
Departments.
The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may
happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions
which shall expire at the End of their next Session.
Section. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress Infor¬
mation of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Considera¬
tion such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he
may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of
them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the
Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall
think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Minis¬
ters ; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall
Commission all the Officers of the United States.
Section. 4. The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of
the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for,
and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misde¬
meanors.
Article. Ill
Section, i . The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested
in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress
may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of
the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good
Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Com¬
pensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in
Office.
Section. 2. The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law
and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United
States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Author¬
ity;— to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and
Consuls ; — to all Cases of admiralty and maritime J urisdiction ; — to
Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party; —to Con¬
troversies between two or more States; — between a State and Citizens
of another State ; — between Citizens of different States, — between
Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES
li
States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States,
Citizens, or subjects.
In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Con¬
suls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court
shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned
the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and
Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress
shall make.
The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be
by Jury ; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes
shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State,
the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law
have directed.
Section. 3. Treason against the United States, shall consist only
in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving
them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason
unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on
Confession in open Court.
The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of
Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood,
or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted.
Article. IV
Section, i. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to
the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State.
And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in
which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the
effect thereof.
Section. 2. The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all
Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States.
A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other
Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall
on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled,
be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the
Crime.
No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws
thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or
Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall
lii
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES
be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour
may be due.
Section. 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress into
this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the
Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junc¬
tion of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of
the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress.
The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all need¬
ful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property
belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall
be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or
of any particular State.
Section. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this
Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them
against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the
Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic
Violence.
Article. V
The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it
necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the
Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall
call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either case,
shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes as part of this Constitution,
when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States,
or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other
Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; Provided that
no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year one thousand
eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth
Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article; and that no State,
without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the
Senate.
Article. VI
All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the
Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United
States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation.
This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall
be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be
made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES liii
Law of the land ; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby,
any thing in the Constitution or laws of any State to the Contrary not¬
withstanding.
The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the
Members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judi¬
cial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall
be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no
religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or
public Trust under the United States.
Article. VII
The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient
for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so rati¬
fying the Same.
THE AMENDMENTS
I
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion,
or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of
speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assem¬
ble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.
II
A well-regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free
State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be
infringed.
III
No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without
the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be
prescribed by law.
IV
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers,
and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be
violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, sup¬
ported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to
be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.
liv CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES
V
No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous
crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in
cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in
actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person
be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or
limb; nor shall be compelled in any Criminal Case to be witness
against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without
due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use,
without just compensation.
VI
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a
speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district
wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have
been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature
and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses
against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining Witnesses in
his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.
VII
In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed
twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no
fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the
United States, than according to the rules of the common law.
VIII
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed,
nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
IX
The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be
construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.
X
The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution
nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respec¬
tively, or to the people.
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES lv
XI
The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to
extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against
one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or
Subjects of any Foreign State.
XII
The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot
for President and Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall not be
an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in
their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots
the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct
lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for
as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists
they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the gov¬
ernment of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate;
— The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and
House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall
then be counted ; — The person having the greatest number of votes for
President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the
whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have such
majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not
exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House
of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President.
But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the
representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this
purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the
states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice.
And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President
whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the
fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act
as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional dis¬
ability of the President. The person having the greatest number of
votes as Vice-President, shall be Vice-President, if such number be a
majority of the whole number of electors appointed, and if no person
have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the
Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose
shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and a
lvi
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES
majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no
person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be
eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States.
XIII
Section i. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a
punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted,
shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their juris¬
diction.
Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by
appropriate legislation.
XIV
Section i. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and
subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and
of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any
law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the
United States: nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty,
or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within
its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.
Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several
states according to their respective numbers, counting the whole num¬
ber of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when
the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President
and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress,
the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the
Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such
State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States,
or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other
crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the pro¬
portion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole
number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.
Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Con¬
gress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office,
civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who,
having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an
officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature,
or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Con¬
stitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES lvii
rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies
thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House,
remove such disability.
Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States,
authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions
and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall
not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall
assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or
rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or eman¬
cipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall
be held illegal and void.
Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appro¬
priate legislation, the provisions of this article.
XV
Section i. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall
not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on
account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article
by appropriate legislation.
XVI
The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes,
from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the
several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration.
XVII
Section i. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of
two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six
years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each
State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most
numerous branch of the State Legislatures.
Section 2. When vacancies happen in the representation of any
State in the Senate, the executive authority of said State shall issue
writs of election to fill such vacancies: Provided, that the Legislature
of any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary
appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the
Legislature may direct.
Section 3. This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect
the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as a
part of the Constitution.
*
INDEX
For convenience in reference and topical study, this history is fully indexed,
with cross references.
Ab'bey, Edwin, 386.
‘ABC’ conference, 415.
A ber crom'bie, General, 118.
Ab o li'tion ists, 191, 266, 267, 270,
271, 272.
Aca'dia, 106, 108, 113, 117, 118,
244.
Acts of Trade, see trade laws.
Ad'ams, President John, 146, 193-
195, 206, 208, 236, 237, 243.
Adams, President John Quincy,
236-241, 246.
Adams, Samuel, 126, 127, 132, 135,
173, 180.
Ad'dams, Jane, 414.
ado'be, 7.
Ad vi'so ry Board, see Federal Ad¬
visory Board.
Af'ri ca, 17, 25, 28, 48, 54, 227.
Ag'as siz, Louis, 276, 384.
agricultural education, 379, 404.
plants, American, 38.
agriculture, 7, 10, 35, 52, 53, 54, 64,
65, 81, 82, 92, 93, 102, 111, 112,
190,197, 198, 199, 201, 268, 288,
330, 351, 363, 379, 380, 381, 392,
396, 404.
inventions affecting, 190, 201, 248,
379, 381.
Agriculture, Department of, 379.
A gui nal'do, 376.
air travel, 406, 417.
A1 a ba'ma, 231, 233, 280, 284, 296,
373, 388.
Alabama , cruiser, 293, 342.
Alabama Claims, 341, 342.
Al'a mance, battle of, 132.
Al'a mf), 255.
A Ios'ka, 233, 253, 254, 338, 367,
368, 375, 377, 388.
Al ba ny, 153, 215, 238.
Al'be marie settlement, 81, 95.
Albemarle Sound, 81.
Al'gfers, 210, 227.
Algon'quin (kin) Indians, 11, 39,
41, 50, 105, 106.
Al'ien Act, 194, 195, 241, 245, 281.
Al'legfteny Mountains, 103, 105,
114, 123, 161, 192, 199, 230.
Allegheny River, 114, 116.
Amendments to the Constitution,
177, 180, 183.
Fifteenth, 339, 310.
first ten, 184.
Fourteenth, 336, 337, 340.
Seventeenth, 412.
Sixteenth, 412.
Thirteenth, 328, 333, 335, 337,340.
Twelfth, 195.
A mer' i ca, see North America and
South America.
America, origin of name, 25.
American party, 272.
American republic, 175-263.
A me ri' go Yes puc' ci (poot che),
see Vespucci.
Am' fterst, 119.
A' mund sen, Roald, 405.
an aes thet' ics, discovery of, 267.
an'ar chists, 357, 390.
Ap' derson, Major Robert, 286.
An' dr6, Major John, or An dri , 166.
An' dros, Sir Edmund, 89, 90.
animals of North America, 4, 5.
annexation, of Hawaii, 365, 375, 377.
of Texas, 255, 256, 259, 377.
| An tie' tarn, battle of, 307, 308.
An' ti-Fed' er al ists, 180.
anti-liquor laws, 111, 257, 346, 398,
399.
Anti-rent Riots, 253.
I Anti-Saloon League, 399.
lix
lx
INDEX
Anti-slavery party, 267.
anti-slavery societies, 191, 266.
anti-trust laws, 360, 396, 401, 408,
412.
Appalach'i an Mountains, 2, 4, 135,
214, 291, 315.
Appomat'tox, surrender at, 327.
arbitration, 342, 343, 365, 366, 376,
391, 407.
treaties, 407, 415.
architecture, 96, 202, 347, 387.
Argentina, 415.
ar'id region, 3, 4, 251, 265, 392.
Ar i zo'na, 8, 29, 263, 274, 407, 413.
Arkansas, 209, 247, 287, 296, 314.
Arkansas River, 103.
Ar'ling ton, 416.
Arma/da, Spanish, 34, 38, 41, 44.
Army of Northern Virginia, 319.
of the Potomac, 312, 319.
Ar'nold, Benedict, 144, 154, 155,
. 164, 165, 166, 169.
art, 202, 234, 347, 386, 387.
Ar'thur, Chester A., 352-354.
Articles of Confederation, 172, 177.
A'sia(shia), 14, 15, 17, 20, 103,
375.
Assembly, First General, at James¬
town, 53, 54, 398.
At lan'ta, 322, 323, 365.
At lan'tic cable, 274.
Ocean, 22, 23, 105, 106, 238, 380,
392.
Azt'dubon, John James, 277, 384.
Australian ballot system, 360, 361.
Aws'tri a, 417.
authors, American, 99, 135, 204,
205, 274-277, 385, 386.
a vi a'tion, 406.
‘back lands,’ 172, 173.
Ba'con, Nathaniel, 83, 84.
Bacon’s Rebellion, 83, 84.
Ba ha'ma Islands, 22.
balance of power between sections,
232, 263, 277.
Bal bo'a, 26, 32.
ballot, 336, 360. See also suffrage,
voters and voting.
Baltimore, first Lord, 74, 75.
second Lord, 75, 76, 78, 88.
Bal'ti more, Maryland, 223, 256.
Ban'croft, George, 276, 385.
Bank of United States, 185, 226,
240, 247, 251, 252.
banks, national, 330, 411.
reserve, 411.
state, 247, 411.
barbarous Indians, 8-12.
Bar'bary States, war with, 210,
211, 220, 227.
Par'nard, Henry, 257.
Bar'ry, John, 143, 144.
Bar'ton, Clara, 413.
4 battle above the clouds,’ 318.
‘ battle of the boys,’ 320.
Bay Psalm Book , 98.
Bear Flag Republic, 261.
Beau're gard (bo), General P. G. T.,
262, 291, 297.
beginnings of American history,
1-35.
Be'mis’s Heights, 155.
Ben'ning ton, battle of, 153.
Berkeley, Lord John, 81.
Berkeley, Sir William, 83, 84.
4 big business,’ see trusts.
Big Horn River, 347.
‘Billion Dollar Congress,’ 361.
Bill of Rights, 145.
bi'son or buffalo, 5, 30, 213, 214.
Blackbeard-, pirate, 107.
Black Hawk War, 244.
Black Hills, 347.
Bland Silver Act, 350, 360.
blockade, 224, 290, 300, 308, 309,
318.
runners, 300, 324.
blockhouses, 65, 96.
4 bloody angle,’ 320.
4 Bloody Monday,’ 279.
Blue Ridge Mountains, 109.
Board of Trade, 90.
Board'man, Mabel, 413.
Bonaparte, see Napoleon.
Bon Homme Bichard (bo nom'
r8shar'), ship, 162.
Boone, Daniel, 136.
Booth, John Wilkes, 332.
border states in War of Secession,
287.
Bos'ton, 62, 66, 99, 132, 133, 134,
137,138, 139, 141, 142, 143, 144,
145, 199, 204, 210, 293, 343, 345.
4 Boston Massacre,’ 132.
Boston Port Bill, 133, 134.
INDEX
lxi
‘ Boston Tea Party,’ 133.
boundary, Confederate, 291.
disputes about, 233, 253, 254,
259, 271, 338, 369.
Bow quet'(ka), Colonel Henry, 123.
Box'ers, 376.
Br£d'dock, General Edward, 116,
117.
Braddock's defeat, 116, 117.
Bradford, William, 99.
Br&gg, General Braxton, 261, 315,
317, 318, 322.
Bran'dy wine, battle of, 155, 156,
158, 229.
Brant, Joseph, 153.
Brat'tle bo ro, 61.
‘ brave,’ 9, 244.
Bra zil', 415.
bread riots, 250.
Breed’s Hill, 141, 142.
British East India Company, 133.
British Guiana, see Guiana.
Brock, General Isaac, 218.
‘ Brothers of the Coast,’ 106.
Brown, General Jacob, 222.
Brown, John, 278. See John
Brown's raid.
Bry'an, William Jennings, 369, 376,
400, 415.
Bry'ant, William Cullen. 205, 235,
274, 385.
Bnch an'an, James, 273-285.
Bu'ell, General Don Carlos, 294,
297.
Bue'na Vis ta, battle of, 261.
buffalo, see bison.
roads, 213, 214.
Buffalo, New York, 238, 355, 390.
Bull Run, see Manassas.
Bun'ker Hill, 141.
battle of, 141, 142, 150, 233.
Bur'gess es, House of, see House of
Burgesses.
Burgoyne', General John, 140. 153,
154, 155, 156, 172.
Burke, Edmund, 130.
Burn'side, General Ambrose, 308,
312.
Bftrr, Aaron, 195.
Bush'y Run, battle of, 123.
Bht'ler, General Benjamin F., 300,
310.
Byrd, Colonel William, 204.
Cabinet, president’s, 184, 242, 379,
395.
Ca'ble, George W., 386.
Cab'ot, John, 18, 23, 24, 35, 74.
Cabot, Sebastian, 24.
Cal hown', John C., 227, 228, 240,
241, 246, 247, 267, 268, 269.
California, 33, 261, 263, 265, 266,
269, 272, 274. 347, 367, 399,
413.
C&l'vert, Cecil, see Baltimore, sec¬
ond Lord.
Calvert, George, see Baltimore, first
Lord.
Calvert, Leonard, 75.
Cambridge, Massachusetts, 142.
Cam'den, battle of, 164.
campaign of 1777, 152-158.
‘camps of concentration,’ 366.
Can'ada, 31, 47, 102, 103, 113, 122,
144, 145, 153, 173, 209, 217,
218, 221, 222, 223, 253, 267, 293.
canals, 240, 405. See also Erie
Canal and Panama Canal.
Canal Zone, 394.
canoes, 8.
capital and labor, contests between,
350, 351, 389, 391.
capital of United States, 183, 206.
car'a vels of Columbus, 20.
Carneg'ie, Andrew, 389.
Car o la'na, 31, 81.
Car o li'na, 81, 82, 95, 105, 110. See
North Carolina and South Car¬
olina.
Car'olus, 81.
carpetbaggers, 340, 341.
carpetbag governments, 340, 341,
346, 348, 349.
Car'teret, Sir George, 81.
Cartier' (tya), Jacques (zhak), 30,
31.
Ca taw'ba River, 168.
Cathay', 15, 19, 22.
caucus, 126.
Cem'e tery Ridge, 313.
census, 131, 196, 199, 351, 378, 402,
403. See also population.
Cen tSn ni al Exhibition of 1876, 346,
347.
Cer'ro GCr'do, battle of, 262.
Cerve'ra (ther), Admiral Pascual,
372, 374.
lxii
INDEX
Cham'bers burg, Pennsylvania, 322.
Champlain', Samuel cle, 39, 41, 50,
105.
Champlain, Lake, 41, 116, 145, 153,
218, 221, 223.
Ch&n'cel lors ville, battle of, 312, 319.
changes made in North America by
man, 5.
Chapul te pec', battle of, 262.
Charles I., king of England, 62, 63,
67, 76, 77, 128.
Charles II., king of England, 78, 80,
81, 84, 86, 89.
Charles IX., king of France, 31. 81.
Charles River, 62.
Oharles'ton, South Carolina, 82, 108,
133, 148, 149, 150, 163, 169. 199,
246, 286, 292, 324, 325.
Charles'town Heights, 141.
charter colonies, 114.
charter oak, 90.
charters, of colonies, 63, 55, 62, 63,
67, 71, 76, 79, 86, 89, 90.
Chase, Salmon P., 270.
Chase, William, 287.
Chat'ham, Earl of, see Pitt.
Chat ta noo'ga, 296, 298, 315, 317,
318, 322.
Cher'o kee Indians, 244.
Cher'ry Valley, 159.
Ches'apeake, frigate, 220.
Chesapeake Bay, 43, 46, 154, 170,
290, 302.
ghi ca'go, 345, 364, 365, 381, 392.
Chick a hom'i ny River, 303.
Chick a maw'ga, battle of, 315.
Valley, 317.
chief, Indian, 11.
Children’s Bureau, 414.
Chl'le, 415.
Chil'koot Pass, 368.
Chi'na, 15, 271, 376, 415.
Chinese immigrants excluded, 356.
Chlp'pe wa, battle of, 222.
Chris ti'na fort, 74.
church at Jamestown 44, 56.
Church of England, 57, 58, 74, 76,
77, 78.
Church'ill, Winston, 386
Chy rubus'co, battle of, 262.
gi p&n'go, 15, 19.
cities, 197, 344, 345, 360, 378, 379,
403.
cities, growth of, 344, 378, 403, 412,
413, 414.
civil service reform, 353, 355.
clan, Indian, 11.
Clark, George Rogers, 159, 160, 161,
173.
Clark, William, 210.
Clay, Henry, 227, 228, 236, 246, 247,
256, 268, 269, 270.
Clay'borne, William, 75, 78.
Clay'ton Anti-trust Bill, 412.
Clem'ens, Samuel (‘ Mark Twain ‘),
386.
Cler'mbnt , steamboat, 215.
Cleveland, President Grover, 35lr-
358, 361, 362-369, 370.
climate of North America, 3, 4.
Clin'ton, Sir Henry, 140, 156, 158,
159, 164, 170, 172.
coal, 4, 95, 274, 338, 363, 379,
391.
coast line of North America, 1, 2.
coins and coinage, 53, 78, 86, 178,
184, 329, 344, 350, 351, 362,
369.
Cold Harbor, battle of, 321.
colleges, 66, 98, 203, 383.
colonial assemblies, 53, 54, 100, 124,
126.
discontent, 124-136.
growth, 76-82, 110.
life, 91-101.
trade, 124, 125, 131.
colonies, American, in 1608, 47.
at end of seventeenth centurv,
91-101.
to states, 124-174.
Col 6 ratio, 209, 263, 274, 347, 404,
413.
Columbia, District of, see District
of Columbia.
Co lum'bi a, South Carolina, 325,
Columbia River, 2, 210.
Colum'bus, Christopher, 18-22, 24,
25, 30, 375.
Commerce, Department of, 395.
commission government, 376, 397,
413, 414"
Committees of Correspondence, 132,
133, 134.
common stock system, 44, 52, 60.
Commons, House of, see House of
Commons.
INDEX
lxiii
Commonwealth, English, 70, 77, 78,
79.
Com'pro mise, Missouri, see Mis¬
souri Compromise.
Compromise of 1833, 240, 253.
Compromise of 1850, 208, 209, 270.
compromises in the Constitution,
179, 180, 389.
Con'cord, fight at, 138, 139.
Con fed'er ate monument at Arling¬
ton, 410, 417.
Confederate states, 284, 287, 290, !
291, 292.
Con fed er a/tion, 172, 175.
Articles of, 172, 177.
Congress, Stamp Act, 128, 129.
Continental, 134, 139, 140, 152,
104, 105, 100, 172.
during reconstruction period, 330,
337, 338, 349.
of United States, 178, 179, 180,
181, 183, 184, 185, 194, 195, 227,
232, 234, 240, 247, 252, 250, 200,
208, 209, 311, 328, 335, 330, 337, *
338, 339, 343, 348, 349, 353, 301, |
302, 303, 371, 370, 392, 400, 402,
412.
powers of, 178, 183, 247, 281, 337, j
338, 349.
Congress, frigate, 301.
Con gres'sion al plan of reconstruc¬
tion, 336, 337, 340.
Con nect'i cut, 68, 71, 79, 89, 90, 98, j
114, 190, 204, 205, 224, 257, 278.
conservation of national resources,
369, 391, 392, 396.
Con stan ti no'ple, taken by Turks,
15.
Constitution of Confederate States,
284.
of United States, 177-181, 184,
185, 195, 204, 205, 207, 231, 239,
240, 244, 245, 247, 207, 269, 270,
271, 278, 280, 281, 283, 284, 310,
311,328,339,343,349,303. See
also Amendments.
Constitution , frigate, 220.
Constitutional convention, 176-
180.
Constitutional Union party, 279.
continent of North America, 1-5.
Con ti nent'al army, 139, 142, 143,
173.
congress, see Congress , Continental.
money, 152, 100.
navy, 143, 144.
contraband of war, 189, 310, 323.
Con tre'ras, battle of, 262.
Convention, Hartford, 224.
of 1787, 176, 177, 180.
Virginia, of 1775, 134.
of 1770, 145.
CSn'way cabal, 167.
cooking stove, invention of, 249.
Coop'er, James Fenimore, 205, 235,
274, 385.
Cop'ley, John, 202.
copper, 274, 343, 379.
Cor dll'le ra Mountains, 2, 4, 262.
Cor'inth, Mississippi, 297, 298.
corn, Indian, 4, 38, 51, 00, 04, 75,
81, 96, 197, 198, 199, 351, 379.
Cornwal'lis, General Charles, 150,
151, 104, 107, 108, 169,170, 172,
173.
Corona'do (tho), 28, 29, 30, 30,
404.
corporations, 350. See also trusts.
cotton, 190, 191, 197, 199, 213, 220,
230, 240. 255, 288, 290, 300, 351,
300, 363. 379, 403, 404, 410, 418.
gin, 190, 191, 201.
Cotton, John, 66.
Cotton States, 280.
coureurs' debois (bwa), 105.
Cow'pens, battle of, 167.
Cra/ter, the, 321.
Cre di£' Mo biZ ier' (ya), 343.
Creek Indians, 217, 244.
War, 244.
‘ Crime of ’73,’ 344.
Cro a toan', 38.
Crom'well, Oliver, 77, 78, 79, 128.
Crown Point, 140.
Cu'ba, 22, 306, 370, 371, 374, 375,
376, 397.
Cu le' bra Cut, 394.
Cum'ber land , frigate, 301.
Cumberland Gap, 238, 291.
River, 294.
Road, 214, 230.
currency, 53, 73, 70, 160, 247, 350,
300, 362, 369, 370, 401, 408, 410.
See also coins and coinage and
paper money.
Curtiss, Glenn, 406.
lxiv
INDEX
Cus'ter, General George A., 347.
cus'toms of eighteenth century, 205.
Czol'gosz (cliol gftsli), Leon, 390.
Da Ga'ma, 25.
Dako'ta, 347, 381. See also North \
Dakota and South Dakota.
Dale, Sir Thomas, 52, 53.
Dan River, 168.
Dan'ville, Virginia, 326.
Dare, Virginia, 38.
‘dark and bloody ground,’ 199.
Darkness, Sea of, 17, 20, 22.
Da'vis, Jefferson, 261. 263, 270, 284,
287, 333.
debt, national, 185. See war debts, j
debtors, laws about, 110, 111, 205. 1
257.
decimal currency, 184.
Declaration of Independence, 146,
172, 237, 238, 346, 388.
Declaration of Neutrality, 189.
Declaration of Rights, 134.
Decrees, French, 211, 216, 217, 229.
De land', Margaret, 386.
De la Salle, see La Salle.
Del 7 a ware, 74, 87, 110, 114, 223.
Delaware Indians, 75.
Delaware, Lord, 51, 52.
Delaware River, 59, 74, 79, 86, 87,
150, 151, 158, 202.
De Leon', Pon'ce (tha), 26.
Demarkation, Line of, 23.
Democratic party, and Democrats,
239, 240, 252, 256, 273, 279, 348,
354, 358, 361, 369, 400.
Democratic-Republican party, 185,
186, 195, 208, 230, 235, 239, 357.
Department, see State , War, Treas¬
ury , etc.
departments of government, 178, 179.
De So'to, Hernando, 28, 29, 36, 404. i
De Tocque'ville (tok'vil), 247.
Detroit', Michigan, 160, 217, 218,
221 , 222 .
De Va'ca, Cabe'za (tha), 28.
Dew'ey, Admiral George, 371, 376.
Dingley Tariff Act, 370, 402.
Dinwld'die, Governor Robert, 114,
115.
Discovery , ship, 43.
dissenters, 68, 69, 76.
District of Columbia, 206, 269.
Dix, Dorothea, 257.
domestic animals, 4, 5, 10, 65, 92.
Don'el son, Fort, 294, 296.
Ddr'chester Heights, 141, 144.
Dorr’s Rebellion, 253.
Doug'las, Stephen A., 272, 280.
Do'ver, New Hampshire, 61.
Downing, A. J., 387.
Draft Acts, 312.
Draft Riots, 312.
Drake, Sir Francis, 32, 33.
Dred Scott case, see Scott.
dress, 96, 201.
dugouts, 8.
Du Quesne' (kan), Fort, 116, 117,
119.
Dutch East India Company, 48, 72.
explorations and settlement, 48-
51, 72-74, 78, 79.
settlers, 73.
West India Company, 72.
Dwight, Timothy, 135.
dy'na mite, 382.
Eads, jetties, 351.
Ear'ly, General Jubal A., 321, 322.
earthquake, California, 399.
earth’s shape, beliefs about, 17, 18,
20 .
East India Company, see British and
Dutch East India Company.
East Jer'sey, 81, 110.
Ed'ison, Thomas A., 384.
education, 56, 66, 97, 203, 237, 238,
w 257, 382, 383, 397.
Ed'wards, Jonathan, 204.
Elastic Clause of Constitution, 185,
240.
El Ca'ney, battle of, 373, 374.
El Do ra'do, 26.
elections, presidential, 182, 195, 235,
236, 252, 256, 272, 273, 279,
347, 348, 354, 358, 361, 369,
376, 396, 400, 408.
Electoral Commission of 1876, 348.
Electoral Count Act, 355, 356.
electricity, uses of, 186, 256, 353,
381, 382, 384.
electric lights, 381.
_ railways, 353, 381.
El'i ot, John, 94, 95.
E liz'a beth, queen of England, 33.
37, 138.
INDEX
lxv
E man ci pa'tion Proclamation, 310,
311, 328.
Em bar'go Act, 212, 213, 226, 229.
Em'erson, Ralph W., 275, 385.
England, 23, 24, 34, 36, 38, 57, 76,
77, 78, 79, 89, 90, 106, 238, 290,
293, 398, 403. See also Great
Britain.
English colonies in America, 36-
101, 102, 105.
English contests with France, 102-
123. See also Great Britain.
English discoveries and explora¬
tions, 23, 24, 36, 37, 38, 41, 42.
Era of good feeling, 230.
Er'ics son, Captain John, 301.
Erie, New York, 114, 222.
Erie, battle of Lake, 222.
Erie Canal, 238.
w Lake, 105, 114, 221, 222.
Er'ik son, Leif, 13.
ether used as anaesthetic, 257.
I?u/rope in the Middle Ages, 14-18.
Europe, wars of early nineteenth
century, 211, 223, 229.
wars of twentieth century, 417,
418.
European ignorance of America, 1,5.
Eu'tavv Springs, battle of, 168.
exchange of prisoners in War of
Secession, 311.
ex ec'u tive department, 178.
expenses of government, 400, 401.
explorations in United States, 28,
29, 30, 35, 102, 103, 404.
explorers, early, 26-35.
exports, 54, 60, 93, 190, 197.
factories, 226, 288, 290, 351.
Fair Oaks, battle of. See Seven
Pines.
families, Indian, 11.
farming, see agriculture.
FSr'ra gut, Commodore David G.,
298, 300, 324, 371.
‘ father of American navy,’ 143.
‘ father of Constitution,’ 177, 215.
Fear, Cape, 42.
federal plan of Constitution, 177.
Federal Advisory Board, 411.
Reserve Act, 410, 411.
Reserve Banks, 411.
Reserve Board, 412.
Federalist, 180, 204.
Federalist party and Federalists,
180, 185, 186, 195, 208, 209, 217,
240, 357.
Federation of Labor, 350.
Fel'lows, A. L., 404.
Fer'di nand, king of Spain, 20.
Fer'gu son, Major Patrick, 166.
Field, Cyrus W., 274.
“ Fifty-four forty or fight,” 254.
Fil i pi'nos, 376.
Fill'more, Millard, 269, 270.
financial affairs, 151, 152, 165, 166,
175, 184, 185, 330, 344, 350,
351, 362, 363. See also debt,
tariff , etc.
firearms, 41, 61, 382, 417.
fish and fisheries, 5, 7, 9, 23, 24, 39,
51, 60, 61, 64, 92, 102, 103.
338, 407.
Fisher, Fort, 324.
Fiske, John, 386.
Fitch, John, 202.
Five Nations, 12, 41, 109.
flag of United States, 153, 154.
flintlock guns, 61, 138.
Flor'i da, 26, 28, 31, 36, 44, 47, 80.
Ill, 122, 233, 244, 254, 280, 348,
349, 377, 392.
Florida Purchase, 233, 377.
flying machines, 406, 417.
food, 44, 45, 46, 60, 64, 65, 75, 91 #
^ 96, 200.
Foote, Commodore Andrew II., 294.
foreign policy of United States, 189,
192, 233, 234.
foreigners aiding Americans in War
of Revolution, 157.
forest reserves, 369, 391, 392, 396.
forests, 4, 5, 82, 392, 396.
forts, French, 108, 109, 112, 113.
Forts : Chris t'i'na, 74.
Crown Point, 140.
Don'el son, 294, 296.
Du Quesne (kan), 116, 117, 119.
E'rie, 222.
Fish'er, 324.
Henry, 294, 296.
Mims, 217.
Mpul'trie, 149, 163.
McHenry, 223, 224.
Ni Hg'a ra, 119.
Ne ^es'si ty, 116.
INDEX
kvi
Forts ( continued):
Oswe'go, 118, 119.
Pitt, 119.
Stan'wix, 153, 154.
Summer, 288, 287.
Ti con de ro'ga, 118, 119, 140,153.
William Henry, 118.
Fortress Mon roe', 301,302, 310, 333.
Forty Niners, 265, 386.
Fountain of Youth, 26.
Fox Indians, 244.
France, 30, 102, 108, 113, 122, 165,
172, 175, 194, 208, 209, 211, 213,
216, 292, 338, 339, 377, 407.
See also French.
franchise,see ballot,votersand voting.
Fran'cis I., king of France, 30.
Frank'lin, Benjamin, 155, 156, 173,
176, 180, 186, 187, 203, 204, 205,
207, 384.
Franklin, state of, 192.
Fred'er icks burg, Virginia, 306, 308,
312, 319.
battle of, 308, 312.
free coinage, 344, 369.
‘free 1 South, 351.
free states, 231, 232, 263, 266, 267,
268, 269, 272, 278.
Freedmen’s Bureau, 336.
freedom of speech, 195.
Free'man, Mary Wilkins, 386.
Fremont', Captain John C., 261.
French alliance with United States,
156, 158, 170.
French and Indian War, see War ,
French and Indian.
French Creek, 114.
French, Daniel C., 387.
French-English contest, 103-123,
196, 277.
French explorers and settlers, 30, 31,
39, 41, 47, 102-105, 108, 109,
113.
in American Revolution, 170.
unfriendly relations with United
States, 188, 193, 194, 211, 213,
216.
French Panama Canal Company,
393, 394.
French republic, 188.
French Revolution, 188, 234.
Freneau' (no), Philip, 135.
friction matches, 248.
Friends, see Quakers.
fuel, 95, 200.
Fugitive Slave Law, 267, 269, 270,
280, 283.
Ful'ton, Robert, 214, 215.
furniture, 95, 96, 200.
fur trade, 39, 41, 50, 60, 61, 72, 73,
83, 93, 102, 105, 126, 136, 197,
200, 338.
Gads'den Purchase, 271, 377.
Gage, General Thomas, 133,137,138.
Gal'veston, Texas, 413.
‘game cock, 1 164.
Gar'field, President James A., 352,
353.
Gar'ri son, William Lloyd, 267, 270.
Gas pee' , schooner, 132.
Gates, General Horatio, 155, 157,
164.
Gates, Sir Thomas, 52, 53.
Ga'tun Dam, 394.
Ge net'(zhe na), Citizen Edmond,
188.
Gen'o a, 15, 18, 19.
‘gentleman’ colonists, 43, 47.
George II., king of Great Britain,
110 , 112 .
George III., king of Great Britain,
128, 131, 133, 148.
GeCr'gi a, 87, 92, 110, 111, 112, 114,
118, 135, 140, 163, 164, 169, 181,
190, 217, 244, 280, 284, 315, 322,
323, 325, 337.
German settlers, 87, 91, 114, 258.
germ theory of disease, 384, 385.
Ger'man town, battle of, 155,156,229.
Gettysburg, battle of, 313, 314,
318.
Ghent, treaty of, 224.
Gi'la River (he), 271.
Gil'bert, Sir Humphrey, 37.
Gist, 115.
glass, etc., tax on, 131.
Glass, Carter, 410.
Glass-Owen Currency Bill, see Fed¬
eral Beserve Act.
Goe'thals (gu't&lz'), Colonel George,
394.
gold and gold mines, 4, 264, 265,
274, 338, 343, 347, 367, 368,379.
gold coinage and standard, 344, 351,
362, 369, 370, 410, 411.
INDEX
lxvii
‘golden age,’ 274, 385.
Goli ad', Texas, 255.
Good Speed , ship, 43.
G6r'gas, Colonel W. C., 394.
Gdr'ges, Sir Ferdinando, 62, 86.
government, British during Revolu¬
tion, 130, 131.
colonial, 44, 47, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56,
59, 60, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68,
69, 71, 76, 77, 78, 79, 82, 88,
90, 100, 101, 114, 124, 125, 126,
127, 129, 130, 131, 133, 156.
state, 148, 175, 178, 332, 335,
337, 346, 361.
federal, 176-181, 184, 195, 207,
245, 246, 281, 283.
Indian, 11.
governors, colonial, 124, 140.
Grand Model, 82.
Grant, General Ulysses S., 225,
260, 263, 294, 296, 297, 298,
306, 312, 314, 319, 320, 321,
322, 325, 326, 327, 332, 335,
339-348, 350, 353.
Gray, Asa, 277, 384.
Great American Desert, 254.
Great Britain, 108, 112, 116, 148,
172, 173, 193, 211, 212, 213,
220, 223, 224, 225, 226, 253,
259, 281, 292, 293, 415, 417.
arbitration of disputes with, 342,
343, 365, 366, 407.
disputes with colonies, 124-135.
second war with United States,
216-226.
treaties with United States, 173,
175, 189, 224, 407.
war with colonies, 137-174.
great charter, 53.
Great Divide, 210.
Great Lakes, 116, 161, 173, 238.
Great Khan, 15.
‘great peacemaker,’ 270.
‘great trio,’ 247, 268.
‘great white plague,’ 385.
greenbacks, 330, 351.
Green Mountain Boys, 140.
Greene, General Nathanael, 166,
167, 168, 173, 225.
Greenland, 13, 92.
Greensboro, North Carolina, 168.
Guam (gwam), 375.
Guer ri ere ', frigate, 220.
| Gul a'na, British, 365.
j Guil'ford Courthouse, battle of, 168,
| Gui teau' (to), Charles Jules, 352.
| Gulf of Mexico, 2, 103, 105, 113 r
209.
St. Lawrence, 31, 112, 220.
[ Gun'ni son tunnel, 404, 405.
j Guth'rie, Oklahoma, 358.
Hague Conference, 376.
j Hail , Columbia , 194.
half-civilized Indians, 7.
i ‘half-faced camps,’ 199, 279.
I Half Moon , ship, 49.
Hal'i fax, 145, 149.
Hal'leck, General Henry W., 294,
307.
Ham'il ton, Alexander, 176, 180.,
184, 185, 186, 190, 204, 207.
Hamp'ton Roads, 301, 302, 303, 325.
hardships of early colonists, 44, 45,
46, 47, 59, 60, 64.
Har'per’s Ferry, 278, 307.
Har'ri man, Edward II., 389.
Har'ris, Joel Chandler, 386.
Har'ri son. President Benjamin,
358-361.
Harrison, President William Henry,
217, 221, 222, 252.
Harte, Bret, 386.
Hart'ford, Connecticut, 68, 89.
Hart'ford Convention, 224, 243.
Har'vard College, 66, 98, 203.
Ha van'a, 370.
Hawal'ian (yan) Islands, 365, 375,
377.
Ilaw'thorne, Nathaniel, 275, 385.
Hayes, Rutherford Birchard, 348,
349-352.
Hayne (ban), Paul Hamilton, 276.
Hay lie, Robert Y., 244, 245, 281.
Hayne-Webster debate, 244, 245.
Ilay'ti, 22.
Henry, Fort, 294, 296.
Henry, Patrick, 127, 128, 134, 135,
139, 173, 180.
Henry the Navigator, Prince, 17.
Iler'ki mer, General Nicholas, 154.
‘ hero of Saratoga,’ 164.
Iles'se, 141.
J Hes'sian soldiers, 141, 150.
Hi a wa'tha, 12.
i Hill, General A. P., 326.
ixvlii
INDEX
historians, American, 235, 276, 277,
386.
Hob'kirk’s Hill, battle of, 168.
Hob'son, Lieut. Richmond P., 373.
Holland, 165, 175.
colonies of, 72-74, 78, 79, 80.
explorations of, 48-51.
Pilgrims in, 57, 58.
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 385.
Homestead Act, 330.
Hood, General John B., 323, 324.
Hook'er, General Joseph, 312, 313.
Hooker, Reverend Thomas, 66, 68.
Hdp'kinson, Joseph, 194.
Horseshoe Bend, battle of, 217.
House of Burgesses, 54, 83, 127,
134.
House of Commons, 130.
House of Representatives, 130, 178,
180, 195, 228, 232, 236, 280,
283, 338, 348, 355, 369, 408.
Houston, General Sam, 255.
Howe, Admiral, 149.
Howe, Elias, 249.
Howe, General William, 140, 142,
149, 154, 155, 158.
How'ells, W. I)., 386.
Hud'son, Henry, 48, 49, 50, 51, 74.
Hudson River, 49, 62, 153, 156,
159, 170.
Valley, 145, 165.
Huerta (hwer'ta), Victoriano, 414,
415.
Hu'grte nots, 31, 82.
Hull, Captain Isaac, 220.
Hull, General William, 218.
Ice'land, 13.
Pda ho, 259, 359, 392, 413.
Illinois', 161, 231, 251, 272, 278,
279, 296, 413.
immigrants and immigration, 258,
268, 330, 356, 357, 378, 403.
immigration to colonies, 38, 39, 42,
43, 47, 59, 61, 62, 68, 73, 74,
77, 82, 87, 113.
influence on views of Constitu¬
tion and Union, 258.
impeachment of President Johnson,
337, 338.
implied powers, 185, 207.
impressment of American sailors,
189, 211, 212, 217, 224, 229.
income tax, 330, 363, 365, 408, 410,
412.
indented servants, 94, 98.
independence, colonies declare for,
145.
Independence, Declaration of, 146,
172.
Independent Treasury plan, 251.
‘indestructible union,’ 328.
Indian'a, 161, 216, 231, 358.
Indian corn, see corn.
Indian raids, 83, 85, 106, 107, 117.
reservations, 6, 244, 347, 388, 392.
Indian Territory, 244, 358, 399.
Indian warfare, 11, 44, 85, 106, 107,
116, 117, 123.
Indian wars, 109, 217, 347. See
Fequot War, King Philip's
War , etc.
Indians, 5-12, 22, 27, 44, 60, 64, 65,
69, 71, 83, 84, 85, 88, 105, 106,
107, 109, 117, 123, 153, 154, 159,
187, 199, 217, 218, 221, 244,
265, 358, 388. See also Algon¬
quin, Iroquois , Muskhogean ,
and names of tribes.
Indies, European trade with, 14,
15, 17, 18, 25.
Indies, West, 24.
indigo, 112, 197.
industries, 92, 93, 111, 197, 379,
380, 381, 396.
initiative, 414.
insane, treatment of, 205, 257.
insects as disease carriers, 384, 385.
insurgent Republicans, 402, 407.
internal improvements, 240.
Interstate Commerce Act, 356.
Commerce Commission, 412.
Trade Commission, 412.
invasion of South, 291.
inventions, 186, 190, 201, 202, 248,
249, 256, 257, 353, 381, 382,
384.
I'o wa, 209, 263, 347.
Irish settlers, 87, 91, 143, 144, 241,
258.
iron, 4, 8, 226, 240, 274. 379.
‘ironclad oath,’ 340, 346.
ironclad warships, 301, 302.
iron works, first in America, 56.
Iroquois' Indians, 11, 12, 41, 49,
50, 105, 106, 109.
INDEX
lxix
irrigation, 5, 251, 392, 404, 405.
Irv'ing, Washington, 205, 235, 274,
385.
Is a bel'la, queen of Spain, 20.
I tal'ian seamen, 18, 30.
Italians control eastern trade, 15.
Jack' son, General Andrew, 217, 224,
225, 235, 236, 241-249.
Jackson, General Thomas J., 292,
306, 307, 312.
James River, 43, 48, 51.
James I., king of England, 41, 43,
55, 62, 63.
James II., king of England, 80,
81, 89, 102. See also York and
Albany , Duke of.
James'town, Virginia, 43, 46, 47,
51, 53, 54, 56, 60, 63, 91, 398.
Jamestown colony, 43-56, 58, 59,
87, 91, 398.
Japan', 15, 271.
Jas'per, Sergeant, 149.
Jay, Chief Justice John, 180, 189,
204.
Jay’s treaty, 189, 229.
Jef'ferson, President Thomas, 146,
173, 184, 185, 186, 190, 195, 206-
215, 216, 229, 237, 238, 240.
Jer'seys, 81, 92. See New Jersey.
jetties, see Eads's jetties.
Jews, 69, 76.
John Brown’s Raid, 278, 279, 280.
John'son, President Andrew, 334-
339.
John'ston, General Albert Sidney,
263, 297.
John'ston, General Joseph E., 263,
291, 303, 322, 323, 325, 326,
327.
Joliet' (zholya), Louis, 102, 103.
Jones, John Raul, 143, 144, 161,
162.
ju di'ci al department, 178, 179.
jury, trial by, 68, 184, 195.
Kalb, Baron, 158, 164.
Kan'sas, 30, 209, 261, 272, 277, 278,
413.
Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 272, 278.
Kaskas'kia, 160.
Kear'ny, General Stephen W., 261.
Ken' ne bee River, 42, 61, 62.
Kent’s Island, 75.
Ken tuck'y, 136, 159, 191, 192, 195,
199, 221, 227, 241, 245, 268, 279,
284, 287, 291, 292, 359.
Kentucky Resolutions, 195, 245.
Key, Francis Scott, 223, 224.
Khan, Great, 15.
Kidd, Captain William, 107.
King George's War, 112, 113.
King Philip’s War, 84-86.
King William’s War, 102, 106, 108.
King’s Mountain, battle of, 166.
Kitchen Cabinet, 242.
Klon'dike, 367, 368.
Know-Nothing party, 273.
Knox, Henry, 184.
Koch, Robert, 384.
Kos cl us'ko, Count Thaddeus, 158.
Ku Klux Klan, 341.
labor, 94, 257, 349, 350.
Labor, Department of, 395.
labor and vagrancy laws, 335, 336.
Lab'ra dor, 24.
La Fargc, John, 387.
La fay ettef Jean Paul. Marquis de,
158, 169, 170, 234.
Lake Champlain, battle of, 223.
Lake Erie, battle of, 221.
Lake of the Woods, 259.
Lang'ley, Samuel P., 406.
Lamer', Sidney, 276, 385.
La Salle, Robert de, 103.
La'throp, Julia, 414.
Latter Day Saints, see Mormons.
Law'rence, Captain James, 220.
laws, 73, 100, 101, 110, 124, 125,
205, 257, 270, 389.
La zear', Dr. Jesse, 385.
Lee, General Charles, 150, 158.
Lee, ‘ Lighthorse Harry,’ 167, 303.
Lee, Richard Henry, 146.
Lee, General Robert E., 225, 262,
263, 303, 304, 306, 307, 312, 313,
314, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 326,
327, 329, 332, 335, 340, 416.
legal tender, 330.
legislative department, 178.
Letf the Lucky, see Erikson.
Lcis'ler, Jacob, 90.
Leon, see De Leon.
Lew'is, Meriwether, 210.
Lewis and Clark expedition, 210.
lxx
INDEX
Lex'ington, battle of, 137, 138, 139,
140.
Lib’er a tor , 267.
lighting, inodes of, 381.
Lin'coin, President Abraham, 279,
280, 284, 285-333, 334, 335, 336,
337.
Lincoln, General Benjamin, 155,
163, 164.
literature, 98, 99, 135, 204, 234, 235,
274, 275, 276, 277, 385, 386.
Little Bell , frigate, 217.
local option, 272.
locomotives, see steam engine.
London Company, 42, 43, 63.
* Lone Star State, 1 255.
Long, Dr. Crawford, 257.
Long'fel low, Henry W., 274, 385.
* long houses, 1 12.
Long Island, 42.
battle of, 149.
Lookout Mountain, 317.
battle of, 318.
lords proprietors, 81, 82, 110. 114.
‘ Lost Cause, 1 328, 333.
Lost Colony, 38.
Lou'is XIV., 103.
Lou'Isburg, Canada, 112, 113, 119.
Lou l si a'na, 209, 216, 232, 233, 280,
292, 298, 314, 340, 348, 349.
Louisiana Territory, 103, 122, 173,
200, 208,209, 216, 232, 245, 262,
377.
Lou'is ville, Kentucky, 298.
Loio'ell, James R., 275, 385.
Loyalists in Commonwealth period,
77.
Loyalists in Revolution, 140. See
Tories.
Lu'cas, Eliza, 112.
lumber and lumbering, 92, 93, 351,
379, 392.
Lun'dy’s Lane, battle of, 222.
Lynch'burg, Virginia, 326.
M&e don'ongh, Commodore Thomas,
223.
machinery, use of, 248, 249, 379, 381.
Macmon'nies, Frederick, 387.
Mcld'ison, Dolly, 216.
Madison, President Janies, 77, 176,
177, 180, 190, 204, 215-228, 229.
Mad'ras, India, 113.
Ma gel'lan, Ferdinand, 26, 27.
Magellan, Strait of, 26.
mail service. 265, 266, 382.
Maine, 61, 62, 78, 86, 89, 90, 105,
118, 135, 144, 223, 231, 232, 253,
257, 392.
Maine liquor law, 257.
Maine , battleship, 370.
maize, 47. See corn.
Man&s'sas, first battle of, 291, 292,
306.
second battle of, 307.
Man hat'tan Island, 50, 73.
Manll'a, Philippine Islands, 371,
374.
battle of, 371, 372.
Mann, Horace, 257.
manufactures, 125, 197, 213, 226,
240, 268, 290, 330, 360, 362, 379.
Marco'ni, 399.
mariner’s compass, 17.
Mar'i on, General Francis, 164, 167,
241.
Mark Twain, see Clemens.
Marquette' (ket), Father, 102, 103.
Mar'shall, John, 77, 206, 207, 281.
Mary, queen of England, 90.
Ma'ry land (mer), 75, 76, 78, 87, 92,
93, 101, 136, 172, 214, 239, 287,
307.
Mason, James M., 292, 293.
Mason, John, 62.
Mason and Dixon’s line, 87, 231.
Massachusetts, 59, 62, 67, 68, 69,
71, 76, 78, 86, 87, 90, 98, 106,
113, 114, 125, 128, 131, 132. 133,
134, 173, 176, 184, 193, 202, 224,
226, 257, 267, 268, 290.
Massachusetts Bay colony, 62-67,
68, 69, 71, 76.
Company, 62, 63, 67.
Massacre of 1622, 54, 55.
Massasoit', 60, 85.
matchlock guns, 61.
Maw'ry, Matthew Fontaine, 274,277,
384.
3fayflower, ship, 59, 60.
McClel'lan, General George, 263,
292, 302, 303, 304, 306, 307, 308.
McCor'mick, Cyrus, 248.
McDow'ell, General Irvin, 291, 306,
307.
McHenry, Fort, 223, 224.
INDEX
lxxi
McKini', Charles, 387.
McKin'ley, President William, 369,"
370-377, 390.
McKinley Tariff Act, 360.
Meade, General George, 313.
Meck'len burg County, North Caro¬
lina, 145.
medicine, 100, 187, 204, 288, 300,
311, 324, 384, 398.
Med i ter ra'ne an Sea, 14.
Mem'phis, Tennessee, 294, 297.
Merit System, 353.
Merrimac, ironclad, 300, 301, 302.
Merrimac River, 62.
Methodist church, 111.
Mex'i can cession, 262, 263,269, 330.
Mex'i co, 25, 27, 32, 36, 251, 253,
254, 255, 258, 338, 339, 414,
415.
Mexico, city, 262.
Gulf of, see Gulf of Mexico.
Mi§h'igan, 161, 221, 231, 247.
Middle Ages, 14.
Middle Colonies, 72-76, 114.
Middle States, 156, 159, 174, 197,
204, 213.
Miles, Major General Nelson A.,
374.
military government of South, 337.
“Millions for defense,” 194.
Mims, Fort, 217.
mine, see Crater, 321.
mineral resources of North America,
4.
mines, see gold, silver, iron, etc.
ministers in New England colonies,
65, 66, 68, 69.
Min ne so'ta, 161, 209, 277, 278,
347.
mint in Massachusetts colony, 78.
Min'u it, Peter, 73, 74.
minutemen, 135, 139.
missionaries, French, 102, 105.
Mis'sion a ry Ridge, 317.
battle of, 318.
missionary societies, 252.
Mis sissip'pi, 231, 233, 261, 270, 280,
284, 296, 297, 340, 351.
River, 3, 29, 103, 105, 108, 113,
114, 135, 161, 173, 189, 209, 224.
230, 232, 243, 244. 265, 291, 294,
297, 298, 300, 314; 351, 384, 392.
Valley, 4, 103, 209.
Missouri, 209, 231, 232, 265, 278,
287, 291, 292, 296, 297.
Compromise, 232, 266, 271, 272,
278.
River, 209, 210, 230, 392.
Mo bile', Alabama, 217, 324, 371.
Bay, battle of, 324.
Mo'doc War, 347.
Mo hawk Indians, 153.
River, 153.
Valley, 153.
Mo li'na del Rey, battle of, 262.
money, see coins and coinage, cur¬
rency, and paper money.
Mon'i tor, ironclad, 300, 301, 302.
Mon'mouth, battle of, 158, 229.
Mon roe', Fortress, 301, 302,310,333.
Monroe, President James, 77, 229-
236, 239.
Monroe Doctrine, 233, 234, 338, 366,
414.
Mon ta'na, 209, 259, 274, 347, 359,
381, 413.
Montcalm', General Joseph Louis,-
118, 119, 120, 122.
Mont gom' e ry, Alabama, 284.
Montgomery, General Richard, 144.
Mon to jo' (cho), Admiral, 371.
Montreal', 31, 106, 108, 122, 144,
218.
Moore’s Creek, battle of, 148.
Mdr'gan, General Daniel, 155, 164,
167.
Mor'mons, 251, 365.
Mo roc'co, 210.
Mor'ris, Robert, 151, 176, 257.
Mor'ris town, New Jersey, 151.
MCrse, Samuel F. B., 256.
‘ mother of New England,’ 67.
motives of English colonization, 36,
398.
MGt'ley, John Lothrop, 276, 385.
Moul'trie, Colonel William, 149.
Moultrie, Fort, 149, 163.
Mound Builders, 12.
mountain systems of North America,
2 .
Mount Vernon, 183, 192.
mowing machines, 248.
Mug'wumps, 354, 355.
Mur'frees bo ro, battle of, 315.
music, 387, 388.
Musk hoge'an Indians, 11, 109.
lxxii
INDEX
Na po'le on Bo'na parte, 194, 209,
211, 216, 217, 223, 229.
Nar ra g&n'sett Indians, 69, 70, 85.
Narva/ez (eth), Panfilo de, 28, 29,
36.
Nash'ville, battle of, 323, 324.
national banks, 330.
National Civil Service Reform, see
Civil Service Reform,.
Forest Service, 392.
Republican party, 239.
nationality, spirit of, 245, 258, 288,
335.
Nat u ral i za'tion Act, 194.
naval fighting in Revolution, 143,
144," 161, 162.
in War of 1812, 220, 222, 223,
226.
in Warof Secession, 293, 298, 300,
301, 302, 308, 324.
in War with Spain, 371, 372, 373,
374.
naval stores, 93, 197.
Navigation Acts, 79, 80, 86, 124,
125.
navy, Confederate, 290, 291, 293.
of United States, 143, 144, 220,
298, 371, 395.
Navy Department, 194.
Ne bras'ka, 209, 272, 338, 369.
negroes, 28, 54, 94, 190, 268, 270,
278, 279, 310, 311, 333, 336,
337, 339, 340, 341, 351, 361,
388, 412. See also slaves and
slavery.
Neth'er lands, see Holland.
Neutrality, Proclamation of, 189,
234.
Neutral nation, rights and duties of,
211, 342, 418.
Ne va/da, 263, 274, 330, 413.
New Al'bi on, 33.
New Amsterdam, 50, 73, 80.
New England, province of, 89.
New England colonies, 145.
New England confederacy, 71.
New England Primer , 98.
New England States, 48, 63, 72, 74,
75, 78, 79, 84, 85, 86, 89, 91,
92, 96, 100, 113, 125, 126, 137,
139, 153, 197, 200, 203, 213,
217, 224, 226, 236, 241, 245,
266, 336.
New'found land (nu ), 24, 30, 274,
406.
New France, 30, 39, 47, 103.
New Hampshire, 61, 62, 78, 86, 113,
114, 191, 228, 271.
New Ha/ven, Connecticut, 68, 71, 79.
New Jer'sey, 58, 81, 89, 110, 114,
150, 151, 154, 158, 408, 409,
416.
New Mar'ket, battle of, 320.
New Mex'i co, 8, 29, 36, 47, 261,
263, 269, 407.
New Neth'erland, 50, 72, 73, 78,
79, 80.
New Or'le ans, Louisiana, 108, 109,
122, 200, 209, 223, 224, 225,
230, 298, 300, 351, 398.
battle of, 224, 225, 241.
New Swe'den, 74, 79.
newspaper, first in United States,
99.
New York, 41, 80. 97, 114, 134,140,
145, 150, 152, 153, 159, 162,
172, 174, 176, 181, 184, 191,
195, 208, 235, 251, 253, 269,
270, 274, 281, 348, 354, 355,
390, 391.
New York City, 50, 80, 92, 93, 128,
133, 145, 149. 153, 154, 155,
156, 159, 164, 170, 173, 183,
198, 206, 215, 238, 250, 312,
343, 345, 353, 378, 393.
Ni &g'a ra, Falls, 222.
Fort, 119.
River, 218, 222.
NIc'ols, Governor Richard, 80, 81.
NVna, caravel, 20.
Non-Intercourse Act, 213, 216.
NOr'folk, Virginia, 302.
normal schools, 257.
North, industries of, 92, 93, 197,
226, 290.
condition in 1861, 290.
condition in 1865, 330.
North America, discovered by
Cabot, 23.
English attempts to settle, 36, 37,
38, 41, 42.
exploration of, 34, 35.
North Carolina, 30, 37, 39, 81, 82,
93, 107, 109, 110, 114, 132,136,
145, 148, 168, 169, 181, 192,
287, 324, 325, 327, 334, 337.
INDEX
lxxiii
North Dako'ta, 209, 359.
northeast passage to Asia, 48.
Northern Pacific Hailway, 343.
Northmen, 12-14, 19.
North Pole, discovery of, 405.
North Virginia, 42.
northwest passage to Asia, 50.
Northwest Territory, 173, 181, 187,
208, 216, 231.
Norwegian settlers, 92, 58.
No'va Sco'ti a, 42, 20, 108.
novelists, 205, 235, 75, 385, 386.
Nueces (nwa) River, 269, 260.
nullification, 240, 241, 246, 247, 252,
270.
‘ Ocean Sea,’ 15.
O'glethorpe, General James, 110,
111 , 112 .
Ohi'o, 161, 208, 221, 231, 270, 274,
348, 376, 400.
Ohio country, 136.
Land Company, 114.
River, 105, 114, 116, 160, 161,
214, 230, 232, 297, 392.
Valley, 114.
oil, 274, 350, 379, 396.
Ok la ho'ma, 209, 358, 359, 399.
‘Old Hickory,’ 242.
‘ Old Ironsides,’ 22.
‘Old Rough and Ready,’ 264.
Mild Silver Leg,’ 78.
Olm'sted, Frederick, 387.
On ta'ri o, Lake, 105, 221.
O pe cSn'ca nough, 55.
Orders in Council, 211, 216, 229.
Ordinance, of 1787, 181.
of Nullification, 246.
of Secession, 280,
Or'e gon, 33, 259, 277, 347, 348, 413.
Oregon , battleship, 393.
Oregon Country, 253, 254, 256, 258,
377.
O ris'ka ny, 154.
Os ce o'la, 244.
Oswe'go, Fort, 118, 119, 153.
O'tis, James. 125, 135.
Ot'ta wa Indians, 123.
Pa gif'ic cable, 382.
Ocean, discovery of, 26, 33, 34,
62, 209, 210, 259, 261, 358,
371, 380, 399.
Pacific States, 356.
Page, Thomas Nelson, 386.
Paine, John K., 388.
Pak'en /tarn, General Edward, 225.
Pa'lo Al'to, battle of, 260.
Pa'los, Spain, 20,22.
Pan a ma', Isthmus of, 26, 32, 393.
Panama, republic, 394.
Panama Canal, 393, 394, 395.
Panic of 1887, 250, 251, 273.
of 1857, 273.
of 1873, 344.
of 1884, 353.
paper money, 152, 166, 250, 329,
330, 350, 351, 362.
papoose', 10.
parcel post, 407.
ITir'is, treaty of, 173.
Park'man, Francis, 277, 385.
Par'lia ment, 76, 79, 90, 127, 129,
130, 131, 133, 135, 145, 156.
parties, political, 185, 186, 230, 239,
240, 252, 267, 272, 273, 279,
354, 369, 377, 400, 401, 408. ■
partisan bands, 163, 164, 167.
partisan political appointments, 208,
243, 352, 353.
Pas teur', Louis, 384.
‘ pathfinder of the sea,’ 274.
Patriots in Revolution, 140, 141, 145,
146, 150, 164, 165, 172.
pa troons', 73, 253.
Payne Tariff Act, 402, 407.
peace, 332, 396, 415, 418.
Peace Conference, 325.
Convention, 283, 284.
Pea Ridge, battle of, 297.
Pen'ry, Robert N., 405.
Peking', China, 376.
Pen in'su lar Campaign, 302, 303.
Penn, William, 86, 87, 88, 103.
Penn syl va'ni a. 86-88, 92, lol, 114,
117, 123, 136, 110, 159, 174, 176,
187, 202, 273, 274, 313, 322, 337,
363, 391.
pensions, 331, 357.
People’s party, 364.
Pe'quot Indians, 71.
War, 71.
Per'ry, Commodore Matthew, 271.
Oliver H., 221, 222.
‘personal liberty' laws, 270.
Pe ru', 27, 32.
lxxiv
INDEX
Petersburg, Virginia, 321, 322, 329.
siege of, 321.
Pet'ti grew, J. J., 314.
Phil a del'phia, Pennsylvania, 87,
133, 134, 142, 151, 154, 155, 156,
158, 170, 172, 176, 186, 187, 198,
204, 206, 346, 347.
Phil'ip, King, 85.
Philippine Islands, 27, 371, 375,
376, 377, 397, 403.
national assembly, 397.
Phips, Sir William, 106.
photography, invention of, 249, 387.
physical history of North America,
1-5.
Pick'ens, Andrew, 164, 167.
Plcfc'ett, General George, 314.
Pierce, President Franklin, 271-273.
PIFgrims, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 71,
99.
Pinck'ney, Charles, 177.
Pin'ta, caravel, 20.
pioneer life, 199, 200.
pirates, 106, 107, 210, 211, 227.
Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham,
118, 119, 129, 130, 141.
Pitt, Fort, 119.
Pitts'burg, Pennsylvania, 116, 119,
160, 363.
Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee, 297.
Plains of Abraham, Quebec, 120.
plantation life, 54, 75, 76, 97.
platforms, political, 185, 230, 239,
240, 252, 264, 272, 273, 279, 357,
358, 361, 369, 401, 407, 408.
Platte Country, 272.
PlaUes'burg, New York, 223.
Ply'mouth, Massachusetts, 59.
Plymouth, colony, 59, 60, 61, 63, 71,
90.
Company, 42, 43.
Po ca lmn'tas, 46.
Poe, Edgar Allan, 276, 385.
poets, American, 135, 205, 235, 274,
275, 276, 385.
Po?k, President James K., 256, 258-
263.
Pol'o, Mar'co, 15, 19, 22.
polyg'amy, 251, 357, 365.
Ponce de Leon, see De Leon.
Pon'tiac, 123, 217.
Pontiac’s War, 123, 126.
pony express, 265, 266.
Poor Richard's Almanac, 205.
Pope, General John, 294, 307.
Pop'ham colony, 42.
popular sovereignty, 272, 273.
population of United States, 196,
199, 351, 377, 378, 402, 403.
Pop'u lists, see People's party.
Port Hud'son, Mississippi, 297, 298,
300, 314.
Por'to Ri'co, 374, 375.
Por'tu gal, king of, appealed to by
Columbus, 20.
explorations of, 17, 23, 25.
postal savings banks, 407.
postal system, 178, 265, 266, 381,
382, 407.
potato, 4, 38, 96.
Poto'mac River, 42, 75, 202, 206,
291, 307, 313.
power loom, 226.
Pow ha tan', 46, 55.
Pres'cott, William H., 205, 276, 385.
president of Confederacy, term of,
284.
president of United States, duties of,
178.
election of, 178, 195, 236, 347,
348.
powers of, 178, 242, 355, 409.
President , frigate, 217.
presidential plan of reconstruction,
332, 336, 337, 338.
Presidential Succession Act, 355.
Prin^e'ton, battle of, 151.
Princeton University, 203, 409.
printing press, 14, 98, 256, 381.
prisoners in War of Secession, 291,
311, 328.
prisons, 247, 257, 311, 328.
private property in war, 310, 313.
privateers, 144.
Proclamation of Emancipation, see
Emancipation Proclamation.
Proclamation of Neutrality, see
Neutrality , Proclamation of.
Pro gres'sive party, 408.
progressive Republicans, 402, 407.
prohibition laws, see anti-liquor
laws.
Proph'et, 217.
pro pri'e ta ry colonies, 114.
protective tariff, 226, 227, 240, 246,
252, 253, 284, 357, 358, 402.
INDEX
lxxv
Prov'idence, Rhode Island, 69, 71.
provincial soldiers, 119.
Pueb'lo (pweb) Indians, 8.
pueb'los, 8, 29.
Pulas'ki, Count Casimir, 158.
Pullman car strike, 363, 364.
pure food laws, 397.
Pu'ri tans, 58, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67,
68, 74, 76, 77, 78, 275.
‘ Quaker guns. ’ 303.
Qua'kers, 69, 70, 76, 86, 87, 88, 94,
274.
Queb6c', Canada, 31, 39, 41, 47,
112, 120, 122, 144.
Queen Anne’s War, 107, 108, 109.
Queens'town Heights, Canada, 218.
race problems, 388.
radicals control Congress, 336, 337,
339.
raids, see Indian and John Brown’s
Raid.
railroads, 238, 239,2f5, 250,256,273,
319, 321, 322, 323, 328, 330, 343,
344, 347, 349, 354, 356, 364, 365,
382, 397.
Railway, Union Pacific, 343.
railway rate regulation, 356, 412.
Rai'sin River, battle of, 221.
Ra'legh, Sir Walter, 36, 37, 38, 39,
52.
Ra'leigrft, North Carolina, 39.
Rap palian'nock River, 308.
Rato'don, Lord, 168.
Rayburn Railroad Bill, 412.
reaper, invention of, 248.
Rebellion, Bacon’s, 83, 84.
Dorr’s, 253.
Shays’, 176.
recall, 413.
r6§ i prog'i ty* 360.
reconstruction period, 336, 337, 338,
339, 340, 346, 349, 388.
Red Cross Society, 414.
Red River, 209, 298.
re dSmp'tion ers, 94.
ref er en'dum, 413.
reforms, 257, 353, 360, 361, 397, 412,
413.
regulars, British, 119, 142, 164.
Regulators, 132, 136.
religion, Indian, 11.
religious conditions, of English col¬
onies, 44, 59, 61, 65, 66, 68, 69,
70, 71, 76.
of seventeenth century, 57, 58, 74.
religious freedom, 69, 76, 90, 101,
111, 178, 205, 238, 388.
revivals, 252.
representation in Congress, 130, 131,
178, 179, 180.
representative government in col¬
onies, 53, 54, 100.
Representatives, House of, see House
of Representatives.
republic at end of eighteenth century,
196-205.
Republican party, Democratic, see
Democraticr-Republican party.
Republican party, new, and Repub¬
licans, 273, 279, 348, 357, 361,
370, 376, 400, 402.
Resa'ca de la Pal'ma, battle of, 260.
reservations, Indian, see Indian res¬
ervations.
Reserve Banks, see Federal Reserve
Banks.
Board, see Federal Reserve Board.
Restoration of Charles II., 79.
results of,
French and Indian War, 122.
War with Mexico, 262, 263.
War of 1812, 225, 226, 416.
War of Revolution, 173, 225.
War of Secession, 327, 328.
War with Spain, 375.
reunion, national, 371,.408, 416, 417.
Rev'e nue bills, British, 126.
Revolution, War of, see War of Revo¬
lution.
Revolution of 1688, 90, 102.
Rhode Is'land, 69, 70, 71, 76, 79,
89, 90, 101, 114, 132, 134, 181,
202, 221, 224, 253, 281.
rice, 82, 93, 111, 112, 197, 213, 288,
380.
Rich’s Mountain, battle of, 292.
Rich'ard son, Henry, 387.
Rich'mond, Virginia, 134, 284, 291,
294, 300, 302, 303, 304,306, 307,
318, 319, 321, 322, 326, 332.
Ri'o Gran'de River, 259, 260, 262,
290.
Rip'ley, General, 222.
roads, 95, 198, 199, 213, 214.
lxxvi
INDEX
Roanoke' Island, North Carolina,
37, 38, 43, 52.
* rock of Chickamauga,’ 315.
Rock'e fel ler, John 1)., 350, 389.
Rock'y Mountains, 2, 103, 209, 251,
259, 201.
Rolfe, John, 52, 54.
Roman Catholics, 74, 76, 101.
Roo'sevelt, Theodore, 390-401, 408.
Rose'cran§, General William S.,315.
rotation in office, 242.
Rough Riders, 390.
routes of trade to East, 14, 15, 17.
royal colonies, 55, 07, 110, 114.
Rum'sey, James, 202.
rural credits bill, 411, 412.
Russia (rush'a), 172, 233, 333, 356,
377, 378.
Sa bine' River, 233.
sa'chein, 11.
Sac Indians, 244.
Sac ra men'to River, 265.
sa'gas of Iceland, 14.
St. Augustine', Florida, 31, 32, 36,
47, 112.
St. Gaw'dens, Augustus, 387.
St. Jo'seph, Missouri, 266.
St. Law'rence River, 2, 31, 39, 102,
105, 114, 120.
Gulf, see Gulf of St. Lawrence.
St. Leg'er, Colonel Barry, 153.
St. Lou'is, Missouri, 122, 210, 354.
St. Mary’s, Maryland, 75.
Salary Grab, 343, 344.
Sa'lem, Massachusetts, 62,68,69, 91.
Salle, see La Salle.
Salt Lake City, Utah, 251.
Samp'son, Admiral William T., 372.
San An to'ni 6, Texas, 255, 262.
San Fran §Is'co, California, 266,
393, 399.
sanitation, 394, 397, 398.
San Ja cin'to, battle of, 255.
San Juan' (hwan) Hill, battle of,
374, 390.
San'ta An'na, General, 255, 261.
San'ta Fe', New Mexico, 36, 47, 61.
San'ta Ma ri'a, caravel, 20.
San ti a'go de Cu'ba, 372, 373, 374.
Sarah Constant , ship, 43.
Sar a to ga, battles of, 155, 156.
Sar'gent, John S., 386.
savage Indians, 7.
Savan'nah, Georgia, 111, 163, 169,
324, 325.
scal'awags, 340, 341.
Scan di na'vi a, 12, 378.
Schley, Admiral Winfield S., 372.
schools, 66, 73, 83, 97, 98, 237, 382,
383, 388. See education.
Sclnty'ler, General Philip, 153, 155,
164.
scientists, 277, 384.
Scotch settlers, 87.
Scotch-Irish settlers, 114.
Scott, Dred, 277, 278, 279.
Captain Robert, 405.
General Winfield, 222, 261.
sea captains, English, 32.
Sea of Darkness, 17, 20, 22.
se 9 es'sion, 181, 213, 224, 245, 252,
280, 281, 283, 284, 286, 288,
311, 327, 328, 333, 335, 336,
337, 340.
Secession, Ordinance of, 280.
War of, see War of Secession.
‘second maker of Constitution,’
207.
Se dl'tion Act, 194, 195, 241, 245,
281.
Sem'i na ry Ridge, Pennsylvania,
313.
Sem'i nole Indians, 244.
War, 244.
Semwies, Captain Raphael, 293.
Senate of United States, 178, 180,
232, 247, 280, 283, 338, 348,
355, 369.
Sep'a ra tists, 58.
Sera'pls , ship, 162.
Ser'vi a, 417.
Seven Days’ Fighting, 307.
Seven Pines, battle of, 303.
Seven Years’ War, 113.
Seward (Soo'erd), William H., 270.
sewing machine, invention of, 241.
Shdn'non , frigate, 220.
shape of world, beliefs about, 17.
Sharps'burg, Maryland, see An-
tietarn.
Shaw nee', 217.
Shays’ Rebellion, 176.
Shen an do'ah Valley, 306, 321, 322,
323.
Shenandoah , frigate, 293.
322, 323, 32(5.
325, 326, 327, 332.
‘Sherman’s bummers,’ 323.
Sherman Anti-trust Act, 3C
412.
Sherman Silver Act, 360, 362.
Slii'loh, battle of, 207.
ships, American, 222, 395.
Si er'ra Ne va'da, 2.
silver, 4, 274, 330, 343, 344, 347,
350, 351, 360, 362, 363, 365,
369, 379. See coins and coinage.
Sioua* War, 347.
Sitting Bulk Chief, 347.
Six Nations, 109, 159.
slave labor, 258, 268.
states, 232, 255, 263, 267, 268,
272.
trade, 32.
slaves and slavery, 28, 54, 71, 73, 81,
82, 85, 94, 95. 101, 106, 111,
163, 179, 180, 181, 190, 191,
196, 197, 205, 213, 230, 231,
232, 233, 255, 2,58, 263, 264,
266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271,
272, 273, 277, 278, 279, 280,
281, 283, 284, 286, 288, 290,
310, 311, 327, 328, 329. 331,
335, 351.
Sli dell', John, 292, 293.
smallpox, 100, 111, 197.
Smith, John, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49,
51, 59, 99.
Smith, Joseph, 251.
smuggling, 80, 125.
social classes in colonies, 97.
social life in colonies, 96, 97.
soil of North America, 4, 392.
‘ solid South,’ 341.
Soto, see De Soto.
South, condition in 1861, 283, 288,
290.
condition in 1865, 328, 329, 335.
industries of, 93, 190, 197, 283,
288, 379-381.
during reconstruction period, 336,
337', 340, 341, 346, 349.
recent progress, 351, 403.
South A ruer'i ca, 24, 25, 36, 265,
393.
INDEX
lxxvii
319,
South Car o ll'na, 31, 93.
, 108,
109,
110,
111,
112,
114,
134,
148,
263,
149,
163,
164,
167,
169,
177,
324,
181,
227,
239,
240,
241,
244,
246,
247,
269,
280,
324,
325,
337,
340, 348, 349, 380.
401,
South Da ko'ta
,, 209.
, 359.
South Pole, discovery of, 405.
southern colonies, 114.
Southwest Territory, 181, 231.
Spain and Spaniards, 20, 22, 23, 24,
25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 33, 36,
47, 48, 107, 110, 111, 112, 122,
126, 172, 173, 189, 200, 209,
233, 254, 276, 366, 370, 371,
377.
Spain, War with, 370-376, 390, 393,
395, 397.
Spanish-American republics, 233,
414, 415.
Spanish conquest of New World,
27, 47.
discoveries and explorations, 20,
22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29,
30, 33, 34, 36.
Main, 33.
settlement, 32, 36, 47.
speaker of House of Representa¬
tives, 228, 408.
specie circular, 250.
specie payments resumed, 350, 351.
Spoils System, 242, 243, 352, 353.
Sp5ts'wood, Alexander, 109, 110.
Spot syl va'ni a, battle of, 320.
squatter sovereignty, 272.
square, 9, 105.
Stamp Act, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131,
134, 135.
Stamp Act Congress, 128, 129.
stamp tax, 127, 330.
‘ stand pat ’ Republicans, 407.
Standard Oil Company, 350, 401.
standard time, 354.
Stand'ish, Captain Myles, 59, 60.
Stan'wix, Fort, 153, i54.
Star-spangled Banner , 224.
Starving 'lime, 51, 53.
state banks, 250.
constitutions, 361.
State, Department of, 184.
state sovereignty, 215, 281, 284, 288.
States’ Rights Doctrine, 281, 283,
287, 333, 335.
lxxviii
INDEX
steamboat, 202, 213, 214, 215, 231,
378, 382, 406.
steam engine, 201.
steel trust, 370, 389, 396, 401.
Ste'phens (\ ns), Alexander, 284.
Ste'phen son, George, 238.
Steu'ben (stoi), Baron von, 157.
Ste'vens, Thaddeus, 337.
Still'wa ter, see Saratoga , battles of.
k Stone wall’s f( ^t cavalry,’ 306, 307.
Sto'ny Point, kew York, 159.
Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 270.
strikes, 349, 350, 391.
Stuart, General J. E. B., 306, 307.
Stu'art, Gilbert, 202.
Stwy've sant, Peter, 78, 79, 80.
sub-treasuries, 251.
suc'co tash, 10, 96.
suffrage, 100, 148, 192, 253, 336,
359, 361, 388, 389, 408, 413.
Sugar Act, 126.
Siil'livan, General John, 15 .
Sullivan's Island, South C volina,
148, 149.
Sum'ner, Charles, 270.
Sumter, Fort, 286, 287.
Sum'ter, Thomas, 164, 167.
Sunday, observance of, 66, 205.
Sunday schools, 252.
Supreme Court, 179, 207, 278, 348,
349, 363.
Swamp Fight, 85.
‘ swamp fox,’ 164.
Swedish settlers,- 74, 79, 87, 258, 378.
Taft, William H., 376, 400, 401-408,
412.
Tal la poo'sa River, 217.
Tam pi'co, Mexico, 415.
tariff, 185, 226, 227, 240, 246, 247,
252, 253, 273, 281, 283, 284, 330,
357, 358, 360, 361, 362, 363, 369,
370, 401, 402, 408, 410, 418.
Tariff Board, 402.
* tariff of abominations,’ 240.
Tarle'ton, Banastre, 167.
tax, direct on colonies, 127, 128, 129,
130, 131.
taxation, 55, 56, 76, 100, 114, 124,
126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 135,
148, 152, 156, 175, 178, 185, 192,
283, 330, 340, 346, 413.
Tay'lor, Zachary, 260, 261, 264-269.
tea, tax on, 131, 133, 156.
Teach or Thatch, see Blarkbeard.
Te cum'seh, 217, 218, 222.
telegraph, 256, 274, 382, 399, 400.
telephone, 354, 382.
temperance societies, 257.
ten-hour system, 257.
Tennessee, 136, 191, 192, 217, 224,
242, 256, 287, 292, 296, 315, 318,
323 333
Tennessee River, 230, 294, 296,317.
Tex'as, 103, 233, 254, 255, 256, 258,
259, 262, 263, 280, 314, 377, 381.
Thames (temz), battle of, 222.
Thanksgiving, the first, 60.
third term, 192, 215.
thirteen original states, 113,114, 281,
T/iom'as, General George, 294, 315,
317, 323.
Theodore, 388.
Ti con de ro'ga, Fort, 118, 119, 140,
153.
Tll'den, Samuel J., 346, 348.
Tilden-IIayes contest, 318, 356.
Tim'rod, Henry, 276.
Tip'pe ca noe, battle of, 217.
Titanic, ship, 406.
tithing man, 205.
tobacco, 4, 38, 50, 52, 53, 54, 73, 75,
76, 79, 81, 93, 197, 199, 200, 213,
230, 288, 350, 380.
Tocque'ville, see De Tocqueville.
Toleration Act, 76, 78.
tomato, 4.
tools, 8, 92, 93, 201, 248, 249, 328,
351, 381.
To'ries, 140, 145, D8, 153, 155, 159,
163, 175, 188.
To ron'to, see York.
TSr'rence, W. W., 404.
to'tem, 11.
trade, 35, 50, 60, 72, 75,102,105,114,
124, 125, 131, 134, 136, 196,
197, 199, 200, 211, 212, 213,
226, 268, 271, 273, 290, 300,
330, 360, 362.
Trade Commission Bill, 412.
trade laws, 79, 80, 124, 125, 126,
127, 131, 175, 178.
routes of Middle Ages, 14, 15, 17,
25.
unions, 350.
trans-continental railroads, 343.
INDEX
iXX-X
transit, 95, 108, 199, 218, '214, 238,
379. See railroads , canals ,
steamboats , roads.
Treasury, Department of, 181.
treaties of arbitration, see arbitration.
Treaty of French with colonists, 150,
158.
of friendship with Massasoit, 00,
85.
of Ghent, 224, 410.
Jay’s, 189.
of Paris, 173.
Penn’s with the Indians, 88.
with Mexico, 202.
with Spain, 375.
TrSnt, 292, 293.
Tren'ton, battle of, 159, 151, 229.
trial by jury, 08, 184, 195,
tribes, Indian, 11, 12.
Trlm'ble, I. R., 314.
Trlp'o li, 210, 211.
truck farming, 380.
True Relation, Smith’s, 47, 99.
Truin'bull, John, 135.
trusts, 350, 300, 370, 389, 390, 401,
410.
Try'on, Governor William, 132.
tu ber cu lo'sis, 384, 385.
Tu'nis, 210.
turkey, 4.
Turks control trade routes, 15, 18.
Turn'er’s Insurrection. 279.
O hs ca ro'ra Indians, 109.
‘ Tweed Ring,’ 345, 346.
‘ Two Billion Jl'Jlar Congress,’ 400.
Ty'ler, President John, 252, 258.
typhoid fever, 384..
Uncle Tom's Cabin , 270.
‘ unconditional surrender,’ 294.
‘underground railroad,’ 267.
Un'der wood, Oscar, 410.
Tariff Act, 430.
Union Pacific Railroad, 343.
United Colonies of New England, 71.
United States, 170, 182, 185, 208, i
209, 217, 283, 234, 330, 375, 378, I
• 388, 393, 395, 397, 399, 402,417. I
university planned for Jamestown
colony, 56.
University of Pennsylvania, 203.
of Virginia, 238. ,
TJ'lah, 263, 209, 274, 305, 413.
Vii'ca, Cabe'zade, (tha), 28.
Valley campaign, Jackson’s, see
Shenandoah VaU g.
Valley Forge, 156, T , 158.
\TXn Bu'ren, President Martin, 249—
252.
Ved'der, Elihu, 380.
vegetation of Nortl^ America, 4.
Venezuela (zwej,* 27, 305, 300.
Ven'itje, 15.
VeTa Cruz, Mexico, 201, 202, 415.
Yer m5nt', 01, 78, 140, 153, 191, 192.
Verraza'no (z«e), 30, 39, 102.
Vespuc'ci (pootche), A me'ri go,
24, 30.
veto, 247, 252, 338, 357, 409.
‘ veto president,’ 357.
vice president, method of electing,
195.
succeeds to presidency, 252, 209,
$4, 352, 353, 390.
Vicksburg, Mississippi, 297, 298,
300, 314, 318.
Vintjennes', Indiana, 100.
Vin'land, 13, 14. 19.
Vir gln'i a, 38, 74, 75, 70, 77. 79, 81,
82, 83, 84, 87, 91, 93/98. 100,
109, 114, 123, 127, 128, 134, 135,
139, 145, 140, 159, 109, 173, 181,
195, 206, 229. 278, 279, 28!, 284,
287, 292, 307, 311,314, 320, 340.
Virginia , see Merrimac.
Virginia Company, 41, 53, 55, 58.
Virginia Military Institute, 220.
Virginia Resolutions, 195, 245.
voters and voting, 65, 00, 68, 09, 78,
83, 100, 148, 192, 253, 272, 339,
340, 359, 300, 301, 413.
Wa'bash River, 217.
wam'pum, 9, 73, 88.
War, Black Hawk, 244.
Creek, 244.
French and Indian, 113-122, 124,
126, 136, 139, 198, 200.
King George’s, 112, 113.
King Philip’s, 84-80.
King William’s, 106, 108.
Modoc, 347.
of 1812, 216-226, 230, 240, 241,
245, 252.
of Revolution, 137-174, 188, 225,
281, 303, 309.
lxxx
INDEX
War of Secession, 181, 191, 203,
285-333, 338, 347,357, 366, 388,
400, 408, 412.
Pequot, 71.
Pontiac’s, 123.
Queen Anne’s, 107, 108, 109.
Seminole, 244.
Seven Years’, see IFar, French
and Indian.
Sioux, 347.
with Barbary States, 210, 211, 220,
227.
with Mexico, 259-263, 284, 294,
303, 393.
with Spain, 370-375, 376, 390,
393, 395, 397.
war debts, 126, 184, 185, 226, 329,
330, 331, 337, 375.
War. Department of, 184, 194, 336.
War'ren, General Joseph, 142.
Washington, Booker, 388.
Washington, George, 77, 114, 115,
11(5, 117, 135, 139, 142, 143, 144,
145 ; 149, 150, 151, 152, 156, 157,
158, 159, 165,169, 170, 173, 17(5,
182-192, 205, 215, 225, 303,
389.
Washington (state), 259, 359, 413.
Washington City, 2<>0, 223, 251, 256,
29f, 292, 302, 306, 307, 321, 322,
332, 363, 414.
Washington and Lee University,
340 ^
Water loo, battle of, 229.
waterways of North America, 2, 3,
391, 392, 396.
Watt, James, 201.
Wayne, General Anthony, 159, 187.
weapons, Indian, 8.
of seventeenth century, 61.
of twentieth century, 382, 417.
Web'ster, Daniel, 228, 245, 247, 254,
2(58, 269, 281.
Wes'ley, John and Charles, 111.
West, Benjamin, 202.
West, industries of, 199, 200, 230,
231, 380, 381.
settlement of, 135, 136, 199, 200,
230, 251, 254.
West Indies, 24, 85, 112, 292, 300.
West Jersey, 81, 86, 110.
West Point, New York, 165, 294,
303.
West Virginia, 311, 330.
Wey'ler, General, 266.
wheat, 65, 197, 199, 212, 363, 379.
Whig party, 252, 256, 357.
Whigs, see Patriots in Revolution.
Whisky Insurrection, 187, 188.
‘ Whisky King,’ 344.
Wins'tier, J. McNeil, 386.
White, Captain John, 38.
White Plains, battle of, 150.
Whlt'field, George, 111.
WhTt'ney, Eli, 190.
Whit'ti er, John G., 274, 275, 385.
wigwams, 8.
Wii'derness, battle of, 319.
Wilkes, Captain Charles, 293.
Wil'lard, Frances, 346, 413.
Wil'liam of Orange, III., king of
England, 90, 102.
William and Mary College, 98, 204.
William Henry, Fort, 118.
Wil'liams, Roger, 68, 69, 70, 71.
Wil'liamsburg, Virginia, 139.
WU'ming ton, North Carolina, 169,
324.
Wil'mot Pro vi'so, 263.
Wil'son, Woodrow, 386, 408, 409-
418.
Wilson, Mrs. Woodrow, 414.
Wiison Tariff Act. 363.
Win'ches ter, battle of, 322.
WIn'throp, John, 63, 64, (56, 99.
Wisconsin, 161, 231, 244, 263.
witchcraft, 90, 91.
Wolfe, General James, 119, 120, 122,
144.
woman suffrage, 359, 413. See
suffrage.
Woman’s Christian Temperance
Union, 346, 399, 413.
women in War of Revolution, 148.
in War of Secession, 309.
sent to colonies, 53, 109.
women’s work in colonies, 93, 100.
welfare work, 257, 346, 413, 414.
wool and woolen goods, 93, 226, 227,
240, 288, 360, 402, 410.
working day, length of, 257, 397.
World’s Fair, at Philadelphia, 346,
347.
at Chicago, 365.
Wright, Orville and Wilbur, 406.
Writs of Assistance, 125.
INDEX
lxxxi
Wy o'ming, 200, 259, 263, 359, 413.
Wyoming Valley, massacre, 159.
X Y Z Papers, 193, 194.
YM'kin River, 168.
Yale College, 98, 203.
yellow fever, 108, 187, 384, 385, 398.
Y6rk, Canada, 221.
York and Albany, Duke of, 80, 81,
87, 89. See also James II.
Ydrk'town, Virginia, 170, 303.
York River, 303.
Young, Brigham, 251.
Young Men’s Christian Association,
252.
Young Women’s Christian Associa¬
tion, 252.
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