area handbook series Sudan a country study Sudan a country study Federal Research Division Library of Congress Edited by Helen Chapin Metz On the cover: An Nilain Mosque, at the site of the confluence of the Blue Nile and White Nile in Khartoum Fourth Edition, First Printing, 1992. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Sudan : a country study / Federal Research Division, Library of Congress ; edited by Helen Chapin Metz. — 4th ed. p. cm. — (Area handbook series, ISSN 1057-5294) (DA pam ; 550-27) " Research completed June 1991." "Supersedes the 1982 edition of Sudan: a country study, edited by Harold D. Nelson" — T.p. verso. Includes bibliographical references (pp. 289-304) and index. ISBN 0-8444-0750-X 1. Sudan. I. Metz, Helen Chapin, 1928- . II. Library of Congress. Federal Research Division. III. Series. IV. Series: DA pam ; 550-27. DT154.6.S93 1992 92-21336 962.4— dc20 CIP Headquarters, Department of the Army DA Pam 550-27 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 Foreword This volume is one in a continuing series of books prepared by the Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress under the Country Studies/ Area Handbook Program sponsored by the Department of the Army. The last page of this book lists the other published studies. Most books in the series deal with a particular foreign country, describing and analyzing its political, economic, social, and national security systems and institutions, and examining the interrelation- ships of those systems and the ways they are shaped by cultural factors. Each study is written by a multidisciplinary team of social scientists. The authors seek to provide a basic understanding of the observed society, striving for a dynamic rather than a static portrayal. Particular attention is devoted to the people who make up the society, their origins, dominant beliefs and values, their com- mon interests and the issues on which they are divided, the nature and extent of their involvement with national institutions, and their attitudes toward each other and toward their social system and political order. The books represent the analysis of the authors and should not be construed as an expression of an official United States govern- ment position, policy, or decision. The authors have sought to adhere to accepted standards of scholarly objectivity. Corrections, additions, and suggestions for changes from readers will be wel- comed for use in future editions. Louis R. Mortimer Chief Federal Research Division Library of Congress Washington, D.C. 20540 111 Acknowledgments The authors wish to acknowledge the contributions of the writers of the 1982 edition of Sudan: A Country Study, edited by Harold D. Nelson. Their work provided general background for the present volume. The authors are grateful to individuals in various government agencies and private institutions who gave of their time, research materials, and expertise in the production of this book. The in- dividuals included Ralph K. Benesch, who oversees the Country Studies/ Area Handbook Program for the Department of the Army. The authors also wish to thank members of the Federal Research Division staff who contributed directly to the preparation of the manuscript. These people included Sandra W. Meditz, who re- viewed all graphic and textual material and served as liaison with the sponsoring agency, Marilyn Majeska, who managed editing and book production, and Joshua Sinai, who contributed additional research. Also involved in preparing the text were editorial assistants Barbara Edgerton and Izella Watson; Ruth Nieland, who edited the chapters; Catherine Schwartzstein, who performed the prepub- lication editorial review; and Joan C. Cook, who compiled the index. Malinda B. Neale and Linda Peterson of the Library of Con- gress Composing Unit prepared the camera-ready copy under the supervision of Peggy Pixley. Graphics were prepared by David P. Cabitto, and Tim L. Merrill reviewed map drafts. David P. Cabitto and Greenhorne and O'Mara prepared the final maps. Special thanks are owed to Marty Ittner, who prepared the illustrations on the tide page of each chap- ter, and Wayne Home, who did the cover art. Finally, the authors acknowledge the generosity of many indi- viduals and public and private agencies, especially the Embassy of the Republic of Sudan, who allowed their photographs to be used in this study. Contents Page Foreword iii Acknowledgments v Preface xiii Country Profile xv Introduction xxiii Chapter 1. Historical Setting 1 Thomas Ofcansky EARLY HISTORY 3 Cush 4 Meroe 5 Christian Nubia 6 THE COMING OF ISLAM 9 The Arabs 9 The Decline of Christian Nubia 11 The Rule of the Kashif 11 The Funj 12 The Fur 13 THE TURKIYAH, 1821-85 14 THE MAHDIYAH, 1884-98 18 The Khalifa 20 Reconquest of Sudan 21 THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN CONDOMINIUM, 1899-1955 23 Britain's Southern Policy 26 Rise of Sudanese Nationalism 29 The Road to Independence 30 The South and the Unity of Sudan 31 INDEPENDENT SUDAN 32 The Politics of Independence 32 The Abbud Military Government, 1958-64 36 Return to Civilian Rule, 1964-69 37 THE NIMEIRI ERA, 1969-85 41 Revolutionary Command Council 41 The Southern Problem 43 Political Developments 46 National Reconciliation 47 vii THE TRANSITIONAL MILITARY COUNCIL 49 SADIQ AL MAHDI AND COALITION GOVERNMENTS 51 Chapter 2. The Society and Its Environment 55 Robert 0. Collins PHYSICAL SETTING 58 Geographical Regions 58 Soils 63 Hydrology 64 Climate 65 POPULATION 67 ETHNICITY 69 Language 69 Ethnic Groups 72 THE SOCIAL ORDER 88 Northern Arabized Communities 89 Southern Communities 93 Urban and National Elites 96 Women and the Family 98 RELIGIOUS LIFE 100 Islam: Tenets and Practice 100 Islamic Movements and Religious Orders 104 Christianity 107 Indigenous Religions 107 EDUCATION 110 Girls' Education 115 Education Reform 116 HEALTH 118 Chapter 3. The Economy 125 Robert 0. Collins ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 129 FOREIGN AID 135 PRICES, EMPLOYMENT, WAGES, AND UNIONS 137 Prices 137 Employment 138 Wages 139 Unions 140 AGRICULTURE, LIVESTOCK, FISHERIES, AND FORESTRY 142 Land Use 144 Land Tenure 145 Irrigated Agriculture 147 viii Rainfed Agriculture 151 Livestock 153 Fisheries 156 Forestry 158 MANUFACTURING 160 MINING 164 ENERGY SOURCES AND SUPPLY 166 Electric Power 166 Petroleum Use and Domestic Resources 168 TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATIONS 172 Railroads 172 Roads 176 Inland Waterways 178 Civil Aviation 180 Marine Ports and Shipping 182 Pipelines 184 Communications 184 FINANCE 185 Banking 185 Islamic Banking 186 FOREIGN TRADE AND BALANCE OF PAYMENTS 187 Foreign Trade 187 Balance of Payments 190 Chapter 4. Government and Politics 195 Eric Hooglund INSTITUTIONS OF GOVERNMENT 199 Revolutionary Command Council for National Salvation 200 The Presidency 200 Council of Ministers 201 Parliamentary Government 201 Constitutional Development 202 Regional and Local Administration 203 THE LEGAL SYSTEM 206 Courts 210 Human Rights 211 SOUTHERN AND WESTERN SUDAN 212 Southern Sudan 212 Western Sudan 215 POLITICAL GROUPS 215 Umma Party 217 Democratic Unionist Party 218 The Muslim Brotherhood 219 ix The Republican Brothers 219 Secular Political Parties 220 Sudanese People's Liberation Movement 221 INFORMATION MEDIA 221 Newspapers 221 Radio and Television 222 FOREIGN RELATIONS 222 Egypt 223 Libya 224 Chad 225 Relations with Other African States 225 Relations with Other Arab States 226 United States 227 Relations with Other Countries 228 Chapter 5. National Security 229 Jean R. Tartter THE MILITARY IN NATIONAL LIFE 232 Development of the Armed Forces 233 Role in Government 234 The Armed Forces in Sudanese Society 237 EXTERNAL SECURITY CONCERNS 239 CIVIL WARFARE IN THE SOUTH 240 First Civil War, 1955-72 241 Renewed Civil Warfare, 1983- 242 SUDANESE PEOPLE'S ARMED FORCES 244 Army 245 Air Force 248 Air Defense Command 250 Navy 250 Personnel 251 Training 253 Uniforms, Ranks, and Insignia 254 Defense Costs 254 PARAMILITARY GROUPS 255 FOREIGN MILITARY ASSISTANCE 259 SUDANESE PEOPLE'S LIBERATION ARMY 262 STATE OF INTERNAL SECURITY 264 INTERNAL SECURITY AGENCIES 266 Sudan Police Force 266 Security Organizations 270 CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM 271 Incidence of Crime 273 Prison System 274 x Appendix. Tables 277 Bibliography 289 Glossary 305 Index 309 List of Figures 1 Administrative Divisions of Sudan, 1991 xxii 2 The Mahdist State, 1881-98 22 3 Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1899-1955 28 4 Topography and Drainage 60 5 Principal Ethnolinguistic Groups, 1991 76 6 Transportation System, 1991 174 7 Organization of the Government, 1991 208 8 The Civil War in Southern Sudan, Spring 1991 244 9 Organization of the Armed Forces, 1991 246 10 Military Ranks and Insignia, 1991 256 xi Preface This edition of Sudan: A Country Study replaces the previous edi- tion, published in 1982. Like its predecessor, the present book at- tempts to treat in a compact and objective manner the dominant historical, social, economic, political, and national security aspects of contemporary Sudan. Sources of information included schol- arly books, journals, and monographs; official reports and docu- ments of governments and international organizations; and foreign and domestic newspapers and periodicals. Relatively up-to-date economic data were lacking. Chapter bibliographies appear at the end of the book; brief com- ments on some of the more valuable sources for further reading appear at the conclusion of each chapter. Measurements are given in the metric system; a conversion table is provided to assist those who are unfamiliar with the metric system (see table 1 , Appen- dix). The Glossary provides brief definitions of terms that may be unfamiliar to the general reader. The transliteration of Arabic words and phrases posed a partic- ular problem. For many of the words — such as Muhammad, Mus- lim, Quran, and shaykh — the authors followed a modified version of the system adopted by the United States Board on Geographic Names and the Permanent Committee on Geographic Names for British Official Use, known as the BGN/PCGN system; the modifi- cation entails the omission of all diacritical markings and hyphens. In numerous instances, however, the names of persons or places are so well known by another spelling that to have used the BGN/PCGN system may have created confusion. The reader will find Khartoum for the city rather than Al Khartum (the latter form is used for the state by that name), Roseires Dam rather than Ar Rusayris, and the Mahdi rather than Muhammad Ahmad ibn as Sayyid Abd Allah. Place-names pose another problem in that the government changed the administrative divisions of Sudan in February 1991. The country was then divided into nine states, generally with names and borders similar to the historical provinces of the colonial period and early independence. Readers will thus find Bahr al Ghazal and Kurdufan, for example, referred to either as states or as provinces depending on the context. The body of the text reflects information available as of June 1991. Certain other portions of the text, however, have been up- dated. The Introduction discusses significant events that have oc- curred since the completion of research, and the Country Profile and Glossary include updated information as available. Xlll Country Profile Country Formal Name: Democratic Republic of Sudan. Short Form: Sudan. Term for Citizens: Sudanese. Capital: Khartoum. Date of Independence: January 1, 1956. Geography Size: Total area 2,505,813 square kilometers; land area 2,376,000 square kilometers; coastline 716 kilometers; largest country in Africa. NOTE — The Country Profile contains updated information as available. xv Topography: Plateau and plains predominate. Mountainous areas behind Red Sea coast, in far south, and in far west. Only interior highlands of consequence are Nuba Mountains west of White Nile River. All significant streams flow to White Nile and Blue Nile rivers, which join just north of Khartoum to form River Nile. Ex- tensive swamps in south, especially along Bahr al Ghazal (southern- most part of White Nile). Climate: Rainfall ranges from rare and occasional in far northern desert to relatively abundant and frequent (rainy seasons of six to nine months) in southern third of Sudan. In most years central third has enough rain for agriculture but lack of rain in 1980s and 1991 caused years of drought. Dust storms (often preceding rain- storms) common in north and northern parts of central Sudan, reducing visibility and causing much discomfort. Mean tempera- tures and daily maximums generally high; desert temperatures often quite cool at night. Society Population: Census of 1983 set population at 21.6 million peo- ple; July 1990 population estimate approximately 25 million. An- nual growth rate between 2.8 and 3.1 percent. Half of population under eighteen years of age. About 20 percent of population urban, concentrated chiefly in three cities — Khartoum, Omdurman, and Khartoum North — constituting national capital area. Languages: About 400 languages, but Arabic primary and offi- cial language. English common second language in south. Other languages include Bedawiye used by Beja and various dialects of Niger-Kurdufanian and Nilo-Saharan. Ethnic Groups: Largest ethnic category in 1983 (nearly 40 per- cent of total, nearly 55 percent in north) comprises those considering themselves Arabs, but category internally split by regional and tribal loyalties and affiliation to various Muslim politico-religious groups. Major Muslim (but non-Arab) groups are Nubians in far north, nomadic Beja in northeast, and Fur in west. Southern non-Muslim groups include Dinka (more than 10 percent of total population and 40 percent in south), Nuer, and numerous smaller Nilotic and other ethnic groups. Religion: More than half of total population Muslim, most living in north where Muslims constitute 75 percent or more of popula- tion. Relatively few Christians, most living in south. Most people xvi in south and substantial minority in north adherents of various in- digenous religions. Education: Six-year primary education increasingly available, but in early 1990s the south and many northern communities still suffered from shortage of schools and teachers; many schools in south destroyed by civil war. Small proportion of primary school graduates continued in three-year junior secondary and upper secondary schools or attended technical schools. Most schools in urban locations; many lacked adequately trained teachers. Univer- sities producing adequate numbers of highly educated graduates but Sudanese with skills relevant to largely agricultural economy still in short supply. Estimate of adult literacy about 30 percent. Health: By 1991 civil war had destroyed most medical facilities in the south, and famine in 1980s and 1991 had serious impact on general health. Weak modern medical infrastructure suffering personnel shortages and urban-rural imbalance; most personnel and facilities concentrated in capital area. Malaria and gastrointes- tinal diseases prevalent through much of country; tuberculosis wide- spread in north but also occurs in south; schistosomiasis (snail fever) more restricted to territory near White Nile and Blue Nile rivers and adjacent irrigated areas; sleeping sickness spreading in south; acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) also increasing. Economy Salient Features: Government-dominated mixed economy. Modern agriculture sector and most of modern industry controlled by government corporations directly or through joint ventures; vir- tually all small- and medium-sized industry, most services, tradi- tional agriculture, and handicrafts controlled privately. Civil war in south, massive influx of refugees from neighboring countries, and drought in 1980s and 1991 have hampered economic develop- ment. New economic recovery program announced June 1990 to end economic stagnation, develop agriculture, liberalize trade, abol- ish most government monopolies, progressively eliminate budget deficit, and develop energy resources. Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries, and Forestry: Agriculture and livestock raising provided livelihood for 61 percent of working popu- lation and roughly 95 percent of exports in early 1990s. Agricul- ture characterized by modern market-oriented sector of irrigated and mechanized rainfed farming concentrated in central part of country and large traditional sector engaged in subsistence activi- ties elsewhere. Principal modern sector crops: cotton, sorghum, xvii peanuts, sugarcane, wheat, sesame. Traditional sector crops: sor- ghum, millet, sesame, peanuts. Fisheries still largely subsistence occupation. Apart from gum arabic, a major export, forests used mainly for fuel. Manufacturing: Public enterprises dominant in modern manufac- turing activity, mainly foodstuffs, beverages, textiles. Output of government plants generally well below capacities because of raw materials shortages, power outages, lack of spare parts, and lack of competent managerial staff and skilled laborers. Three-quarters of large-scale modern manufacturing in Al Khartum State. Mining: Contributed less than 1 percent to gross domestic product (GDP) in 1990. Most petroleum exploration operations ended in 1984 because of civil war in south and had not resumed as of mid- 1991. Energy: Chief sources of energy in 1992: domestic wood, char- coal, hydroelectric power, imported petroleum; large hydroelec- tric potential only partially exploited. Central area of country served by electric power grid; some towns elsewhere had local generating facilities. Foreign Trade: Agricultural products (cotton, gum arabic, peanuts, sesame, livestock) dominate exports. Large trade deficit since late 1970s, accentuated by increased costs of petroleum im- ports. Main destinations of exports in 1986: Saudi Arabia, Japan, Britain, other European Community (EC) members. Main sup- pliers: Saudi Arabia (petroleum), Britain, other EC members, United States, Japan, China. Transportation Railroads: In 1991 government-owned Sudan Railways operated about 4,800 kilometers of 1.067-meter-gauge rail lines from Port Sudan to most major interior production and consumption centers except in far south. Also 716 kilometers of 1 .6096-meter- gauge plan- tation line. Substantial loss of rail traffic to road transport after mid-1970s attributable to inefficient operations, but railroad still important for low-cost volume movement of agricultural exports and for inland delivery of heavy capital equipment, construction materials, and other goods for economic development. Roads: In 1991 road system of between 20,000 and 25,000 kilo- meters, of which more than 2,000 kilometers paved or asphalted and about 3,700 kilometers gravel. Remaining roads fair-weather earth and sand tracks. xvin Inland Waterways: In 1991 about 1,750 kilometers navigable, but service on White Nile River in south largely discontinued by civil war. Civil Aviation: Government-owned Sudan Airways in 1991 provided scheduled domestic air transport service to about twenty towns; international service by Sudan Airways and foreign airlines. Khartoum International principal airport; seven other airports had paved runways. Marine Ports and Shipping: Port Sudan and Sawakin on Red Sea only deepwater ports; some modern port equipment available but most cargo handling manual. National merchant marine (ten ships of 122,200 deadweight tons in 1990) operated to Red Sea, Mediterranean, European ports. Pipelines: Petroleum-products pipeline, 815 kilometers long, from Port Sudan to Khartoum; intermediate offtake point at Atbarah. Government and Politics Government: All executive and legislative powers vested in Revolu- tionary Command Council for National Salvation (RCC-NS), a fifteen-member body of military officers. RCC-NS chairman Lieu- tenant General Umar Hassan Ahmad al Bashir designated presi- dent of the republic and prime minister. RCC-NS appointed members of Council of Ministers, or cabinet, governors of states, and judges of courts. In mid-February 1992, Bashir announced formation of appointed 300-member Transitional National Assem- bly. No plans for new elections announced as of mid- 1992. Govern- ment's authority in southern one- third of Sudan in mid- 1992 concentrated around towns, a number of which had been retaken from the Sudanese People's Liberation Army (SPLA) during 1991-92 campaign. Administrative Divisions: In 1991 RCC-NS decreed division of Sudan into nine states. Each state further subdivided into provinces and local government areas or districts. Justice: Court system consisted of civil and special courts. Civil courts required to appjy Islamic law, or sharia, but also permitted to consider customary law in reaching decisions. Apex of civil ju- dicial system was High Court of Appeal. Lower courts consisted of state courts of appeal and at local level, major courts and mag- istrate's courts. Special courts, under military jurisdiction, dealt with offenses affecting national security or involving official cor- ruption. xix Politics: Although RCC-NS banned all political parties in 1989, it tolerated political activity by National Islamic Front (NIF), a coalition dominated by the Muslim Brotherhood. Leaders of other parties had reorganized abroad or in southern areas outside govern- ment control. Sudanese People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) drew support from predominandy non-Muslim and non-Arab population of the south. Foreign Affairs: Prior to 1989 coup, Sudan had relatively close relations with Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and United States, and had history of tense relations with Libya. RCC-NS changed orienta- tion of Sudan's foreign policy, particularly by supporting Iraq dur- ing Persian Gulf War of 1990-91. Saudi Arabia and Kuwait retaliated by suspending economic assistance, which constituted crucial component of government's budget. National Security Armed Forces: In 1991 Sudanese People's Armed Forces (SPAF) totaled approximately 71,500 personnel; army had about 65,000; air force and air defense command each had about 3,000; navy had about 500. Major Tactical Units: SPAF organized into six regional commands having divisional structures. Main units: two armored brigades, one mechanized infantry brigade, one airborne brigade, one air assault brigade, seventeen infantry brigades, three artillery regi- ments, two antiaircraft artillery brigades, and one engineering regi- ment. Strengths of brigades, battalions, and companies varied greatly. Air force organized into two fighter- ground attack squad- rons and two fighter squadrons, of which only one functioning, plus transport squadron, unarmed helicopter squadron, and training aircraft. Air defense command equipped with radar-directed anti- aircraft guns and Soviet SA-2 missiles. Naval forces, under army command, had some functioning river patrol boats but little or no capacity to patrol Red Sea coast. Much of armed forces equipment nonoperational because of poor maintenance and lack of spare parts. Civil War: Since 1983 armed rebellion has been conducted by forces of Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) with estimated strength of 50,000 to 60,000 in 1991. SPLA controlled most rural areas of the south, government forces holding major towns. In 1991-92 government forces launched campaign and captured many SPLA-held centers. SPLA armed with light weapons, shoulder- fired antiaircraft missiles, some artillery and rocket launchers, and a few armored vehicles. Government forces assisted by tribal militia xx groups, which were guilty of many atrocities against civilians in the south. Government also organized in 1989 paramilitary body called Popular Defence Forces that participated in 1991-92 cam- paign in the south. Military Assistance: Most military equipment supplied by Soviet Union, 1968-71; limited cooperation with Soviet Union continued until 1977. Egypt and China subsequently became prominent sup- pliers. In early 1980s, United States became principal source of aid, notably aircraft, tanks, armored vehicles, and artillery. United States aid sharply reduced in 1983 and formally terminated in 1989. Defense Costs: Official data unavailable; defense budget estimated at US$610 million in 1989, constituting 7.2 percent of gross na- tional product. Internal Security Forces: National police (Sudan Police Force) totaled about 30,000. State Security Organisation main instrument of domestic intelligence and internal security until 1985. After 1989 military coup, separate Islamic-oriented security bodies formed to suppress opposition to regime. xxi CENTRAL ■ ( AFRICAN ; REPUBUC ~^'( International boundary Administrative boundary State boundary ® National capital ® State capital 50 100 150 Kilometers 50 100 150 Miles A, ALISTIWAI 1 "V y~ ..