! I i / I # Allfather in Hildskjalf TALES FROM THE Norse Grandmother, (TIIE ELDER EDM.) ? BY AUGUSTA LARNED, » * ' Author of “Old Tales Retold from Grecian Mythology, Etc.” CINCINNATI : WALDEN <& STOWE. 1 88l. V Copyright 1880, PHIL Li IPS & N.*w York. t. t s by „ II U N T , PREFACE. T HE Norse myths are only the ideals of our an- cestors — a more or less perfect string of crystals — preserved amid the forgotten dust and rubbish of the past. They are the thoughts and beliefs of those old men and women, which they strove to express in daily life. Childish as some of them may seem, they shaped the destiny of a powerful nation, and furnished it with motives of action. I think our young people ought to know something of these myths, because they belong to our family his- tory. They are part of the archives of the race. Norse mythology is perhaps chiefly valuable as the source of unnumbered superstitions, which still live in the fancy of the ignorant and fetter multitudes of minds. Mr. Baring-Gould says we can look through the Norse myths as through glacier ice, and see where most of our popu- lar superstitions lie embedded. We shall see that many of them sprang out of our an- cestors’ thoughts about nature and the different orders of beings supposed to people the earth. Myths die very hard, and what were once mere mountains and thunder-clouds live on, after the meaning has escaped, to scare the mind in the form of giants and hobgoblins. 4 PREFACE. There were myths of exceeding beauty born in the North, and if we study them we shall learn to respect the ancient poets of our race, who struggled with the same great questions that occupy the minds of scholars and thinkers to-day. We shall see the mighty change Christianity has wrought in the old types of character, and how Odin, the all-powerful Valfather, was doomed to die. The myths are, many of them, attractive wonder- stories, filled with the quaint conceits of Northern fancy. They have given birth to the richest folk-lore in the world. They are the treasure-house from which mate- rials have been drawn to amuse and interest the children of countless generations. They are like the old Egyp- tian temples, that have been pulled down piecemeal during centuries to build the little huts of the poor. Because I have felt that the ancient religion of our own great race ought not to be entirely unknown to the young, I have undertaken to give in this volume all the myths, with such slight historical sketches as I trusted would render them more intelligible, and perhaps throw a little light on some of the strange doctrines held by our remote ancestors. 4 CONTENTS. CHAPTER PAGE I. Introduction — Who was Edda? 7 II. The Ancient German 18 III. Life in Old Germany 32 IV. The Age of Harald Fairhair 46 V. Life in Ancient Iceland 61 VI. Life in Ancient Iceland — Continued 76 VII. The Two Olafs 90 VIII. A Glance at the ^Esir, and the Asa Faith 105 IX. How the Universe was Made from the Giant Ymir’s Body 118 * * . • , X. The Nine Worlds, the Heavenly Houses, and the Creation of Ask and Embla 133 XI. Yggdrasil, the Universe-tree 145 XII. Allfather in History and in Nature 161 XIII. Valfather and Valhalla 175 XIV. Odin’s Horse and the Poetic Mead 188 XV. Odin’s Adventures and Iduna’s Apples 201 XVI. Thor and the Forging of his Hammer 214 XVII. Thor’s Adventures with the Metal-king and the Stony-hearted Giant 227 XVIII. How Thor went Fishing for the Midgard Ser- pent 240 XIX. Thor and Utgard Loki 256 XX. Thor and Utgard Loki — Concluded 268 XXL Njord and Frey, and their Brides Skadi and Gerda 282 6 CONTENTS. CHAPTER PAGE XXII. Loki and his Children — the Fenris-wolf, Hel, and Midgard Serpent 296 XXIII. The Death of Baldur 308 XXIV. Baldur’ s Funeral 320 XXV. Loki’s Punishment 334 XXVI. The Twilight of the Gods 348 XXVII. A New Creation 360 XXVIII. The Lesser Gods 373 XXIX. The Asynjur 386 XXX. Morality, Social Life, and Ancient Worship. 402 XXXI. Folk-Lore and Popular Superstitions 416 — . Illustration:, Allfather in Hildsicjalf Frontispiece. TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION — WHO WAS EDDA? I HAVE named my little book after the Norse Great-Grandmother because, my young read- ers, she is your great-grandmother and mine ; in- deed, she is the great-grandmother of all the Ger- man and English speaking peoples, and probably, in a remote way, of the Celtic races also. But of that it is not necessary to speak, because it takes us too wide of our subject. Her name is Edda, which means ancestress, or grandmother. She is a very aged dame — hundreds, perhaps thousands, of years old — and her memory for what happened in the dim past is still clear and bright, though she cares not at all for the hurry and bustle of her remote descendants, who have spread over so large a part of the earth’s surface, and are called by so large a variety of names, but who have some kindred blood coursing in their veins, whether they be called Danes in Denmark, Norwegians in Norway, Dutchmen in Holland, Germans in Ger- many, or Englishmen in England and America. 8 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. The Great-Grandmother is the old lady of history, of poetry, of romance, and religion, whose only busi- ness is to remember. In the ancient Norse tongue she is called Edda, and you will learn that there is an elder and a younger Edda; but the younger is the direct descendant of the elder, and derives all her knowledge and importance from her. There- fore, we might aptly call them Great-Grandmother and Grandmother Edda. The two Eddas, as you may know, are two Ice- landic books containing the oldest account of Norse mythology and legend ; and I shall explain to you how it happens that nearly all we know of ancient Northern religion, which is believed on good grounds to be the religion of our Saxon, Danish, and Nor- man forefathers, comes to us from Iceland, which has very prettily been called the foster-mother of Northern history. Were it not for that desolate, ice-bound, volcanic island, lying on the verge of the Arctic circle, we should be far poorer in the annals of our great race than we are to-day. Every En- glish and American child owes a debt of gratitude to Iceland for preserving so much that is valuable and instructive about his or her Northern ancestors. Is it not very strange that from this cold by-corner of the world should come nearly all we know of the Norseman, or Northman, while he still remained a pagan worshiper of Odin and Thor, Njord and Frey? That worship was probably spread over the whole of northern Europe, but when Christianity took root and prevailed there nearly every vestige of it was swept away. Men did not care to inquire what INTRODUCTION — WHO WAS EDDA? 9 their ancestors had believed in the old time, but we, to-day, are very curious and eager to know what our ancestors believed. We feel that we cannot know what manner of men they were unless we know what they thought and how they felt about the chief concerns of the soul and of human life ; about God and destiny and immortality. We must know them to know ourselves, and to get down to the roots of a great many things that exist in us to-day. The youngest little child is only what the long ages have made him. The past lives in him as well as the present. This is a great thought, and hard to understand, but you will comprehend it better when I show you that many of the nursery tales that were told to you in your cradle are the remains of that old heathen faith in which our forefathers so de- voutly believed. Now, while Europe was too busy or too heedless to gather up those precious old myths and tradi- tions, before they faded out of the popular mind and were forgotten, the learned Icelanders, during their long half-year of night, found time and zeal to do this very work, and to do it well. The whole history of Iceland is a captivating romance ; and, in order to show what the life of the North really was in the middle of the ninth century, I shall have to transport you to that frozen island, because there we find data for repainting the picture, which does not exist elsewhere. Owing to its isolation and en- tire independence, old habits and modes of living were retained in Iceland after they had been con- siderably modified in Norway, the mother country; IO TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. and to this day much in the Icelander’s way of life can be directly traced back to hdathen times^when Thor was the beloved god of the island worshipers. Northern mythology has a peculiar interest to those who find the study of old myths the most de- lightful and fascinating of pursuits. It excels in grandeur, sublimity, and power, but it does not equal the Grecian mythology in beauty, symmetry, or poetic suggestiveness. The Greek mythology reflects the repose and tranquility of the Greek mind. The Norse mythology reflects the wild, un- tamed energy and restlessness of the Norse nature. The impulse which made the Norsemen precipitate themselves in floods and tidal waves over many parts of Europe struck the ke^-note of their relig- ious faith. Owing to the severe nature of the cli- mate, the rugged wildness and grandeur of the scenery, they developed in strength and power rather than in grace and in proportion. The war- like propensity grew out of all comparison with other traits of character, and had a striking effect on the development of the national religion. The element of wonder that abounds in these myths suggests the tremendous torrents and preci- pices, snow mountains and glaciers, with which the land abounds., and which infected the fancy of child- like, ignorant man like a fantastic nightmare. Some of them do singularly resemble sublime dreams, and I have been led to ask myself how the very first myths came into being ; if they did not spring from a kind of lethargy into which the mind was cast by contemplation of the wonders of nature, until from INTRODUCTION— WHO WAS EDDA > II these musings and communings grew those great fables that stalk along the Northern world like the shadow of the giant along the Brocken. These myths, though of the deepest general in- terest, are of especial importance to every girl and boy with a drop of Teutonic blood in their veins. It was formerly thought that myths were but wick- ed and foolish stories about idols and false gods, not worthy of much attention ; or, if attended td at all, only to be condemned. This view of the hea- then religion was encouraged by the early Christian priests, because they found the attachment of the people for the old faith strongly rooted, and hard to eradicate. They taught that some of the old gods were mere devils, while the attributes of others, especial favorites of the people, were transferred to Catholic saints. In this way most of the distin- guishing traits of Thor, the beloved god of Norway and Iceland, were bestowed upon the great St. Olaf. Though this treatment of the old faith may find some excuse in the necessities of a rude age, and the difficulty of grafting a new religion on the wild, fierce nature of the Northern people, it grew mainly out of ignorance and a want of respect for the relig- ious nature of mankind ; and the spirit which gave it birth is fast vanishing before more humane and enlightened views. We now know that all religions have some precious gleams of truth, however mixed with error; that, even though low and gross in their forms of worship, there was always a yearning, a vague reaching of the soul after God, “ if, haply, it might find him.” We now perceive that these an- 12 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. cient faiths must be studied in a charitable frame of mind, to discover how the human spirit has groped its way along the darkness of the ages to- ward a better and purer religion. Every Anglo-Saxon child should know something of the form and meaning of the Norse myths, which practically embody the religion of our ancestors. “The child is father to the man” has been beauti- fully said by a great poet. Acting on this hint, we go back to the early history of our race, and study its infancy, as far as it can be traced, with great profit and pleasure. Its first lispings, which have survived, about religion, and law, and government, and the mode of living together in communities, and securing order and justice, are of great impor- tance. There we find the germs of our own institu- tions, manners, and customs, and can trace them to their source. Religious ideas are generally allowed to be the oldest, and are certainly the most impor- tant, that belong to an individual, or to a nation. Some notion of how the world was made, of who made it, and governs it, is found in nearly every tribe as soon as it has produced a language which will express ideas apart from things — the images and thoughts of the mind as well as the names of objects. And, as you will see, the early history of races is so blended with their religious ideas, that you must study the one in order to discern the out- lines of the other. I think these myths have been too much neglect- ed by the young of English and German speaking peoples. They contain nearly all the poetry pro- INTRODUCTION— WHO WAS EDDA? 1 3 duced by the race for many ages, and their grandeur and beauty as poems have never been denied. They have been neglected because they have not been presented to the -young in an easy and attractive form. Many of the ancient poems are obscure and hard to understand ; and a multitude of scholars through two or three centuries labored to throw light upon the shadowed parts. It would take too long to recount their names, or their unremitting toils in this pursuit. Suffice it to say, that within the past fifty years, a great flood of light has been thrown on the whole field of mythology, which en- ables us to read easily some of the riddles of this Northern faith, and for want of which learned men have gone widely astray by seeking to solve them in accordance with their own ingenious theories. We shall see how these myths are connected with the Greek mythology, and, more remotely, with the Egyptian, Assyrian, Persian, Phoenician, and Hindu mythologies, that lie far back of the Greek, and are allied to it in the relation of maternal ancestors to children. The origin of the Norse faith is not easy to trace. It was undoubtedly brought from Asia by the emigrating tribes that finally peopled the north of Europe. But, scan it as closely as we may, we cannot discover that its gods are precisely the same as any pf the Eastern or old Greek divinities. The resemblances are striking, but the differences are equally striking. Tacitus, the Roman historian, who wrote a chronicle of the ancient Germans, thought he had discovered that their chief god was identical with the Roman Mercury and the Greek Hermes, 14 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. simply because Odin or Woden was ruler over the dead, and Mercury, as the messenger of Zeus, was employed to conduct the dead to Hades. But the connection was more apparent than real, and we shall see that though the Northern gods are more or less remotely connected with the Eastern and Greek gods, by type or general resemblance, they are not identical. I shall try to show you that although the Norse- men and the old Germans brought most of their gods with them from the ancient home in Asia, they probably borrowed some of them from the aboriginal peoples, who were subdued or driven farther to the North. Owing to the rigor of the climate, and the energy developed by hardship and privation, the Norseman became the best seaman and the boldest fighter of Europe. It is probable that in the course of centuries a great change took place in the Norseman’s character, and a corre- sponding change in the nature of his gods and his modes of worship. From a pastoral man, living by tillage and grazing, and the care of flocks and herds, he may gradually have been transformed into the bold viking and the tremendous fighter. But some traits of the original character were preserved. Life in the North was always more or less pastoral. In Iceland, in the most flourishing days of its inde- pendence, the great chiefs worked on their farms, and were also excellent seamen and redoubtable warriors. The national religion was gradually changed by the changes in national character ; but it retained enough of the original type to show its INTRODUCTION — WHO WAS EDDA ? I 5 alliance with the great Eastern systems of mytholo- gy, and we can see how and why, in the course of ages, these great changes took place. As the Norse religion has come down to us it seems in great part a creation of the Norse mind ; therefore, to comprehend it, we must know some- thing of the ancient Norse man and woman, and of life in the far North as early as the ninth century of our era. For this reason I intend to give you a slight sketch of Northern history and manners and ideas, as manifested in Norway and Iceland at this period — just sufficient to show you what manner of men our old Norse ancestors were; how they lived at home, and struggled and fought abroad, in the belief that unflinching courage and endurance would give them admittance to Valhalla, the blest abode of Odin. This will form some groundwork for understanding how their gods came into being, or were modified, and why they took the form and meaning they finally assumed. It seems a startling thing to say that God is made in the image of man, but a moment’s reflec- tion will show you that each man’s idea of God must be in accordance with the development of his mind, and the growth of his spirit toward reverence and worship. The lowest savage worships his dead ancestors, or bows down to a stick or stone, because he can conceive of no higher or better divinity. Poor and low as his worship is, it is a recognition of something wiser and stronger than himself, and even though he regard his divinity as an evil demon to be appeased by prayers and offerings, it is the 1 6 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. dim, pathetic beginning of religions faith. The idea of God, (in the absence of written revelation,) whether high or low, good or evil, must spring from the mind of man. Man is largely molded by the climate, the soil, air, water, winds, the sea, the shape and direction of mountain ranges, the animals, plants, the colors and forms, that surround him. Therefore, to know the man, we must know some- thing of his country ; to know his gods, we must know him, and thus, in a strange, new way, we ar- rive at the old Norse doctrine that both gods and men were fashioned from matter. But these gods are only the effect of that effort of man’s mind, of which I spoke, to give shape to a power which, we feel, but never see, that is in all and over all.* Myths should be studied by children, because, in part, they belong to the child-mind, and, however fantastic, they always embody a truth or fact of * Whether man be capable of arriving at the knowledge of God, independently of divine revelation, is a question whose affirmative side is incapable of demonstration. As a matter of fact, the human race has never been without some knowledge of the true God. In the primitive ages this knowledge was clear, and comparatively defi- nite. In the absence of written revelation, it was gradually cor- rupted and lost, and the nations sank into the depths of superstition and barbarism. “ When they knew God, they glorified him not as God, neither were thankful ; but became vain in their imaginations, and their foolish heart was darkened. Professing themselves to be wise, they became fools, and changed the glory of the uncorruptible God into an image made like to corruptible man, and to birds, and four-footed beasts, and creeping things. Wherefore God also gave them up,”' etc. Rom. i, 21, el seq. This is a terribly true description of hu- man apostasy and deterioration, and wholly in harmony with what is known of the history of different peoples. — Ed. INTRODUCTION — WHO WAS EDDA? 1 7 nature, which they cover, but do not quite conceal, by a poetical dress. Myths are in some sense such pictures as children make, before they begin to think, about persons whom they fancy are hidden behind mountains and rocks, in the sea and in clouds. But the thought comes later and fits itself to the picture, and thus the gods are clothed with attri- butes. Myths have an immense advantage over all purely fancy stories, because they are rooted in truth, and lead 6very-where to the study of nature and sympathy with all its forms. 2 1 8 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. CHAPTER II. THE ANCIENT GERMAN. E will now take a peep at the oldest man of V V our race that history describes. He is the ancient German, first cousin to the Scandinavian. At a time in the remote past, which it is now impos- sible for us to determine with accuracy, as it dates back to a period long previous to any written rec- ords which have been preserved to the world, we know that most of the families and tribes from which the modern European nations have sprung lived together with other allied families, like the Persians and the Hindus, somewhere in the wide regions of central or north-western Asia. It would take too long to explain minutely how we know this, but, in general terms, I can say that we know it from the kinship or likeness which exists between all their languages, showing that the races and tribes who spoke the common tongue were closely allied — were relatives in degree nearer or more remote. This vast ancient family was called the Aryan family, and we have a specimen of the language spoken by a branch of that family, before its tribes were scattered over the face of the earth, in Sanskrit, the most ancient tongue of the Hindus. The time when the great migration took place, THE ANCIENT GERMAN. 19 and the Aryan tribes poured into Europe, is now forgotten, for it occurred long before history began to be written. But the old myths and fairy tales, and even the old nursery rhymes, have not been forgotten. These were dearer to the people, and clung more tenaciously to the memory, than the story of their wanderings and wars and the con- quest and settlement of new lands. Some of these tales, which our Grandam Edda knew by heart, and many more, which furnished the foundation for what is called folk-lore, have survived, and out of them have been gleaned whole volumes of most de- lightful and instructive knowledge, which makes a dead and buried world rise before our eyes in fresh and living colors. We now know that a popular story, dear to the hearts of the children, and which is repeated at the fireside by successive generations of mothers and grandmothers, is one of the things the least likely to be forgotten. Traces of many of the little stories which pleased us in our infancy, and are delighting the children of to-day, can be found in nearly every allied language belonging to the Aryan group. But what I wish to call your attention to is the fact that many of these tales have their roots far back in the old mythology, which dealt with gods and super- natural beings, and thus preserve for us some faint traces of the religion of our forefathers. After the great migration, or successive waves of migration, had rolled over Europe out of Asia, and after centuries had passed away, great changes took place in the myths of the people and their ideas 20 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. about the gods. If we could trace them accurately we should see that they exactly correspond to out- ward and inward changes in the life of the people. The Greeks borrowed some of their religious ideas from the Pelasgians, probably the ancient inhabit- ants of Greece. They also borrowed from the Phoe- nicians, Assyrians, and Egyptians. The beliefs of their fathers, brought in dim ages past from the old Aryan home, were transformed in a thousand ways. The German and Scandinavian tribes spread over the north of Europe, and, in the course of ages, equally great, though not similar, changes there took place. A new faith arose on the foundations of the old, and the ancient myths were wrought into new forms. But remnants of that primitive faith can, doubtless, by patient research, be traced among all related nations. The Teutones, or Germans, to whom our Anglo- Saxon forefathers belonged, are closely allied to the Scandinavian races, and are members of the great Gothic family. Some of the gods of their worship ■we know to have been the same as the Scandina- vian gods, although the facts for reconstructing the old German religion are few and scanty. Roman history and tradition, where we would naturally look for such knowledge, contain no accounts of the early Scandinavians older than the wars of the Cimbri. Perhaps you already know that the Romans were the most powerful and highly-civilized nation on the earth at the time that some of the Northern tribes were naked savages, who painted their bodies THE ANCIENT GERMAN. 21 when they went into battle, like North American Indians. The Cimbri were the ancient inhabitants of Den- mark, who, suddenly and without warning, invaded the Roman Empire in a vast savage horde, in the year of Rome 640, or hi B. C. They streamed down from their dark northern forests like locust- swarms, and, uniting with a numerous savage tribe called the Teutones — the Germans — poured them- selves suddenly upon Gaul and Italy, spreading dis- may into minds that had never even heard of their existence. History has nothing to tell us of these mysterious Cimbri until nearly the whole nation took up its line -of march toward the South. It was the emigration of a people rather than the march of an army, for they traveled in wagons, with their wives and children and household goods and gear. We do not know what impulse drove them forth, but we can conjecture that they were poor and restless, hungry, perhaps, as savages often are, and incited by the hope of plunder and conquest. They were, doubtless, dazzled by stories of the riches and splendor of the Romans, which they flattered them- selves would fall an easy prey to their rude attacks. We do not even know whether these ancient in- habitants of Denmark were true Norsemen, but we may be tolerably certain that they belonged to the great Germanic family. More than three hundred thousand are said to have thrown themselves thus unprovoked upon the South. Twice they invaded Gaul, and the borders of Italy were imperiled, so that terror spread to the gates of mighty Rome. 22 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. For a time a portion of the invaders lingered on the banks of the Danube, and four Roman armies, which were successively destroyed, were sent against them. Their wild looks, gigantic stature, barbarous shouts, strange modes of warfare, and savage dress, struck dismay to the hearts of the veteran soldiers of old Rome, who had conquered in a hundred bat- tles. The great city quaked with fear, for she seemed wholly at the mercy of these strange foes, who had emerged from the dreadful Northern woods, which the excited fancy of that age peopled with monsters and hobgoblins. In a fortunate moment the great Marius, con- queror of Jugurtha, came home, and was appointed general-in-chief of the forces. He reorganized the army on a new and better plan, and applied himself to the study of the enemy’s tactics, and taught this new mode of warfare to his soldiers, trying to accustom his army to the sight of the savages until familiarity should breed contempt. At last, when his army was nerved for conquest, he drew on a great battle with the Teutones, and more than one hundred thousand of them are said to have perished. The Cimbri had separated themselves from their allies, and had halted on the banks of the Po. Marius came up with them, flushed with victory, and the Cimbri were exterminated. Their women sat on chariots and wagons around the battle-field, clothed in black, and bewailing the slain. Those of their husbands, sons, and brothers who had retreated from the fight they cut down and massacred with their own hands. Then these terrible women THE ANCIENT GERMAN. 23 dashed out the brains of their children, and threw themselves under chariot-wheels, hung themselves from trees and wagon-poles, or put each other to death, that they might not fall alive into the hands of the victorious Romans. One hundred and twenty thousand are said to have perished that day. A number of sacred women, priestesses or proph- etesses, clad in long white linen garments, accom- panied the Cimbri, in some sacred and mysterious character. We are told that this nation reverenced women. The wives and mothers had great author- ity with the people. In courage the women equaled, if they did not excel, the men. This strange, pathetic story of the Cimbri — a whole nation misled by a false hope, and revealed to the Romans only to be destroyed — is the first glimpse we have of the Norsemen, if Norsemen they were. That they were Norsemen, or some nearly-related branch of the Teutonic family, seems pretty clear. Respect for woman was one of the distinguishing qualities of that great race, which historians observed first and dwelt upon longest, bringing it out in vivid colors. In the story of the Cimbri we first discover the two types of Northern women which re-appear in all the old Norse legends and sagas from the earliest days down to historical times. One is the Amazonian woman, the fighter and inspirer of courage, who slays her husband or brother if he does not come back victorious from the battle ; the other is the priestess, or seeress, who forecasts the future and is endowed with divine attributes. Sometimes the two types are blended 24 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. in the same person, as in the case of Brynhild, who, as we shall see, united the warrior’s courage and strength with the supernatural gifts of a prophetess. It is difficult to recall these ferocious, gigantic, half- naked Cimbri, with their fierce women and broods of wild children, and see in them the beginnings of our own great race. But it is well ' to remember that we came remotely from just such savages, and that our propensities are only their natures tamed and civilized. The woods of northern Europe, as dense and tangled as the wildest American forest, were the cradle where the German and English na- tions were rocked, with a warrior woman sitting be- side it, and singing prophetic songs of the past and the future. Tacitus, the great Roman historian, who wrote in the first century of our era, has helped us to fill up and color the picture of our forefathers by his famous sketch of the manners and customs of the ancient Germans. In the time of Tacitus the Ro- mans had already been at war with the Northern tribes more than two hundred years. No power had ever proved so formidable to Roman rule as German love of liberty. The struggle was yet to go on for centuries, until the Northern hordes, like successive waves of the sea, had blotted out the empire, to give the world new races of men and a new age. German vigor and the sturdy spirit of independence became the inheritors of Roman civ- ilization and the spirit of law and order. But it is not of these things I am going to speak, but of the picture of our ancestors, drawn by Taci- THE ANCIENT GERMAN. 25 tus, while they still remained savages, and' had made but small clearings in the dense forests which then covered the sites of the grand old historic cities and towns of the North, and before they had learned to cultivate the ground, except in a poor and imper- fect manner. While they were still savages, rush- ing into battle naked, or with painted bodies, and with ferocious cries in imitation of wild beasts, many of the germs of our laws, customs, and modes of government already existed in the woods of Germany. The habits of the ancient inhabitants of northern Europe were probably similar, if not identical. They were divided into numerous tribes, partly migratory. At times they wandered about in search of subsistence ; and the restlessness of the savage nature, combined with hunger, often led them to throw themselves on the rich and well-cultivated lands of the South. In the time of Tacitus there were the beginnings of agricultural life among them. They had learned to raise wheat, from which they made fermented liquors, and from that time until now the Northern nations have been marked by their love of beer and spirits, and the pernicious habit of intemperance. Barbarous Germany was bounded on the west by the Rhine, on the south by the Danube, on the east by the River Vistula and the Sarmatian Mountains, and on the north by the Baltic and the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland. The northern ocean was almost unexplored ; for, in the time of Tacitus, the Romans had a childish dread of unknown regions, 2 6 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. and thought it almost impious to explore them. We must try to imagine Germany at that time as a vast region of mountains, forests, fens, and marshes. Tacitus speaks of it as a country where nature offered nothing but scenes of deformity ; a dreary region, without form or culture, or any thing to make life pleasant or even supportable. The most cultivated Romans had but little taste for wild nature. Had Tacitus been a modern he would probably have discovered some beauty and grandeur in the savage mountains and the wilderness of the North; but, finding the outward aspect of things cold and dreary, he turned his attention to the manners and customs of the people. In songs and ballads he heard the praises of the god Tuisto, who was born of the earth, and of his son Mannus. They were celebrated as the founders of the Ger- man race. Mannus had three sons, who were the founders of three German tribes. Nearly all nations have thus traced their lineage back to the gods, especially their line of kings, who united the office of high-priest to that of the kingly power, and became objects of worship. In remote ages the priest-king was the most sacred person in the world, and even in modern times we have heard of the divine right of kings, which is only a remnant of an old pagan form of worship. Tacitus discovered, as he believed, some traces of Greek and Roman worship among the early Ger- mans. They had a current tradition that Hercules had visited those regions, and had set up commem- orative pillars of himself somewhere on the north- THE ANCIENT GERMAN. 2 7 ern ocean. When rushing into battle they sang the praises of Hercules. Every ancient country had its Hercules, the embodiment of strength and en- durance. Thor resembles the Greek god in many respects, and may have been taken for him. Tra- ditions of the wanderings of Ulysses, the Greek Odysseus, can also be traced all over Europe. Taci- tus tells us that the Germans believed Ulysses, in the course of his wanderings, was driven into the northern ocean, and wandered through the land, and built a city on the banks of the Rhine, and that monuments had been found in the far North in- scribed with Greek characters. Mercury, he thought, was the god chiefly adored by the Germans ; but it now seems probable that the god he mistook for Mercury, or the Greek Hermes, was Odin, who, in a few of his attributes, resembles Mercury. He tells us that sacrifices were offered to Hercules and Mars, and in some parts of the country the worship of the Egyptian Isis was established. If these foreign gods were introduced into Germany, there is no evidence that their worship ever extended to Scan- dinavia. We find no trace of them in the Eddas. Probably the Romans were not allowed to look very deeply into the mysteries of Northern worship, and they may have given the names of their own deities to such of the Northern gods as they seemed to resemble. As, undoubtedly, the earliest religious ideas of the Greeks and Romans and of the Northern nations had a common origin in the dim past, it is not sur- prising that Tacitus was struck with some faint 28 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. traces of resemblance. He speaks of two gods named Altis, adored as young men and brothers, whom he thought might be Castor and Pollux, the divine twins. He also mentions an island in the North Sea, sacred to the goddess Hearth, or Earth, who undoubtedly was the goddess Frigga, wife of Odin. They looked upon her as the universal mother, who sometimes took part in human affairs and visited the nations with benign intent. A sa- cred grove on a lonely island was her only temple. There stood her chariot, covered by a holy mantle, which the priest alone was permitted to touch. When Hearth seated herself in her chariot her presence was made known to the priest through a fit of inspiration. The chariot was drawn by cows yoked together, and a great throng of worshipers followed it when it began to move under the guid- ance of the goddess. This was the signal for a great festival, when arms were laid by, and rejoicings heard on every side. At length the priest declared the visit ended, and conducted the goddess back to her grove, where her chariot was purified in a lake. These simple ceremonies may have taken place in the spring, when the earth-goddess was supposed to shower blessings on her children in flowers and ver- dure ; or in the autumn, at the time of the ingath- ering of the harvest. Though Tacitus may have been misled about the names and attributes of some of the gods, he could not so easily have made a mistake in regard to their forms of worship. He tells us distinctly that they did not perform their rites in temples, nor bow down to THE ANCIENT GERMAN. 2 9 idols, but worshiped in dark and mysterious groves, like the Druids of Britain. They did not adore the gods under any semblance of the human form. We know that the ancient Scandinavians did worship in temples which were filled with idols, therefore it would seem that, in the course of ages, they developed a distinct system of worship peculiar to themselves. Tacitus paints for us the portrait of the ancient German, and tells us there was a singular likeness between all the men of his race. He had stern blue eyes, ruddy or reddish hair which he wore long and flowing, or sometimes twisted in a knot on the top of his head. He allowed his beard to grow long. His body was large and robust, and possessed of great strength and endurance. But, like most sav- ages, he did not like to work, and was very impa- tient of continued exertion. Fighting was his only occupation, and, when roused by strong excitement, he could endure cold and hunger and every form of hardship. But when the spur to violent effort was removed he sank down into indolence. He slept away the long winters by his fireside, or indulged in unlimited gluttony over huge feasts of pork and mead or beer. He was terrible when roused to an- ger, but as soon as the necessity for action passed he relapsed into a state of stupor, but little better than that of the bear which sucks its paws in cold weather. The care of the house and land, of the cows and pigs, was given over to the women, to old men, and to the weakly and infirm. The clothing of both men and women was a loose mantle fast- ened with a clasp or a thorn. The woman’s dress 30 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. only differed from the man’s in being made of linen. In some northern parts men dressed themselves in the skins and furs of wild beasts. It is difficult to carry the mind back to a time when Germany possessed no cities, few industries, and no arts; when she knew nothing of books, music, or pictures. The people were not allowed to build compactly. They lived scattered about in groves and fields, as chance or convenience directed. Though they had villages, they were mere collec- tions of houses or huts, each standing on its owner’s piece of ground. In the time of Tacitus, a custom still existed among them which seems to show that the Germans had emerged from a much lower con- dition of savagery. They were in the habit of dig- ging caves, in which they deposited their treasure in times of foreign invasion, and where they some- times lived during the severity of the winter. This custom may point to an age when the early Ger- mans lived entirely in cave-dwellings. We are told that they had no knowledge of the use of mortar or tiles. They built regardless of beauty or propor- tion, and their houses were smeared over with a kind of shining earth or mud, and were probably little better than hovels. The women, though they were virtuous and cour- ageous, had no idea of domestic neatness. Their cabins were filthy, and the naked children ran about with the cattle, much as the children of a modern Irish peasant are reared with pigs and fowls. The husbandry of the old German was of the poorest kind. He cultivated a piece of land one year and THE ANCIENT GERMAN. 31 let it lie fallow the next. The land was divided by allotment, and as the people were few in number there was enough for all. He knew nothing about raising fruit, cultivating meadow-grass, or laying out gardens. His food was simple, and his drink was mainly ale or beer, but where grapes grew, as along the Rhine, wine was made. He ate enormous quantities of meat, mainly swine’s flesh, varied a little by wild fruit, and milk, and perhaps cheese. These ancient people knew little or nothing of the art of cookery, or how to make food savory by seasoning. They ate simply to satisfy the cravings of nature, and all the pleasure of the feast lay in excessive drinking. Tacitus also says that they were inveterate gam- blers. Sluggards except when fighting or in anger, gluttons and drunkards at their feasts, and with a passion for play which led them to stake their wives and children on a throw of the dice, you will say these men must have had shining virtues to over- balance their savage vices. Such, indeed, they had, for their love of independence and civil liberty laid the foundation of free government in Europe. Their genius for law and order set the pattern for what is called constitutional monarchy, even in the woods of Germany; and their respect for woman and the marriage bond established the home and made family life secure. When respect grew into reverence and worship, chivalry was instituted in Europe, and by its influence helped to soften and refine brutish manners, and to raise many barbarous nations up to a civilized state. 32 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. CHAPTER III. LIFE IN OLD GERMANY. HE savage is gradually changed into a civil- JL ized man by the development of the best in- stincts and traits of character, which, as a savage, the ancient German possessed. We have seen that he had great respect for woman, and looked upon the marriage bond as sacred. Out of this grew home and family life, and the permanency of prop- erty rights. Respect for woman, and her conse- quent liberty and enlightenment, is one of the great dividing lines between Eastern and Western nations, between Asia, and Europe and America, and we must look to the woods of ancient Germany to see where it first took root. It will be interesting to know what our remote ancestors thought about government, and how they managed to rule the State, which was in its infancy when Tacitus wrote his famous chronicle. So far as we know, every German tribe had its chief; and the king was elected, probably, from some one of these chief families. The chiefs corresponded to the no- bles of a later day. When an election of a king was to take place the sons of deceased kings may have had the preference ; although the people seem to have retained the privilege of choosing another LIFE IN OLD GERMANY. 33 man if he were judged better fitted for the place. The king was not a despot ; his power was limited by the assembly of the people, which met at least once a year. Our Saxon forefathers called this assembly Witenagemote. Among the Scandinavi- ans it was called Thing or Althing. This primitive assembly, where the people gave their assent to the laws by shouting or clashing their arms, was the forerunner of the English Parliament, the American Congress, and every other representative body of men ; the difference being, that in these assemblies the people are represented by men whom they elect to make the laws, while in the old assemblies the ■whole people came together to make laws for them- selves. The king was chosen on account of his noble birth and distinguished family, through which he probably traced his origin back to the gods. When the election took place the people raised him up on a shield in the open field where they met, so that the whole nation might behold their king. If the king was a great military chieftain he took com- mand of the army in time of war ; but if he was unskilled in the use of arms, a general was ap- pointed, who, for the time, commanded the forces. In ancient warfare every thing depended on the per- sonal prowess of the chieftain. He always led the attack and animated his soldiers by his valor. The power of executing the laws was handed over to the priests, who inherited their office, and were thought to be divinely appointed. The pun- ishment of criminals was entirely in their hands, 3 34 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. and was executed as a religious penalty rather than as a decree of human justice. When men were tried for crimes it was supposed that the gods sat in judgment on them and pronounced the sentence. In Norway and Iceland criminals were offered as a sacrifice to the gods at solemn religious festivals, and no doubt the same custom prevailed in old Germany. It is probable that the bodies of the victims were suspended from trees in those dark and mysterious groves where they worshiped. The king was un- doubtedly the high priest, and conducted the most important religious ceremonies in person. Such, for many ages, was the custom in Norway, while relig- ion and government remained one and the same. The grandest religious festivals were held at the meeting of the Althing, or general assembly of the people. When the ancient Germans went into battle they fought in families, like the clans of the Scottish Highlands, but they followed the customs of the Cimbri in placing their wives and children in full view of the battle-field, where they could hear their cries and shrieks in the heat of conflict. Their courage was raised to fury by the wailings or rejoic- ings of mothers, sisters, and wives ; and if they re- treated, or showed cowardice, we know, as in the case of the Cimbri, what a terrible fate awaited them at the hands of those stern women, who counted life nothing as compared with the honor and manhood of the men of their nation. When the women, who were seated upon wagons and chariots, saw their warriors beginning to waver, LIFE IN OLD GERMANY. 35 they drove them back with taunts and blows, while at the same time they wept, tore their hair, and implored that they might not be permitted to fall into captivity. Nothing appeared so insupportable to the ancient German as the thought of his women led away into bondage. He believed women were the sacred half of hu’manity, and both religion and instinct seem to have rooted this faith in his mind and conscience. The horrors which awaited the women prisoners perhaps had much to do with the influence they exerted on the battle-field. It is impossible for us to picture to ourselves the brutalities of ancient warfare. In the breasts of those German women fear for their fate was united with intense pride of race and the highest courage, and thus they became the inspirers and punishers of men. But they also filled a more humane office, for they were the only physicians of that age, and followed the army in the capacity of leeches. The women attended to the wounded, and had sufficient surgical skill to stanch the flow of blood and bind up shattered limbs. There was a still higher distinction belonging to women. They were the valas or prophetesses of the people, directly inspired, as it was believed, by the gods. The old Germans had oracles like the Greeks, and these inspired women gave answers to the questions which the people came to ask of heaven. Far better than the sacred character, with which some other nations invested woman, was the high position she attained among the old Germans, 36 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. where she was looked upon as the equal and com- panion of man. So far was this idea carried, that her dress was almost the same as the dress of the men. She was devoid of vanity, the old historian tells us, and knew none of the arts, so much prized by Roman women, for adorning her person with jewels and rich clothing. When the wife came to live with her husband she brought no money or goods from her father’s house — her own worth was considered wealth enough. Her husband gave her no trinkets or gewgaws, but he presented his bride with a pair of oxen, a horse saddled and bridled, a shield, a spear, and a sword. In return she made him a present of arms. This interchange of gifts seems to have constituted the marriage ceremony. Her husband’s present indi- cated that she was expected to share all his toils and dangers. She was to till the fields and help amid the perils of war. Even more than half the burdens of life fell upon her shoulders. These mighty and ferocious women are not very charming to contemplate from our point of view. They had courage in place of tenderness, and strength instead of grace. But in them were the germs of all that makes the modern woman noble, devoted, high- minded, and pure. The ideal of gentle and com- passionate womanhood was given to the North by Christianity. The beautiful fragrant flower was grafted on the rugged stem described by Tacitus, and out of the union must come the perfect woman. Tacitus held up to admiration the domestic virtues of the German women, and contrasted them with LIFE IN OLD GERMANY. 37 the hideous vices of old Rome. It is possible that he has colored the picture a little too highly to make the contrast more impressive ; but we can view his sketch of our ancestress in the Northern woods, who is the same woman we find in all the old Sagas and legends, and in the Eddas them- selves, with a certain gratitude and pride, thankful that she was not a slave in the harem of an Eastern despot, but a free savage, with a certain grandeur and courage all her own. Marriage with them was a strict and sacred insti- tution. One wife for one husband was the rule, although sometimes a chief, who wished to strengthen his alliance with another tribe, took a second wife, for political interest, from some power- ful family. The women were constant and true to their husbands. They knew nothing of pleasure or fashion, of costly dress, or rich and dainty feasts. Luxury had not yet made them idle and self-indul- gent. They could not read or write, and were not drawn into intrigues by secret correspondence, or corrupted by bad books. Strength of body and mind was their distinguishing trait. They were not good housewives, and knew nothing of the deli- cate and refined art of cookery, but they could till the fields, and, if need were, don a sword and buck- ler, and go out to fight by the side of their hus- bands. They were seldom untrue to the marriage bond, and when they were, the crime brought ter- rible punishment. Tacitus tells us that in the Ger- man forests virtuous manners were more powerful than good laws. 38 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. Although we are often shocked by the vindictive- ness and cruelty of our Northern ancestress, we are thankful to her for establishing the home in those German forests, and making it the safeguard of the old life, as it is the security of our modern society. We know, from the Icelandic sagas and the old German ballads and epics, that in the course of ages the primitive purity of manners was changed. Family annals were too often stained by passion and crime, but through it all respect for woman and a determination to keep family life unpolluted, have been the guiding-stars of the North. Slavery was practiced among the Germans, as among all the nations of antiquity. They made slaves of their captives in war, but the system was very different from the degrading household bond- age practiced in old Rome. The old German had no domestic servants. His wife and children per- formed the work of the household. Each slave had his own house, and probably a small piece of land. He was obliged to furnish his master with a certain quantity of grain, cattle, and wearing apparel — per- haps woven cloth. Beyond this his lot was easy and not shameful. He was never whipped, man- acled, or condemned to hard labor. To be sure, his master could kill him and go unpunished, but such was the custom in every country where slavery ex- isted. Out of German slavery grew the Saxon born-thrall and the system of serfdom that prevailed all over Europe in feudal times, and bound the la- borer to the soil. Family ties were closer with the ancients than LIFE IN OLD GERMANY. 39 they are with us. The state grew out of the fam- ily, and, at a time when a chief had only his kins- men for his followers, it was necessary to adopt the quarrels and friendships of each member of the family. When we come to ancient life in Iceland we shall see how all family injuries were avenged by blood or atoned for by a compensation in money, legally fixed ; so that each hurt, wound, or blow had its established price. When a man was killed in a quarrel it was optional with the relatives to take a money atonement or to pursue the quar- rel by blood-feud, which exacted eye for eye and tooth for tooth. Precisely the same system pre- vailed in ancient Germany, and we have a modified form of it in the sum which the law allows for per- sonal injuries on railways and in public places. Women, among the ancient Germans, could not inherit land, which was legally given to the sons. This rule laid the foundation of the famous Salic law, which, to this day, excludes women from the throne of France. This custom can, perhaps, be traced to a very remote antiquity, when the mar- ried daughter lost her position in her father’s fam- ily and her claim to his property, and became a member of the family of her husband. The Germans were much given to hospitality, and delighted in coarse and heavy feasts, at which they sat at table as we do. They never adopted the fashion of reclining on couches at meal-time, like the luxurious Romans. The bard or poet, who was an important character, sang to them while they feasted, and praised the brave deeds of their 40 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. forefathers and their own heroic acts. They had a curious habit of discussing the most important mat- ters at these drinking-bouts, while under the influ- ence of liquor ; but they reserved their decision until the next day, when their heads were cool and their judgment sober. The boys were inured to exercise and to hardship from their earliest years. When a boy came of age a shield and javelin were given him, and he entered upon the rights and duties of a citizen and began his education in arms. War was the only road to fame ; for literature, art, and commerce did not ex- ist. There were no books, no schools, and no trades. It was the ambition of every young man to attach himself to some famous chief, whom he was eager to emulate, and whom he was bound to defend while living, and to avenge if slain by the hand of an enemy. It was a shame to the chief to be surpassed in valor by any of his followers, but the young men felt an eager desire to outdo his most daring feats, and the spirit of emulation was raised to the highest pitch. It was the custom among some tribes to present contributions of corn and cattle to the king or chief. This was the beginning of the great system of tax- ation by which modern governments are supported. The king differed from other men only by his rank. The most ancient idea of the king was, that in prowess and valor he must excel all the other men of his tribe ; but not all the ancient kings came up to this standard, and when royal power became hereditary it was forgotten. The king lived by LIFE IN OLD GERMANY. 41 cultivating his land and by the spoils of war. All small and local affairs were settled by the chiefs, who were also priests ; but larger concerns, partak- ing of the nature of national interests, were decided at the general assembly of the people. They came together on these occasions either at the new or the full moon. Tacitus tells us the chiefs were seldom punctual to the day, for their proud spirit of inde- pendence led them to fear if they answered the summons at once it would be construed as an act of submission. Each man took his seat in the as- sembly armed to the teeth, and it was formally opened by the king. All who were entitled to the privilege, by rank and personal qualities, might speak and propose measures for the public weal, but no man was allowed to dictate to the assembly or override the will of the people. If the people were displeased at any proposal brought forward in the assembly they openly mur- mured against it ; if they approved, they brandished their javelins and clashed their arms. This wag the first rude method of voting, by which the sense or will of the people was taken in public matters. At these assemblies acts of treason and all great offenses were judged and punished. In that age cowardice was the worst crime known to the law, and cowards were smothered in mud. Manslaughter, as I have told you, could be punished by the relatives of the dead, or atoned for by a payment of money. All smaller crimes were subjects of fines in horses and cattle. Part of this fine went to the king and part to the people, and made the beginning of the pub- 42 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. lie treasury, by which the government is maintained, and of the king’s privy purse. I have already told you that the kings and chiefs were elected in the assembly, and that the great religious festivals coin- cided with these meetings. Then criminals were solemnly executed and offered as a sacrifice to the gods, who, it was believed, personally maintained justice upon earth. The Germans were poor, and ignorant of the precious and useful metals which lay buried under the surface of the country. Their sole riches were their flocks and herds, and all their business was carried on by barter. If a man needed cloth, he, perhaps, brought an ox to exchange for it, and in time a rude market sprang up where those who had articles to exchange could meet regularly on ap- pointed days, and thus trade and commerce were established. The Romans, we are told, taught the Germans the use of coin. They had no coined money of their own, and no gold or silver until they were brought from foreign parts. They did not even know how to take iron from the earth, and could work it but imperfectly in the first cen- tury of our era. Their principal weapon was a javelin, called fram, tipped with iron, and which, as they fought naked, or nearly so, they could throw to a great distance. We know that the old Cimbri wore helmets, shaped like the heads of ferocious animals ; but the Ger- mans fought almost unprotected by defensive armor. Pointed stones were attached in some way to their arms, and although a spear, tipped with iron, was LIFE IN OLD GERMANY. 43 their chief weapon, this shows that they were just emerging from what is called the stone age, when all knives and cutting implements and instruments of warfare were made of sharpened flints. They also fought with darts and clubs hardened by fire. The German’s pride of equipment lay in his shield, made of osier twigs or wood, and gayly painted. The devices upon such shields afterward grew into coats of arms for the nobility. When a chief performed some great feat he put a symbol of it upon his shield, which was adopted by his family, and became a token of their rank. It is probable that many of the customs of chivalry grew out of the ancient mode of fighting before the women. The joust and tournament of the Middle Ages, when knights fought for the prize of beauty, was only a refined form of the old German battle. I have already spoken of the dark and mysterious groves. Some of these were held too sacred to be profaned by human footsteps. We are told of one tribe who began their rites in the consecrated wood by the slaughter of a human victim. The place was invested with such superstitious horror that no man could enter it without being bound by a chain to denote his sense of humility and the majesty of the god. If he happened to fall upon the ground he did not presume to rise, but crawled abjectly out of the wood. There was a tradition that the whole German nation took its origin from this spot — the earthly home of the one supreme god, who held all things in a chain of dependence on his will. The ancient Germans were no less superstitious 44 tales from THE NORSE grandmother. than other savage and half-civilized races. They had a multitude of signs and omens, many of which have come down to us in a disguised form. They foretold events by the flight and the notes of birds, and by means of sacred horses. A number of white horses were kept harnessed to chariots in a sacred grove, and their motions and neighings were ob- served by the priests, who interpreted them as pre- dictions of future events. Horses were sacred to the god Frey, and it is probable that these cere- monies were connected with his worship. You will remember that Darius was chosen king of Persia by the neighing of a horse. The school-boy, when he draws lots with his mates, little thinks that he has inherited the custom from a remote past, and that his German forefathers invested it with great sanc- tity. Their mode of casting lots was to cut the branch of a tree into small pieces, each distinctly marked. These were thrown on a white cloth or garment, and the priest who wished to read the future prayed to the gods, and held up each piece of twig three times, and, by the marks upon them, read the decrees of fate. If we wish to know how an old German chief was buried we have but to open Homer’s “ Iliad,” and read of the funeral of Patroclus, which, with the exception of the games there described, was much the same. He was buried along with his arms, his horses, and sometimes his slaves or captives in war, and a great mound of turf was raised to his memory. Here, in the pages of the old historian, we have LIFE IN OLD GERMAN * *6 a vivid picture of our half-naked ancestors, some of whom painted their bodies. He tells us of one tribe who carried black shields, and stained their skins with a dark dye. Caesar tells us that the Britons, whom he sub- dued — the remote ancestors of the Welsh and the Scotch Highlanders — when they went into battle painted their bodies a deep blue color, which made them very frightful to behold. Those fierce Britons, who retired before the Saxon and Danish conquer- ors to Caledonia, were called Piets, because they fantastically painted their bodies and shields. Valor was the supreme virtue, cowardice the supreme vice, among our ancestors, whether we call them Saxon or Norman. The two were near of kin and shared each others manners, customs, modes of life, and religious ideas. In time, as we shall see, the exaggerated courage of the Norseman, united to a hardy and strong body, led him to piracy and ra- pine, and made him the terror of Europe. 46 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. CHAPTER IV. THE AGE OF HARALD FAIRHAIR. H AVING looked at the ancient German in what were then the backwoods of Europe, it is now time to take a peep at his near kinsman, the old Scandinavian, who was essentially the same man, slightly changed by climate and modes of living. The root ideas in the old German mind, worthy of development, were courage, independ- ence, respect for woman, and love of home and domestic life. These we find equally strong in the character of the Norseman, who belonged to that branch of the Scandinavian family in which we are particularly interested. Both races brought the elements of their religion from the old home in Asia. We know too little of the ancient faith of the Germans to say how far these were changed in Germany, but nearly the whole system of Norse religion has been preserved to us by the industry of Icelandic writers, and we perceive that the rug- ged, grand nature of the scenery of Norway, its mountains, and its tumultuous sea and long severe winters, wrought upon the imagination of men, and effected changes in the old faith by filling the myths with images of wonder and sublimity, which, per- haps, were wanting in their original form. THE AGE OF HARALD FAIRHAIR. 47 The old German was a mighty man of war, and loved nothing but fighting; but the ancient Scandi- navian was even fiercer and more untamable. War was the one passion of his mind, and resistance to the extreme cold of the North made him the strongest man in Europe. This love of war stamped itself deeply on his religion, and his chief god became the god of battle. We do not even hear of Scandinavia until after Britain threw off the Roman yoke, and the fierce German tribes, which could not be subdued, dashed themselves upon the South, and overwhelmed the Roman Empire. Not until nearly the middle of the ninth century does the Norseman make his exist- ence felt in the affairs of Europe. Then he sprang suddenly into notice, and for more than two cent- uries was the scourge of most maritime countries ; for he became master of the sea, and learned the management of ships, and even ventured to cross the wide Atlantic and explore the shores of unknown America, while other nations were creeping around the edges of Europe, afraid to venture more than a short distance from land. The dash and daring of the Norse sea-rover infused new blood and vigor into many nations, and we of the English stock are greatly indebted to him. There were* no Northern annals or histories writ- ten before Christianity was established in the North. The ancient Scandinavians, and perhaps the Ger- mans, regarded the Runic letters with superstitious awe, and used them principally for charms and in- cantations, or, in later times, for simple inscriptions 43 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. on tombstones or legends on swords, drinking-cups, and sacrificial vessels used in the temples. It would be very interesting to know who invented this old Runic alphabet, but we have no hint of its origin. The sacredness with which it was regarded leads us to suppose it was attributed to the gods. We are told there were Runes written on the teeth of Odin’s horse, Sleipnir. The mysterious awe with which letters were regarded probably prevented them from coming into common use as a means of communica- tion or for the transcribing of events. Though the Norsemen made but little practical use of Runes, the possession of an alphabet is one of the most re- markable things connected with their early history. We may say there was no writing in the North, for the ballads and traditions, of which the Eddas and Sagas are composed, were handed down by word of mouth, from one age to another. Though Tacitus tells us that the early Germans, who were undoubtedly worshipers of Odin or Wod- en, had no temples, and performed their rites in groves, when we discover the Norsemen we find them worshiping in temples and adoring images of the gods. Probably the severity of the climate in the far North may have had much to do in estab- lishing temple-worship. The first temple was per- haps built of logs, and adorned with the image of Thor or Odin rudely carved from the trunk of a tree. When we first discover the old faith, just previous to the introduction of Christianity in the North, it was on its decline. Men had begun to lose confi- THE AGE OF HARALD FAIRHAIR. 49 dence in a multitude of gods, and though many clung obstinately to the old faith, through a long period of time, while it was slowly dying, and even fought and bled for it, the age when the sublime myths of Ragnaroc and the Yggdrasill-tree took root was long past. The great skalds or poets who composed the poems of the elder Edda must have lived at some period between the time of Tacitus and the age of Harald Fairhai.r in Norway. They adorned their faith and gave it a permanent form, as Homer adorned and embellished the Greek relig- ion. We derive our ancestral claim to these beau- tiful myths both from the German and the Scandi- navian side. After the conquest of England by the Saxons under Hengist and Horsa, three quarters of the settlers who came into the island were Danes — true Norsemen — and, as every school-child knows, the final conquest was made by Norsemen — the Nor- mans — under the leadership of the great William. As I have told you, the early history, poetry, and mythology of the North all flow to us from Iceland. If those industrious people had not been fond of writing down the tales of their forefathers, and had not possessed wit enough to see their value, many important links in the chain of events would be wanting which it would now be impossible to sup- ply. Snorro Sturleson, a distinguished Icelander, who made a prose abridgment of the old Edda, called the younger Edda, was the first one to com- pile a book of the early kings of Norway, called Heimskringla, which means simply, Book of the Kings. 4 50 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. Some of the early kings are fabulous, and an at- tempt is made in this book to trace their lineage up to the gods. The Greeks had the same weakness for divine ancestors, and most other nations have shown a kindred propensity. When the old chron- icler came to the end of real history he let his imagination fill the gap. In the very dawn of probable history we hear of one Olaf, who went into the wilderness west of Sweden, and began clearing the land. For this reason he was called the “ Chopper.” He named the place Warmland, perhaps because it was shel- tered by woods and mountains. Here he gathered about him all the restless, discontented spirits of his nation, and set up one cf those petty states that then filled the North. The land was unproductive, and the people were poor and miserable. There came a bad year when the crops failed, and starva- tion stared them in the face. Then they com- plained and looked darkly on the king, or jarl, as he was probably called. They were sunk in supersti- tion, and their sufferings seemed a sign of the anger of a vindictive god, who thirsted for human blood. Judging that the unlucky Olaf had neglected some of his religious duties, and thus brought a curse upon them, they seized him and offered him up as a sacrifice to Odin. After the bad deed was done some of the wiser heads began to reflect on the cause of their misery. The killing of Olaf had not filled their mouths with bread, and they now saw that the settlement was too crowded. There were more people than the land could support ; so they THE AGE OF HARALD FAIRHAIR. 5 1 crossed the mountains into Norway, and, having made Halfdan Whitebone, the son of the luckless Olaf, their king, they conquered several petty states in the south and established a new power. Half- dan lived and died, and was succeeded by his son and his grandson, another Halfdan, who was in his day a famous viking or sea-rover. This is the first time we hear of the Viking, who was destined to make Europe tremble. It was a high-sounding name for robber and pirate. Viking does not literally mean “king of the sea.” The word means “ frequenter of creeks and inlets,” and refers, probably, to the Norseman’s custom of hiding along the shore to watch for his prey. This King Halfdan acquired the curious epithet of “ magnificent and food-sparing.” He lavished money on his men, but denied them bread. Gold, which could be seized on board of foreign ships, was more abundant than food, which the barren soil of Norway produced but sparingly. The viking’s calling was at that time the only one considered a fit occupation for a gentleman ; and though we should now look with horror upon the deeds of those old sea-rovers, we must remember that much depends upon the age in which men live and the moral sanctions under which they are educated. The kingdom was divided between the viking’s two sons, Olaf and Halfdan the Black, in 841, we are told, but ancient dates in the far North are always uncertain. Halfdan the Black was the father of the famous Harold Harfagra, or Harfager, who, by his force and energy, succeeded in subduing the 52 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. whole of Norway to his control, and making a strong, united government. Before his time the country was divided into a number of petty states, ruled by little chiefs, who were continually at war with each other, and thus kept the people poor and miserable. The great Charlemagne had taught the world how to subdue these wretched little despots, and to establish what is called a central government, with a powerful king at its head and Harald did but follow his example. There is a pretty romance connected with the setting up of Harald’s kingdom, which tells us that he fell in love with a beautiful maiden named Gyda, and sent embassadors to sue for her hand. But Gyda was haughty and proud in the extreme. She replied that she did not choose to marry an insig- nificant jarl, but a powerful king. Harald mused long on her reply. He did not abandon the hope of winning Gyda, but he determined to conquer Norway and lay it at her feet. According to the custom of the country he made a vow not to cut or comb his hair until the land was subdued. It took him twelve years to fulfill that vow, and, in the meantime, his hair had grown to a state of shaggy wildness hard to imagine. It would appear that dur- ing all those long years he had scarcely stopped to bathe, but when the land was conquered, and even the western island Orkneys, Shetlands, Hebrides, and Man had come under his sway, he went to pay a visit to a good friend of his, named Jarl Rbgn- wald, (Reginald.) While there the king took a bath, which so changed his appearance for the better that THE AGE OF HARALD FAIRHAIR. 53 he came out in bright new colors. His friend, who performed the office of barber, and clipped his huge mane, called him Harfagra, Fair-haired, or Fairfax, as we say in English. Newly washed and combed, and clad, perhaps, in new clothes, he went to pay court to the Princess Gyda, who now smiled upon him, and in time became his wife. This tale is doubtless true ; but Harald,in getting control of Norway, was only obeying the tendency of his age, to raise kingly power above the control of miserable little chiefs and jarls, who were always at war, and to create a strong government, which was then the only means of bringing in the reign of law and order. Harald’s reign is of especial impor- tance to us, because of the great emigration to Ice- land from Norway which then took place, and was mainly caused by the new king’s high-handed meas- ures. ,In consolidating his kingdom Harald struck a deep blow at the dignity and self-importance of the chiefs who had before ruled, each over his scrap of territory. The tenure of land was changed. All Norway now belonged to the crown, and, no doubt, was taxed heavily to support the new government. Many members of the best and oldest families shook off Harald’s yoke and emigrated to Iceland, taking along with them the laws, customs, and religious rites of their country, and sometimes even the wood of which their new habitations were to be built. At first these malcontents settled in the West- ern Islands, as they were then called — the .islands of Man, Anglesey, Lewis, and Faroe. Here they 54 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. equipped themselves as vikings, and went back and plundered the shores of Norway. But Harald Fair- hair was not to be trifled with. He came after them in hot pursuit, and laid waste the Western Islands with fire and sword, and his rebellious sub- jects were driven still farther off, to the shores of Iceland, where, by and by, we shall see the new settlers at home. A great rush of emigration set in toward that frozen land. Those heroic Norsemen defied hunger and cold, but they would not bear tamely the rule of one whom they looked upon in the light of an oppressor. The best and noblest men in Harald’s kingdom were shaking the dust of Norway from their feet. Harald tried in vain to check the exodus by fining the emigrants. Within twenty years after the first settler, Ingolf, had cast ashore the pillars of his High Seat, on the savage and desert coast, fifty thousand pagan Norsemen, devout worshipers of Thor and Odin, were settled on the habitable fringe of coast that borders the great mountains of ice and fire in the center of the island. This settlement of Iceland took place in the year 874 of our era. It was a memorable event in Har- ald’s long reign of sixty years, although the histori- ans do not make much of it. But there was another of even greater moment to us. You remenber Jarl Rognwald, of More, Harald’s friend and barber, who clipped his locks and named him Fairhair. This jarl had a famous viking son, named Rolf the Ran- ger, so named, it is said, because his legs were too long for a horse, and he was forced to go on -foot. THE AGE OF HARALD FAIRHAIR. 55 Rolf had three little islands of his own in the far North, but his chief business was sea-roving. Har- . aid had passed a severe law sternly forbidding his sea-rovers from harrying the coast of Norway. He did not concern himself about what they did in other lands, but he meant to keep the peace at home. One day bold Rolf defied the king, landed in Norway, and drove off some cattle. King Har- ald banished him, in spite of his mother’s prayers and entreaties, and Rolf sailed away in his ship and got possession of that part of France which is called Normandy, and peopled it with his vikings and others of his own race. In time it became a powerful dukedom, and about the middle of the eleventh century William, a descendant of Rolf the sea-rover, became the conqueror of England. In the time of Harald Fairhair, that strong and redoubtable first king of Norway, who reigned until nearly the end of the ninth century, Norway was wholly a pagan land. Odin was a patriarch among the gods, and each father of a family became a priest in his own house, if he chose to exercise the priestly office ; but the recognized priests were the chiefs or barons of herads, or districts, called hersir. The name for priest in Norway and Iceland was godi, a term derived from god, and which means a servant of the Most High. Hofgodi was a term used to designate the priest who officiated in a hof or temple. The temple was also called god-a-hus, or house of the gods, or blothus, which means house of sacrifice. The Northern worship was called asa worship, or worship of the asas, or gods. Women 56 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. sometimes performed sacred rites in the temples, both in Norway and Iceland, and such a priestess was called a hof-gydia. The chief hersir, or godi, of a district generally owned his temple, where he celebrated the stated festivals and sacrificed to the gods. Sometimes other priests of the neighborhood joined him in these ceremonies ; but the priest in whose tem- ple they were held presided, and sat in the high seat. The expenses of the religious feasts were paid by contributions from the people who came to attend them, and who brought casks of ale and all kinds of food to furnish the tables. Sometimes a rich and generous chieftain, who was hof-godi, would bear all the expense of a festival and furnish it from his own stores. Then the people praised him loudly. In Norway, after the time of Harald Fairhair, the king became the chief priest, and con- ducted all the great sacrifices in person. There was a difference of worship in different regions, which caused sects, as we should say, in the Norse religion. Odin was worshiped in every part as all-father, the supreme god ; but, aside from this, the people had their favorite deities. Thor was the darling god of the people of Norway and Iceland, while Frey, the god of the fruitful earth, was deeply revered in Sweden. The creed of the Norsemen in Harold Fairhair’s time was, as we shall see, deeply tinged with fatal- ism — the belief that all events were fixed and unal- terable by a decree of the gods. The people had devout faith in necromancy and magic, which grew THE AGE OF HARALD FAIRHAIR. 57 from the idea that the will of some god is made manifest in the smallest event of life. All modern superstitions connected with signs and omens have come down to us as remains of those ancient super- stitions connected with the pagan religion. They paid great attention to dreams and visions. They possessed oracles, like the Greeks, and inspired women, who gave answers to questions. They gathered hints of the future from the entrails of animals and the flight of birds. All these things seem to have belonged to a common stock of relig- ious ideas which they brought from their old, for- gotten Eastern home. The Norseman, like the Greek, believed in the three Fates, which he called Norns. The rigor of his climate, and the shadow of the earth in which he lived so large a part of the year, tinged his relig- ion with gloom and caused him to dwell on the final destruction of the earth and the passing away of the gods. His faith was not sunny and bright, like that of the old Greek, who spent so much of his life in the sunshine, but it was heroic and sublime. Though he knew the decrees of fate were unalter- able, he faced them with manly courage, glad to meet any form of heroic death. He dreaded a quiet, peaceable death in bed from wasting sick- ness or old age ; for then he believed Odin would not welcome him to the joys of Valhalla, and he would be excluded from the company of the brave. In Harald’s time these were the ruling ideas in Norway, although, as I have said, faith in the old 58 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. gods had already begun to decline in the minds of the most thoughtful and intelligent men. This we see in the oath of the great Harald Harfagra himself, which is given as follows : “ I swear never to make any offerings to an idol, but to trust God alone, whose omnipotence has formed the world and stamped man with his own image. It would be an act of folly in me to expect help from him whose power and empire arise from the accidental hollow of a tree or the peculiar form of a stone/’ But King Harald was greatly in advance of his people, and for many generations the temple still stood near the thingstead, or place of assembly, with its ring of doom-stones, twelve in number; where the judges sat to judge the people. Near every thingfield was placed the stone of sacrifice, where, horrible to relate, the backs of human vic- tims were broken. But, I have already told you, these victims were generally criminals condemned to death, and solemnly executed to satisfy the just- ice of heaven. We know, however, as in the case of luckless Olaf, that human beings were sometimes offered up to appease the wrath of the gods. There was also a dreadful well in the vicinity of the tem- ple and the thingfield, where human sacrifices were sometimes drowned. It is with shuddering horror that we confess these dark practices of our fore- fathers, but the truth must be told. In later times they were not frequent, and probably only occurred when, in a period of pestilence or famine, the fears of the ignorant people drove them to a state of frenzy. THE AGE OF HARALD FAIRHAIR. 59 The usual sacrifices were oxen, swine, and sheep, fattened for the festival. One end of the hof, or temple, formed a kind of altar, around which the images of the gods were placed in a half circle. Another altar of iron stood near, with a brazen bowl to receive the blood of the victims. With a brush the priest sprinkled the worshipers, the walls of the hof, the idols, and shrine, and smeared a great silver ring which always hung in the temple, and was used by oath-takers to swear upon. The fat of the sacrifice was melted and used to anoint the images, which were rubbed by the women. The flesh was boiled in a huge pot hung over a fire in the middle of the temple. The people sat down on long benches ranged on either side the table, and the priest took his position in the high seat, or place of honor, and blessed the food and drink. The custom of drinking toasts and healths, which we still practice, came down to us from those old feasts. The chief first gave a sacred toast to great Odin, chief of the gods, for victory and strength in battle. Next he drank to Njord and Frey, earth- gods, for peace and good harvests. A third cup was quaffed to Thor, the almighty god, as he was called, because he personified strength and, in his character of nature-god, the powerful thunder. Then Bragi was called upon, the god of song and eloquence, and Freyja, the Northern Venus, god- dess of love ; and, last of all, they drank a cup to the memory of dead kinsmen and friends, which, surely, was a beautiful and touching cus- 60 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. tom. When Christianity came to be fully estab- lished in the North, and the old gods were partly forgotten, the people still kept up the habit of drinking healths, and the priests allowed them to call upon Jesus Christ and the Virgin Mary instead of Odin and Thor. LIFE IN ANCIENT ICELAND. 6 1 CHAPTER V. LIFE IN ANCIENT ICELAND. I N finding out how the old Icelanders lived in their houses, toiled in their fields, and thought and felt about the great facts of life, we are in some sort finding out how the Norsemen, Danes, and Swedes lived, and what manner of men they were. I am going to give you some account of old Ice- land, because we have details about many things in Iceland which we cannot get, as early as the ninth century, in the north of Europe. The Ice- lander was only the Norseman transplanted. He did not seek to create a new civilization, new laws and customs ; but, under slightly-varying circum- stances, to continue and perpetuate the old. Life in Iceland was, therefore, a picture of life and man- ners as they existed in Norway at or before the time of Harald Fairhair. The Icelanders were great story-tellers. They loved to narrate family histories around the fire in the long winter nights, and the narrow world in which they lived gave great importance to such histories, and made them seem worthy to be kept in mind and handed down orally from one genera- tion to another. These stories are called sagas, lit- erally, says. Most of them are a record of facts, 62 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. though in time they were doubtless somewhat al- tered by being held in the memory, and passed from one generation to another by word of mouth. Within about sixty years after the Icelanders learned to write in the Latin language most of these sagas were written down. Though they cannot be abso- lutely relied upon for accuracy of dates and minor particulars, competent scholars have decided that they are in the main true, and we learn from them a thousand interesting and instructive facts in re- gard to ancient life in the North which are not elsewhere to be found. If you look at the map you will see that the northern boundary of Iceland just grazes the arctic circle, and brings it within the verge of the frozen regions. The island contains about forty thousand square miles, and is larger than Ireland, but the center is a mass of volcanic and ice mountains, huge glaciers and horrible deserts, which have scarcely yet been thoroughly explored. In our geography books we have all read of the wonder- ful geysers, or hot springs, which cast up great columns of steam and boiling water. They are only one of the marvels of the land, for the whole island is a scene of the most violent contrast of ice and fire forever contending. Geologists tell us the island was cast up from the sea by volcanic action. As many as thirty volcanoes have been counted, which at times are subject to violent eruptions, when they pour down on the plains showers of ashes and torrents of mud and red-hot lava. The largest mountains are called jokuls, and are LIFE IN ANCIENT ICELAND. 63 thickly plated with ice. They send down vast gla- ciers to the sea. Five of these burn within while they freeze without, and in summer the ice par- tially melts, and forms rushing rivers and roaring torrents. There are vast, desolate lava tracts in Iceland ; deserts full of black, jagged rocks, and re- gions grim with sulphur beds and volcanic sand — places where no kind of plant or flower or weed can grow x and no living thing find subsistence. But this horrible land of desolation and death is edged by a pleasant country, with many pretty green valleys opening toward the sea. The climate was evidently warmer and the land more produc- tive when the first Norse settlers landed in Iceland. Ingolf and those who followed him found the country covered with a thick growth of beech-trees,. These forests have all disappeared. They were probably of a small and stunted kind, for the timber of which the old Icelandic halls were built was all brought from Norway. As early as the eighth century some Irish hermits, perhaps converted to Christianity by the preach- ing of St. Patrick, had found their way to Iceland, and built cells, where they spent their lives - in prayer and meditation. They vanished — none can tell how or when — and left unmistakable evidence of their residence on the island. In 867 a Norseman named Floke, in consequence of some reports brought by two navigators, sailed directly for Iceland. He is said to have been guided on this voyage of discovery by the flight of a raven, which he let loose at sea. This bird was 64 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. sacred to Odin, and doubtless Floke believed him- self to be under divine guidance. He named the new land Iceland, on account of the great masses of broken and drifting ice to be seen on the North coast. Floke went as he came, and no attempt was made to people the island. We now hear of Ingolf, who sailed to Iceland on a voyage of explo- ration in 870. But he returned to Norway with- out making any attempt at a settlement. He soon got into a quarrel and killed a man, and 'to escape the blood feud he determined to emigrate to Ice- land. This happened in 874. Ingolf was joined by his brother-in-law, Lief of the Sword. He traveled, like Noah in the ark, with- his sons and daughters, his kinsfolk, freedmen, and thralls, his sheep and oxen, and the images of his gods. He was an ancient patriarch removing to a new home. A superstitious reverence was at- tached to the carved pillars which upheld the priest’s high seat, where he sat, a little above the rest of the company, when he gave a feast in his hall. These Ingolf carried along with him, and perhaps a little earth from old Norway, where the pillars were planted. When Ingolf approached Ice- land he threw the pillars of the high seat into the sea, and watched to see on what part of the coast the waves would drive them. This was to indicate the place where the gods wished him to settle. It so happened, if I remember rightly, that Ingolfs pillars were lost in the sand, and not recovered for three years. The chief had established himself in another part of the island, but, obedient to the LIFE IN ANCIENT ICELAND. 65 sign, he fixed his final home at that point of the shore where the pillars were driven, and near this spot, in after days, arose Reikiavik, the capital of the island. Owing to what they regarded as the oppressions of Harald, multitudes of settlers quickly followed the example of Ingolf. When a settler took pos- session of a piece of land he hallowed it by kindling fires within sight of each other all around his do- main. The mouths of rivers were consecrated in the same way. We shall see in time that this cus- tom dates back to a very remote antiquity, and probably sprang from sun worship. For many years no towns were built in Iceland : the inhabitants lived like the ancient Germans — each apart on his separate piece of ground. A new- comer could take for himself a portion of land in the way I have described, or he could call upon the owner of a holding to fight with him for his domain. The estate then fell to the best fighter. To avoid this disagreeable alternative the settler was gener- ally willing to divide his estate with the new-comer. He also settled his poor kinsmen, his freedmen, thralls, and other dependents, on separate allot- ments of land. In Iceland the priest and the magistrate were one and the same, just as for many ages they were in Norway. All matters of religion and worship were managed in the colony precisely as they were in the mother country. The priesthoods were hereditary, but any man could set up an inde- pendent priesthood if he chose, though it might 5 66 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. not be recognized beyond his own estate. As a rule the people of the neighborhood attended the temple of the authorized priest, and paid their tithes or Church taxes by contributions to the temple serv- ice, and in time the whole island was divided into a certain number of priesthoods, which continued until Christianity was adopted by the Althing in the year 1000, and even later. Life in the island being more simple and democratic than in Norway, the chiefs did not take the title of hersir or baron, but were called godi, God’s servant. After the house and farm-buildings were erected, the chief who had been a man of consequence at home built his hof, or temple, precisely after the pattern he had learned in Norway, and which I described in the last chapter. It had its well and stone of sacrifice, its altars and idols, and holy ring on which oaths were taken, its vessels for holding the blood of the victim, the hearths and kettles for cooking the feast, and its long tables and benches where the feasters sat, and its high seat in the middle of the right-hand bench, where the priest sat and blessed the meat and drink. Human sacrifices were in great disfavor with the Icelanders, and there is good reason to believe they practiced such atrocities but seldom. We know that horse- flesh was one of the sacred dishes served up at the religious festivals, for, when Christianity was estab- lished, it was strictly prohibited. The emigration to Iceland continued about sixty years, and at the end of that period some fifty thou- sand of the best people of Norway had settled in LIFE IN ANCIENT ICELAND. 67 the island, and had established a kind of democracy which lasted for several centuries. It was not a democracy according to our ideas, for, although the people had some voice in the government, the whole power was in the hands of the hereditary priest-magistrates, who were the wealthy men of the island. There was a perfect union of what we call Church and State. But the chief’s influence, just as among the old Germans, depended on his personal prowess, his fame as a warrior, and skill in the use of arms. His children, kinsfolk, and de- pendents made for him a great following. They rode with him to the Althing, where they were called thingmen, fully armed, and, like the “ tail ” of a Scottish chieftain, were ready to take part in all his quarrels and sustain him in his lawsuits. Some powerful chiefs often rode to the Althing at- tended by seven or even twelve hundred armed followers ; but when the old chief’s strength failed, from age or other causes, his adherents often dropped away and connected themselves with other temples. We are told that the earliest kings of Norway lived in a log palace, destitute of windows, and gradually narrowing at the top, to leave an opening through which the smoke could escape. At night, and during storms, a cover, resembling a pot-lid, was placed over this hole, and the royal eyes and nose were filled with smoke. In the tenth century domestic life in Iceland had vastly improved. Some of the chiefs brought out timber from Nor- way, and built themselves spacious wooden halls. 68 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. Others put up buildings of the same kind made of turf and stone. The house consisted of one large, long building, where the family worked and ate and slept. In all countries, as life improves, the privacy of different members of the family is pro- vided for by dividing the house into several rooms. But at this time, in Iceland, the dwelling was sim- ply one long hall, which stood free from other build- ings for purposes of defense. Safety, in those bar- barous days, was the first consideration, and every Icelander was liable to be besieged by his enemy in his own house. In common houses the living and sleeping-room was called stofa. In the chiefs’ house it was gen- erally very large, and was called skali, or hall, also eldhus or eldaskali, because great fires were kept burning there. Some of these halls were a hundred ells in length and of proportionate height and breadth. Here the men sat at their meals, while the women waited upon them. At the upper end of the room, where the raised seat stood, a little compartment was partitioned off, perhaps with cur- tains or folding-doors, for the ladies of the family. This was called the stofa, or parlor. They also had an apartment, called the bower, detached from the house, where they sat and spun, and enjoyed all the gossip and scandal which modern ladies are supposed to indulge in over the tea-table. This room is often referred to in the sagas ; and when, in ancient ballads, we read of “ my lady’s bower,” we may remember that it was a small detached build- ing occupied solely by the women. LIFE IN ANCIENT ICELAND. 69 There were two doors to the main hall, called the men’s door and the women’s door, and in this re- spect it resembled a Quaker meeting-house. The hall was flanked by two long, low aisles, or wings, supported on pillars. Between these a wainscoting of richly-paneled and carved wood was placed, and the little closets thus formed' constituted the sleep- ing-rooms of the family. The main room had long hearths down the middle, with openings in the roof to discharge the smoke. Though they knew how to carve wood and to embroider beautifully, they had not learned the art of making chimneys and windows, and had no contrivance for their fires much better than the pot-lid of their ancestors. Rows of benches ran round each side of the room, and in the middle of each side stood a high seat — a place of honor. That on the south side, supported by carved pillars, was reserved for the chief, the head of the family. The women sat on a raised bench at the east end, and in later times the chief’s high seat was placed there. On feast-days the hall was decorated with beautifully-wrought tapestry and wood-carvings placed above it. Above the oaken panels hung the shields and battle-axes of the war- riors of the family. Here we have a picture of the ancient hall, closely copied all over Europe in the baronial castle-hall of the Middle Ages. The Icelander’s homestead, the road leading to it, and the home-fields, were inclosed by walls of turf and stone. The summer is very short, a brief gleam of light and beauty, that bursts forth suddenly after long months of desolation, and covers the land 70 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. with flowers and verdure. The mountains, if not snow-covered, are black and bleak, scarred and ru- ined by burned-out fires, and the stretches of culti- vated land are extremely beautiful in contrast with these savage scenes. In ancient times, as now, but a few varieties of grain would grow in the most fa- vored spots. The valleys and uplands were chiefly devoted to grass. Cattle and horses formed the Icelander’s wealth, and few more dreadful calamities could come upon him than a scarcity of hay — hay- need, as it was called. In hay-harvest all the men, rich and poor, high and low, worked in the fields. Even the family feuds, which raged so fiercely at other seasons, were laid aside. The women worked at home, spinning and weav- ing, making garments, cooking, and doing the gen- eral work of the family. Though there were thralls and bondmen, as with the old Germans, there was no ignoble domestic service. The chiefs and their sons were good practical farmers, carpenters, and smiths. During the long winters they worked at home, making armor and weapons. They were also excellent navigators and fishermen, and, like most of their race, tremendous fighters. Nearly every family history narrated in the sagas is stained with blood. Though the people were simple, hard- working men and women, they were quarrelsome and revengeful. The energies they had brought from the old home found no vent in general wars and conquests, and were expended in petty strife, which often led to wide-spread slaughter in families and neighborhoods. These family feuds were the LIFE IN ANCIENT ICELAND. 7 1 curse of Iceland, and the best blood of the country was spilled in carrying them on. The women some- times kept alive the spirit of revenge in the breasts of their male relatives when it would otherwise have died a natural death. Whole families were besieged and burned in their dwellings, and when the opposing factions met in the field a terrible slaughter took place. We are told that one hun- dred and ten men fell in a fight between two rivals, and the thingfield, where a general truce was pro- claimed during the assembly, more than once ran with streams of blood. It was ages after Chris- tianity was adopted in the island before this fierce spirit was subdued ; but the whole tendency of the new religion was to tone down these violent na- tures, which had been nurtured by the faith of Odin to believe war and heroic deeds of arms their only means of gaining access to paradise. With the new religion came a fresh vent for their ener- gies in the love of knowledge, which suddenly sprang up among them, and their taste for writing' down the legends of their ancestors. In time the Ice- landers became a very learned people. In spite of their fighting propensities, old Iceland reared a noble race of men. Restless and ambi- tious when young, they generally returned to the mother country to take part in her wars and sail a few viking voyages. They always received marked attention from the Norwegian kings, and were looked upon as valuable allies. These young ad- venturers from Iceland helped to make innumer- able descents on the coasts of England, Scotland, 72 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. Ireland, France, and the shores of the Baltic. They received their education in sea-roving and fighting. The sea was their college, and piracy, being looked upon as a high-toned and honorable employment, we cannot judge them as harshly as if they had been reared according to our standards. .About the year 982 one Eirik the Red, an Ice- lander, was banished for three years from the island, and, sailing westward in his ship, he discovered Greenland. Afterward, a little company of people went out from Iceland and colonized Greenland. It is pathetic to know that they built a town, and had a church and a bishop, and managed to main- tain themselves in that fearful climate for nearly four centuries, and then vanished from off the face of the earth, no one knows how or whither. But it is still more interesting to us to learn that the son of this same Eirik the Red, with others of his kins- folk and friends, did actually discover the eastern coast of this continent of North America, which they explored as far south as Massachusetts and Rhode Island, calling the country Vineland, because of the abundance of wild grapes growing along the shores. This wonderful story is preserved to us in an old Icelandic saga, but the discovery of the Icelanders was neglected and forgotten, and when Columbus came, near the end of the fifteenth cent- ury, the glory was as much his own as if the Norse- men had never sighted our shores. But let us now return to Iceland, and look at the old chief when he prepared to ride to the Althing with his troop of retainers and thingmen. The LIFE IN ANCIENT ICELAND. 73 Althing met on the great thingfield, called Thing- valla, each year, near the end of June, and was the national assembly, or congress, attended by all the people of the island. Not until sixty years after the first settlement of the island were steps taken to organize a commonwealth with a legal constitu- tion. Then a learned man, named Ulfljot, was sent to Norway to frame a code of laws, and his foster brother, named Grim Goatshoe, a celebrated walker, was appointed to walk around the whole island, to find a place for the meeting of the Althing. He chose a sunken lava plain, between two great vol- canic rifts or chasms, with a mountain towering above, and Thingvalla Lake lying at its foot. Here all the chiefs assembled near the end of June, and set up their booths and tents for the Althing, which lasted fourteen days. To this spot, after an absence of three years, Ulfljot came with his new code of laws, and it was adopted by the Althing about the year 930. This code was very oddly named Gragas, or Graygoose, from what cause we do not know. Books and writ- ing were then unknown, and the whole of the code was committed to memory, and recited annually at the Althing, by a person appointed for that pur- pose, called the Speaker of the Laws. The learned Ulfljot became the first law-speaker. This old Ice- landic code is considered one of the most remark- able ancient codes in the world. Considering the age when it was made, it shows great wisdom and foresight. The old Icelanders were much given to going to law. They were very subtle in the man- 74 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. agement of their cases, and understood the art of quibbling to perfection. The assembly was opened with solemn sacrifices and feasts in honor of the gods. All the power lay in the hands of the great chiefs, who were also priests. They formed the high or supreme court at the Althing, and, when cases were to be tried, they could name the judges. Every one who ap- peared before the court as judge, witness, or com- plainant, was obliged to take an oath on a great silver ring, sprinkled with the blood of a victim, which the priest wore on his arm. The oath-taker called on Njord, Frey, and Almighty God (Thor) to witness that he spoke the truth. In about thirty years after the adoption of a con- stitution, the whole island was divided into prov- inces containing a certain number of priesthoods and of local things, where little courts, like our jus- tices’ courts, were held. There were in all thirty- six chief temples and priesthoods. In time, a high court of appeal was established, where doubtful cases could be reconsidered and tried over again. Old Graygoose had excellent laws concerning the poor. There was a depot of provisions for the needy in each parish, and no man was allowed to marry who could not maintain a family. Some of the punishments were severe. If a man kissed the wife of another, he was fined for every kiss three marks, or its equivalent, one hundred and forty-four ells of wadmal, a coarse kind of cloth, used for mon- ey in Iceland, as cattle were used in ancient Ger- many. But, unfortunately, these severe penalties LIFE IN ANCIENT ICELAND. 75 do not betoken a purer state of life and manners than were found in other parts of the world. The old Icelandic woman, according to the sagas, was too often revengeful, intriguing, and slanderous, al- though there were noble exceptions. She stood almost on an equality with the men in regard to all rights of person and property. There are several instances given in the sagas where women were divorced because they would not endure a blow from their husbands. The Icelandic laws were much better than the old Norse code, from which they were mainly drawn. Few people have ever shown such a remarkable genius for law-making as the ancient Icelanders. 76 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. CHAPTER VI. LIFE IN ANCIENT ICELAND — CONTINUED. W E can hardly understand how the old Ice- lander thought and felt, so different was he from ourselves. He belonged to the past, and the present can never put itself wholly in the place of the past. That ancient man’s ideas were shaped by his religion, which taught him that war was holy, that an appeal to arms was an appeal to the gods, who would uphold the just cause, and that a good fighter was not only a hero, but the beloved of Odin. When the ancient Icelander received an injury, there were three modes of redress open to him : he could punish his foe in his own way, he could take an atonement in money, or seek satisfaction at the hands of the law. The death-penalty was not in- flicted for what we call murder. The killing of an enemy was known as homicide. He who had done the deed threw a little earth or sand over the dead body, and then publicly told of what he had done. All that the Norseman did must be done in an open, frank, and manly way. He abhorred secret deeds of infamy, performed in the night, under cover of darkness. If he had fought with his foe and overcome him fairly, he wished the world to LIFE IN ANCIENT ICELAND — CONTINUED. 77 know that Odin, the god of battles, who upheld the right cause, had been upon his side. The death- penalty was inflicted for witchcraft and magic, and the bodies of the guilty were burned or cast into the sea. Exile, and what was called exclusion, were the severest punishments meted out for other of- fenses. Exclusion confined a man to certain speci- fied places, and if he was found straying out of bounds his enemy might kill him with impunity. The Norsemen were a very plain-spoken people. They were much given to making satirical verses, or squibs, as we should call them, in which they in- dulged in a boastful spirit, while they held their foes up to ridicule. The Icelanders — an intelligent, quick-witted people — excelled in this bad art, and severe laws were passed to check the unscrupulous rhymesters. Their verses were wretched doggerel, without the slightest merit as poetry, but the per- sonal allusions with which they were filled stung like nettles. When a chief was going into battle he would often cast insulting verses into the teeth of his foe, to excite him to the highest pitch of frenzy. The singer of such verses was called a skald, which means a poet, but in the best sense he had no right to the name. The Norseman was roused to fury when called “ nithing,” a term which, as nearly as we can trans- late it, means infamous ; but in ancient times a weight of insult attached to it which we cannot now understand. When this dreadful word was hurled at him the sufferer could either fight or go to law, and it is to be presumed that he generally chose the 78 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. former course. A nithing stake, composed of the forked branch of a hazel tree, was sometimes set up on an enemy’s land. The worst and most unpar- donable nithing-post was a stake crowned by a horse’s head. It is now impossible for us to com- prehend the power this insulting word exercised over the mind of a Norseman, who was peculiarly sensitive to every form of personal dishonor. The women shared fully in this trait, for we know that a wife would sometimes leave her husband because he had given her a slight blow on the cheek. There was a bad custom prevalent in Iceland which Christianity did its utmost to abolish. I mean the exposure of little children, who were sometimes carried out into woods and waste-places, and left to be devoured by wild beasts or to perish by cold and starvation. The father of a family had entire control over his children, either for life or death. When a baby was born in the house he was summoned to examine it, and to say whether it should live and be received as a member of the family, or should be cast out to perish by expos- ure. No one dared succor the child until the father had made his decision. It was laid on the bare ground, and then the father came to see if the baby was sound, strong, and healthy, without deformity or blemish of any kind ; possessed of good organs and senses and a vigorous pair of lungs. When he had settled these things to his satisfaction he either lifted the infant in his arms and gave it over to the women to be washed and dressed, and signed with the sign of Thor’s hammer, and sprinkled with pure LIFE IN ANCIENT ICELAND — CONTINUED. 79 water, (for a kind of infant baptism was practiced even in pagan times,) or he scorned and rejected it, and the infant was cast out to perish. Horrible and inhuman as the custom seems to us, we must remember that it grew out of the severe climate and sterile soil of the North, where the dif- ficulty of rearing large families was very great. Moreover, the idea was deeply impressed on the heathen mind that the puny, sickly members of the family or tribe had no right to live. They were a clog and a burden to the able-bodied. The com- munity had need of strong, athletic men who could deal hard blows, and bear their share in winning bread. These ideas were uppermost while the nation was poor and struggling for existence, and then the terrible custom of exposing infants was established. Christianity came to teach the preciousness of every soul, the essential worth of every human being, whether sickly or strong, and the knowledge of a God who notes the fall of the little sparrow and counts every hair because of its value. It taught the moral holiness of pity, sympathy, and kindness, and gradually brought into being many new and humane feelings and instincts of which heathendom was wholly ignorant. But, before the introduction of Christianity, some of these gentler feelings were not entirely unknown in the North. During a severe winter in Iceland the people of Reykdal held a meeting at the house of the hofgodi Ljot, on the Thvera, and unani- mously agreed to make vows to the gods, in order to obtain a better state of weather. The hofgodi 80 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. thought they ought to promise gifts to the temples, and to let the new-born infants be exposed, and kill off the old and feeble. But Askell, a pious chief- tain, raised objections to this sweeping proposal. It would be better, he said, for the people, in honor of the Creator, to promise to give property to sup- port the aged, and to bring up the children. His good counsel was followed. Let us believe that the mother’s tender instinct sometimes saved the doomed child, even as the mother of little Moses watched over him in his bul- rush cradle. Occasionally kind neighbors rescued the hapless baby from death, and it was brought up away from its kindred as a foster child. Perhaps the cruel custom of exposing children may have given rise to the system of fosterage so extensively practiced in the North. Parents sometimes sent their sons to be fostered in friend’s houses, and it was considered a great advantage for a youth to live with some great and noble chief, a man re- nowned for his wisdom and valor. The tie existing between the foster-child and its foster-parents and kinsfolk was very binding, and involved on both sides the most sacred obligations. One day, when King Harald Fairhair sat at table with a goodly company, a messenger came from Athelstane, king of England, bringing, as a present, a fine sword with a golden hilt. Harald took the sword, and had drawn it half way from the scab- bard, when the Englishman began to jeer. “ You are now,” said he, scornfully, “ the tributary or vas- sal of my king ; for you have accepted from him the LIFE IN ANCIENT ICELAND — CONTINUED. 8 1 present of a sword.” It appears that, in those days, to accept a sword was to own one’s self the liege- man of the giver. We do not hear that King Har- ald then revenged himself on the English king, but the next year he sent a fine little boy of his, named Hakon, to England. The messenger brought the pretty lad into Athelstane’s palace, and set him down on the king’s knee without ceremony. “ Who is this?” cried the king, astonished at such boldness. “ This,” returned the messenger, “ is King Harald’s son, whom he gives you as your foster child.” The king was angry and drew out his sword, but the mes- senger said : “You can kill the little boy, if you will, but you cannot kill all the sons of King Harald.” Athelstane thought better of it. Perhaps the bright face of the child touched his heart. He put up his sword, and decided to rear little Hakon, and he was carefully educated and baptized into the Christian faith. In after years he went back to Norway, and ruled there under the name of Hakon the Good. He was the first Christian king of Norseland, though his subjects remained heathens. The Icelander was a simple, plain man in his habits. He ate, as a rule, but two meals a day: breakfast at about seven in the morning, and supper at seven or eight in the evening. He could turn his hand, as we say, to anything. He knew how to help himself on sea and shore, in the field and forest. He had no book learning, but he was skill- ful and accomplished from having learned all he knew directly from nature. So long as he lived in his father’s house he was subject to his rule. The 6 82 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. daughter was set free from her father’s control on her wedding-day. The bride among the ancient Germans, Tacitus tells, brought no portion, but among the Scandinavians marriage was, to a great extent, a matter of barter and sale. In those days dower was the price paid by the bridegroom for his bride, and portion was the sum paid by the father for getting his daughter settled in life. It seems strange to learn that the duel, which we justly regard with abhorrence, had a religious origin, and was considered a direct appeal to the justice of the gods. The holmgang, or duel, was practiced all over the North. It generally took place on an island, and the winner believed he had the favor of Odin, who presided in person at such contests. As I have told you, there was nothing the Norse- man resented like the smallest personal indignity. In Iceland a man might receive sentence of banish- ment for throwing dirt on another, or striking him with his fist. The people had an intense hatred of arbitrary power. Personal independence and dig- nity were prized far more than riches. Though credulous in their religious views, they were not abject. Manhood was held higher than all other things. The warrior who had done great deeds by his own prowess and courage was apt to be boastful and defiant, even toward the gods. Such a man could not be completely fettered by superstition, even in the old pagan days, and the spirit of doubt was often stirred within him. He believed his gods were bound to protect and help him if he worshiped LIFE IN ANCIENT ICELAND— CONTINUED. 83 them with fervor and performed all his religious duties ; but if he thought his favorite divinities had treated him unkindly, no sentiment of fear or reverence could restrain him from expressing his dissatisfaction, and sometimes he even renounced their worship. We hear of one Hrafukill, who had been devoted to the worship of the god Frey, and who, when he learned that his enemies had killed a horse, named Freyfax, which he had hallowed to Frey, and had burned his temple, seeing that the god was too weak or indifferent to protect his worship, declared that it was folly to believe in the gods, and from that time onward offered no sacrifices. Those old warriors were very much inclined to believe in themselves and in their strong right arms. We shall see that their two principal gods were courage and strength. This made them boastful and ex- tremely self-confident. We hear of one who, in- flated with self-glory, cried out, “Where at present is he whom they call Odin, the warrior so com- pletely armed, who has but one eye to guide him ? Ah, if I could but see him ! This redoubtable spouse of Frigga in vain should be covered with his snow-white buckler, in vain mounted upon his lofty steed. He should not leave his abode of Lethra without a wound. It is lawful to encounter a warrior god.” We are told of a Danish prince, named Hother, who declared that he had resisted the united forces of Odin, Thor, and the JEsir. This reminds us of the Homeric heroes, who fought with the gods on 84 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. the plains of Troy, and sometimes wounded them. Perhaps the most remarkable thing in Norse mythol- ogy is the fact that it predicts its own destruction. The gods are not eternal. They are to reign but for a season, then will come the twilight of the gods, called Ragnarock, when heaven and earth shall pass away, to give place to a new and re- stored nature. These elements of decay, which the faith saw and recognized in itself, cast a melan- choly over the religious feelings of the North, and when Christianity came some enlightened minds saw in it the fulfillment of prophecy, and accepted the new religion with joy, while others clung stub- bornly to their belief in Thor and Odin. There was a long period of time when the North was neither pagan nor Christian, but something between the two. The decay of faith in the old gods went on very slowly in the minds and hearts of the people, though the change in the law of the land, abolish- ing paganism, may have been as abrupt as it was in Iceland when Christianity was adopted at the Al- thing in the year 1000. We shrink with horror from the thought of a violent death, but the Norseman courted it by every means in his power. This strange creed grew directly out of the fatalistic doctrine of Rag- narock, of which I spoke. The gods were looking forward to the great day of conflict — when they must fight and perish — when they would stand in need of the help of all good fighters. For this rea- son they welcomed joyfully to Valhalla those war- riors who had proved their claim to the heroic LIFE IN ANCIENT ICELAND — CONTINUED. 85 character by dying with arms in their hands. The joys of Valhalla, pictured by the poets, inspired in the North a contempt of death. The love of war among the Norsemen shaped the doctrines of their religion from old materials existing for untold ages, and their religion reacted on the national character, and made it still more fierce, until the Norseman became a terror to Europe, and so remained long after Christianity was adopted. The ancient Icelander dreaded nothing so much as dying peaceably in his bed. An heroic death was so intensely coveted that sick warriors were sometimes carried to the battle-field to die by the stroke of a weapon. Suicide, for the same reason, became a mania, and a rock in Iceland, we are told by an old writer, was resorted to by the unfortun- ate, the sick, and unhappy, that they might end their days acceptably to the gods by throwing themselves from the top. Another rock, in Swe- den, was resorted to for the same purpose, and was called the Hall of Odin. Men sometimes, when about to die, put on a suit of armor that Odin might recognize them as of the number of his elect. This strange faith in the god of battle so exag- gerated courage that the Norsemen were ready to attack the whole world in the name of Odin. Their fighting propensities must find vent, and they glo- rified piracy, and harried many peaceful lands that had done them no harm. The Icelanders were of the best blood of the North. They were a noble, austere race of men, who defied cold, and darkness, and raging seas, and 86 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. a sterile soil, and lived simply like the ancient Spar- tans. We must honor them for their love of inde- pendence, their genius for law, their good institu- tions, and their heroic toils. Their faults were the faults of the age, their virtues were their own. There was nothing mean or base in those sturdy warriors. They hated cowards and liars ; they were bound to help their friends and harm their enemies ; they despised truce-breakers, backbiters, and tale- bearers. They were plain and blunt in their speech, saying to a man’s face the worst they thought of him. They were hospitable even to their foes, open-handed and great-hearted, and some of their purely human virtues have a luster we cannot help admiring. I shall tell you in the next chapter something of the way in which Norway and Iceland were con- verted to Christianity. We know the very day when the Althing adopted the new faith, June 24 of the year 1000. The blessings that followed from Christianity, though they flowed slowly, were of in- calculable value. The precepts of the meek and lowly Jesus could not at once tame those fierce natures, but gradually the change was wrought. Pity for the weak and helpless, reverence for human life, and courage applied to living wisely as well as dying bravely, came in the course of ages. One great advantage to Iceland and the world was the introduction of the Latin alphabet, and the knowl- edge of Roman writing, which the Christian priest brought with his mass-book and liturgy. In the course of a century the Icelanders began to man- LIFE IN ANCIENT ICELAND— CONTINUED. 87 ifest that intense love of learning which has ever since distinguished them. Before the adoption of Christianity all their knowledge was oral. The mind and memory were the only libraries, the only books, they possessed. They were gifted with memories so admirable and surprising that even in heathen times they cannot be called wholly unlearned ; they were only unlet- tered. A great part of what was afterward written down already existed in those wonderfully retentive minds. During the eleventh century . there was both book teaching and oral teaching in the island. The old traditions, poems, and histories were taught by word of mouth, while the priests instructed the people from books. The Roman letters were at first used entirely by the priests, but finally they extended to the people. Seamund, a native priest of Iceland, who was born some time in the latter half of the eleventh century, went to Europe and studied in the col- leges of France and Germany. On his return he became the parish priest of a little village called Oddi, at the foot of Mount Hecla, and devoted himself with ardor to the literature of Iceland. It was Seamund who collected and wrote down the thirty-nine poems composing the elder, or poetical, Edda. Some writers wish us to believe that Sea- mund copied these poems from Runic manuscripts, but as we have no reason to suppose that Runic letters were ever used for such a purpose, it is probable that he gathered them from the lips of old people, who had learned them from their parents 88 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. in their youth, and held them in the grasp of their tenacious memories. In this way they became grandmother s tales — tales of the ancestress of the Norse race. Nearly all we know of Norse mythology is based on the elder Edda. What we find in the sagas and family histories but confirms the authority of this work. Some of these poems are written in a sublime style, some of them are obscure and hard to interpret. Who composed them we do not know. They may have been, probably were, com- posed by a number of hands at different times. The great poet or poets who lived before the mid- dle of the ninth century of our era have sunk into complete oblivion, and now their work seems like one of the vast objects of nature — the sky, the mountains, or the sea. The younger or prose Edda, which is based on the elder Edda, and derives all its value and au- thority from the latter, was compiled by Snorro Sturleson, who was born of a fine old Icelandic family in 1178. He was the foster-child of John Loptson of Oddi, the grandson of the wise priest, Saemund, and he lived at Oddi until his twentieth year. He received a good education, and may have had access to the manuscripts and other liter- ary treasures left by Saemund. The prose Edda belongs to the thirteenth century, and is very skill- fully put together, so as to bring all the leading doctrines of the old faith into prominence. Snorro also wrote the Heimskringla, or Book of the Nor- wegian kings. In spite of his taste for literature, LIFE IN ANCIENT ICELAND — CONTINUED. 89 and his great merit as a writer, his life was stormy and turbulent, and he was finally murdered by his sons-in-law and a stepson in 1241. In spite of the industry and zeal of Saemund and Snorri and the saga men of Iceland, what we now know of the ancient religion, laws, and customs of our Norse forefathers might have been lost to the world had it not been for the restorers of learning in Iceland, who discovered the Eddas hidden away in obscure corners of that frozen island, and gave them to the world in the 17th century. These discover- ies stimulated the researches of scholars interested in Northern antiquities, and a flood of light has since been thrown upon the dead and buried age of Norse heathendom. The old form of government continued in Ice- land until 1262, when it became a province of Nor- way. In 1387 it fell, with the mother country, into the power, of Denmark, and is still a possession of that kingdom. You will remember how, in 1874, the King of Denmark, Christian IX., visited Ice- land to celebrate the one thousandth anniversary of its settlement by Ingolf, the Norse exile, and to bestow a free constitution on the people of the island. 90 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. CHAPTER VII THE TWO OLAFS, OU will, I take it for granted, be anxious to 1 hear how Christianity was at last established in Norway and Iceland, and how those two great kings, Olaf Tryggveson and St. Olaf, partly by co- ercion and violence, and partly by persuasion, in- duced the people to adopt a change of faith, and forever abandon the heathen gods and all their works and ways. Though the best minds had long before begun to doubt the truth of the old religion, it was still dear to the common heart of the North, and the revolution which is narrated in a few pages of our history books, and which it took but one day at the Althing to effect legally in Iceland, was, in reality, the work of a long period of time. This change began at the top of the nation, in the brain and heart of a king, while the mass of the people still clung to the worship of Thor and Odin. That little boy of whom I told you in the last chapter, the youngest son of old King Fairhair, who was taken to England and placed upon the knee of King Athelstane, in time became a distinguished man, and was made King of Norway. He was called Hakon the Good, and was much beloved by THE TWO OLAFS. 91 his people. Hakon had received a Christian edu- cation in England, and he took priests and bishops out to his own country and tried to convert the Norsemen. But the time was not ripe. They re- fused utterly to give up their old gods, and at Yule- tide, which corresponded to our Christmas season, when there was great feasting among the heathen, and they indulged freely in horseflesh and mead, Hakon — though his soul abhorred all pagan rites — was sometimes forced to join in the festivities. The old faith flourished for some years longer in the far North, until Olaf Tryggveson arose, a man stronger than Hakon the Good. Among a brave people like the Norsemen, whose chief god was personified courage, a king, to be distinguished, must indeed be mighty and valiant. Olaf was such a hero. His is a great name, that towers up still like avast jokul in the Northern sky. In his youth Olaf was a famous viking and sea-robber. He helped King Sweyn, of Denmark, to plunder the shores of England and lay siege to London, which was even then an important town, attracting trade and commerce to the banks of the Thames. Olaf was the son of one Tryggve, grandson of Harald Fairhair, who was murdered by a wicked queen named Gunhild and her son. Gunhild was the widow of another of Fairhair’s children, and her wickedness is celebrated in many Northern le- gends. Poor little Olaf was not born until three months after his father’s death, and his unfortunate mother was driven, by the vengeance of Gunhild, from one foreign country to another. When Olaf 92 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. grew up he heard of his claim to the throne of Nor- way, and took to sea-roving. He was as wild and reckless a viking as had ever harried the shores of poor, afflicted England, now quite under the heel of the oppressive Norseman. Once, while on a voyage along the Western coast, Olaf extended his journey to the Scilly Islands, and there met an aged Christian hermit, who had sought shelter in those solitudes for prayer and meditation. He talked long and earnestly with this old man, and his heart was touched by the truths of the new faith. He was persuaded to receive baptism at the hermit’s hands. Olaf became a zealous convert, but he still continued his viking life. The two pro- fessions of Christian and sea-robber did not seem to him incompatible. Some time after this he made a famous invasion of England with King Sweyn. They sailed up the Thames, with three hundred ships and a large number of fighting men. The appearance of that great fleet must have been very striking, for the ships were shaped like strange birds and dragons, gayly painted and gilded. Olaf’s ship, which is celebrated in history, was called the Long Serpent. This siege of London took place in the year 994. It was due to a vow Sweyn had once rashly made at a drinking bout, that he would conquer England. A Norseman considered a vow as sacred and bind- ing, even if made under the influence of mead or strong liquor. But Sweyn had to wait over twenty years before his vow was fulfilled. This time he was bought off by danegelt, money paid over and THE TWO OLAFS. 93 over again by poor England to free herself from the Danes. But by and by he did become King of England, and his son Knut, is, as you may know, famous in English history. Well, Olaf stayed some time in England, and the Bishop of Canterbury, named Elphegus, baptized him over again, probably feeling that the first bap tism had not worked quite as well as it ought to have done on that wild, fierce nature. He also gave him much sound religious instruction. Finally Olaf, who had some claim on the throne of Norway, procured some ships and sailed North. At that time Norway was ruled by a wicked and abominable man named Jarl (Earl) Hakon. If I am not mistaken, this same Jarl Hakon offered up his innocent little son, seven years of age, as a sacrifice to the gods, that he might obtain victory over some famous robbers called the Jomsburg pirates. When Jarl Hakon heard that Olaf had invaded the land, being a coward as well as a cruel tyrant, he hid himself in the cellar of a pig-sty, and was there murdered by a slave. Olaf was thenceforth master of Norway, and from the first moment of "his reign he set himself against the heathen gods. He was determined to Christianize the land, peaceably if he could, violently if he must. His methods were not in accordance with the spirit of the meek and lowly Jesus, but we must remember the character of the Norse people and the temper of a hero like Olaf, who was bred up to sea-roving and fighting. Jarl Hakon, his predecessor, had been a zealous idol-worshiper, and had built many temples and 94 tales from THE NORSE grandmother. adorned them with costly images. On one occa- sion a thing was held near one of Hakon’s temples which contained a large Thor, with a fine gold col- lar round his neck. The Bonders, as they were called, zealous heathen men, invited Olaf to step in and gaze upon this splendid image, and take part in the ceremonies. But, instead of complying, the stout king rushed into the temple and clove the god from head to foot with his battle-axe. He seized the gold collar and other offerings, and car- ried them away for his own benefit. We know that human sacrifices were occasionally offered in Norway as late as the tenth century. The king had a ready wit, and he seized on the fol- lowing device to get some of his principal men baptized. Before Yule-tide King Olaf gave a great banquet in his palace, and invited people far and near to the feast. When the banquet was over he called in his trusted men-at-arms, and ordered them to lay hold of eleven chiefs of dignity and high position. He said, by way of explanation to the astonished feasters, that, as his people wished him to again become a heathen man, and sacrifice to the gods, he did not intend to offer up malefactors, criminals, and slaves. He would do it in the high- est style, and offer his best men. The chosen vic- tims, finding themselves doomed to death unless they consented to be baptized, chose the latter al- ternative ; though, probably, the king would not have answered for their remaining good Christians. Olaf was a stout man, and of very obstinate tem- per. He had a tough problem to deal with in the THE TWO OLAFS. 95 rooted paganism of his fathers, and he adopted vio- lent measures, some of which were cruel and not to be lightly excused. In two or three years Olaf had put down Odin and Thor with a high hand. The old heathen element dared not stir against this powerful king. Then he bethought him of Iceland, and sent a German missionary to convert the peo- ple. His name was Thangbrand, and he bore the new faith in one hand and the sword in the other. All who refused baptism he challenged to a holm- gang or some other form of contest. Two skalds made some satirical verses on this doughty mission- ary, whereupon he drew his weapon and cut them down. The Icelanders appreciated his fighting qual- ities but they rejected the new faith, and Thang- brand went back crest-fallen to Norway. It was this same Thangbrand whom Olaf rebuked for his sea-robberies, after he himself had seen the wickedness of such a violent life. “ Thou goest about a-roving, like heathen vikings, and feedest thyself and others by plunder and robbery. Thou ! a priest, who oughtest to serve God alone. Know, therefore, that thou shalt lose my favor, and leave my realm.” Thangbrand went out to Christianize Iceland in 997. In 999, one Hjallti, the son of Skeggi, was outlawed. He went to Norway with a priest named Gizur. They both adopted the new faith, and promised Olaf that they would go home and con- vert Iceland. They returned to Iceland in the year 1000, and repaired directly to the Althing, which was then in session. The speaker of the law was 9 6 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. one Thorgier, of White Water, who, it is said, was bribed by a priest, named Thormond, to establish Christianity in Iceland by a decree of law. Thor- mond gave him sixty-five silver marks to advocate a change of faith before the assembly of the people. Another version of the story tells us that Thorgier was won over by Hall of the Side, who had been converted under Thangbrand. However it may have happened, Iceland was then legally proclaimed a Christian land. The conversion of the people to the new faith was helped forward by Thormond, a kind and gentle priest, whom Olaf had sent out to take the place of the fighting Thangbrand. Three things were strictly prohibited by the new religion : the exposure of children, the worship of idols, and the eating of horse-flesh. The latter prohibition was probably due to the fact that the horse was sacred to Frey, and horse-flesh always figured as a prominent dish at heathen festivals. In Norway the people were very unwilling to yield up their old gods at King Olaf s dictation. There was wide-spread discontent, but Olaf cared little for their grumbling. He continued to smash idols and baptize the people by force. The fine gold ring which, as you will remember, he had taken from the god Thor, he now sent as a present to Queen Sigrid, called the Proud, of Sweden, who was then a widow. This lady had already burned up two of her suitors to be rid of them ; but Olaf, who was a widower, undeterred by the fate of pre- vious suitors, thought of winning her for his wife. When she received the gold ring as a present from THE TWO OLAFS. 97 the king, she had it broken open by her goldsmith, and discovered that it was filled with copper. The queen was very angry with Olaf, and at first refused the match, but at last, her wrath being soothed, she consented to marry him. Olaf now decided that he would not take her unless she became a Christian. This the lady positively refused to do, whereupon the king spoke very contemptuously to Sigrid the Proud, and at last struck her in the face with his glove, an indignity she never forgave ; for it is probable that Queen Sigrid was the cause of the great king’s death. There were still obdurate, unsubdued heathen men in Norway, and one of the worst of these was called Jaerns-Kaegg or Ironbeard. He lived in the far North, and Olaf visited his thing and his temple, and, as usual, broke to pieces the idols. In the fight which ensued old Ironbeard was killed. Olaf, in order to compose matters, offered to marry Iron- beard’s daughter. The offer was accepted, but un- fortunately this young lady nourished the spirit of revenge, and was discovered on the wedding-night trying to murder her husband. King Olaf sent her home again quietly, and, being now a widower, he married the Princess Thyri, sister of King Sweyn of Denmark, afterward king of England. Thyri’s history had been very sad and unfortunate. Now Sweyn was married to Sigrid the Proud, renowned for burning her lovers, and the same queen who had been mortally affronted when King Olaf gave her a blow on the cheek. Sweyn, urged on by his wicked queen, attacked Olaf on a maritime expedition 7 98 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. which he had undertaken to recover some lands be- longing to his wife, and brought his splendid career to an end. After a desperate struggle, when he found he could not save himself by fighting, King Olaf sprang overboard and perished in the waves. Olaf was a man dear to the Norse heart for his courage and untiring energy. We may believe he was a sincere Christian, although, being a man of his time, he adopted rude methods for inculcating the new faith, and plowed and harrowed with the sword that the good seed might spring forth. Norway was only half converted when the great St. Olaf arose to put the finishing touches to the work. Between his reign and that of Olaf Tryggve- son two jarls (earls) intervened, who, though they had been baptized, were still pagans at heart. They did not meddle with the people’s gods. At this time some men while on land called upon the Chris- tian God, but when at sea they worshiped Thor. God and Jesus Christ were then included in the Norse system of mythology, instead of displacing Odin and Thor. The new Olaf who now arose and became the favorite saint of the North, and who even had churches named after him in England, was the son of Harald Graenske, one of the two luckless little kings who went courting wicked Queen Sigrid of Sweden, and was burned by her connivance in his lodging. Harald had a wife already, and it is im- possible to understand why he should stray away in pursuit of this bad queen. Olaf, the future saint, was born after his father’s death. At the age of THE TWO OLAFS. 99 twelve, the age when boys arrived at manhood in the North, he, like all the young gentlemen of his time, went sea-roving. This was his early prepara- tion for the saintly calling, and he became a famous fighter both on land and water. Olaf made it his first business to go to Sweden and avenge his father’s death. There 'are traces of his having fought much in England, on the side of the English against the Danes. We catch a glimpse of him at a famous siege of London, brought on by a miserable English king, called Ethelred the Un- ready, against the Danes, who had possession of the city. Olaf, it is rumored, destroyed the London bridge and captured the town. He seems to have remained a long time in England, until, finally, King Knut, the Dane, gained ascendency over the whole kingdom. Probably, while staying in En- gland, Olaf became a devout Christian. In time his thoughts were turned toward Norway, on whose throne he had some claim. So he sailed away to- ward home, while the ruler of that land, Jarl Eric, was on his way to England to assist King Knut. The kingdom was left in charge of a boy, young Hakon, and of his uncle, one Swen or Svein. Olaf did not meet with much resistance. He captured young Hakon, and, finding him a beautiful boy, gave him his life on condition that Hakon gave up all claim to the kingdom of Norway. To this Hakon consented. He then fought one victorious naval battle with the uncle, Swen or Svein, who fled, beaten and battered, into Sweden. Then all Norway received him as king. 100 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. Before Olaf became a saint he was called the Thickset, because he was rather short and stout. He was a handsome man, with beautiful, flowing yellow hair, a clear red and white complexion, and bright eyes which flashed splendidly when he was angry. Olaf, having had a surfeit of sea-roving, and having seen the folly and wickedness of it, like Olaf Tryggveson, passed stringent laws against the practice. He now set himself to exterminate hea- thenism, root and branch, with a firm will and an unsparing hand. Odin and Thor were still power- ful away up in the North, and Olaf visited that part of his kingdom with the determination of setting up a Christian thing, or of burning the villages. He was resisted by a sturdy heathen peasant, named Gudbrand, who, after much disputing and wrang- ling, ordered the great idol, Thor, one of extraor- dinary size and splendor, to be brought from the temple, so that the angry eye of the god might strike terror to the heart of King Olaf. The king had taken a bishop along with him, arrayed in his robes, and with the bishop’s crosier and crook in hand, ready to preach, and to baptize the people. Before the idol was brought out the king ordered one of his retainers, who was a gigantic man, to bore holes in the heathen’s ships, and untie their horses, and turn them loose. When the morning came the people assembled on the thingfield in great numbers. Just before sunrise the big idol Thor, covered with gold and silver, was brought out. This image received four bread cakes and an allowance of meat daily. Olaf directed his man, THE TWO OLAFS. IOI Kolbein, to deal the idol a stout blow at the mo- ment when the eyes of the people were turned away from it. The king then stood up and made a speech. He denounced the idol as a senseless, blind, and deaf creature, that could not move of its own will. “Turn your eyes to the East,” he cried, “and be- hold our God advancing in the light ! ” At that moment the sun rose in full splendor, and while the people were gazing upon it, Kolbein gave the image a tremendous blow. It burst asunder, and there ran out immense mice, reptiles, and adders. The heathen men were terrified, and took to their heels, but when they were about to embark on their ships they found them ready to sink. Those who wished to fly on their horses found they had stampeded. The men now returned to the thingfield, and Olaf made a speech, in which he exposed the folly of trusting in a poor, old, senseless idol, the abode of vermin and reptiles, which devoured the food that was daily placed there for the god. He bade them take the gold ornaments home to their wives and daughters, and then offered them the alternative of fighting with him or of embracing Christianity. The stubborn old heathen, Gudbrand, then stood up and declared that as Thor had not been able to help them, they would become Christians. Then and there, on the thingfield, the people were bap- tized by the bishop. Old Gudbrand, we are told, became quite a saintly personage, and in after days built a church in the valley. Olaf avoided violence where he could. He used persuasion and some artifice with his people, and 102 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. this time the work was well done. In the course of two centuries Norway became a devout and even zealous upholder of the faith, and so remained un- til Luther’s Reformation in the fifteenth century broke the power of Rome there, and in many other parts of the North. But though the Norsemen were avowedly Christian, the impulses of the old faith were still at work in the Norse blood. They continued to create those sudden and violent revolu- tions in European affairs which made them the terror of many nations. The French priests intro- duced a prayer into their liturgy, beseeching God to deliver them from the Norsemen. Their name was every-where the dread of women and children. Though the means they used were not to be ex- cused, the ends wrought out by their invasions generally worked for good. Though restless and turbulent at home, they made excellent rulers abroad. Every-where they infused fresh energy into foreign states, and awakened the love of civil liberty and of good laws. I will continue the story of St. Olaf by telling you that Knut, or Canute the Great, who became king of England and Denmark, also laid claim to the throne of Norway. Olaf was a just, impartial king, but very severe in administering the law and punishing offenders. It was remarked that he dealt out justice to rich and poor, high and low, with an equal hand. This did not please the chiefs and great men, who wished to secure privileges and ex- emptions for themselves. There was much grum- bling and discontent in Norway, and Knut, by judi- THE TWO OLAFS. 103 ciously paying out gold, bought many adherents. After a year or two of struggle on the part of Olaf, Knut sent a great fleet to the coast of Norway, and the king had no adequate force by land or sea to check his advance. The disaffected people went over to Knut’s side, and in the end King Olaf was driven out of Norway. Knut appointed his nephew Hakon Jarl of Norway. He was the same beauti- ful boy, now grown to manhood, who had resigned the kingdom into Olaf’s hands, and promised to abandon all claim to the throne. Olaf, after making such resistance as he could along the coast with twelve small ships, finally fled away to the North, and, deserted and forlorn, crossed the wild, rugged mountains into Sweden. His brother-in-law was king of that country, and he received him well ; but Olaf pushed on with a bright little boy of his, named Magnus, to the court of Russia, leaving his wife and daughter in Sweden. He remained there perhaps two or three years, un- til he heard that young Jarl Hakon had been lost at sea, and that Norway was practically without a head. Then he gathered a force of men about him and marched back into Norway through the mount- ain passes. A battle was brought on, at a place called Sticklestad, with a much superior force of his rebel subjects. A total eclipse of the sun is said to have occurred that day, and such an event did take place on July 29, 1030, and perhaps fixes the date of the battle. King Olaf’s Swedish reinforcements failed to come up in time to help him much, and he was overcome and fell fighting bravely. 104 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. You will be anxious to know how Olaf, who was driven out by his own people, and finally killed by them when he attempted to return, became the holiest and most famous saint of the North. It is said that in the evening after the battle the king’s body was secretly carried to a small hut, and that a blind beggar, coming into the place, was miracu- lously restored to sight. Tradition further tells us that his body was buried in a sand-bank at Stickla- stad, and, on being taken up at the end of a year, was found unchanged, with the hair and nails grown. Grimkill, Olaf’s court bishop, declared him a holy person, and the people began to worship him as a saint. His son, Magnus, who became a great king, and was called Magnus the Good, laid him in a costly shrine, by the high altar in the Church of St. Clement at Drontheim, where it was thought to have worked numerous miracles. Churches were built to him in many countries, even in Constanti- nople, and in a half century or less from the time his people had repelled and killed him, he became one of the holiest personages in the world. The popular traditions of the North abound in stories of St. Olaf, who, as we shall see, inherited all the attributes and qualities of the heathen god Thor. In London, where he is known under the name of St. Olave, four churches were erected to his honor, and two, it is said, are still standing. To the Cath- olic Church his bones were a source of great profit ; but the Protestant North still honors him because he was a brave, true man, and suffered much for righteousness’ sake. THE iESIR, AND THE ASA FAITH. 105 CHAPTER VIII. A GLANCE AT THE ^ESIR, AND THE ASA FAITH. T HE Northern people, in the course of ages, made for themselves a god of courage, and called him Odin.* I do not mean that they delib- erately set to work to manufacture this god, but that the ideas which clustered around him grew unconsciously as the national character was formed. They also made another dearly-loved and cherished god — strength and endurance — and gave him the name of Thor. These two ideas lie at the base of the Norse character. You will now perceive that I have told you something of the Norseman to enable you to judge intelligently of his gods. His gods grew out of his mode of looking at the outer world, and expressing his own nature. His nature was shaped and fashioned by the outer world and by the influence of the gods he had made for himself. But, you may ask, if you are thoughtful, and have given some attention to mythology, was Odin, the war god, the first form of that great and powerful deity, or was he only some other transformed divin- ity who had his birth in nature ? Odin was, I believe, * Of the so-called historical Odin I shall speak at length in an- other place. Io6 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. in the beginning, before the Norse and Teutonic races emigrated to Europe, a nature-god, the sky typified. He always retained traces of his origin in that idea of the skyfather ; for he is represented as an old, one-eyed man, wrapped in a cloudy blue cloak. What could better represent the expanse of azure, lit up by Odin’s eye, the sun ? Thor, as you may know, is the thunder-god. The strokes of his great hammer are the reverberations of the electric clouds as they rush together in the sky. He became the Northern Herakles, who con- stantly labored and endured for the good of heaven and earth. Warm showers, attended by thunder and lightning, melt the ice and snow on the great Northern mountains, and send gurgling brooks and rushing rivers down to water the grassy plains. Thor is the son and the helper of Odin, the sky- god, with his great burning eye set in the firma- ment. Odin, as we shall see, married Earth, and their children ruled over the different provinces of nature. Many nations have had these simple elementary gods of sky and earth. The Hindus, Egyptians, and Greeks possessed them, and they all seem to point to a common origin and birth-place in the far East. But it is unsafe to speak positively on this point, or to try and fit every myth to a cut-and- dried theory. I believe we may safely assert that every one of the Norse myths had its roots in a nature-god, made by the imagination and the spirit of fear and worship in man out of the appearances and forces of the outer world. I shall point out THE ;ESIR, AND THE ASA FAITH. 107 these primitive ideas about the gods as far as I can. The reason they are so hard to trace is because of the great changes which took place in the life of the people when they came to occupy a new country, under different conditions of cli- mate and soil, sun and wind ; and when they found new impulses springing up within them. Then the sluggish, sleepy gods, whom they had brought from an earlier, perhaps a more genial, home, were gradually changed to meet the requirements of the new situation. Nearly all the remains of the heathen gods left to us in England and Germany are in the form of folk- lore, nursery tales, old wives’ stories, and popular superstitions and traditions. Of these I shall speak in good time. Some of them are so disguised by having been filtered, so to speak, through Chris- tianity that it is hard to detect their original form. But even in such a popular tale as Jack the Giant- Killer, if you look closely, you may detect traces of an old heathen myth. When the Norsemen first settled in that cold, rugged, but gloriously beautiful, land of Norway we do not know. Noble myths seldom spring up in countries which are not fitted to stir the imagina- tion. Norway, a land of mountains and torrents, and deeply penetrated by the sea through its nu- merous inlets and fjords, was a kind of northern Greece. It stimulated the slumbering poetry of the nation, and produced a noble race of bards, who composed the lays of the elder Edda, and who must rank with the great poets of the world, although 108 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. their very names have perished. Myths grow not alone from ideas about the outer world ; they also reflect the life and soul of man. The one idea that governed Northern life for many ages was resist- ance. Man must brace himself to contend with cold and frost, a sterile soil, hunger, fatigue, wild beasts, and long winters. He fought the elements in clearing and partially subduing the earth, and his fighting propensities grew to excess. Courage having been exalted to the highest place among the virtues, he transformed the sky-father, and made him the god of battles, but he still remained a nature-god, and the attributes of universal mind and spirit were added. A belief in the immortality of the soul was always cherished among the Northern nations. It was necessary to provide a heaven for the warrior which should furnish future rewards for his valor. Thus came into being Valhalla, the fighters’ heaven. As Odin was supposed to have an especial tender- ness for the heroes he doomed to death in battle, the fallen were considered peculiarly fortunate. They were chosen by beautiful goddesses called Valkyrjur, sent out by Odin to perform this duty. The doctrine of Odin and Valhalla was, I think, the central doctrine of the old faith. There were other doctrines more profound and spiritual and beautiful, but none that the people, whether intel- ligent or thoughtless, could so easily comprehend. Every Norseman knew it was his duty to be brave. His creed was short and simple; and, even when in later times he became a pirate and marauder on THE iESIR, AND THE ASA FAITH. IO9 the coasts of Europe, the fact that his religion had once lent a moral sanction to warfare saved him from becoming as bad as he might have been, and gave him a wild, fierce grandeur that few other races have possessed. Now, owing to that strange doctrine which fore- doomed the gods themselves to destruction, the heroes of Valhalla were not to lead a mere idle life of luxury and ease with Odin. They were to practice and perfect themselves in valor against that terrible day of doom, the twilight of the gods ; for, although Odin well knew he must perish in time, he proposed to make the best possible defense, and die like a hero-god. This trait of Northern mythology is full of pathos, and seems to stand alone among the religions of the world. Every religion has its external and its internal sense, its outer court of the temple and its inner shrine. Those who worship from the outside, and think only of the symbol, may be degraded, low, and unspiritual, while the inner meaning of their faith is full of beauty. I think we can see plainly that this was the condition of the Norse religion at the moment Christianity came to humanize and tame the nation. Its degradation is symbolized by the great ugly idol smashed by St. Olaf, out of which ran vipers and vermin. The spiritual mean- ing of the myths had probably faded from nearly all minds, and might have been utterly lost to the world had it not been for those wise and industri- ous Icelanders who wrote down and preserved the IIO TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. great poems of an unknown age.* The ancient religion was fast degenerating into a blind, besotted idolatry of stocks and stones, and Olaf Tryggveson and St. Olaf saw that they must root it out if they would save the people from every violent and wicked propensity. We have only to study the elder Edda to see that inspired seers and bards did once live among those people, who felt for God, “ if haply they might find him,” and worshiped the Unseen in spirit and in truth. It is in the power of poets to both exalt and degrade religious myths. The Greek poets did both in their time. The best Norse poets were in- tense and solemn, deeply imbued with the mys- tery and grandeur of the universe. Nature, rugged and sublime, often dark, frowning, and danger- ous, colored and shaped their dreams. They have given the world great works and sublime doc- trines, which doubtless they mused upon in the shadow of the mountains or by the tumultuous Northern sea. In reading their lays we feel that, few who have come after are greater than these nameless ones who questioned so profoundly about life and death and immortality and the fate of gods and men. I have called the doctrine of Odin as war-god, with Valhalla the warrior’s heaven, and the Val- kyrjurs or corse-choosers, the central doctrine of * The Prose Edda was written by a man who mixed classical learning and Christian ideas with Northern traditions. This is clearly seen in the preface to Max Muller’s “ Chips from a German Workshop,” vol. ii, p. 195.— Ed. THE .ESIR, AND THE ASA FAITH. Ill Norse religion, because it was all-powerful in form- ing the Northern character, and left its deep impress on after-times, when the myths themselves had vanished from every part of the world except that cold corner, Iceland. The conflict of good and evil deities is another point to which I would call your attention. Some writers have supposed that this doctrine was drawn from the old Persian religion, which embraces an endless conflict between two gods almost equal in power, the one good, the other wholly evil. But the Scandinavian idea is far more simple than the high-wrought philosophical scheme of the Persians. As Odin was, in the beginning, merely the sky-god, a being with a wide blue mantle and one great, glowing eye — the sun — so Loki was only the god of fire, a wild, incalculable, tricksy nature- god. Among the Greeks this deity was represented as a useful being, Hephsestos, the smith and metal- worker, who, confined to his work-shop in the bow- els of the earth, made the armor of the gods and many beautiful works. In some sense he was the father of the arts in Greece ; but in Norway he as- sumed a far more important character, because in a cold country fire is one of the chief means of sus- taining life. In the first place a fire-god, and no devil at all, because of the destructive propensities of his nature Loki gradually took on evil attributes. When men began to reflect upon all that disorganizes, ruins, and embitters life, it was natural for them to make a god of evil. The Norsemen did not create a new god for the purpose, but took the familiar old de- 1 12 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. mon of fire and remodeled him. Now it is plain to us that, in the first place, Loki was not wholly evil in intent, because he originally appears as the brother of Odin, and takes part in the creation of man. For a long time he was allowed to live with the ^Esir, and freely made his way in and out of heaven. The gods could scarcely do without him, because he was so witty, so full of resources and expedients. He involved them in endless difficul- ties, but he was just as ready to extricate them by his wonderful cleverness. At last, however, he made himself intolerable by slaying Baldur, the beloved god of summer, and was chained down in a place of torment until the last day. The gods endured him because fire was necessary to their comfort in a cold climate, but he was always a danger and a menace, just as we say of fire that it is an excellent servant but a fearful master. I am acquainted with no other god of mythology who exactly corresponds to the wicked, grotesque, and clever Loki. It is possible that he was bor- rowed by the Norsemen from the aboriginal inhab- itants of the North, and was, in his primitive ele- ments, a god of the soil. As a gentle heat diffused through the sky Loki is good and beneficent, and is called the brother of Odin ; but when he goes down into the depths of the earth and becomes the elemental fire, his nature changes to evil, and he brings forth children who are even worse than him- self. They are the destructive powers of nature, which cannot always be kept chained, although for a time the gods who represent the principle of life THE jESIR, AND THE ASA FAITH. J 1 3 are able to curb them. But Loki’s children finally break loose and bring about Ragnarock, the twi- light of the gods. This group of destructive beings, Loki and his progeny, the powers of evil as we call them, is op- posed to Odin and his children, the organic and living powers. We find just such an opposition in Grecian mythology, although there the evil powers are of darkness, the good powers of light, typified by the change from day to night. Odin Allfather, as he was fondly called, has a circle of twelve sub- ordinate gods, or yEsir, most of them his children, who help him in the government of the universe. It is to be noted that Zeus (Jupiter) also had a court of twelve gods, which he held on Olympus. An- other striking point of resemblance between the Greek and the Norse systems is the fact that in both, previous to the reign of the gods, the earth was possessed by giants. Zeus subdued these mon- strous beings at great cost and labor. In Greece they were the chaotic principle represented by wild, fierce storm and tempests. In the Northern land they took the form of icebergs and snow-mountains, and that visible death of nature which prevents growth, and puts a quietus on all movement and energy in the ground. The gods, being life and motion, which germinates in seeds, sparkles in water, is seen and felt in sunshine, in rain, and thunder, and in all active things, hated those slug- gish, inert frost-giants, who, by all means in their power, were ever striving to encroach on the do- main of life. 8 1 14 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. The frost-giants were negatively bad — not act- ively evil like the busy Loki. The gods tolerated and sometimes visited them. Indeed, marriages took place between them, as we shall see. But the gods dreaded the power of the giants, and, though a truce was sometimes proclaimed between them, the war was eternal. The giants were an intermedi- ate form of evil that would not destroy, but would seal up all life and fix it in a state of eternal repose. For this reason they must be perpetually struggled with and driven back. Thor, the thunder-god, was their great enemy, because the impetuous summer- showers, accompanied by thunder and lightning, did more than all else to destroy them. The frost-giants were naturally great builders. We are all well acquainted with the beautiful archi- tecture of frost and snow. But though they built so well, their building meant death. One of their giants got into heaven with the hope of walling it up, and undertook to build a fine castle for the gods, and was only thwarted by the ingenuity of Loki. The Norsemen had a scheme of creation sublime and profound, although they claimed that all things, even the gods, were made from matter. They rep- resented the whole universe as bound together by the great ash-tree, Yggdrasill, whose roots extended over or shadowed three worlds. Nothing was ever imagined more beautiful than this grand tree, eter- nally growing and eternally decaying, and which binds by its roots, its trunk and boughs, the whole creation into one. They separated the universe THE iESIR, AND THE ASA FAITH. 115 into three large divisions, or states, which we may simply name God’s world, or heaven ; man’s world, or the earth ; and Hel’s world, or the lower regions. Hel was the goddess of death, whose name was finally given to the whole region over which she ruled. In old Norse mythology it was not neces- sarily the abode of the evil. There was a still lower deep for the hopelessly depraved. Hel’s domain consisted of nine worlds, or circles, and, like the Greek hades, was a shadowy, chilly, unpleasant place, where all souls went who did not die in arms and were thus entitled to enter Valhalla. The beautiful summer-and-light god, Baldur, who cor- responds to the Greek Apollo, went to Hel’s house, though his soul was of spotless innocence. Al- though Odin’s chief heaven was Valhalla, the abode of slain warriors and of the Valkyrjur, corse-choos- ers, there were, as we shall see, various other heav- enly abodes and many fine mansions where the gods and goddesses lived in great splendor. One chief peculiarity of the Norse faith was that both Odin’s Valhalla and Hel’s regions were not to endure. They were to pass away wfith the earth, to give place to a renewed creation. There is a hint in the Edda of a higher heaven, a heaven of heavens, called Gimli, immutable and eternal, where the blest were finally to live. There are also pas- sages in the Edda, somewhat obscure, which seem to refer to an eternal, unchangeable god, above Odin, living from everlasting to everlasting. Some writers have claimed that these passages refer to a doctrine of the one eternal God, held in all its purity Il6 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. by the Norse sages. The passages are too obscure to enable any one to base an elaborate theory upon, but there are traces of a doctrine in the Eddas which resembles the doctrine of the Trinity. Wheth- er these traces are the remnants of an older faith, or whether they crept in at the time when the Ed- das were first transcribed in Iceland by Christian priests, it is now impossible to say.* If they did exist in the primitive Norse myths, there is no proof that they were ever taught to the people, who believed in and universally worshiped Odin and Thor and Frey and Bragi and the other JEsir. These higher doctrines may have been held by a few priests and thinkers. There are traces in the Eddas of deeply reflecting minds, but who they were we do not know. I shall point out to you as we go on the resemblances between the Norse gods and the Greek and other divinities. Frigga, the Norse goddess of love, was the Northern Aphrodite or Venus. Her brother, Frey, was a god of the earth, who made it fruitful. The principal seat of Frey’s worship was in Sweden. Frigga, the wife of Odin, was the Earth, who married him when he was simply a sky-god. She resembles the Greek * The Eddas, doubtless, contain remnants of original revelation preserved in mutilated form. The old poems “were composed in Norway in the sixth centuiy after Christ ; they were carried to Ice- land in the ninth, and written down in the eleventh century. The prose portions of the old Edda, and still more of the young Edda, may be of later origin. They betray, in many instances, the hand of a Christian writer. And the same applies to the later sagas and law-books.” — Max Muller’s “ Chips from a German Workshop,” vol. ii, pp. 193, 194.— Ed. THE jESIR, AND THE ASA FAITH. 117 Demeter, (Ceres.) Njord is one of the vans, gods of the air and water, who somewhat recalls the Neptune of the Greeks. The opposition of light and darkness, summer and winter, plays an import- ant part in these Northern myths ; but those who would trace every myth and every folk-story back to the sun are, I believe, straining a theory more than it will bear. 1 1 8 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. CHAPTER IX. HOW THE UNIVERSE WAS MADE FROM THE GIANT YMIR’S BODY. S soon as man begins to think he asks himself, “ How did the universe come into existence? Who made it, and of what material was it formed ?” All the mythologies have tried to answer these questions by a cosmogony, or theory, of creation. In none of them do we find more wonderful, and perhaps more profound, answers than are contained in the Eddas. We must remember that all the science, history, and poetry, as well as the religious doctrines which the nations had in their infancy, were contained in myths. Every thing was taught in the form of a story, and the people listened — pleased and de- lighted — to the tale of the universe. Let us note well the striking points in the Norse answer to the question of how the world was made, and chiefly the fact that they do not attempt to explain the creation of matter, which was in being before the birth of the gods, who were made from material already existing. There was a state be- fore the gods came to life. There will be a state after they are dead. With these states the old sages deal but vaguely. Another striking point is HOW THE UNIVERSE WAS MADE. II9 the fact that the crude matter of which the universe was formed was first organized in the shape of a monstrous giant. To what the old Greeks called chaos, and what we call space, the Norsemen gave the long name of Ginnunga-gap, the abyss of abysses, the container of crude, unshaped matter. Before the creation of the sky, or suns, or stars, they imagined a division of space. The coarse matter was sep- arated from the finer and lighter kind, and gathered into a place by itself in a loose, unshaped condition, full of mists and whirlwinds. This sphere is called Niflheim. It lay at the North, and in the middle of it was placed the well Hvergelmir, from which flowed twelve rivers. This was the under or lower region, for to the ancients the North was -down, or below. South of the cold and frozen sphere lay a hot, bright, and radiant world called Muspelheim. All the light and luminous particles of matter were gathered in this place. It was ruled over by Sur- tur, a god with a flaming sword, who had under his command the light elves, busy little creative spirits. In this system heat and cold were the active and passive agents by means of which the universe was born. The hot sphere, which was up or above, in relation to Niflheim, acted on the latter, and caused poisonous cold streams to flow, called Elivagar. These streams froze into ice, and piled themselves up into layers in Ginnunga-gap, the abyss of abysses. Now while the north part of Ginnunga-gap, or space, was heaped with ice, from the South came heat and sparks of fire, and 120 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. the whole of that region glittered and glowed like the purest air. The two spheres, at work upon each other, were about to create a third, unlike either. The Edda tells us that the heat met the ice, which melted and dripped. Then the drops, through the power of him who sent forth the heat, received life, and a vast human form was produced, called Ymir. I want you to note this well, as it is taken from one of the most important passages in the Eddas. “ The power of him who sent forth the heat ” seems to indicate the existence of a spirit before the birth of the gods, by and through whom they were made. On these words mainly rests the belief that the Norsemen had some vague knowledge of an eter- nal, creative power expressed in that sublime pas- sage of the Bible, where we are told “ the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters.” The Norsemen first thought of the universe em- bracing all we see or know in earth and heaven under the form of a monstrous, misshapen man, called Ymir. He was nothing but matter, which, obedient to some law, had gradually spread in the darkness, and given birth to the lowest form of life. He was the father of the frost-giants, called Hrim- thursar, huge icebergs and snow mountains. He lay somewhere between the hot and cold spheres, and divided the upper from the lower world. The frost- giants called him O’rgelmir, meaning a vast, form- less mass of matter. He was the rough material gathered together in one place, from which the gods would finally make the universe. Ymir is HOW THE UNIVERSE WAS MADE. 1 2 1 called evil, because he was born of the negative principles, cold and darkness. As yet there was neither sand nor sea, nor cool waves, neither earth, nor grass, nor vaulted heaven. I will quote this passage from the Voluspa, one of the poems of the elder Edda : ’Twas Time’s first dawn, When nought yet was, Nor sand nor sea, Nor cooling wave ; Earth was not there, Nor heaven above, Nought save a void And yawning gulf ; But verdure none. At the same time that Ymir was formed from the drops flowing from the ice, the celestial cow, Aud- humla, was made. Her name means darkness, and she symbolizes the upper sphere, in which no stars had yet begun to twinkle — before the creation of the sky or of light. From her teats, wonderful to relate, ran four nourishing streams, upon which the giant Ymir fed. These streams, we may conjecture, were the powers and forces of nature, possibly light, air, water, and fire, the four elements of the an- cients. The universe-giant, thus fed, fell into a deep sleep, and began to sweat, and from the pit of his left arm was born a man and a woman. One of his feet produced, with the other, a son, from whom the frost-giants were descended. Ymir is called the old frost-giant, or the grandfather of the Hrimthur- sar. This account will perhaps remind you of the 122 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. way we are told God cast Adam into a deep sleep when he made Eve. The deep sleep typifies the mystery of creation, which the wisest man of our time is no more able to solve than the poor, igno- rant myth-maker of past ages. At this time, before heaven and earth existed, Allfather Odin lived among the frost-giants. These Hrimthursar, as we know, sprang from the lower sphere of matter. Far more wonderful was the birth of the gods. The cow, Audhumla, symboliz- ing the upper sphere, began to lick some stones, covered with salt and hoarfrost, for nourishment. In other words, the powers of growth began to act on matter. The first day that she licked the stones there sprang from them, toward evening, the hair of a man, the second day a head, and on the third day an entire man. This myth indicates the dif- ferent stages of development in creation. Life be- gan with the plant which, in Norse mythology, is more than once typified under the form of hair ; then a head appeared, probably the lower forms of animal life, and at length a perfect, full-statured being, the ancestor of the gods. Here is one con- tinuous act of creation with separate stages. The creation of animals is nowhere distinctly mentioned, but without doubt it is included in the steps or periods of the creative process which occupied three days. This binding of the whole of life to- gether in creation suggests the most advanced ideas of the philosophers of our own time, and is an in- stance of the profound meanings which may lurk under the simplest myths. HOW THE UNIVERSE WAS MADE. I23 The man who at length came forth from the lick- ing of the rime clumps was endowed with beauty, agility, and power. He was called Buri, the bear- ing, and his son was named Bor, the born. Bor married a daughter of the giant Bolthorn, and they had three sons Odin, Vili, and Ve; and the Edda adds, “ it is our belief that this Odin, with his brothers, made both heaven and earth, and that Odin is his true name, and that he is the most mighty of the gods.” We have already traced three distinct creative steps, and there are three others which may be noticed. First, the giants were made from a low, coarse form of matter, then an intermediate type of being sprang from the action of the serial sphere upon matter, called producers or progenitors. Then the gods were born from a union of these with the giants. The gods were of the giant race, and born of matter, but divine elements entered into them, and an implacable hatred was to exist forever be- tween them and the inert, torpid giants. The trinity, or triune brotherhood of gods, repre- sented in Odin, Vili, and Ve, was found in the old German religion. Tacitus tells us that the god Tuisco had a son named Mannus, whose three sons were the original ancestors of the three chief Ger- man tribes. We find the same in old Indian my- thology, where Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva are the creating, preserving, and judging powers. This trin- ity exists in Greek mythology, where the three di- vine brothers, Zeus, Pluto, and Neptune, govern the world, both separately and conjointly. Odin is 124 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. breath or spirit, Vili will or power, and Ve holiness. Vili and Ve are not spoken of after the creation. They are but attributes of the divine nature, and are probably merged in Allfather. It is hinted in the Edda that the creation of the universe resulted from the war between gods and giants. We find the same idea of strife in Greek mythology, between Zeus and the Titans, before the reign of the gods was rendered secure. It means the war of opposite and conflicting forces in nature, the rending and rifting and upheaving that goes on in matter before it becomes organized in planets and suns. The gods of the ancients we to- day call light, heat, electricity, and motion, forces that play in and through matter, so that it can pro- duce and sustain life. These were the gods who formerly warred upon the giants, and brought forth order and life where only chaos before existed. But in the Edda all this is told us in poetry in- stead of in plain prose. Here is the highly-imagin- ative account which the old skald gives us of the creation. The three sons of Bor slew the great giant Ymir, and there poured from him such a tor- rent of blood that all the frost-giants were drowned, except one crafty old fellow, named Bergelmir, who escaped with his family in a boat, or on a chest. He saved his wife, and in time they reared up a new race of frost-giants. Here is a verse from the elder Edda which describes how Bergelmir got off: Ages past counting, Ere the earth was formed, W as born Bergelmir ; HOW THE UNIVERSE WAS MADE. 125 Full well I remember How this crafty giant Secure in his skiff lay. The skiff or chest of Bergelmir suggests to the mind some fragment of a world saved from a gen- eral submergence of the continents, such as geolo- gists tell us took place unnumbered ages ago. * Odin and his brothers dragged the body of Ymir into the middle of Ginnunga-gap or space, and it formed the earth, occupying a middle position be- tween Muspelheim and Niflheim, the regions above and below. It was called Midgard, the middle world. From Ymir’s blood they made the oceans, seas, and lakes ; from his flesh the land ; from his bones the mountains. His teeth and jaws, together with some bits of broken bones, served for stones and pebbles. The earth they imagined was a flat, round disk, with the ocean flowing about it in a circle, like the Oceanus of the Greeks. Ymir’s skull was uplifted and placed over the earth to form the sky, and instead of being supported on the should- ers of a huge Titan, like the Greek Atlas, it was held in position by four dwarfs, placed one at each corner, and called Austri, Vestri, Northri, and Suthri — north, south, east, and west. The giant’s * It also adds another testimony to the historical truth of the Mosaic account of the deluge ; an event which so impressed itself upon the minds of men, that the memory of it has been perpetuated in the mythology of all heathen nations. Josephus says : “ Now, all the writers of barbarian histories make mention of this flood, and of this ark.” Ant., lib. i, cap. iii, sec. 6. For much interesting infor- mation concerning heathen traditions of the deluge, see Smith’s “ Sacred Annals ; or, Researches into the History and Religion of Mankind,” vol. i, chap. v. — E d. 126 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. brains the gods tossed into the air to make the heavy clouds. His hair formed grass and the veg- etable kingdom, and with his eye-brows a wall of defense was built around Midgard to protect it from the assaults of the giants, who lived in Jotunheim, on the outer rim of the earth, and were constantly making attacks and incursions on the domain of gods and men. Midgard — middle-world — was ap- pointed as the dwelling-place of men. The gods then took the sparks and red-hot cin- ders that were cast out of the glowing sphere of Muspelheim, and set them in the firmament, both above and below, to light heaven and earth. They also appointed a place and a path for the lightning and fiery meteors. Then came the division of time into years and months and days. At first, we are told, the heavenly bodies wandered around rather vaguely, not knowing their power or station, but the gods produced order and regularity of move- ment. The sun in the North was feminine and the moon masculine, thus reversing what seems to us the natural idea of sex as applied to those two orbs. In the German and old Norse tongues the moon is always of the masculine gender. The reason, it has been suggested, is to be found in the fact that the northern day is mild and productive, while the night is harsh and severe. In the South, the fierce power of the sun makes the night lovely. Hence the ex- quisite charms of Luna, Diana, and all the moon goddesses of Southern mythologies. When the work of creation was well advanced, the gods took counsel together, and gave a name to HOW THE UNIVERSE WAS MADE. 127 every light in the sky, and to the new moon, and the waning moon. They also gave names to the morning and the midday, the forenoon and the evening, that mankind might have some means of measuring time. This is about all the ancients knew of astronomy. We here see that they had observed the two principal changes of the moon. They reckoned by nights instead of days, and the first night of the new year was called the mother- night, from a pret.ty fancy that it gave birth to all the others. The custom of reckoning .by nights instead of days is preserved in the terms sennight and fortnight. The oldest year in the North was the lunar year; and although some writers claim that the twelve principal mansions of the gods refer to the twelve months of the year, we know that the solar mode of reckoning was not introduced into the North before the year 950 of our era. Night and day were imagined in the form of two beings having a conscious existence, and this is the shape they took in the Norse fancy: Njorvi, who dwelt in Jotunheim, (giants’ world,) had a daugh- ter called Notte, who, like all her race, was of a dark and swarthy complexion. She was married three times, and her first husband was named Naglfari. By him she had a son named Aud, (rich.) Her second husband was named Annar, by whom she had a daughter, called Jord, (earth.) Lastly, she wedded Delling, who belonged to the race of the gods, and their son was Day, a fair and beautiful child, who resembled his father. Then Allfather (Odin) gave Night and Day two horses and two cars, 128 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. and placed them in the firmament that they might successively ride, in twenty-four hours’ time, entirely round the earth. Night takes the lead, with her wonderful dark horse, called Hrimfaxi, who champs his bit, and every morning the earth is bedewed with the drops which fall from his foaming mouth. Day’s horse is called Skinfaxi, and his shining mane beams over heaven and earth. Day is also called Glad, and Drosul. The birth of Night amid the vast, dim shadows of the giant-world is very sug- gestive. She becomes the mother of light and of time, because night broods longer in the North than elsewhere, and is even a more impressive fact than day. Day and night are represented as distinct from the sun and moon, and driving in different chariots. Here is the curious little story about the creation of the sun and moon : There was formerly a man named Mundilfari, who had two children who were so lovely and graceful that he presumed to call the boy Mani (moon) and the girl Sol, (sun.) Sol was married to a man named Glenur. The gods were very angry with Mundilfari for daring to name his children after the heavenly bodies, and they took the boy and girl away from him and placed them in the sky to drive the horses of the sun and moon which they had made to light the earth from sparks that flew out of Muspelheim, the fire world. Sol’s horses were called Arvak (Aurora) and Alsvid, (to scorch.) Under their shoulders the gods placed two skins filled with air to cool and refresh them, or, according to some very old traditions, a freezing HOW THE UNIVERSE WAS MADE. I29 substance called isarnkul. A shield called Gralin (the cooling) stands before the sun to prevent the waves and mountains from taking fire. Mani guides the chariot of the moon, and regulates its waxing and waning, called Nyi and Nithi. He once caught up from the earth two children named Bil (to mount) and Hjuki, (to keep warm,) as they were returning from a spring, Byrgir, (to conceal,) carrying between them the bucket called Saegr (the sea) on a pole called Simul. Their father’s name was Vidfinn*, and they follow Mani, as we may see from the earth. These wonderful children, who carry the sea on a pole, are the spots on the moon, which we call the man in the moon, or the man, the dog, and the bush. This is a popular belief among the Swedes, and to this day they point out the children in the moon carrying the sea-bucket between them on a pole. It is a curious fact that no distinct worship of the orb of the sun can be found in Norse mythology. It would seem more natural for the dwellers in the frozen North, than for other nations, to adore the source of heat and light. They adored the effects of the sun in many forms, but the globe itself had no god and no cult or system of worship. We have now come to one of the most singular and highly imaginative of all these myths, which attempt to explain the motions of the sun and moon and the cause of eclipses. Here we hear the first lispings of science seeking to explore the uni- verse and to render a reason for the facts of nature. When Gylfi, the wise Swedish king, inquired of the 130 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. gods why the sun sped so fast through the heavens, as if fleeing from destruction, he was told that the sun flees because her enemy is not far behind, and she has no way of escape but to run. There are two fierce wolves forever pursuing the sun and moon. The one that chases the sun is called Skoll, the smiter. She fears him greatly, for he shall one day overtake and devour her. The other wolf is called Hati, the hater. He is the son of Hrodvitnir, and he runs before the sun and strives to seize on the moon, and will one day capture it. The mother of these wolves is a giantess, who lives in a wood to the east of Midgard, (middle world,) called Jarnvid, (the ironwood.) She is the mother of many sons who are giants, and all in the form of wolves. The worst of this old crone’s offspring was named Mana- garm. This monster absorbed the lives of dying people into his own, and it is he who will swallow up the sun and moon, and sprinkle heaven and earth with blood.* You have probably guessed that the shadowy old crone is mother Night, and her children are the wolves of darkness. They overtake the hapless sun and moon, and bite large sections from their spheres, or wholly devour them : whence come partial and total eclipses. The offspring of the old crone of the ironwood, who are all wolves, and especially the monster Managarm, who absorbs the lives of dying people, may hint at the origin of the ter- rible were-wolf superstition, so prevalent in the * The Mexicans represent an eclipse of the moon as the orb being devoured by a dragon, and the Hindus the same. HOW THE UNIVERSE WAS MADE. l 3 l North. There is good reason to suppose that it grew out of the belief that the souls of dead or liv- ing persons could take up their abode in the bodies of animals. The distance between these simple myth-makers and the great philosopher Newton seems too vast to measure, but they were both trying to solve the riddle of the heavens. This curious myth is the answer of untaught man ; Newton’s answer was the law of gravitation. Here is the description of an eclipse sublimely given in the elder Edda : Eastward sat the crone In the ironwood, And there brought forth Fenrir’s offspring. Of these shall be One worse than all, The moon’s devourer, In a demon’s guise. Filled shall he be W ith the fated’s lives ; The gods’ abodes With the red blood shall stain. Then shall the summer’s Sun be darkened, All weather turn to storm. Here we dig down to the root of a very old su- perstition which was practiced by many nations, even at a late day, and long after its origin was for- gotten. I mean the custom of making frightful noises, of howling and clashing arms and beating on brazen instruments at the time of an eclipse, in order to scare away the monsters who were 132 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. devouring the sun and moon. If any doubt was expressed by the incredulous as to the existence of the monster, the people had but to point to the huge mouthful he had already taken from the en- dangered orb. Here is the old Norseman’s idea of the origin of winds : At the northern extremity of the heavens sits a giant called Hraesvelger. He is clad in eagle plumes, and when he beats his wings or spreads them out for flight, the winds arise from under them and rush down on the earth. This huge sky eagle is more poetical than the Greek yEolus, who kept the winds tied up in bags. The personification of summer and winter is first found here in the North. Summer is gentle and delicate, and all that is mild and sweet comes in his train. Winter, like all his race, has a freezing breath, and is grim and gloomy and dark of aspect. These two shall reign alternately ; but, in the far North, winter often usurps the place of his brother, and absorbs far more than half the year. THE NINE WORLDS. 133 CHAPTER X. THE NINE WORLDS, THE HEAVENLY HOUSES, AND THE CREATION OF ASK AND EMBLA. HE universe is now complete, or at least that J- portion of it which the ancients could see with their unassisted eyes. The first condition of things was evil, because darkness prevailed, and light, in the form of the gods, had not yet been born. The universe arose from a conflict of forces, or, as the old myth-makers express it, the fight of the gods with the giant Ymir, which resulted in the destruc- tion of the latter and the creation of all visible things from his body. The frost-giants, first of created beings, are the familiar old Greek Titans, with whom all of us who have studied Greek mythology are well acquainted. In the North they have been transformed into vast snow jokuls and icebergs, in accordance with the cli- mate. The gods sprang from matter or the giants, acted upon by higher or celestial forces. They made, in their turn, heaven and earth, and the abodes of various ranks of created beings. Until a home was provided for men, dwarfs, and elves, they could not come into existence. We are not to suppose that the heaven and earth made by Odin from Ymir’s body were the vast stel- 134 tales from THE NORSE grandmother. lar universe. We have seen that the ancients re- garded the stars as mere sparks which had flown out of Muspelheim, the fire-region, and were fixed in the sky by the gods as lamps to light the void abyss. Odin w’as lovingly called Allfather, or fa- ther of all men. He ruled directly over the earth, called Midgard, middle world, and his own special realm of Asgard, or Asenheim, gods’ world ; and his influence appears to have extended indirectly ove; some of the other spheres or mythic worlds of the ancients. These worlds are nine in number, beginning with Muspelheim, the highest fire-world, or realm of Surtur, who existed before the birth of Odin. In the highest and purest part of Muspel- heim we find the golden mansion called Gimli, the future home of the righteous. The second realm is Asgard, gods’ world, which forms the vaulted sky. In the midst of this world is the vast field of Ida, where the gods hold their Althing or muster for war. Here, at the center of the universe, is Odin’s high seat or throne, called Hildskjalf, which towers above the highest peak of creation. The third world is called Vanaheim, the world of vans, spirits of air and water, that occupy the middle space between heaven and earth, a region filled with clouds and vapor. The fourth sphere is Manaheim, or Midgard, the world of men occupying the round disk of the earth, and circled by the great world ocean. Midgard includes that part of heaven which borders on it ; and this border, which we call the horizon, was supposed to form a wall of defense against the giants, who occupied the rim of the THE NINE WORLDS. 135 earth. The fifth world is Alfheim, sphere of the active little light-elves, who have a certain limited rule over the earth’s surface and the lower layer of air which touches it. They are the busy principle of growth in roots and leaves and grasses and grains. The sixth world is called Svartalfheim, or world of dark elves, which occupies the interior of the earth. These elves understand the art of metal working, and are the possessors of gems and gold. Popular fancy has confounded the dark and light elves and the dwarfs of heathenism, and from them has sprung all our fairy lore. The seventh world is called Jotunheim, world of giants. Mountain wastes were given to these beings, and also the rim or bor- der of the earth, which was supposed to slope down- ward toward the North. The giants are not always confined to their own proper world, but sometimes live within the circle of the ocean. The eighth world is the lower region, or abode of the dead, called Helheim. A way led down to it from the North through Jotunheim, over Gjoll River and the shining gold- roofed bridge called Gjallar-brue. The ninth world is Niflheim, that immensity of mist which lies without the universe of Odin’s creation, and over which the gods have no control. The nine worlds are now made, and we have a bridge connecting the under world with earth. Another glorious bridge, called Bifrost, (aerial or quaking space,) unites earth and heaven. It is made of three colors, woven together with great art and skill, and men call it the rainbow. Al- though it is very strong, it shall one day be broken 136 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. in pieces, for the sons of Muspel (the light-elves) will ride over it to invade Asgard, the city of the gods. This glorious city, with its golden palaces, stands in the middle of the heavenly plain, called Ida. Like the Greek Olympus, the city of the gods ap- pears to be sometimes on the earth and sometimes to occupy a place in heaven. After Asgard was built, Allfather appointed rulers and judges, and bade them help him judge and regulate the government of the celestial city. The form of government adopted was precisely that of the old Norsemen. The deities met and held a thing, or assembly, on the plain of Ida, at the very center of heaven. They built a court or temple, (hof,) and erected twelve doom-seats in a circle for the judges, lesser gods, and a throne, or high seat, for Allfather. This hall is the largest and finest in the universe, and shines both inside and out with pure gold. It is called Gladsheim, or the house of gladness. They built another house for the Asynjur, or goddesses, which is lovely to look upon. It is the abode of love and harmony, for it is called Vingolf, the house of friends.* The golden man- sions of the gods numbered twelve or more. The severity of the Northern climate made every idea of happiness center in a good and well-built home. The gods’ mansions were copied exactly after the houses of earth, only they were more spacious, and were made of gems and gold and all rare and pre- * Noble matrons were received into this home after death. THE NINE WORLDS. 137 cious things. Perhaps they were suggested to the poet’s mind by the purple and golden cloud towers and turrets of a gorgeous sunset sky. Gladsheim, the blest abode of the gods, has al- ready been mentioned. There is another heavenly house, roofed with silver, and called Valaskjalf, which Odin, in the beginning of time, made very curiously. That palace contains the loftiest of all thrones or high seats, called Hildskjalf, the shelf from which Allfather looks out over his universe, and sees what all creatures are doing. At the world’s southern extremity is that exceedingly bright and glorious hall, called Gimli, which will stand when both heaven and earth pass away, and good and upright men will inherit that place to all eternity. There is another heaven to the south above this, called Audlung, and a third, still higher, called Vidblain, “in which last we believe this hall to be ; but we believe that only the light-elves now inhabit these places.” It is this and other passages in the Edda which lead us to think that the ancient men of our race cherished a belief in a final abode of the blessed, a higher heaven, called Gimli, where the just would dwell eternally, after Odin and his HLsir had passed away. In connection with this I will give you from the prose Edda what is said of the spiritual attri- butes of Allfather : “ In old Asgard he had twelve names. He lives from all ages, he governs all realms, he sways all things great and small. He has formed heaven, earth, and air, and all things belonging thereto. And what is more, he has 138 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. made man, and given him a soul which shall live and never perish, though the body shall have mold- ered away, or been burned to ashes. And all that are righteous shall dwell with him in the place called Gimli, or Vingolf ; but the wicked shall go to Hel, and thence to Niflhel, which is below, in the ninth world.” In this place Odin is to dwell in Gimli, with the blest and regenerated spirits, while in other pas- sages Gimli is spoken of as existing after Odin and his heaven have passed away at Ragnarock. These contradictions may have arisen in the course of ages from several interpretations or renderings of the same myth. But we do know that the immor- tality of the soul, and a future state of bliss for the good and of suffering and misery for the evil, is distinctly stated. These doctrines were held by advanced minds ; but Odin, the war-god, and Thor, the god of strength, shaped the lives and religious sentiments of the nation. After the gods had finished building their homes they erected a smithy, and furnished it with ham- mers, tongs, and anvils, and with these they made all the other implements with which they worked in metal, wood, and stone. They possessed so much gold that they made of it all their utensils and furniture. For this reason it was called the Golden Age of the gods. It lasted until at length three women came out of Jotunheim, giants’ world, and corrupted it. This is the account of the Golden Age of Norse religion given in the elder Edda : THE NINE WORLDS. 139 The ^Esir [gods] met On Ida’s plain, Altars and temples Upraised high ; Furnaces constructed, Forged precious things, Fashioned tongs, And fabricated tools ; At dice they played, In their dwelling joyful ; Rich, too, they were In ruddy gold, Until thither three Thurs maidens came From Jotunheim. In Grecian mythology the gods give the art of metal-working to man. Hephaestos, (Vulcan,) the useful spirit of fire, was the artist and smith of Olympus. So important is this art to any advance in civilization, that men could not believe they had invented it, and so came to look upon it as a gift of the gods. But observe well this curious story of the Norse Golden Age. Among the Greeks the Golden Age was a time when mankind was pure and innocent and free ; when there was no war, sickness, or old age, and the fruits of the earth grew spontaneously. In the North it was a time of great happiness, mirth, and jollity among the gods, until giant women came out of the North and corrupted Godland. These women were probably the three Fates, called Norns, who lived among the giants before the birth of the gods. It hints at a time in the remote past when the doctrine of fatalism was grafted upon a simple system of nature-worship. Gods and men ceased to employ themselves wholly 140 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. with the present, and began to reflect about the future. The thinking faculties were aroused, ques- tions were asked about the strife between good and evil, the final destiny of the soul, and the destruc- tion of the world. Then the age of unthinking, animal happiness passed away forever, and the re- ligion of the North became what is called intel- lectual and speculative, all of which seems indicated by those few lines in the Edda which tell us that three giant maidens came out of Jotunheim, and destroyed the Golden Age. In the prose Edda of Snorro Sturleson, the dwarfs are created after man, but in the elder Edda they come first into existence. In the Sagas and le- gends they appear as an older, and, in some re- spects, wiser, race of beings, who know where gems and gold are hidden, and have in their keeping some of the minor secrets of nature, and who pos- sess a limited power over the underground world. They are sometimes the teachers and helpers of men in the art of metal working, and sometimes the enemies of the human race. Old German and Scan- dinavian nursery tales and folk-lore swarm with tiny dwarfs and elves. These, with the popular giants and trolls of heathen times, are all that is left of the old religion in the memory of the common people. This is the story of the creation of the dwarfs : The gods sat down upon their thrones, or doom- seats, and distributed justice. They took notice that little beings called dwarfs had been brought to life in the mold of the earth as worms are bred in a dead body. It was in old giant Ymir’s THE NINE WORLDS. 141 flesh that the dwarfs had begun to live and move. At first they were mere worms of the dust ; but now, by a decree of the gods, they received human understandings and bodies, and their dwelling-place was confined to the earth, and to rocks and stones and caverns. The chief dwarf was called Modsog- nir, and the second Durin. After these, great num- bers were formed in the earth at the command of Durin. The dwarfs of Lofar’s race are mentioned, who betook themselves from the rocky halls to the plains of Jora. Their names all allude to hidden workings of nature in minerals and plants. They also refer to cold and heat, light and color. They seem to have had control of a certain narrow realm under the earth, and they are identical with the swart or dark elves of mythology. As they lived and delved in the dark they could not endure the light of the sun. This was also the case with the trolls or giants, and is referred to in thou- sands of popular stories. The sun’s rays turned the dwarfs to stone and caused the trolls to burst. The dwarfs had the power of changing their shape and assuming the appearance of an animal or of a fish. They could also return to their original form — that of the earth-worm, serpent, or dragon, as is illustrated by the story of Sigurd and the dwarf Fafnir. There is some reason to believe that dwarfs, elves, and trolls existed in the mind of the North before the Asa faith was introduced. They may have been part of the nature-worship of a small-statured race of men, like the ancestors of the Lapps and Finns, 142 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. who first peopled the earth and air with tiny aerial or grotesque beings. There is more to be said about this when we come to consider Northern folk-lore. We have now come to the creation of the first man and woman, for Norse mythology traces the human family back to a single pair. I have already told you that the trinity of gods who killed Ymir and made the world were Odin, Vili, and Ve. The prose Edda tells us that these three brothers, sons of Bor, were one day walking on the sea-shore, when they found two trees, which they took up and changed — the one into a man, the other into a woman. The ash was peculiarly sacred to the Norse people. From this very tough wood they made man, while woman was created from the graceful elm. Odin gave them life and spirit, Vili endowed them with reason and the power of mo- tion, and Ve gave them speech, features, hearing, and vision. The gods called the man Ask and the woman Embla. From these two have descended the whole human race, who live in Midgard, or Middle-world. The account in the elder Edda differs a little from the above. There, instead of Odin, Vili, and Ve, we have Odin, Hcenir, and Lodur, who one day left the assembly of the gods to take an excursion. They found on the earth Ask and Embla, (ash and elm,) with little power and without destiny. Spirit they had not, nor sense, nor blood, nor power of motion, nor fair color. Odin gave them spirit, Hoenir sense and understanding, and Lodur gave THE NINE WORLDS. 143 them warm, red blood, quickness of feeling, and keenness of sense. Here we have a new trinity which takes the place of the old one. Vili and Ve, being attributes of deity, were probably absorbed into the godhead of Odin after the first act of creation. In the second act, Hoenir, who is the seeing or perceiving god, endows man with perception, and awakes him to a life of thought ; Lodur, who is the fire-god, Loki, in his heavenly state, when he is mild, ethereal warmth, reddens his blood and quickens his senses. It is probable that the creation of man did not take place until after the Fates, or Norns, those three giant maidens, came from giants’ world into gods’ world, and a destiny was decreed for both gods and men. Before that time men were merely trees, inert and rooted to the ground ; but after- ward they began to think and move. The Norns exist independently of the gods, but the judgment- seat of the gods is near the sacred Urdar fountain and under the care of the Norns. All things hap- pen because the Norns have decreed them. The gods are the active agents who execute their decrees. This beautiful myth of the creation of man and woman from two living, growing trees, which stand as a link in the great chain of development, bears little resemblance to the story of the creation of human beings in Greek mythology. To be sure, Pandora, the first woman, was fashioned out of clay by Hephsestos, (Vulcan,) and then endowed with the different attributes of life, as Ask and Embla were 144 TALES from THE NORSE grandmother. endowed by the three divinities. But in the ancient Persian faith we find a striking resemblance ; for there, we are told, the first man and woman, Me- shia and Meshiane, were made from trees. The Greeks fancied human beings as springing from mud, stones, and earth. The Norse conception, taking a higher form of life already organized in trees, and changing it into the man Ask and the woman Embla, is very striking and original ; but it is in strict ac- cordance with their whole system of creation, which does not attempt to explain the way in which mat- ter was made, but gradually unfolds one form of life from another. The Greeks peopled trees with dryads and hamadryads, and the nature of the tree entered into those beautiful beings, who lived as long as the tree lived ; but there is no separate act of creation in their religion so profound and sug- gestive as ash and elm changed into the first man and woman.* A learned Icelandic scholar has conjectured that the three Norse gods engaged in the creation were symbols for air, light, and heat ; which act first on gross matter and form the visible world, and finally on vegetable substances, and change them into liv- ing organisms. The poet must have perceived the beauty of ash and elm, growing in the Northern for- est and yearning blindly for a higher life until the gods, decreed by fate, came and changed them into Ask and Embla. * I find that in Hesiod Zeus creates the third race of men out of ash trees. This myth was, therefore, not unknown to the Greeks. YGGDRASILL, THE UNIVERSE-TREE. 145 CHAPTER XI. YGGDRASILL, THE UNIVERSE-TREE. W E have now come to the most sublime myth of Northern mythology, and perhaps the most beautiful and suggestive myth of any ancient relig- ion. It shows us how profoundly those nameless seers and poets thought and felt, for they have shaped a symbol which binds the universe together, from a grain of sand to the most distant star, under the image of a vast tree, forever growing at the top and dying at the root. We do not know when or why the ash tree be- came the most sacred tree of the North. The first man, Ask, was made from it, and perhaps for this reason its sanctity was so great that it was planted in the middle of the universe, to shadow with its roots all created worlds. Man represented so much to the mind of the old myth-maker that he said the gods made the universe out of his image, the giant Ymir. The symbolism of the universe-tree, Yggdrasill, is so vast and sublime that it is impos- sible to explain it fully. Perhaps some of the myths which would throw light on its meanings have perished. But we know, in a general way, that it is both the tree of life and the tree of knowl- edge ; and, though it is preyed upon by many de- 10 146 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. structive forces, even at Ragnarock, the twilight of the gods, it will only be shaken to its topmost twig — it cannot be destroyed. Though the sun darkens, and the moon falls from the sky, and earth and the visible heaven crumble to pieces, the principle of life, the power of God to evoke a new universe, re- mains intact. Almost every old religion has its sacred trees, and to the worship of the tree is often joined that of the serpent. It is possible that the ash Yggdrasill, and the world-serpent Nidhogg gnawing at its roots, may be this old Eastern faith transformed and en- dowed with a grandeur not to be found elsewhere. Now in the South, in Greece, the sacred trees were the olive, the myrtle, and laurel, but the Norseman went to his Northern woods and chose for a symbol the enduring ash, to represent to his mind how all things grow and die forever, and are bound together in a perfect whole. We know that trees were re- vered by our Teutonic and Norse ancestors from the earliest ages. Tacitus tells us how the old Ger- mans worshiped in groves. An old writer, Adam of Bremen, tells us that an evergreen tree stood near the famous temple of Upsala, in Sweden, upon which offerings were hung. Near by was the sacred spring where the victims were washed. In the Scan- dinavian story of the Volsungs, on which the great German epic of the Nibelungen Lied is based, a sacred tree, the Branstock, grows in the king’s court, in the middle of his hall, and is hung round with the votive weapons of the warriors consecrated to Odin. Yggdrasill and the holy Urdar fount beneath YGGDRASILL, THE UNIVERSE-TREE. 1 47 its roots may be the offering-tree and the well of sacrifice, imagined as growing at the center of things and forming a visible symbol of the universe. When, in the prose Edda, the wise Swedish King Gylfi, or Gangler, inquires of the gods concerning their chief or holiest seat, he is told that it lies un- der the ash-tree Yggdrasill, where they hold a coun- cil or thing every day. This ash is the largest and best of trees, for its branches spread over the whole world, and reach even above the heavens. It has three roots. The first shadows the gods, or ^Esir ; the second extends over the frost-giants, where was formerly the abyss of abysses called Ginnunga-gap ; and the third stands above Niflheim, the abode of the dead, and the spring Hvergelmir. There is an- other account which tells us that under the first root is the abode of Hel, the goddess of death ; under the second, the home of the frost-giants ; and under the third, the world of human beings. But, however it is expressed, it is evident that Yggdrasill overshadows, not only suns and worlds, but the re- gion of crude material or gross matter from which they were made. This is the ancients’ mode of saying that one principle binds together the whole of things. The root over Niflheim (mist world) is constantly gnawed from beneath by the serpent Nidhogg. The serpent means Death, who is forever at work upon the roots of the tree of life. Under the second root, or, according to the prose Edda, that which stretches over toward the frost-giants, is Mimir’s well, in which wisdom, wit, and genius lie concealed. I4B TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. Mimir is full of wisdom, because he drinks every morning the waters of this well from his Giallar horn. Allfather once came and craved a drink from the well, but he did not get it before he had given Mimir one of his eyes in pledge ; whence it is said that Mimir drinks mead every morning from Allfa- ther’s pledge. Mimir is sometimes called Hod- mimir, which may be defined Circle-Mimir. He embraces all things, like the sweep of the horizon. This myth, when interpreted, means that Mirmir is the encircling sea. Odin, who is the sky god, gives his great flaming eye, the sun, in pledge for a draught, when each night he sinks down into the waves. But in time Mimir’s well came to be the great source or spring of the spirit, whence all be- ings draw wisdom. It is the fountain of earthly in- tellect, and Odin, as god of mind, is forced to drink of it, though at great cost. The Norns, or Fates, also possess a beautiful fountain which is the source of prophetic or super- natural wisdom. Odin is obliged to drink of both springs, which symbolize the intellectual and spir- itual nature of man — man as a thinking and as an aspiring being. Allfather has one eye in the firma- ment, with which he sees all that passes in heaven and on earth, while the other sinks into the sea and learns its secrets. You will now understand why he is represented as a one-eyed man. The third root of the universe-tree is in heaven, gods’ world, and under it lies the sacred Urdar fount. This well is opposite to Mimir’s fount. The one is as high as the other is low, but wisdom YGGDRASILL, THE UNIVERSE-TREE. 149 and inspiration lie in both. The Norns, or Fates, keep this well, and here the gods sit in judgment. Their chief doomstead is by the Urdar fountain. Every day they come riding up here in splendid ar- ray over Bifrost bridge, which you know is the beautiful three-stranded rainbow, and is called the Aisir bridge. The gods were excellent horsemen, and they all possessed good steeds, except the sum- mer-god, Baldur, whose horse, as we shall see, was burned with him on the funeral pile ; and Thor, who always goes on foot, and is obliged every day to wade the rivers called Kormt and Ormt ; and two others called K£rlang, (the sea.) If he did not thus cool the fervency of his lightning and thunder- bolts, the y£sir bridge would be in a blaze, and the holy water would grow boiling hot. As thunder- god he could not be permitted to go over Bifrost, and was forced to wade great rivers. Thor wading the sea to cool his thunder-bolts would form a fine subject for art. As I have told you, there are many beautiful homes in the Norse heaven, and a very fair shining hall stands near the Urdar fountain, where live the three Norns called Urd, Verdandi, and Skuld, (Past, Present, and Future.) They closely resemble the three Grecian Parcae, or Fates, who spin man’s des- tiny, draw out the thread of his existence, and cut it off with a pair of sharp shears. Ancient art has given us no representation of the Norns. We only know that they, too, are spinners and weavers of the thread of life. It seems plain, however, that they grew from the same idea that gave birth to their 150 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. Grecian sisters. They probably traveled from the far East in a remote period of time, and received different names in Greece and in Scandinavia ; but they are always the same mysterious beings, who shape man’s destiny, appoint his birth and death hour, and mark out for him a path of life from which he cannot swerve. In modern times we have given new names to these dread sisters. We call them temperament, hereditary tendency, and the circumstances of life. But the ancients were more poetical ; they thought in living images, and the picture of the three dread Norns spinning under the universe-tree, by the side of the Urdar fountain, will always impress the mind more than any abstract terms that can be invented. The three Norns have a dignity equal to the gods. Indeed they are older than the ALsir, who are unable to change their decrees. As in Grecian mythology, they stand in some mystical way behind the throne of Allfather, an uncreated, self-existent power. The principal Norns engrave on shields and tab- lets, and determine the lives of all men. But besides these there are other Norns, of a lower grade, who are present at the birth of every child to mark out his future destiny. These are both good and bad, for some of them are akin to the gods, and some sprang from the elves, and others are children of the dwarfs. This was the old Norseman’s curious mode of explaining the diversity of human fortune and the varying dispositions of men. Good fortune came from the good, well-born Norns, while evil YGGDRASILL, THE UNIVERSE-TREE. 1 5 I fortune was due to those of low and doubtful origin. This idea of a companion Norn, or Fate, to whom was ascribed all the chances and mischances of life, gave birth to many strange superstitions which still linger in the Northern mind. There were attendant spirits attached to races, to families, to individuals, and even to districts of country. The familiar at- tached to each person through life was called in Norway and Iceland Fylgia. A person at the point of death often saw his Fylgia, which presented it- self in the form of an animal or a bird. The female attendant spirits were called Disir, and were rever- enced all over the North. When Christianity was established guardian angels took the place of the attendant Norns.* In the first place Fylgjur were, doubtless, ancestral spirits supposed to interest themselves in the affairs of their immediate descend- ants. They still linger in the form of ghosts at- tached to families, which show themselves previous to a death or any great misfortune in the house- hold. . The Valkyrjur, or corse-choosers of Odin, partook of the nature of Norns. They selected the heroes who were slain in battle, and fixed their destiny in the other world, by conducting them to Valhalla, * The superstitions prevalent among many ancient and mod- ern nations concerning attendant spirits are only corruptions of the great truth so forcibly stated in the Epistle to the He- brews, i, 14 : “ Are they not all ministering spirits, sent forth to minister for them who shall be heirs of salvation ? ” They also point to the existence and working of evil spirits — another revealed truth. — E d. 152 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. the warriors’ heaven. They rode through the air on horses with the swiftness of the wind. Skuld, (the Future,) the youngest Norn, is also called a Valkyrja. This dread but beautiful. band of sisters, Odin’s corse-choosers, also practiced spinning and weaving of an awful sort, as we shall see when we come to a more particular account of these god- desses. The Norns, Parcse, Fates, whatever we may call them, so sublime and austere in Northern and Grecian mythology, have suffered many strange transformations. The modern witch is only a Fate, or Valkyrja, degraded. Instead of riding through the air on a magnificent coal-black or snowy steed, sister to the lightning and the whirlwind, and ruling the destinies of the world, she now, in the popular fancy, rides on a broomstick, and plagues people, or injures cattle by low arts of sorcery. This shows how hard an old myth dies. It will suffer a hundred changes before it finally passes from the minds of the people, or ceases in some way to influence their lives. We can imagine Urd, old but sublime of aspect, with the majesty of the past on her head ; Verdandi, fully developed like a beautiful matron, in the per- fect enjoyment of the present ; and Skuld, slender and youthful, and full of grace, looking eagerly into the secrets of the future. The Urdar fountain of the Norns reminds us that the Greeks also believed that the deepest wisdom, and, especially, prophetic wisdom, lay in a fountain. The temple at Delphi was built over such a spring, and the Pythoness sat above it to prophesy. The YGGDRASILL, THE UNIVERSE-TREE. 1 53 vapors arising from the well threw her into a state of ecstasy. How, in the first place, the idea of a fountain was connected with the seat of wisdom, we do not know. The depth, clearness, and mys- tery of a well of pure water may have awakened the image of the divine mind. The Urdar fountain, under the third or highest root of Yggdrasill, was a beautiful way of expressing the thought through a symbol, that, somewhere, there is a boundless reser- voir of spiritual power, by which we strive to image the nature of God. In the branches of the universe-tree, Yggdrasill, sits an eagle that knows many things. Between the eagle’s eyes sits the hawk, Vedurfolnir, (storm- stiller.) The squirrel named Ratatosk runs up and down the ash, and seeks to cause strife between the eagle and Nidhogg, (darkness, death.) Four harts run through the branches of the tree and bite the buds. They are called Dainn, Dvalinn, Duneyr, and Durathror, and their names refer to sleep, to the act of swooning, and to reason. But there are so many snakes with Nidhogg in Hvergelmir that no tongue can count them. It is said in the elder Edda: Yggdrasill’s ash More hardship bears Than men imagine ; The hart bijtes above, At the sides it rots, Below gnaws Nidhogg. It is impossible to give a complete explanation of the animals and birds that live in the ash. The eagle, with the hawk between its eyes, bears some 154 TALES from THE NORSE grandmother. analogy to the mystic eagle of Hindu mythology. The strife between the eagle and the serpent, kept up by the nimble squirrel that runs between them, doubtless means the conflict of forces in nature — the endless war of life and death. The four harts which dart through the branches and bite the ten- der young buds, and whose names mainly refer to sleep and oblivion, seem a beautiful image of the swift and silent power of death over young things that can never mature. But these are only hints and suggestions of what the old mjTh-makers in- tended to convey by this wonderful imagery; for the key to the great symbol is lost, probably never to be recovered. The universe-tree is a myth whose truth and grandeur we deeply feel, although we could no more express it than we could express eternity, time, space, or the starry heavens. It grew from a sense of awe in the old Norseman’s mind, as he saw life every-where struggling with death, but still unsubdued. He felt the power of the invisible world flowing into and refreshing all things. He could only give shape to his idea in some vague, stupendous image, and thus grew the Yggdrasill-tree, which must indicate life and death, growth and decay, God and destiny. But little light has yet been thrown on the strange serpent-divinity adored in so many parts of the world. Some modern scholars maintain that the spirits of dead ancestors were supposed to have taken up their abodes in serpents, especially those that crept into houses, and that they were looked upon as deceased friends returning to visit the old YGGDRASILL, THE UNIVERSE-TREE. I 55 home. Others would have us believe that the wor- ship of the serpent arose from fear of his fangs. The snake is unlike any other being, and possesses a terrible power to fascinate and destroy. Perhaps, at first, he was regarded as an evil spirit, who must be appeased by prayers and offerings. If this was ever true, a great change took place in his worship, for in time the serpent-god became the symbol of health, joy, and good fortune. There are traces of serpent-worship to be met with in the North. We are told that tame snakes were kept in houses, in some parts of Sweden, as late as the sixteenth cent- ury. They were fed with milk by the inmates, and if they died or were killed the people grieved, be- cause they feared that good luck had forsaken them. The folk-lore of the North abounds in tales of snakes and dragons endowed with supernatural powers, and which point to old and forgotten beliefs. As the North produces few venomous or large snakes, there is proof that this strange worship must have been brought from the far East.* Tree-worship is easier to comprehend. In hot countries the grateful shade and fruit of the tree, as well as the beauty of its form, flowers, and verdure, would naturally lead the simple savage to look upon * The tales of snakes and dragons, indued with supernatural pow- ers, that are found in Northern folk-lore and in the mythologies of all, or nearly all, nations, are corrupted records of the ruin wrought by that “ old serpent, the devil ; ” (see Genesis iii ;) and abundantly il- lustrate his desire for human worship and the power he has acquired over the human race. Whatever of truth exists in these traditions and superstitions may be clearly determined by careful study of the Holy Scriptures. See Smith's “ Sacred Annals,” vol. i, chap. ii. — E d. 156 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. it as the dwelling-place of a kind and gentle deity. The first temples of the gods were natural groves, selected for shade and convenience, and the sanctity of the rites there performed finally passed into the trees and made them holy. But, more than all, the intoxicating qualities of the juices of some trees and plants led the savage to the belief that a spirit dwelt in them. Indeed, we still call such fermented juices spirits, and thus hint at the origin of that old forgotten faith. Among the Greeks Dionysus (Bac- chus) was the spirit of wine, imagined in the form of a young man, but he was also the vine itself, with its bright green leaves and purple clusters. Every day the Norns sprinkle the universe-tree with the water from the Urdar fountain, that its branches may not rot or wither away. This water is so sacred that every thing placed in it becomes as white as the film within an egg-shell. It is the well of purity, thus described in the elder Edda : An ash know I standing Named Yggdrasill, A stately tree, sprinkled With water the purest. Thence come the dew-drops That fall in the dales. Ever blooming it stands Over the Urdar fountain. The drops shaken from the boughs of Yggdrasill form the dew in the meadows. It is called honey- dew, and is the food of bees. The three stately sister Norns, sprinkling the tree of life with the water of wisdom and inspiration, would make a beau- tiful subject for art. Two swans live and are fed in YGGDRASILL, THE UNIVERSE-TREE. 1 57 the Urdar fountain, and from them have descended all the swans in the world. Perhaps the fact that swans swam in the heavenly Urdar fountain ac- counts for the sanctity of this beautiful bird in the North. Mermaidens, as we shall see, took this form. They could lay aside their feather dresses at will, and become beautiful young women. If a man was lucky enough to steal a swan-maiden’s dress, he had power over her henceforth, and could make her his wife. This pretty myth is found in many countries, and it is said that it can be traced back to white clouds flecking the blue sky. But the change of nature seems to belong to the same order as the were-wolf transformation. It is effected by putting on a skin, and accords with myriads of superstitions which show us that the ancients believed that hu- man spirits could take up their abode in animal forms. Odin Allfather hung nine nights on the ash Yggdrasill. He was obliged to get possession of Mimir’s head in order to discover the secrets of the under world. The word Mimir signifies the pos- sessor of knowledge. He belonged to the old giant race, and could see farther into the darkness and mystery of the past than the more newly-created gods. The jotuns had witnessed the creation of the Atsir and of the world, and foresaw the final de- struction of both. In the old poems we are con- stantly told that the gods were obliged to seek in- struction from those who had lived before them. In the Voluspa, one of the principal Eddaic lays, a vala, or prophetess, brought up among the giants, 158 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. rises from the abyss to reveal the secrets of past and future ages to men. This wisdom of the great deep, the under world, Mimir keeps hidden in his wonderful well. The heavenly god, Odin, symbol- izing light, must go down there to learn it ; and he goes at evening when the sun sinks like a fiery ball into the cool waves. The sun is the eye of Odin, used both in a natural and spiritual sense. It is pledged for the drink he gets from Mimir’s well when thirsty for knowledge ; but in the brightness of the dawn the sun comes up joyously from the under world, and Mimir quaffs its pure rays, repre- sented by a draught of delicious mead, from a gold- en horn or drinking-cup. This beautiful myth expresses the interchange of light and darkness, the compromise between Odin and Mimir, day and night. We can see how it sprang directly from a sun-myth, but, like Aaron’s rod, it was finally made to blossom with spiritual meanings. This took place when men began to think about the interchange of the spirit-world and the world of human intelligences. Odin, though the father of gods and men, still must learn from nature. His teachableness and humility, in drink- ing from every source of knowledge, is one of the most beautiful lessons of Northern mythology. Probably the golden horn hid in Mimir’s well, the sun dropped into the sea, gave rise to the com- mon belief, still cherished by children, that a golden cup or a bag of gold lies at the end of the rainbow. All the stories of a golden treasure hid in a river or lake, like the Nibelungen hoard hid in the Rhine, YGGDRASILL, THE UNIVERSE-TREE. 1 59 and watched over by guardian spirits, took their rise from this old sun-myth, so marvelously changed in the course of ages. I told you that Odin was obliged to get posses- sion of Mimir’s head to gain full knowledge of the secrets of the under-world. In an old saga, called the Ynglinga Saga, we learn how this was done. Much doubt is thrown on the antiquity of many parts of this saga ; but the myth of Mimir’s head bears marks of age, and was probably copied from some older work. At one time the JEsir, gods, and the Vanir, spirits of air and water, were at war. This is thought to refer to the struggle of light to break through the thick, murky vapors that covered the primeval world. But at last the heavenly gods and the air and sea-gods made peace and exchanged hostages. The Vans gave to the JEsir Njord the Rich, whom the wise powers had created in Vanaheim, (sea-gods’ world,) together with his children, Frey and Frigga. The gods, on their part, gave Hoenir as a hostage, and sent him to Mimir, from whom in return they received Kva- sir, the most prudent of all the Vans. Hoenir was raised to the chieftainship over the Vans, but in all assemblies where good counsel was required Mi- mir was obliged to whisper in Hoenir’s ear every word he should say, and in his absence Hoenir con- stantly answered, “ Consult ye now others.” The Vans, therefore, thinking themselves deceived, slew Mimir, and sent his head to Odin, who so prepared it with herbs and incantations, that it spoke to him and told him many hidden things. l6o TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. This and other myths about the ^Esir and Vans may vaguely point to changes in religious faith, or, as has been conjectured, to a conflict between the ancient water worshipers and the worshipers of light and fire. The head of Mimir, the seat of knowledge and power, now passed into the keep- ing of Odin, who may have been raised up to chief- tainship on the merging of some rival system into his own. ALLFATHER IN HISTORY AND IN NATURE. l6l CHAPTER XII. ALLFATHER IN HISTORY AND IN NATURE. HERE are three ways in which every import- -L ant myth ought to be studied : the historical, the religious, and the natural. We shall look at Skyfather Odin in all these ways, and, to begin, we will contemplate him as a real person, who act- ually lived upon the earth. The historical hints which occur in myths may refer to incidents in the lives of great men, to changes in religion, or to the emigration of races. That there is much disguised biography in myths has been held from before Herodotus’ day. It has been conjectured that a priestly class came to Scandinavia from the far East at the time when a priest was king, and also god, in the estimation of his followers, and established a new religion on the foundations of the old. If there is any truth in this idea it was then, probably, that Skyfather, the father of Nature, and Allfather, the father of the generations of men, was stamped with some of those qualities which transformed him into Valfa- ther, the father of the slain. But I believe Valfa- ther to have been a slow growth of the Northern mind, as the nation gradually developed its warlike propensities and lost sight of the early ideals formed 11 1 62 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. at a time when it may have been composed of wan- dering, pastoral tribes. We know that the early kings of many nations were worshiped as gods. They traced their lineage back to the national deities, and after death received divine honors. The historical Odin may have been invented by some imaginative writer of early chron- icles to furnish a divine ancestor for the Northern kings. The account dates from the thirteenth cen- tury, and is not to be trusted as fact ; but it may possibly be based on some tradition of an invader from Asia, who emigrated to the north of Europe and brought new laws and religious customs in his train, and either subdued or drove out the natives. There are vague legends in existence of a race of giants who inhabited Sweden and Norway, and who, when overcome by conquerors from the East, took refuge in mountains, rocks, and caves, and became the ancestors of the trolls or popular giants of Northern folk-lore. There are also stories of another race of aborig- ines, very small people, who were driven into the far North by those same Eastern foes, and became the ancestors of the Lapps and Finns, who have always been famed for their skill in sorcery and magic, and may have originated a kind of earth or nature-wor- ship, which took the form of a belief in giants and dwarfs. As the conquered races would not give up their faith, the conquerors may gradually have adopted it, and worked it into the body of their own religion. There are vague marks of the blending of two or more systems of faith in the Norse myths. ALLFATHER IN HISTORY AND IN NATURE. 1 63 The story of the historical Odin is not at all to be trusted as fact, but it may refer to the now for- gotten time when people from Asia, members of the great Gothic or Germanic family, did invade, and finally get possession of, the North. Odin was a great Eastern king, a man deeply versed in magic and in the mysteries of a new religion, to propagate which he fought and conquered many nations. He is said to have arrived in the North about seventy years before the birth of Christ. The story relates that when Mithridates, the famous king of Pontus, was forced to fly before Pompey, the Roman gen- eral, he took refuge in the forests of Scythia, and tried to rouse the barbarous tribes to fight against Rome. Odin was a Scythian king, and, like the other kings of that region, was unable to withstand Pompey. He therefore fled from the power of Rome, and emigrated to a new country. His real name is said to have been Sigge, son of Fridulph, but he took the name of Odin, the su- preme god of the Teutons, or Germans, either be- cause he wished to pass as a god, or because he was a pontiff or high-priest of the religion of Odin. King Odin ruled the JEslr, whose country, it is conjectured, lay between the Black and Caspian Seas. Their principal city was called Asgard, and they were very famous for the worship paid to the supreme god. Odin drew under his banner the young men of many nations, and led them toward the North and West of Europe. Many royal and noble families be- lieved themselves descended from this semi-divine 164 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. Odin, who tarried in his progress at various points in the North. Hengist and Horsa, the Saxon chiefs who conquered Britain in the fifth century of our era, called Odin, or Woden, their ancestor. The Asiatic Odin is fabled to have conquered many countries, over all of which he placed kings and governors. Finally he reached Scandinavia, after passing through Cimbria, a part of northern Den- mark, which, as I have told you, was nearly de- populated by the destruction of its people by Marius. Odin subdued Denmark, and placed his son, Skjold, on the throne. He also built the city of Odense, in Sweden, which remains to this day. He set up his children as rulers, and gave them crowns, but took none himself. In Sweden there was a wise prince, named Gylfi, about whom there are many fables. The prose Edda tells us that this Gylfi, under the name of Gangler, visited the -gods and received instruction in divine things. Gylfi worshiped Odin as a divinity. The Swedes crowd- ed about him to do him honor, and made his son, Yngv, their king, for Gylfi had either died or been dethroned. Odin established new laws and cus- toms, and at the ancient city of Sigtuna, in the same province as Stockholm, he set up a supreme tribunal, or court, composed of twelve priest-judges, who dealt out justice and presided over the new worship. Thus Odin established the form of gov- ernment which we saw prevailing in Iceland in the ninth century. There were many petty kings in Sweden, and ALLFATHER IN HISTORY AND IN NATURE. 1 65 they all acknowledged Odin as supreme ruler. He was the first to lay a poll-tax, that is a tax on every head, for the support of the government. Norway was quickly subdued by his power, and he placed his son, Saeming, on the throne. His large family of sons enabled him to stock the whole north of Europe with kings. After he had finished his work he went back into Sweden, and felt his end approaching. He would not wait the delay of death, but, calling his friends and old companions about him, he inflicted nine wounds, in the form of a circle, upon himself with his lance, and many more with his sword. In his dying moments Odin declared he was going back to Asgard to take his seat among the other gods at an eternal banquet, where he would welcome all who died fighting bravely with arms in their hands. His body was carried to Sigtuna, and burned on a funeral pile. The Icelandic writers depict this mythical Asiatic Odin, half god, half hero, half priest, half king, in the brightest colors. He was the most eloquent and persuasive of men. He was a poet, and first taught the beautiful poetic art to the Scandinavian skalds. He was the inventor of the Runic alpha- bet, and very skillful in magic. He could pass from one end of the earth to the other in the twinkling of an eye, and had control over the air, and could raise storms or lay them at his pleasure. He could take any shape he pleased of bird, or beast, or fish, and could bring the dead to life, and foretell future events by means of enchantment. It was in his 1 66 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. power to take away health and vigor from his ene- mies, and to discover all the treasures hidden in the earth. He knew how to sing airs so tender and sweet that mountains would open with delight, and ghosts come from the infernal world and stand about him, mute and entranced. He was as terri- ble in battle as he was great and accomplished in all other things. This strange story may refer to a real invader, civilizer, and magician, who brought new arts, laws, and religious ideas into the North, and to whom the credulous people, in after ages, gave the name and attributes of their chief god. Beyond this it cannot be trusted. Some modern writers would have us believe that Odin, the deified man, was not a personification of nature, or of mind, or of war, but a human being, whose real adventures were finally changed into myths. However the myths arose, we know they were finally woven into an elaborate system of religion, and were used to ex- plain the facts of nature and the mysteries of life and death. It is my province to deal with them as they exist. We now turn to the god Allfather, called Odin in Scandinavia, and Woden in Germany. He is one and the same. You will ask how we know this god was also worshiped by the ancient Germans. In the first place, one of our days of the week is named after him. Wednesday means Odin’s or Woden’s day. Thus we see how language crystal- lizes a faith in common words, and keeps it from utterly perishing. The Germans have no Edda. ALLFATHER IN HISTORY AND IN NATURE. 1 67 They have no great ballads or poems which pre- serve the remains of the religion of their heathen forefathers. But they have old traditions and cus- toms, and a folk-lore, or stories of the people, which have come down from the Eastern times, and many of which show unmistakable signs of their pagan parentage. It was the policy of the first Christian priests to destroy every vestige of the old faith, in the hope of loosening the ancient superstitions, which were so firmly rooted in the people’s minds. They could pull down temples and overthrow altars and idols, but they could not destroy the fables and traditions which old dames told to the children about their knees. Some of these were mystic stories about the gods, changed into popular tales, and from such as have come down to us we know that the Ger- mans worshiped at least some of the Norseman’s gods. I ought to say that the great ancient epic poem of the Germans, the Nibelungen Lied, bears unmis- takable traces of its heathen origin, although it has been worked over by Christian poets now un- known. Some scholars tell us Woden was worshiped by all the German tribes ; others believe his worship extended to the Northern tribes principally, or to those tribes that wandered from North to South. It is said that no trace of his worship can be found among the Bavarians, and his name, applied to the fourth day of the week, is not found in what are called High German dialects. We are told in the 1 68 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. Icelandic Chronicles that Odin subdued Saxland, the land of the Saxons, and there is every rea- son to believe that the conquering Saxons carried his worship into Britain. The ancient faith of Odin is still found fossilized in names all over the North. In England there is a Wednesburg ; in Sweden we find Odense, Odensberg, and Odenskirk ; and in Germany Odinswald. Some knowledge of the ancient German gods can be gleaned from the decrees of early Christian councils, prohibiting their worship by name. From all these sources it seems certain that the Odinic system of worship, substan- tially as it was held farther North, prevailed in Germany. Though the old chronicle writers found no diffi- culty in constructing a history of Odin, such as I have given you, Allfather still remains one of the most puzzling gods of mythology. Though he bears some resemblance to one or two other gods, he differs from them more widely than he agrees with them, and where his worship first arose is still an unanswered question. The Romans confounded him with their tricky messenger-god, Mercury, who guided the dead to Hades, partly because Odin was also lord of the dead, and partly because Wed- nesday, the fourth day of the week, corresponded with dies Mercurii , the same day in the Roman calendar. But the resemblance was only superfi- cial, and has long been discarded by scholars. When researches were begun with a view of trac- ing the Western and Northern gods back to their Eastern sources, it was thought, for a time, the ALLFATHER IN HISTORY AND IN NATURE. 1 69 discovery had been made, and that Odin was no other than Boden, or Buddha, the great Eastern re- former and prophet. The fourth day of the week, in the Orient, is called Budhvar. But the character of Buddha is opposed to Odin as light is to darkness. Buddha was the meek, gentle prophet of peace. His chief command was, “ Thou shalt not kill,” and his chief doctrine the annihilation of self and ab- sorption of the soul into God. He was deified con- templation, while Odin was deified action. With Buddha the hope of the world lay in peace ; with Odin in war. Buddha threw down the idols of his people, and would allow no god to be worshiped un- der the form of an image, but the Norse faith em- braced a multitude of gods, and permitted the adoration of idols. It is needless to point out further differences be- tween Buddhism and Odinism to prove that they are not the same. Some of the doctrines of the Norse religion, like tree and serpent worship, can be traced back to the East. Probably the whole foundation of the faith in simple nature worship was brought from that quarter into Scandinavia ; how and when we do not know ; but its later form and unfolding is due to the Norseman, who stamped upon it, unconsciously, his genius, his restlessness, and his indomitable energy. As has been well said, the sluggish, sleepy gods of the East, when brought to the cold North, woke up and began to act. Odin denotes breath or spirit, as I think, implied in moving or rushing wind ; for his name has been traced to a root which means impetuous, furious, 170 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. rabid, insane ; probably indicating that his fury in battle could not be checked. He was mind-god, nature-god, and war-god in one ; and Allfather, the parent of generations of men and gods. The double character of Odin must always be kept in view. He is both the creator and the destroyer, the god of life and of death. He makes men, but he also causes his favorites to be destroyed that they may people Valhalla. All these opposite qualities in the character of Odin show that the ideas which form the nature of a god grow very slowly in the mind of the nation. No god is made, even if it be a poor, old, senseless idol. He grows, or is slowly evolved, from the thoughts and feelings and lives of the people.* t * The study of mythology does not lead to the conclusion that the ideas of God, as held by heathen nations, ancient or modern, are growths from some primal cognition of the Almighty ; but that they are the fractured, imperfect, confused notions that have descended through long ages, from an epoch when men’s knowledge of him was equal to that of the patriarch Job and his friends. Man can only express his conceptions of Jehovah in language drawn from the phe- nomena of nature, which “ in its origin was naught else than a beau- tiful image — a pure emanation — a wonderful creation — a sport of Omnipotent love.” “ That which may be known of God is manifest in them; for God hath showed it unto them. For the invisible things of him from the creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made, even his eternal power and Godhead ; so that they are without excuse.” Rom. i, 19, 20. The phenomenal representation of God is in harmony with the language of the Scriptures, which speak of him as immanent in nature, and yet as transcending nature. But man, owing to his fallen, sinful na- ture, manifests a powerful tendency to transfer to the natural sym- bols the attributes and perfections of the Being symbolized. He has first deified and then sensualized nature, and has subsequently sub- jected natural facts and forces to the same process. In this way the ALLFATHER IN HISTORY AND IN NATURE. 171 The Icelandic poets call Odin the terrible and severe god, the father of slaughter ; he who giveth victory and reviveth courage in the conflict ; who nameth those who are to be slain. He is not like the ease-loving, indolent Zeus, (Jupiter,) who some- times goes to sleep on Olympus. Odin never closes his one eye in sleep. The battle-field is the place he loves with ardor, and he goes into the fight with a joyous heart. Men in the North were much given to making vows over their great drinking-horns foaming with mead. It was customary for warriors to vow when they went into battle, and pledge themselves to send so many souls to Valfather, the father of the slain. Odin’s aid was prayed for in every war, and he was loudly appealed to by both sides. As in the case of the Greek fighting gods, it was believed that he often came down in person and took part in the battle, to inspire the fighters with courage. Some- times with his own hand he smote down his favor- ites to secure their company in Valhalla. There were men in the North who gave them- selves to Odin by a religious vow, or were given to him in their childhood by parents or guardians. These men, the people believed, must die a violent Norse Allfather and his Asgard associates came into existence. Mere historical traditions also modified popular notions of the gods, and made them the curious mixtures of good and evil described in all mythologies. “When once the sacred standard and clew of truth are lost, when the due order of things and of doctrines is once in- verted, then the mind of man often associates the sublime, the mys- terious, and the wonderful with the mean, the perverse, and the wicked.” Schlegel’s “ Philosophy of History,” p. 216 . — Ed. 172 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. death, or at least be marked in their dying hour by the point of some weapon. There is a very dramatic story told of an old Danish king called Harald Hildatand, who, from his childhood, was consecrated to Odin. Through a long life of conflict the god helped him in battle, but at last, when he was very old and had become blind, Allfather stirred up strife between him and his nephew, Sigurd Ring. His last battle was the great fight of Bravalla Heath, where the old, blind Harald drove in his war chariot, and Odin was seen guiding the chariot of his favorite in the guise of an aged military chieftain ; but in the very thick of the fight he turned upon the old king and smote him to death with his own war-club. The idea of Odin as a deified warrior, fully armed and inspired by the fury of battle, was the favorite idea of the Norseman. This conception grew out of his love of warfare, and Odin was the ideal by which he justified war, and made it seem a holy employment. But the war-god was only one of Odin’s manifestations, and one, as we have seen, of late growth. Though he usually wore the human form, he could change his shape, and lie as one en- tranced, while he took the appearance of a bird, beast, or fish. This is a symbol of his various modes of operating in and through nature. We are told that he never called himself by the same name dur- ing his wanderings among the people. This also expresses the thought that his ways of acting and revealing himself in the world were infinite in num- ber and diverse in means. He had twelve principal ALLFATHER IN HISTORY AND IN NATURE. 1 73 names to express some of his powers and attributes, but as his attributes were manifold, his names could not be counted. The Edda tells us that Odin directs all things, high and low, great and small. He has made the heaven, the air, and man, who is to live forever. He is the subtle spirit that fills the world, and his children are his various modes of showing himself, as in air, water, light, growth, and decay. He is mind-god, and, therefore, seeks every-where for wisdom and knowledge, drinks of Mimir’s fountain, visits the Urdar well of the three sister Norns, and finally sits down with Saga, goddess of history, by the stream of Time, and talks delightedly with her about the past. What can be more beautiful than Allfather and Saga calmly conversing together on the bank of the stream of Time ? Skyfather Odin, from the fact of his being sky- father, must needs marry mother Earth, whom the Norsemen called Frigga, for his chief wife. This is the poetical way in which many nations have ex- pressed the fact that light and heat and moisture affect the earth, and cause it to bring forth fruits. Now Odin, being the sky, with his single blazing eye — the sun — unites in various ways with matter, and a large family of children are born. Frigga bears Thor, the thunder-god, the Northern Hera- kles, who endures much for the world. In the spring Odin, with his light and heat, quickened the frozen ground, which appeared to him under the symbol of a giant maiden, and the silent Vidar was born, the undying power which lurks even in decay, 174 TALES from THE NORSE grandmother. and will outlive Ragnarock. Frigga also bears to him Baldur, the bright summer, so passionately loved in the far North, and the spiritual god of beauty and innocence and love. Hodur, the dark, blind winter, slays his brother Baldur unwittingly. He is also a son of Odin and Frigga. Another of their children is Vali, the beautiful new year, who avenges the death of Baldur, and in turn kills win- ter with the bright falchion of spring sunshine. Bragi, the god of eloquence, is Odin’s son, because he is mindfather as well as skyfather. He has other children — Hermod, the errand or messenger- god, and Tyr, the god of valor. Some of the chief gods, as we shall see, were adopted from the Vans. VALFATHER AND VALHALLA. 175 CHAPTER XIII. VALFATHER AND VALHALLA. I HAVE told you of the Golden Age among the gods, when they made beautiful works in gold, lived merrily, and played at dice, until three maid- ens, undoubtedly the Norns, or Fates, came out of Jotunheim, and spoiled their pleasant life. It w r as probably at this time that the gods made the heav- enly homes, and roofed and inlaid and furnished them with gold. There is a myth about gold, which is imagined in the form of a maiden, called Gull- veig. Men, it seems, were innocent and pure, and unacquainted with warfare, until their cupidity and lust for gain were aroused by Gullveig, and they killed her, in Odin’s hall, (the world,) piercing her through with spears. Three times they burned her, and th^ree times she was born anew. This may refer to the process of refining gold by fire. Though Gullveig causes so much mischief among men, she is ever welcome when she comes to a house. People praise her, and call her a prophet- ess, (vala.) She understands witchcraft, can tame wolves, and delights wicked women. After the murder of Gullveig, the gods sat down upon their doom-seats, and took counsel together as to whether they should punish mankind for this 176 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. misdeed, or should accept an atonement called a blood-fine. But Odin arose and cast a spear among men, and instantly war and slaughter began to rage. The defenses of the gods, the shining walls of the heavenly homes, were broken down, and the Vans, or sea-gods, heard the sound of war, and hastened to the strife. The Valkyrjur, Odin’s choosers of the slain, beautiful but terrible maidens, came, ready to ride to the defense of gods’ world. Skuld came with her shield, and also Skogul, Garmhild, Gondul, and Gier Skogul. Odin sent these mar- tial maids to every battle-field to choose those who should fall, to decide the victory according to his will, and to conduct the souls of the slain heroes to Valhalla. The lightnings play about them as they course through the air and ocean on their fiery steeds, with bloody corselets, and radi- ant spears. When their horses shake their manes dew falls in the deep valleys and hail on the high forests. The myth of Gullveig, personified gold, and of the first war among men, is highly poetical and imaginative. Odin, casting his spear over mankind, would make a fine subject for art. In commemora- tion of this myth, it was customary for the attack- ing chief, at the opening of a battle, to cast his spear over the hostile force. Gullveig was a giant maiden, because gold was evil, and came from the bad race of Jotuns, who understood the secrets of the earth, and knew where it lay hidden in the ground. Gold awoke greed and avarice and the lust of gain in the hu- VALFATHER AND VALHALLA. 1 77 man heart, set brother against brother, and was the cause of the first war on earth. The myth of the Valkyrjur is equally inspiring to the imagination, and has long been a favorite theme with Northern artists and poets. As a nature-myth it grew out of the rapid motion of clouds driven by fierce winds, the racing of waves, and the confusion of the elements in sublime storms, when the fancy can easily form weird, wild shapes out of masses of vapor whirling through the sky. But when Odin became Valfather, and the god of battles, the na- tional type of woman, such as Tacitus describes, and such as we saw among the ancient Cimbri, was lifted up into the position of a terrible but glorious war-goddess, and her attributes were combined with those of the still older storm-goddess of a pure na- ture worship. The stern women who slaughtered their husbands and kindred when they retreated from battle, could create in the poet’s imagination the myth of the war-loving Valkyrjur, but the horses of the Valkyrjur, with dew falling from their manes, and the lightnings flashing about them, show that they arose from some old idea connected with waves and clouds and moving tempests, which, to the excited fancy, bore some resemblance to maid- ens with streaming hair spurring their fierce steeds to the field of battle. The names of these divini- ties hint at the fact that originally they were noth- ing but wind and tempest. It is instructive to trace them all through their growth and degradation, for, strange to say, the splendid Valkyrjur of Odin’s battle-fields, his maiden goddesses of Valhalla, have 12 178 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. now become mere witches and other wicked female spirits. In the old mythology they were gifted with prophetic power, and one of the stately Nrons was of their number. This power in the lowest degree is retained by the witch fortune-teller of our story-books, who must have her palm crossed with a piece of silver. Is it not strange that we can trace the genealogy of these degraded beings back to a moving cloud and a puff of wind ? Thus we see that the study of mythology can free the mind from many popular superstitions by digging down to their root in some natural appearance. The Greek Allfather, Zeus, had a circle of twelve chief gods and goddesses, who occupied thrones in the heavenly court. Odin had nominally the same number of gods, whom he assembled in the doom- ring. The resemblance between Olympus and As- gard seems more than accidental. These myths, we feel, must have sprung from the great mother myth in ages so long past that the time is lost from the memory of man.* * “ In general,” remarks the learned and profound Frederick von Schlegel, “ the first ten holy Progenitors, or Patriarchs of the primi- tive world are mentioned under different names in the Sagas, not only of the Indians, but of several other Asiatic nations, though un- doubtedly with important variations, and not without much poetic coloring. But as in these traditions we can clearly discern the same general traits of history, this diversity of representation serves only to corroborate the main truth, and to illustrate it more fully and forcibly. “ These nations had received much from the primeval source of sacred tradition ; but they regarded as a peculiar possession, and represented under peculiar forms, the common blessings of primitive VALFATHER AND VALHALLA. 179 The darkest chapter in Northern mythology re- lates to human sacrifices. Though the Norns ap- pointed the term of man’s life, Odin, in a more special sense, was the controller of his destiny. It was believed that the blood of human victims was sweet and nourishing to Odin. Incredible as it seems to us now, that the men of a kindred race could have ever held such a belief, we know that it was held by them as late as the middle of the ninth century of our era. If a man was about to die, the faith was often very strong in his mind that Odin would prolong his life if any one could be found to die in his stead. The same idea was held by the Greeks, as we see in the touching story of Alcestis, who offers up her own life to prolong that of her husband, Admetus, who selfishly accepts of the sacrifice. When a king or prince fell sick, and was in dan- ger of death, a human victim was slaughtered, and the deluded people believed that Odin appeared at the altar and accepted the sacrifice in place of the doomed man. I have told you that the Icelanders were averse to these hideous rites, but even in Iceland the prac- tice is known to have existed, from the fact that a revelation, and, instead of preserving in their integrity and purity the traditions and oracles of the primitive world, they overlaid them with poetical ornament, so that their traditions wear a fabulous aspect, until a nearer and more patient investigation clearly discov- ers in them the main features of historic truth.” — “ Philosophy of History,” p. 96. The same remarks apply with equal force to the legendary lore of the Norsemen and Germans. — E d. 180 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. well and stone of sacrifice for human victims were found near every thingstead. Scholars have sought to dig down to the very root of human sacrifice, to find out how it arose. They claim to have discov- ered it in the cannibal age or period, through which many savage tribes pass, and of which, as in the Fijians, we have existing examples. These people devour their captives in war, and not infrequently eat each other. When a chief dies he is raised to the position of a god, and receives divine honors, and the people believe that he feeds literally on the soul of the victim, a material substance, like the body which they devour. Repulsive and horrible as the idea is, we see traces of it in the Odinic rites, where the god is supposed to draw nourishment from human victims. But it does not follow that the Norseman was any more degraded in the prac- tice of his religion than other nations of antiquity. It was practiced by the refined and cultivated Greeks, who, in early ages, offered up men, women, and children on their altars ; and the annals of hea- thenism all over the earth are stained with human blood. Christianity struggled long and untiringly with these dark rites, and for a long time only succeeded in making a compromise. One of the superstitions most deeply rooted in the Northern mind was the idea that the foundations of bridges and buildings would not stand unless a human victim was inclosed alive in the walls, or they were stained with human blood. This was done to appease the evil spirits of the water and the earth, who were averse to VALFATHER AND VALHALLA. l8l having their domain invaded. For many genera- tions after the adoption of Christianity this terrible custom prevailed. We are told that the Church consented to a compromise by allowing a live lamb, symbol of the sacrifice on Calvary, to be buried in the church walls. But the heathen dread still clung to the people’s minds, and, as late as the Middle Ages, it is record- ed that an innocent little girl was walled in alive to strengthen the ramparts of Copenhagen, which had begun to sink, owing, probably, to a quicksand. It required ages for the people to learn that God is not a monster who feeds on human blood, but a Spirit of love and justice, and the soul of mercy; and the lesson, in the height and- depth of its sub- lime meanings, is not yet comprehended. Although Odin was every-where Allfather, and also Valfather, or father of the slain, he was not worshiped every-where in the North with equal fervor and devotion. The Norwegians and Ice- landers chose Thor for their national deity, and fondly named him Almighty God, in the sense of his being the strongest god. The Swedes paid great reverence to Frey, the god of the earth’s fer- tility, and the Danes, Gothlanders, and Saxons were devoted to the worship of Odin. There are traces of two sects in the North, that of Odin and that of Thor, but they do not appear to have differed at all in doctrine, but only in the favoritism shown to their chief god. Odin is described as a tall, one-eyed old man, with a long beard, a broad-brimmed hat, and a large, I&2 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. blue, shadowy cloak, and with the spear, Gungnir, in his hand, and the ring, Draupnir, on his arm. On his shoulders sit two ravens, and at his feet lie two wolves. Over his head is the constellation called Charles’ Wain, which we know as the cluster of seven stars called Ursa Major, or the Great Bear. This was probably the manner in which he was rep- resented sitting in the high-seat of the great temple at Upsala, where Thor and Frey occupied lower thrones. The elder Edda tells us that Odin is the absolute ruler and governor of all things ; and that all the other gods, however powerful, must serve and obey him like children. His wife, the earth goddess Frigga, foresees the destinies of men, but cannot reveal them. Like nature, she holds the secrets of the year in her bosom, and speaks only in growth and decay. Forty-nine names are given to Odin in the prose Edda, and it is there explained that this great diversity of names is owing to the many dif- ferent languages in which he is worshiped. Each nation was obliged to translate his name into its own tongue. Many of these names relate to his journeys and adventures, which are told in the elder Edda. The stories of Odin’s travels, accompanied by Loki and other gods, were the earliest wonder- lore of the North. We have now come to the best known of all the Northern myths, the story of Odin’s hero-heaven, Valhalla, the house of the slain. It was a vast and glorious hall, planned accurately on the model of the old Scandinavian dwelling, with a lofty high VALFATHER AND VALHALLA. 183 seat for Odin, and lower seats for his heroes, where they sat and feasted with contented minds. Odin was the jarl of heaven, and his heroes were his faithful henchmen. Valhalla stood in the midst of Gladsheim, the glad or joyous land, and was re- splendent both within and without with precious gems and gold. In the Grimnis Lay of the elder Edda we have the following description : Five hundred doors And forty more, Methinks, are in Valhalla; Eight hundred heroes through each door Shall issue forth Against the wolf to combat. The ceiling of the mighty hall is formed of spears, and it is roofed with shields. The benches where the heroes sit are strewn with coats of mail. Before the west door hangs a wolf, and over him hovers an eagle. The hero-hall is surrounded by a roaring, raging river, called Thund, and before it is a paling or lattice, called Jalgrind. When Gylfi or Gangler inquires of the gods how the vast crowd of heroes in Valhalla is fed, he is told that the flesh of the boar, Saehrimnir, will more than suffice for their sustenance ; for although this boar is cut in pieces, sodden and boiled every morn- ing, it becomes whole again every night. The cook of Valhalla is called Andhrimnir, and the kettle he uses Eldhrimnir. In Grimnis Lay we are told that Andhrimnir cooks, in Eldhrimnir, Saehrimnir. This heavenly pork or bacon, we are assured, is the best of meat. It was the old Norseman’s favorite flesh, and he could think of nothing better with which to 1 84 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. feed the heroes of Valhalla. But this gross earthly fare was not fit food for Allfather. Odin, while he sat at table with his heroes, fed his portion of the boar to his two pet wolves, Geri and Freki. Wine was Odin’s only sustenance. It was his meat and drink, as we are told in Grimnis Lay : Geri and Freki Feedeth the warfaring Famed father of hosts ; For ’tis with wine only That Odin, in arms renowned, Is nourished for ages. While Odin sits banqueting on his throne, two ravens perch on his shoulders, and whisper in his ear tidings of the things and events they have seen and heard while flying over the whole world. They are Odin’s mind symbols, and are called Hugin and Munin, (thought and memory.) He sends them out at daybreak, and they fly over the world and return at the hour of supper, the principal meal among the Norsemen, and also, it appears, in heaven. All- father, in Grimnis Lay, tells us that : Hugin and Munin Each dawn take their flight Earth’s fields over. I fear me for Hugin Lest he come not back, But much more for Munin. Odin’s ravens are the powers of the mind sent abroad on the wings of reflection and imagination. Memory can be depended on less than thought, and it is a curious point in this myth that Odin, the su- preme god, is represented as troubled and anxious VALFATHER AND VALHALLA. 1 8 $ lest thought and memory should not return to him — lest, in other words, he should lose the su- preme intellectual powers which made him the cre- ator of the human spirit. Only by effort could he drink in wisdom and knowledge from all sources, and only by anxious care and watchfulness were his mighty forces preserved. In this lies a great lesson. The Einharjar, or heroes of Valhalla, are thirsty souls, but there is an abundance of good drink in Odin’s hall. The marvelous she-goat, Heidrun, stands above Valhalla, and feeds on the leaves of a very famous tree, called Lerad or Laerath, and mead flows from her teats in such great abundance, that every day a stoup, or drinking vessel, is filled with it, large enough to suffice for all the heroes. The goat, Heidrun, signifies heavenly sustenance, the natural and spiritual powers of nourishment supposed to fall from on high. It is another form of expression for the water of life. It probably grew from some pure nature- myth now forgotten. Still more remarkable is the stag, Eikthyrnir, who also stands over the hall of Odin, and feeds on the leaves of the same tree which sustains the mead- giving goat. From the stag’s horns drops continu- ally fall into the fountain, called Hvergelmir, and many rivers are formed, some of which flow through gods’ world, while others pass through the king- dom of men, and then fall into Hel’s regions. While the heroes sit at table they are waited on by the beautiful Valkyrjur, who pour out the heav- enly mead and have entire charge of the table ser- vice. The number of this band of sisters is some- 1 86 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. times given as three, sometimes as nine, thirteen, or twenty-seven, and often as an indefinite number.* As Odin in Valhalla was only a warlike chief, grander than any mortal monarch, but of the same kind, his slain heroes were his faithful henchmen, bound to him by every tie of loyalty. Daily they exercised themselves in arms like mortal heroes. Every morning, as soon as they had dressed them- selves, they rode into the court, or tilting field, and there fought until they had cut each other to pieces. Then, as meal-time approached, having been mirac ulously restored to life, they mounted their horses, rode back to the hall, and calmly partook of break fast. Their lives were passed between feasting and fighting, and this was precisely the life of a North- ern chief. We thus see how impossible it is for man to form an idea of a material heaven higher than the level of his own desires. But behind Odin’s hero-paradise there lay a doctrine which had its root deep down in the spiritual ideas of the North, and, as some scholars think, can be traced back to Persian, Median, and Chaldean myths of great antiquity — the belief in the final destruction of the gods and the existing universe. Odin was forced to gather heroes into Valhalla, and they were obliged to practice continually in arms against the dread day that he knew was approaching, the twilight of the gods, when he was doomed to fight and to fall. “The Einherjar all On Odin’s plains Hew daily each other, * The Valkyrjur were all of womankind who were admitted into the heaven of the slain. VALFATHER AND VALHALLA. IS/ While chosen the slain are. From the fray they then i-ide And drink ale with the ^Esir We shall see, when we come to the folk-lore and popular traditions of the North, how Odin, Woden, or Wode, still lingers in the excited fancy of the superstitious as the wild huntsman who often fig- ures in weird stories and ballads. As the Valkyrja has now taken to riding broomsticks, Allfather Odin is degraded to the position of a hobgoblin. But in his palmy days Odin was more than Val- father, or even Allfather. He was a mark of the civilization of his age, and his meaning can be fully grasped only when we study all the effects and ten- dencies of war on a half savage people. You may ask, in astonishment, Can there be a moral side to warfare? and the answer is, that in a very rude stage of society war may indirectly lead to good by uniting several small tribes under the leadership of one strong chief, and thus forming the nucleus of a nation. It is also said that the skill developed in making weapons and armor taught men the art of metal working, and led them to fashion tools for industrial purposes, which they never could have made without the practice thus acquired. Here we see why Odin, the war-god, came into being. But as soon as the time came when the Norseman’s hand ceased to be against every man, and the career of peace opened before him, Odin’s doom was sealed, and he was obliged to retire to the limbo of useless gods. 1 88 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. CHAPTER XIV. ODIN’S HORSE AND THE POETIC MEAD. I N folk-stories Odin, or Wode the Old, appears on horseback, and in the ancient mythology of the North his eight-legged steed, Sleipnir, plays an im- portant part. The story of the birth of Sleipnir is one of those pleasing nature-myths which can be directly traced to the influence of light and heat on the hard frozen ground. In Grimni’s “ Lay of the Elder Edda ” we are told that The ash Yggdrasill Is the first of trees, As Skidbladnir of ships, Odin of yEsir, Sleipnir of steeds, Bifrost of bridges, Bragi of bards, Habrok of hawks, And Garm of hounds is. Sleipnir is generally described as possessing eight legs, but in some of the old writings he is men- tioned as having but four. The extra legs were given him to increase his speed, or as a figure of speech to denote his marvelous swiftness. He has been called the Northern Pegasus, but it would be difficult to put his eight legs with good effect into a picture or a statue ; therefore he will hardly com- ODIN'S HORSE AND THE POETIC MEAD. 1 89 pare with the beautiful winged steed of the Muses. His white color probably refers to the clear bright sky through which he fleets in the form of wind. On his teeth and rein are inscribed Runes to indi- cate his sagacity and the magic power which at- taches to him as the horse of Allfather. Men saw every-where conflicting and hostile in- fluences in nature, and they called them jotuns, or giants ; for they were led to believe that behind every appearance some power existed to which they could give the human form. To them the world looked like a scene, shifted by an invisible hand ; and this machinery of nature was moved either by the good JEsir or the evil giants. The jotuns were celebrated architects and builders. They had no power to create life, to make a blade of grass sprout, or a leaf-bud open, or a flower unfold ; but they could bridge streams and fill valleys and encase the mountains by heaping up great masses of ice and snow. It is curious to note in the popular stories that, although after the introduction of Christianity the giants are transformed into demons, they still retain their skill in building. St. Olaf received the attri- butes of the god Thor, who was very dear to the hearts of the people. There are several legends connected with St. Olaf based on this myth of the birth of Sleipnir. Once upon a time, when the gods were building their heavenly mansions, and had already finished Midgard, (middle-world) and Valhalla, (the heaven of the slain,) a certain architect came and offered to I90 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. build them, in the space of three half years, a cas- tle so well fortified that it would be perfectly secure against the incursions of frost and mountain giants, even though they were to invade Midgard. But the price he asked for his work was Freyja, the beauti- ful goddess of love, the productive principle, together with the sun and moon. After taking council together and deliberating a long time, the gods finally agreed to his terms, pro- vided he would complete the work himself, and do it all in a single winter ; but if any thing remained unfinished on the first day of summer, he was to forfeit the stipulated pay. On learning these terms the builder asked to be allowed the use of his good horse Svadilfari. This condition was at last agreed to on the advice of Loki, the fire-god and evil genius of heaven. The builder set busily to work on the first day of winter, and in the night made his horse Svadilfari draw stone for the building. The enormous size of the blocks which the horse drew astonished the gods, and they awoke in dismay to the fact that Svadilfari did a half more of the labor than his master. Their bargain had been made in the presence of many witnesses, and confirmed by solemn oaths; for without these precautions a giant would not have thought himself safe among the gods. You have guessed that the pretended builder was only one of the jotuns who had stolen into heaven in disguise. At this moment Thor happened to be absent on an expedition to the East against evil ODIN’S HORSE AND THE POETIC MEAD. 191 demons. Thor was the defender of Asgard and the great enemy of the giants. He assailed them with his thunder-hammer and broke them in pieces. The giant builder was very careful in exacting oaths on this occasion, for he knew when Thor returned he would be in great danger. The building was far advanced, and the bulwarks were thick and high enough to render it secure from attack, when but three days of winter remained. The only unfinished part was the gateway of the castle. Then, in dis- may, the gods sat down on their doom-seats to in- quire who among them could have done so fatal a thing as to advise them to give away Freyja, their joy and delight, or to plunge the heavens into dark- ness by allowing the sun and moon to be carried off. It was agreed by all that only Loki, the son of Laufey, and the deviser of so many evil things, could have given this disastrous council. The gods decided that Loki should be put to a cruel death if he did not devise some means to cheat the builder and prevent him from finishing his task within the alloted time. They immediately laid hands on Loki, who, in his terror, promised upon oath that, cost what it might, he would contrive to make the giant lose his reward. That night, when the builder went with his nag Svadilfari for build- ing-stone, a mare suddenly ran out of a forest near by and began to neigh. The horse heard the sound and instantly broke loose from his burden and ran away after it with might and main. The giant then ran away after his horse as fast as his legs could carry him, so that the whole night was lost, and in 192 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. the morning the building had not made its usual progress. As the builder had lost his horse he now appeared in his own mighty form, and the gods clearly per- ceived that he was a malignant mountain giant who had stolen into heaven on false pretenses. As their oaths no longer bound them, they called loudly on Thor, who ran to their aid, and, lifting up his huge hammer, Mjolnir, paid the builder his wages by shattering his skull in pieces. He then hurled his body headlong into Niflheim, the lower world. Thus the gods saved their beloved Freyja and the sun and moon, but, strange to say, Loki, after his night’s adventure, gave birth to a gray or white colt with eight legs. This is Odin’s horse Sleipnir, which excels all other horses ever owned by gods or men. The explanation of this myth is very pretty and pleasing. It may be called a mother myth, for it has given rise to many others of the same kind, which retain the outlines of the story under a Chris- tian dress. Loki, who is only fire or heat personi- fied, when summer is over desires to rest. He has been the active principle all through the warm months, and has worked hard. He, therefore, in- duces the gods to allow the strange builder, who is old Winter disguised, to build a castle in heaven. The work is performed chiefly in the night, for then the cold is very severe, and the ice thickens into great blocks. Svadilfari, the horse, is nothing more than extreme cold, or perhaps a bitter cold blast like the north-east wind. ODIN’S HORSE AND THE POETIC MEAD. 193 Now, while the work was going on the gods saw that if the giant was permitted to finish it and com- pletely wall up heaven with snow and ice, the beauty of life, personified by the goddess Freyja, would es- cape from them, and the sun and moon would be eternally eclipsed by winter’s snow and fog. Now Loki — fire, heat — in the early spring began to act on extreme cold, or Svadilfari, the builder’s useful horse : and the mild wind sprang up or was born of Loki. This wind is Odin’s horse Sleipnir. We know that certain winds are powerful agents in melting ice and snow. Odin, who is the sky-god, mounted this swift colt, and used it for traversing land and sea. The destruction of the giant was left to Thor, the thunder-god, who, with his warm elec- tric showers, does effectual work in demolishing the vast icebergs and glaciers and snow-fields of the North. The intense longing of the giants for Freyja, the goddess of love and the productive power of nature, is expressed in several beautiful myths, and is an exquisitely poetical idea. The high, frozen mountain tops are barren, cold, and devoid of life. They yearn for the beautiful goddess to clothe them with verdure, and make their rocky, ice- clad slopes bloom in loveliness. Their desire to steal Freyja from heaven has, therefore, a certain pathos. The gods sometimes fall into the traps set for them by the giants. Loki alone can outwit these monstrous beings. Even Allfather is less subtle and penetrating than the fire-god, who creeps into all 13 194 TALES from THE NORSE grandmother. the pores and crevices of matter, and thus learns the secrets of the giant nature. As Sleipnir has been called the Northern Pegasus, on which poets mount when inspired, I will tell you in connection with him the singular myth about the origin of poetry. JEg ir, the sea-god, who was Well skilled in magic, visited Asgard, and was cordially received by the JEsir. Having expressed a wish to know how po- etry arose in the world, Bragi, the god of eloquence, gave him the following account of its origin : “ The ^Esir and Vanir (sea and air gods) having met to put an end to the war which had long been waged between them, a treaty of peace was agreed upon and ratified by each side casting saliva into a jar ; and as a sign of lasting amity, to endure henceforth forever, they formed out of this fluid a being to whom they gave the name of Kvdsir, at the same time bestowing upon him such a high degree of in- telligence that no one could ask him a question that he was unable to answer. Kvdsir traveled far and wide for the benefit of mankind. This strange act of creation seems to hint at the divine power wrapped in the most worthless emana- tions of the gods. From the spittle of their mouths was made the wisest man on earth. The dwarfs, underground folk, were greedy for knowledge. Though they had command over the secrets of earth they coveted the wisdom of heaven. Therefore Kvdsir was invited to a dwarf feast, and two of the chief dwarfs, Fjalar and Galar, took him aside to talk with him in secret, and treacherously ODIN’S HORSE AND THE POETIC MEAD. 1 95 slew him. They caught his blood in two vessels called S6n and Bodn and in the kettle called Od- hrcerir, and mixed honey with it, and thus com- posed the mead which makes every one that drinks of it a skald, or poet. When the gods inquired what had become of Kv£sir the dwarfs invented lies, and declared that he had been suffocated by his own wisdom, not being able to find any one who could propose a certain number of learned questions to save him from his fate. The divine mead, poetry, had fallen into the hands of low and evil beings, and the gods were deprived of its inspiring power. Now the two dwarfs, Fjalar and Galar, invited the giant Gilling and his wife to pay them a visit. They took Gilling out to sea and ran the boat on a rock. The boat was upset, and the giant, who could not swim, was drowned. The dwarfs then set the boat right and returned home, where they re- lated the accident to Gilling’s wife, who wept bitterly for her husband. The crafty Fjalar then asked her if it would soothe her sorrow to look out on the ocean where poor Gilling had perished. She said it would, and he then ordered his brother Galar to go up over the door and let fall a millstone on her head, as he could no longer endure her grief. The brother did as he was bid, and poor old Gilling and his wife were effectually disposed of by the wicked dwarfs. Now giant Gilling had a son named Suttung, who, when he heard of what had taken place, seized the crafty dwarfs, carried them out to sea, and placed them on a rock which, at high tide, was covered by 196 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. the waves. The wicked brothers pleaded for their lives, and offered to hand over to Suttung, as blood- fine, or atonement, the precious mead made from the blood of the god-born Kvdsir. The giant ac- cepted the offer, and took the mead home, and hid it in a mountain, called the Amtbiorg, under the care of his daughter, a giant maiden named Gunn- lod, or Gunnlauth. For this reason poetry is called Kvdsir’s blood, Suttung’s mead, the dwarfs ransom. This liquor of inspiration, which was of divine ori- gin, had by fraud been stolen and hidden from the gods. It could be of no benefit to mankind, for it had fallen into the hands of the underground peo- ple, for whom it was not intended, and who would only degrade its use. This, I think, typifies the low and debased condition of poetry when song is abused or converted into a sensual form of enjoy- ment, while its divine origin is forgotten. Now Odin was fully determined to rescue the poetic mead from the dwarfs and restore it to heaven. So he set out on a journey to Jotunheim, and by the way came to a meadow where nine thralls or slaves were mowing. The god entered into conversation with them, and proposed to whet their scythes, an offer they gladly accepted. He took a whet-stone from his belt, which gave such remarkable sharpness to the scythes that the thralls eagerly wished to buy it. But Odin threw it up into the air, and in struggling to get possession of the stone, each thrall contrived to bring his scythe to bear on his comrade’s neck, so that in the scram- ble they were all beheaded. ODIN’S HORSE AND THE POETIC MEAD. 197 Odin slept that night at the house of Suttung’s brother, Baugi, also a giant, who complained that he was sadly in need of laborers, as nine of his thralls had accidentally slain each other. The god had disguised himself as a common man, and passed by the name of Bolverk. He offered to do Baugi’s work, and perform the labor of nine men, provided he got in payment a draught of Suttung’s famous mead. Baugi told him he had no power over the mead, as Suttung desired to keep it all for himself, but he promised to go with Odin, or Bol- verk, and try by some means to gain possession of it. On these terms Odin worked faithfully for Bau- gi the whole summer, performing the labor of nine men. This will remind you of the manner in which Apollo, in the Greek myth, tended the sheep of King Admetus. When winter came the disguised god appeared before Baugi, and demanded payment ; but the giant Suttung, when he was asked to part with a drink of his mead, refused to give a drop of the' precious liquor, which he kept securely hidden in a cavern, under the custody of the giantess, Gunnlod. Odin and Baugi now took counsel together, and determined to secure the mead by artifice. They therefore set to work to bore a hole through the rock by means of Allfather’s sharp augur, called Rati. Baugi bored away for some time, and when Odin blew into the mountain the dust rushed to- ward him, and he knew giant Baugi was playing him a trick. Again Baugi bored, and now the dust flew inward. Odin immediately took the form of a 198 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. worm, and crept through the hole. Baugi, who was treacherous, tried to stab him with the augur, but missed the mark, and the god crept safely through to where Gunnlod, the giant maid, kept watch over the mead. Odin passed three days and nights with Gunnlod, and beguiled her into giving hfrn permis- sion to drink three times of the precious liquor. At the first draught he drained the kettle called Odhroerir, at the second the vessel Bodn, and at the third S6n, so that he had in fact swallowed all the mead. Then he changed himself into an eagle, and flew off as fast as his wings could carry him. But the suspicious Suttung saw the eagle’s flight, and he also put on his eagle’s feathers and flew after him so rapidly that he was only a short way behind. The gods on the walls of Asgard, seeing Odin approach with speed, and in danger of falling into the clutches of his enemy, hastily set out in the courtyard all the vessels they could lay their hands on. Entering in great haste, Odin discharged the liquor through his beak into the jars placed ready to hold it, but Suttung pressed him so hard that some of it escaped and fell on the ground, and every one tasted it who would. This is called the por- tion of the poetasters, or little would-be poets. Odin made a present of Suttung’s mead to the gods, and to all those who make an exalted use of the poetical art ; therefore poetry is called Odin’s booty, Odin’s gift, and the beverage of the gods. There are several interesting points to be ob- served in connection with this fantastic myth. The Norseman considered poetic inspiration, though not ODIN’S HORSE AND THE POETIC MEAD. 1 99 the same, yet analogous to the exciting influence of fermented liquor. In the same way the Greeks compared it to the effect of wine, and made Diony- sus or Bacchus their god of the poetic art and of eloquence. The poetic art is the result of vivid emotions which stimulate the fancy. Wine and spiritous drinks, we well know, have the effect of heightening all the passions. In this alone do their results resemble poetical fervor. Here is the root of the likeness between the fermentation of must and wort in the vat, and what is called the frenzy of the poet’s brain. This is why the ancients com- pared the poet’s fancy, intoxicated with images of beauty, to the foaming mead in the drinking-horn. Some part of the myth relates to the way in which mead was fermented. The wise Kvdsir is only the grain from which it is made. The Vans, spirits of earth and air, supplied the moisture for his creation from rain clouds, but the gods fur- nished the strength and inspiring qualities of grain. H is blood, we are told, is the must or wort of the mead-vat. He died, suffocated by his own wisdom, because, unless he works or ferments, he is flat and stale. The dwarfs squeeze out his juice or blood in a press, and mix it with honey. Now the name of the giant Gilling, we are told by a learned commen- tator, refers to the vessel in which the beer is placed. His boat is upset in the great ocean, in other words the brewer’s vat. Old Gilling is, indeed, nothing but that property of beer called the barm, while his wife, who goes to look at the sea where her hus- band was drowned, and is so unlucky as to have a 200 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. millstone drop on her head, is the malt that must be ground before it is fit for use. The name of the giant Suttung, we are told, refers to the act of drinking, while his daughter, Gunnlod, is the bev- erage itself. Odin appears here in summer as war- god, and causes the mowers to kill each other. He takes the character of a harvester, who, at the end of the season, wishes to enjoy the songs and mirth of the harvest-home. There is also a touch of the ancient serpent worship in the form he assumes to captivate Gunnlod. The power of the poetic art to soar, though it starts from the lowest point on earth, is represented by the eagle ; and there is a very broad, comic hint in the liquor which Odin spills accidentally, and which becomes the portion of lit- tle would-be-poets. If the poetic mead is degraded and misused on earth, it will return to the gods. It is the one art which places mankind on a level with the gods. The JEsir drink of the poetic mead, and it is the reward of all true bards, or skalds. ODIN’S ADVENTURES AND IDUNA’S APPLES. 201 CHAPTER XV. ODIN’S ADVENTURES AND IDUNA’S APPLES. LLFATHER had many names, some of which Tl grew out of myths connected with his vari- ous journeys and adventures. The name Gangrad, which he assumed, is due to the following story, contained in the Eddaic poem, called Vafthrudis- mal, or Lay : Odin, one day, while sitting with his wife Frigga, in the high seat, informed her that he was anxious to visit Vafthrudnir, the wisest of the giants, for the purpose of trying him in argument, to find out which of them was best skilled in the lore of an- cient times. Frigga tried to induce him to give up the journey. She dreaded lest Vafthrudnir, so re- nowned for wisdom, should vanquish him in the contest, knowing that on Allfather depended the safety of both gods and men. But Odin soothed her mind by recalling his nu- merous journeys and trials of skill through which he had come with safety, and finally avowed his purpose to see the house of Vafthrudnir. Seeing how futile all opposition was, Frigga, like a good wife, consented, and wished him a happy journey and a safe return. Odin then set off and arrived at the giant’s house 202 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. disguised as a traveler, bearing the name of Gan- grad. He greeted the giant politely, and told him the object of his visit. Vafthrudnir answered rather gruffly, and gave him to understand that if he failed in wisdom he should not escape from the hall of his giantship alive. Odin, undaunted, then explained to Vafthrudnir how, his mind athirst for knowledge and wisdom, he had made a long journey to his house, and deserved to be well received. The giant invited him to sit down, and they began the contest on condition that the one who failed should forfeit his head. For a long time they continued asking and answering questions as to the creation of the universe, the birth of the gods, and kindred subjects, until finally Gangrad asked what it was that Odin whispered in the ear of the dead Baldur, the beau- tiful god of summer, as he lay on the funeral pile. The giant was amazed to discover a god in his an- tagonist, and exclaimed : “ No one knows what thou, in the beginning of time, didst whisper to thy son. With death on my lips have I interpreted the wisdom of old and the fate of the gods ; with Odin have I contended, with the wise speaker ; ever art thou wisest of all ! ” This, I apprehend, is only another form of the old light-myth — the heavenly god contending with cold and darkness, and wresting from them their secrets. It is summer struggling with winter — a contest that Frigga, the earth-goddess, awaits with trembling anxiety, as her fate depends on the chance of Odin’s success. If Vafthrudnir wins, the ground will be eternally sealed with frost, and she can no ODIN’S ADVENTURES AND IDUNA’S APPLES. 203 more bring forth. Odin, as mind-father, inquires every-where for wisdom. His activity is unceas- ing, and in perfect accord with the restless Norse nature. Though supreme god he questions all parts of the universe, just as the light rays pierce at last all clouds, and penetrate the most hidden things. In another myth Odin takes the name of Grimnir. This is the argument of the famous Grimnis Lay. King Hraudung had two sons, named Agnar and Geirrod. Agnar was ten and Geirrod eight years old. These boys once rowed out in a boat to catch small fish with hook and line, but the wind drove them out to sea. During the darkness of the night they were wrecked on the sea-coast, and wandered along the shore until they found a small farmer, who took them in, and with whom they spent the winter. The farmer’s wife brought up little Agnar, but the farmer devoted himself to the training of Geirrod, and gave him much good advice. In the spring the farmer fitted them out with a vessel, and he and his wife went down to the shore to see them off. The farmer, taking Geirrod aside, talked with him long and earnestly. A fresh wind soon sprang up, and the boys were carried to their home. Geirrod sprang out of the boat first, and then pushed it, containing his brother, out to sea, and crying out, “ Go from this place into the power of evil spirits.” He then went home to his father’s hall, where he received a warm welcome, and, his father having died, he was made king of that country. 204 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. Now the farmer and his wife who had fostered these boys were none other than sky-god Odin, and earth-goddess Frigga. One day, when Allfather and his wife were sitting in Hildskjalf, the high-seat of the universe, which commanded a view of the whole world, Odin said, “ Frigga, do you see your foster-son, Agnar, how he passes his time dallying with a giantess in a cave, while Geirrod, my foster- son, is a king, ruling over the land ? ” Frigga was nettled by this remark, and replied sharply that Geirrod was very inhospitable, and tor- tured his guests when he thought them too numer- ous. Odin stoutly denied the charge, and said it was a bold falsehood. After contending a little, Allfather and his wife laid a wager, and the god re- solved to pay a visit to Geirrod. Now Frigga set her wits at work, determined to win the wager. She, therefore, sent her confiden- tial handmaid, named Fulla, to Geirrod, to advise him to be on his guard against a celebrated wizard who had arrived in that country, lest he should cause his destruction. As a sign whereby Geirrod might know him, she imparted the fact that no dog would lay hold of him. It was not true that King Geirrod was inhospi- table, but when this message was brought to him he caused the man to be seized whom the dogs would not attack. He was a venerable old person, clad in gray fur, and called himself Grimnir, but he refused to give any account of himself, the country whence he had come, or why he was journeying in Geirrod’s land. To extort a confession the king had the old ODIN’S ADVENTURES AND IDUNA’S APPLES. 205 man tortured, by placing him between two hot fires, where he sat for eight days. King Geirrod had a son, ten years of age, named Agnar, after his uncle. This boy went to Grimnir, the disguised Odin, and gave him a cup or horn filled with drink. He said his father had acted cruelly in causing an innocent person to be put to the torture. The fire had by this time approached so near that Grimnir’s fur coat was singed. While enduring the heat he sang a mythological song, in which he describes the mansions of the twelve chief gods. When King Geirrod discovered that he was roasting the god Odin, he was sitting with his sword across his knees. It was the custom with Northern kings, the sword being the symbol of authority. He rose in haste to release Allfather from the fire, when his sword slipped from his hand, and in endeavor- ing to recover it he fell forward and was pierced through the body. Odin then disappeared, and young Agnar reigned in his father’s stead. That this is a nature-myth is indicated by the contention between Odin and Frigga, the sky and earth, over their foster-children. The fires between which Odin is placed may have some reference to the intense heats of a dry summer that singe the fur of his coat ; or, in other words, burn away the clouds. It is after the visit of Fulla, the goddess of the ripe grain fields, that the fires spring up, in accordance with the custom of the North, when, after the ingathering of the harvest, large fires are kindled to clear the land of stubble and debris. Geirrod, who falls upon his sword and is slain, may 206 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. have some reference to the cutting of grain by the sickle. The young Agnar is perhaps the gentle autumn rain, who brings refreshment and coolness, represented by the horn of drink which he gives to Odin. The next myth which I shall relate is much easier to understand. Odin, as the sky, always woos and weds some form of the earth. Though he has sev- eral wives, they are personifications of the same principle under different aspects. We have seen how he wooed Gunnlod, the mountain giantess, who is the hidden principle of growth under-ground — perhaps, as her name would indicate, the sap and juices of plants. Another of his wives, the mother of Thor, is called Hlodyn. She is nothing but the warm earth prepared to bring forth vegetation. Thunder is heard rumbling in the sky after the spring heats have mellowed the ground, and, for this reason, Hlodyn becomes the mother of Thor. This goddess was known to the ancient Germans, as her name occurs in a very old manuscript. Of Frigga, Odin’s chief wife, I shall give you a more particular account when I come to the goddesses. Allfather particularly wished to connect himself with the beautiful, hard-hearted Rinda; for it had been foretold that by Rinda, the daughter of the king of the Rutheni, he would have a son who would revenge the death of the beloved Baldur. He therefore concealed his face with his hat and entering the service of the Rutheni, was appointed general of the army, and gained a great victory. Shortly after, single-handed, he put to flight the ene- ODIN’S ADVENTURES AND IDUNA’S APPLES. 20 7 mies of the Rutheni with great slaughter. Trust- ing to his military renown he now visited the scornful Rinda, and asked her to give him a kiss, in place of which he received a blow. But he could not be turned from his purpose of making her his wife. The next year he disguised himself as a foreigner, and under the name of Ros- ter the Smith visited the king, who gave him much gold to be made into beautiful female ornaments. From this gold he made an exquisite bracelet and some lovely rings, which he presented as love tokens to the cruel Rinda, who thereby was rendered only the more obdurate. Again Odin presented himself as a young and handsome warrior, and begged for a kiss, but Rinda dealt him a blow which laid him prostrate on the earth. He then touched her with a piece of bark on which certain incantations were written, which made Rinda frantic, and she raved in a kind of de- lirium. As he could assume any form he pleased, he now appeared in the guise of a woman, and took the name of Vecha, and was appointed waiting- maid to the Princess Rinda. Women in the North were the most ancient doctors. Odin put on the dress of a leech, and prescribed a remedy for her madness. Rinda is now rendered submissive by the arts of the god, and yields to his wooing, and in time becomes the mother of a glorious son, Bo, or Vali, the new year, who, as soon as he is born, avenges the death of Baldur. Now the hard-hearted Rinda is, in fact, only the rind or frozen crust of the earth in the cold North, 208 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. which refuses, except after repeated efforts, to yield to the solicitations of the sun, and bring forth flowers and herbage. The four labors of Odin in his struggle to win the princess have been thought to refer to the four seasons, during three of which she repulses him when he comes and asks for a kiss ; but they more probably refer to the changes of a severe winter in its progress toward spring, or the different aspects of the sky-god in his modes of manifestation. First, he comes as a victorious war- rior, with power and majesty, riding on his white horse, the snow-storm, and heralded by trumpet blast and the heavenly artillery. Then he appears as the splendid sun-god, and the gold ornaments he proffers to his lady-love are only the sunbeams. Then he shows himself as a handsome young war- rior, the all-conquering spring. The bark with its runes and incantations means, perhaps, the first flow of sap in the trees. This throws Rinda into a frenzy because she feels the touch of change, the motions of a new life in all her being. Then Odin presents himself as a leech and administers a potion. Rinda is again bound, but in new bonds. She is drugged and drowsy with the languors of spring and the mystery of growth. Released from the fet- ters of death, she becomes the great mother, or renewer of life, and her son Vali leaps joyfully into existence. There are few myths so beautiful and suggestive as the wooing of Rinda. It is one of the best examples of a pure nature-myth in existence. One day Odin disguised himself as the ferryman Harbard, and took up his position on the bank of a ODIN’S ADVENTURES AND IDUNA'S APPLES. 20g river. Presently the god Thor came along with his big hammer, and requested the ferryman to put him over the stream. This request Odin positively re- fused, and thereupon the two gods began to narrate their adventures and boast of their exploits. It is a wordy contest between Courage and Strength, and the river between them implies, perhaps, their con- trasted characters and the different nature of their deeds and aims. While poor old Thor is incessantly fighting jotuns, pounding and smashing terribly, in order to defend heaven and earth from attack, Har- bard, the disguised Odin, is working on the minds of kings to incite them to war, bestirring himself on the battle-field, slaying warriors, or journeying gayly in disguise, when he diverts himself by kissing maidens. Thor bears the brunt of things, and is always the endurer ; but Odin is the resplendent god of courage, who wins the praises of the world. There is a beautiful myth which I will introduce here, although it properly belongs to the cycle of Loki. It is the story of Iduna and her apples. The apple is a sacred fruit in many mythologies. It plays an important part in the Greek system, and is not wanting, as we shall see, to the Norse. JEgir, the sea-god, who was a great magician — because he had power over all the wonder-working changes of water — went one day to pay a friendly visit to Asgard. He was welcomed warmly, and when supper-time came the twelve mighty iEsir, or gods, seated themselves on their lofty seats, in a hall hung with swords of such surpassing brilliancy that no other light was required. These twelve gods 14 210 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. were named Odin, Thor, Njord, Frey, Tyr, Heim- dall, Bragi, Vidar, Vali, Ullur, Hcenir, and Forseti. There were also nine Asynjur, or goddesses, pres- ent, called Frigga, Freyja, Gefjon, Iduna, Gerda, Siguna, Fulla, and Nanna. They sat a long time at table, drinking excellent mead from large golden horns of beautiful workmanship. JEgir sat next to Bragi, the god of poetry and eloquence ; and he re- quested him to relate something concerning the gods, with which he immediately complied by nar- rating the following myth : “ Once when Odin, Loki, and Hcenir were jour- neying together, they came to a peaceful valley where a herd of oxen was grazing. Hungry and destitute of food, as they were, they did not scruple to slaughter one of the animals for supper. Their efforts to boil the flesh, however, were vain. Every time they took off the lid of the pot they found it just as raw as before; and, while trying to account for this singular fact, a voice was heard, which ap- peared to come from over their heads. On looking up, they saw a very large eagle perched in the branches of an oak tree. ‘ If you will give me a full meal/ said the eagle, ‘your meat shall soon be cooked.’ They agreed to the proposal, and the eagle flew down from the tree and snatched, for his share of the boiled ox, a leg and both shoulders. This exhibition of greed filled Loki with disgust. He picked up a huge pole and began to belabor the eagle about the back. “ But it happened that Loki did not strike a real eagle, but the famous giant Thjassi, who had flown ODIN’S ADVENTURES AND IDUNA’S APPLES. 21 1 abroad in his eagle plumage. Marvelous to relate, one end of the pole stuck fast to the eagle, while the other clung to Loki, and would not permit him to release his hold. Consequently, when the eagle flew away Loki was dragged and trailed over rocks and stones and woods and mountains, until he was half dead. He screamed and howled and begged for mercy ; but the giant gave him to understand that he should never be released from the pole until he had sworn to bring Iduna and her apples out of Asgard to Jotunheim. “ Loki gave the promise readily enough, and went back to his companions in a sorry plight. Now, it happened that only by the constant eating of Idu- na’s apples could the gods preserve their youth. She kept this immortal fruit in a jar, or casket, of which she had the sole charge. “ On his return to Asgard Loki began to cajole Iduna with his wily tongue. He told her that in a forest, a short distance from her heavenly mansion, he had found apples growing which he thought were of a quality superior to her own. At any rate, it was worth her while to make comparison between them. “ Iduna, deceived by his words, took her jar of apples and went with him into the forest, which they had no sooner entered than Thjassi, clad in his eagle feathers, swooped down upon the poor, foolish goddess, and carried her and her apples off in his claws to Jotunheim. “ The gods, deprived of their immortal sustenance, soon began to look wrinkled and gray. Old age 212 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. was stealing on them rapidly, and they sat down upon their doom-seats and took counsel together, inquiring who had last seen Iduna. When it was discovered that she had gone out of Asgard with Loki he was seized and brought into the doom-ring, and threatened with a terrible death if he did not at once bring Iduna back from Jotunheim. Cowed and frightened by their threats, he promised to re- store her, provided Freyja, the goddess of love, would lend him her falcon dress. “ Having put on Freyja’s feathers, he flew north into Jotunheim. Thjassi happened to be out at sea fishing, and Loki lost no time in changing Iduna, one account says into a sparrow, another into a nut, and flying off with her toward Asgard. As soon as Thjassi returned he missed the goddess, and, putting on his eagle plumage, set off in pur- suit. The gods, seeing the falcon with a sparrow in his talons, pursued by an eagle, just ready to cap- ture him, placed bundles of chips on the walls of Asgard, and, waiting until Loki glided in, set fire to them. Thjassi could not stay his flight ; the fire singed his wings, and he fell in the midst of the gods, who put an end to him inside of Asgard.” Thjassi, from his name, we know to mean the strong, boisterous, blustering wind of fall and win- ter, which sometimes spreads fire through the dry forest, as Loki, the fire-god, was dragged at the end of a pole. The hissing and crackling of the flames are represented by Loki’s howls of pain. In the character of winter old Thjassi obtains possession of the goddess of youth and spring, who hides the ODIN’S ADVENTURES AND IDUNA’S APPLES. 213 secret of immortality in her vase of apples. But when the warmth of summer approaches in the form of Loki, the giant cannot hold her captive, and is obliged to let her return to Asgard. The gods kindle fires on the walls, symbolic of spring’s approach, and the winter-god singes his feathers — indicative of the melting of snow and ice — and falls down to his destruction. The picture of the gods growing gray and wrinkled because the secret of life has been withdrawn is very striking and beautiful, and we again see the longing of the barren giants for light and beauty and immortality. In myths of this nature we perceive how subtle, tender, and profound was the genius of the great Northern skalds. 214 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. CHAPTER XVI. THOR AND THE FORGING OF HIS HAMMER. HERE was a sect of courage-worshipers and a A- sect of strength-worshipers in the North. Odin, the courage-god, was every-where acknowl- edged as Allfather ; but Thor, the strength-god, had a great number of followers, who practically elevated him to the place of supreme deity. In Norway and Iceland Thor was fondly called the beloved deity, the almighty god. He may be called the democratic god, the god of the common people. Thralls and bondsmen and peasants and laborers and all poor and weak persons belonged to Thor. They looked up to him in childlike confi- dence, sure that he would protect them against the evil trolls and jotuns who inhabited dark forests and rugged mountains. They relied with perfect faith on his vast strength and his good-will. Thor was the highest idea existing among them of hu- manity and self-sacrifice. He toiled ceaselessly, day and night, to render heaven and earth secure from incursion. Little rest or pleasure had Thor, the great endurer, the one living bulwark of organic life against cold, darkness, and chaos. Thor was the favorite of the most powerful Scan- dinavian race, and, as a person, was of equal impor- THOR AND THE FORGING OF HIS HAMMER. 21 5 tance with Odin ; but the chief article in the Norse- man’s creed, faith in the sacred character of warfare and the rewards of Valhalla, were derived from Odin. Thor was a great nature-god, whose name simply means thunder. He did not come into be- ing until after the world was made. Odin was the creator, and his son Thor was born to be the pro- tector of the universe. He ruled over a realm called Thrudvang, or Thrudheim, the gloom of clouds ; in other words, the dense, dark thunder- cloud. His mother was called Fiorgyn, or Hlodyn. She was an earth-goddess, whose name, probably, refers to a mountainous tract of country, because the fiercest thunder-storms are born in high regions. She is also said to mean the warm or mellow earth. Thor is called Asa Thor (god Thor) and also Aku Thor, (car Thor,) because he sometimes drives in a chariot drawn by two he-goats called Tanngnjost and Tanngrisnir. Both these names refer to the reverberations and hollow sounds of thunder, as it rolls and roars among the hills. The goat may have been chosen as Thor’s symbol because it loves high places.* Its quick leaps from crag to crag probably suggested to the poet’s mind the darting flame of the lightning. The bleating of the goats and the rattling of Thor’s chariot-wheels were symbolic of the rolling and crashing of the thunderbolt. One aspect of Thor’s nature is terrifying and fraught with dreadful energy, like the deadly stroke of the lightning; the other is frank, good-humored, and cheery, like the sun when it suddenly breaks 216 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. through the black thunder-cloud and scatters its splendid rays over the wet grass and flowers, filling earth and sky with gleams of beauty. Thor lived in a sky-mansion called Bilskirnir, which means bright and glittering, like those pal- aces which the lightning-flash appears to reveal in the clouds on a summer evening. It is the largest house in the world, and has five hundred and forty halls. We can easily believe this, for it is nothing less than the vast expanse of heaven over our heads. In Grimnis Lay Odin thus describes Thor’s house : Five hundred halls And forty more, Methinks, hath Bowed Bilskirnir. Of houses roofed There’s none I know My son’s surpassing. The idea of a sky-house is well-expressed in “ bowed ” or curved Bilskirnir. The masses of cloud, lying in strata, well express the stories or floors of Thor’s wonderful house. Thor is sometimes described as a hoary old man ; but the common idea of him is that of a young man, slender and agile, with a red beard, and a crown of twelve stars on his head. The red beard is very poetical, for it means the ruddy flame of lightning. When Thor gets angry he blows in his red beard, and thunder is heard muttering among the mountains. Many of the attributes of Thor were given to Olaf, the beloved saint of the North, in order to attach the ardent followers of the old THOR AND THE FORGING OF HIS HAMMER. 217 god to the new faith. Olaf had a red beard like Thor, and was thought to possess power over evil jotuns. Now Thor had three very precious things, upon which much of his strength depended. The first was a dwarf-made hammer, called Mjolnir, which the frost and mountain giants dreaded above all things, because many of them had felt the weight of its blows descending upon their heads. The second precious thing was the belt of strength, Meging-jardir. When he girds himself with it his divine might is doubled. The third rare possession is a pair of iron gauntlets, which he is obliged to wear when he would grasp the handle of the ham- mer or mallet. Mjolnir, which means the crusher or bruiser, is, as you have already guessed, nothing but the red-hot thunder-bolt. With this Thor fights all the evil and destructive influences of na- ture, known as wicked jotuns, or trolls. These, as I have told you, are darkness, cold, and the un- fruitfulness which lurks in mountains and deserts. Thor, with his roaring torrents, melts the ice and snow, changes the face of the land, and prepares it for agriculture. . He is neither the light, nor the warmth, nor the summer, but he accompanies all these, and as soon as the warm season is over, and Thor goes away to the East to fight with evil demons, Asgard and Midgard are besieged by giants. Thor must come running back and smash them with his hammer, or all will be lost. Thor is an impetuous, ever-restless god, and for this reason dear to the energetic soul of the North. 21 8 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. He moves with great strides, like the tempest, over sea and land, and cannot keep still for a moment, even when the other gods are feasting in gods’ world. As a spiritual god, he contends ceaselessly with every form of evil, which is symbolized by the malignant disposition of the jotuns. These wicked beings are ever plotting and planning to blot out the sun, and wall up heaven, and to prevent the earth from bringing forth in due season ; but Thor, the great preserver, is stronger than they are. He defends the sun, and keeps heaven open to the light, and brings in the spring-time with songs and flowers. The Northern winter is long and en- croaching. It steals, with its frosts, even into the brief summer-time, and gave birth to the jotuns, and also to their great enemy, Thor, who was made expressly to fight them. Every-where the Norse- man saw signs of conflict and contention, and the terrible life-and-death fight of the elements are stamped deep into the nature of his gods. Thor was movement and life, the jotuns were silence and death. The stormy Thor was hailed as a deliverer, when he came with his trumpet peals to summon the ice-mountains and snow-fields to battle. The hammer was Thor’s great symbol, and he was the god of the laborer who uses the hammer in his daily toil. Odin was an aristocratic god. To him were given the jarls, or nobles, but the thralls and common people fell to Thor’s share. Bondsmen after death were consigned to the thun- der-god. This, it is thought, expresses the idea that their souls were too heavy to mount up to THOR AND THE FORGING OF HIS HAMMER. 219 Odin’s heaven with the free born, and were com- pelled to -linger half way in the floating clouds of the thunder-storm. Thor had two sons, Magni, the strong, and Modi, the courageous, and his wife is Sif, an earth-god- dess, who clothes mountain slopes and all wild, un- cultivated places with grass. For this reason she is celebrated for her beautiful hair, which is only the luxuriant herbage of the spring. By Sif Thor had a daughter, named Thrud, who is some form assumed by the summer clouds. She was carried off by the great stone-giant, Hrungnir, who is noth- ing more than a vast rocky mountain, with power to draw the summer clouds about his sky-piercing top. You will see that Thor was a nature-god, left almost unchanged by the change in religious ideas. For this reason he was easier to comprehend than the more complex Odin, and drew the love of his worshipers more powerfully than Allfather. He has been called the Northern Herakles, and in some of his attributes does resemble that god, who, we now know, was only the sun passing through the twelve signs of the zodiac in the performance of his twelve great labors. Both of them were mighty workers for the good of others, and were looked up to as the protectors of gods and men. It is curious to note, in these Northern myths, how, as soon as heaven is attacked, the JEsir cry lustily for Thor, who comes running to their defense. In a barbaric state men have always worshiped force ; first, as it manifests itself in nature, and later, as it is shown in conflicts between tribes and races. 220 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. The strong chief must get control over several weaker ones, who are mere robbers and bandits, by prowess and superior fighting methods, before any thing like government can be organized. In the same way wild nature must be conquered by forces superior to itself before man can live by the earth. Thor is the conqueror and civilizer of nature, and after him comes the farmer, the shepherd, the herds- man, who could not exist unless the strong god had prepared the way. The jotun is the greedy spirit, who tries to eat up the domain Thor has rescued from death, and would succeed if the deity did not continually pound him with his hammer. The idea of greed clings to the giants in all the popular sto- ries. They continually appear at feasts and merry- makings, and devour the supper prepared for the guests. The sign of the hammer was sacred in Norway and Iceland. It was used as good Catholics use the sign of the cross, and some say it was cross- shaped. At feasts the drinking-horn was conse- crated with this sign, and it seems probable that it was employed in marriage ceremonies. We know it was used at funerals, for the god himself hal- lowed Baldur’s funeral pile by laying his hammer upon it. It was used as a protection against jo- tuns to prevent them from injuring the bride or disturbing the peace of the dead. In many folk- stories we find the trolls eager to carry off brides, which sometimes, unless great care is used, they contrive to do. This probably dates back to the ardent longing of the jotuns for the goddess Freyja, THOR AND THE FORGING OF HIS HAMMER. 221 whom they more than once try to carry away from heaven. The bride, who was under Freyja’s spe- cial protection, was therefore thought to be in danger. I will now tell you the story of Sif’s hair and Odin’s hammer: One day Loki, out of pure mis- chief, cut off all of Sif’s beautiful hair. When her husband, Thor, heard of it he was very angry, and .vowed he would break every bone in the fire-god’s impish body if he did not get the svart elves (elves of darkness) to make her a head of hair of pure gold, which should grow on her head like nat- ural locks. Loki, therefore, resorted in haste to the house of the dwarfs, sons of Ivald, and they made for him a new head of golden hair, and the famous ship Skidbladnir, which belongs to Frey, and Odin’s spear, called Gungnir. Then Loki, who was full of craft and invention, wagered his head with the dwarf, Brok, that his brother Sindri could not make three other such precious things as he had already produced. The brothers went to the smithy, deep-hidden in the earth, and Sindri laid a swine’s skin on the fire and directed Brok to blow the bellows until he took it from the furnace. Sindri then went out and left Brok blowing with might and main, and there came a gadfly, which was no other than the evil Loki, and settled on his hand and stung it. Brok, in spite of the pain, continued to blow sturdily until his brother returned and took what was forged from the fire. It proved to be a swine with golden bris- tles. 222 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. Sindri again put gold into the furnace, and told his brother Brok to blow without ceasing until he returned, and again he went out. This time the malicious gadfly came and fastened itself on Brok’s neck, and stung twice as fiercely as before. But Brok stood bravely to his post, and continued blow- ing until the smith came back, and took from the fire Odin’s gold ring, called Draupnir, (to drop.) The third time Sindri put iron into the furnace, and exhorted his brother to blow without ceasing, or all would be lost. Now the wicked gadfly came, and lit between Brok’s eyes, and stung his eyelids, and the blood ran down into his eyes so that he could not see, and for one moment poor Brok let go the bellows to drive away the fly. At this instant the smith Sindri returned, and said that what the fur- nace contained was nearly spoiled. On drawing it forth it proved to be a hammer. Sindri gave these three treasures to his brother, and bade him go to Asgard, to the council of the gods, and bring back the wager. So Loki and Brokri came, each with three wonderful works, and stood before the gods, where they sat on their doom- seats, and it was agreed by both sides that whatever Odin, Thor, and Frey, the three highest gods, ad- judged, should hold fast. Then Loki made a pres- ent to Odin of the spear that never could miss its mark; to Thor he gave the golden hair that imme- diately grew fast on Sif’s head ; and to Frey he pre- sented the life-ship, Skidbladnir, which, as soon as the sails were set, always found a fair wind, no mat- ter in what direction the captain might be going. THOR AND THE FORGING OF HIS HAMMER. 223 It was the most convenient ship in the world, for it could be folded small like a napkin, and carried in the pocket. Of course these presents excited wonder and ad- miration among the gods, but now the dwarf Brok stepped forth with his wonderful handiwork. To Odin he gave the ring, Draupnir, saying that every ninth night eight rings equally precious would drop from it. To Frey he gave the golden boar, say- ing that it could run more swiftly than any horse through the air and the sea, and in the darkest night a brilliant light would shine from its bristles. The mighty hammer he bestowed upon Thor, de- claring that he might strike any object with it as powerfully as he chose, and it would never fail to do execution. If he threw it, no matter how far, he need not fear, for it would always return to his hand, and at a wish it would become so small that he could hide it in his bosom. It had but one de- fect, the handle or haft was rather short. This was occasioned by the wicked gadfly, who had disturbed the smith at his labors. Now the gods decided that the hammer was the best of all the treasures, especially as a protection against frost-giants. It was agreed that the dwarf had won the wager. Brok now demanded Loki’s head. Loki offered a ransom for his precious head, but the dwarf declared he would have his head or nothing. Crafty Loki then cried, “ Well, take my head then.” The dwarf would have laid hands on him, but the fire-god was far away; for he had shoes with which he could run through earth and 224 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. air. Brok then requested Thor to bring Loki back, which he did ; for the gods sacredly respected oaths and promises. But when Loki was produced, and the dwarf prepared to cut off his head, the wily god, who understood quibbling like a lawyer, told him he might have his head and welcome, but he must not touch his neck; that was not in the bargain. Then the dwarf took a thong and a knife and tried to pierce holes in his lips, in order to sew them up, but the knife would not cut. “ It would be lucky,” said the dwarf, “ if I had my brother’s awl and the instant he named it Sindri’s awl was at hand. The awl made holes in Loki’s lips, and with the thong, called Vartari, the dwarf sewed up Loki’s mouth. Now we see plainly that, Sif being the luxuriant wild grass of spring and early summer, the cutting of her hair by Loki means merely the withering of grass and herbage on plains and mountain sides by the intense heat of midsummer, which scorches like fire. Thor, the reviving thunder-storm, forces Loki to produce a new crop. The fire-god therefore goes to the underground spirits, the dwarfs, who have control over the hidden juices of plants, and by warming the earth causes the grass to again spring forth, which is prettily symbolized by Sif’s golden hair, forged by the dwarfs. The dwarfs are cun- ning smiths, surpassing all other artificers, because they have control over the metals that lie hid in the earth’s bosom. They forge the implements and ornaments of the gods with Loki’s aid, just as THOR AND THE FORGING OF FITS HAMMER. 225 the under-ground Hephaestus (Vulcan) forges the art-works of the Greek gods. They must possess fire in order to carry on their labor, and hence they try to get control of Loki. But fire in its elemental form is hard to subdue. It runs over the earth and through the air. The dwarf Sindri is nothing more than the red- hot sparks that fly from under the hammer. Brok may be the wind from the bellows. The conflict of Loki with the smiths is, perhaps, the difficulty of tempering the heat, which, by its excess or defi- ciency, might spoil the work. The dwarf, when he tries to secure his wager, can- not vanquish Loki, he can only quell him for a time, therefore he sews his lips together, and puts out or damps down the flame, symbolized by a red-hot tongue. The symbols of the gods, like the spear Gungnir and the ring Draupnir, refer to the crea- tive or reproductive power of nature, and are forged in the darkness of the under-world, probably, to in- dicate the attribute of mystery. Loki comes bear- ing three gifts, while Brok bears other three, per- haps to show that in his character of fire-god half the work had been done by him, while the other half fell to the meed of skill. Thor’s hammer is the only imperfect thing forged, but it is the most valuable.* This may hint at the truth that though material * Thor’s hammer seems to hint at a very old superstition which attributed the stone hammers and axes of the Stone Age to the ac- tion of lightning. Ignorant people in many places still believe that these implements which they dig up are thunderbolts. 15 226 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. force — physical strength — can do a great deal, it al- ways falls short of accomplishing the best things, and where it fails, intellect, and the higher spiritual forces, come in to complete the work. Aside from its mythic meaning, this story has been the type of a great many Northern dwarf legends. Some of them have been partially adapt- ed to Christian ideas and details ; but the heathen outline and model can be every-where distinctly traced. SOME OF THOR’S ADVENTURES. 227 CHAPTER XVII. THOR’S ADVENTURES WITH THE METAL-KING AND THE STONY-HEARTED GIANT. NE day as Loki amused himself by flying out of Asgard in Frigga’s falcon plumage, he came to a spacious hall, the mansion of Geirrod, the metal-king, and, prompted by curiosity, he perched on the sill, and peeped in at the window. Geirrod having caught sight of the falcon, ordered one of his people to bring the bird to him, and finally, after some difficulty, Loki was caught and carried into the hall. As soon as the giant’s eyes fell on the falcon he suspected that he was a man or a god, and ordered him to speak ; but Loki remained silent, and the giant locked him up in a chest, where he fasted for three months. Then the giant released him, and again ordered him to speak. Loki was obliged to confess who he was, and to save his life, promised to bring Thor to the house of the metal-king with- out his hammer or belt of power. Loki went back to heaven, and by means of his wily tongue per- suaded Thor to visit the metal-king on these terms. On their way to Geirrod’s country Thor and Loki visited the hag Grid, mother of Vidar, the silent god. She advised Thor to be on his guard against 228 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. Geirrod, who, she said, was a crafty, dog-wise giant. As some protection against the artifices of the jotun she lent Thor a belt of power, an iron glove, and her staff called Gridarvold. The two gods continued their journey until they came to the River Vimur, the greatest of all rivers. Here Thor strapped on his belt and stayed himself against the stream with Grid’s staff, and began to wade. Loki clung to the belt behind, fearful of being drowned. On reaching the middle of the river they found it much swollen, and the water washed over Thor’s shoulders. He looked toward a part of the stream between two steep rocks, and perceived Gjalp, one of Geirrod’s daughters, standing there. It was she who had caused the river to rise, for she was nothing more than an impetuous mount- ain torrent, born in the depths of the earth. Seiz- ing a heavy stone he cast it at her, saying, “ The river must be stopped at its spring.” Then he waded to the shore and took hold of some sorb bushes and drew himself on land. There is a prov- erb which says, “ The sorb is Thor’s salvation.” It shows, what is more than once illustrated in Norse mythology, the importance of seeming trifles. When Thor and Loki had come to Geirrod’s house lodging was given them in a chamber where there was only one chair. Thor sat down and be- gan suddenly to rise toward the roof. Placing Grid s staff against the rafters, he pressed back with all his might, and a loud crash was heard, accom- panied by a terrible cry. Geirrod’s daughters, in their character of mountain torrents, were under SOME OF THOR’S ADVENTURES. 229 the chair. They had begun to swell, and Thor, by pressing down upon them, had broken their backs. After this sad accident Geirrod invited the thun- der-god into his hall to play games. There were large fires burning along one side of the hall, from one of which, as Thor came opposite, Geirrod snatched, with a pair of tongs, a red-hot iron wedge and hurled it at the god. Thor caught it with his iron glove and cast it back. The metal-king took refuge behind an iron pillar, but Thor threw the wedge with such divine might that it passed through the pillar, through Geirrod, through the wall, and deep into the earth. This very interesting myth is explained by the strong attraction of metal for the thunder-bolt, or, as we say, the electric fluid. Thor’s visit to Geirrod is the metal mountain struck by lightning. The metal-king catches Loki (fire) and confines him in a chest for three months, during which time he fasts. Only in a limited capacity can fire be useful to the smith or metal-worker. As the intense white heat, giving forth no tongues of flame, it may be said to fast. Thor, the thunder-storm, comes to visit Geirrod, and he wades those rivers which penetrate the caves and fastnesses of the mountains. Owing to his presence the giant maidens who represent river nymphs in Northern mythology, swell the streams. Loki goes over with him, clinging to his belt, as fire is always latent or hidden in the thunder-cloud. Thor hurls his bolt, in the form of an iron bar or wedge, and melts old Geirrod, who is only a mass 230 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. of metal. There is a curious superstition still to be met in some parts of the North, to the effect that a black iron bolt accompanies the lightning, which sinks into the earth as far as the tallest church stee- ple rises in the air, and comes up a certain distance toward the surface every time it thunders, until, at the end of seven years, it works its way out of the ground. Every house, it is believed, in which such a bolt is kept is secure from the effects of lightning. I will now tell you the curious myth of Thor and Hrungnir, the stony-hearted giant. One day Thor had journeyed eastward to crush trolls, (giants ;) but Odin rode on his horse Sleipnir to Jotunheim, (giants’ world,) and came to Hrungnir’s house. The giant met him at the door and inquired who it was who rode with glittering helmet through air and water, and then complimented him on the excellence of his horse. Odin replied boastfully that he would pledge his head that so good a horse could not be found in Jotunheim. Hrungnir replied that it was, indeed, a very good horse, but that he owned one called Goldfax (gold mane.) which could take much longer paces, and was in every way superior, where- upon he immediately leaped upon his nag and spurred after Odin in order to pay him for his pre- sumptuous words. Odin galloped at full speed, but Hrungnir’s giant nature became excited by the chase, and his horse acquired such velocity that, before he was aware of it, he had been carried within the walls of Asgard. On reaching the door of Valhalla the gods, who were always hospitable and polite, invited him to SOME OF THOR’S ADVENTURES. 231 come in and drink, and set before him the huge horns or flagons from which Odin was accustomed to drain his mead. The giant emptied each at a draught, and soon became intoxicated, when he grew very loud in his boastings, and threatened to pick up Valhalla and carry it away to Jotunheim. He also avowed his intention to sack and pillage Asgard, and kill all the gods and goddesses except Freyja and Sif, who pleased his fancy, and whom he meant to take home with him. Freyja was the only one courageous enough to pour out his drink, and he modestly remarked that he intended to im- bibe all of the gods’ beer. After a time the Aisir grew tired of listening to the braggart ; so they called loudly for Thor, who instantly came swinging his terrible hammer, and inquired angrily who had given that insolent, dog- wise giant permission to drink in safety in Valhalla, and why Freyja was filling his horn with drink, as she was wont to fill the cups of the gods at their glorious festivals. Hrungnir looked at the strong god with any thing but a friendly eye, and remarked that he was under Odin’s protection, as he came to Asgard on his in- vitation. Thor replied grimly that Hrungnir might repent having accepted the invitation before he found himself well out of Asgard. Hrungnir re- torted that Thor would gain small meed of honor by slaying him there in gods’ world, where he was alone and unarmed. He would show far more valor if he were to meet him in a fair fight on the frontiers of his country, at a place called Grjottuna- 232 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. gard, or, freely translated, Stonetown. “ It was a great piece of folly,” he added, “ that I left my shield and stone-club at home. Had I my arms with me we would instantly engage in a holmgang, or duel ; but I will proclaim you a coward if you seek to kill me unarmed.” Thor had never before been challenged to a holm- gang, and he scorned to decline the giant’s offer. Hrungnir was now let out of Asgard and hastened home. All the giants heard about Hrungnir’s jour- ney, and talked of it a great deal. They were par- ticularly interested in the challenge of Thor, for it was of vital consequence to them which of the two champions won the day. If Hrungnir, the most powerful of the giants, should be conquered, they had nothing but evil to expect from the strong god. They adopted the novel expedient of making an as- sistant, or second, for Hrungnir out of clay. This clay man was made at Grjottunagard, (Stonetown,) and was nine miles high and three miles broad be- tween the shoulders. They found some difficulty in obtaining a suitable heart for the clay giant, but they finally took one from a mare, which, however, fluttered a good deal when Thor made his ap- pearance. Hrungnir’s heart was a hard piece of stone, shaped like the magic triangle. His head was like- wise of stone, and so was his broad shield, which he held before him when he stood at Grjottunagard waiting for Thor. His weapon, a tremendous whet- stone, rested on his shoulder. By his side stood the huge clay man called Mokkerkalfe, (thick cloud or SOME OF THOR’S ADVENTURES. 233 mist.) He was so terrified at the approach of the thunder-god that the sweat poured from him in streams. Thor went to the holmgang, taking with him his servant Thjalfe, whom, as we shall see when we come to the story of Utgard Loki, he had ob- tained from a peasant by the sea. Thjalfe was a swift runner, and he ran up to where Hrungnir was standing, and said to him : “ Thou art standing very carelessly, giant ! Thou holdest the shield before thee, but Thor has seen thee, and he will go down into the earth and attack thee from beneath.” On hearing these words Hrungnir placed the shield under his feet and stood upon it, while he grasped his whetstone with both hands. Presently he saw flashes of lightning and heard the loud booming and crashing and rolling of thunder. Thor was coming up clad in his divine might, and had thrown his hammer from a distance. Hrungnir now lifted up his whetstone club with both hands and threw it with all his power against the hammer. The two met in mid air, and the club was dashed in pieces. One portion fell on the earth, whence came all the whetstone or flint mountains ; while another portion struck Thor on the head, causing him to fall prostrate on the ground. The hammer, Mjolnir, gave Hrungnir a blow on the head and crushed in his skull. He fell forward over Thor, so that his feet lay on Thor’s neck. Thjalfe fought with the clay man Mokkerkalfe, who, owing to his cowardly nature, fell almost at the first blow without doing himself the least credit. Then Thjalfe ran to his master, Thor, and endeav- 234 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. ored to lift Hrungnir’s huge foot from his neck, but he could not stir it. The god was pinned firmly to the ground. When they heard that their defender had fallen all the gods came from Asgard to Grjo- ttunagard and tried to remove Hrungnir’s foot ; but neither singly nor together were they strong enough to accomplish the task. Then at last came Magni, (strength,) a son of Thor by Jarnsaxa, a giantess; and, although he was but three days old, the prodig- ious infant threw Hrungnir’s foot from his father’s neck, saying, cheerily: “It was a great mishap, father, that I came so late. Methinks I could have slain this giant with my fist. Thor stood up "and greeted his son affectionately, and as a reward gave him Hrungnir’s horse Goldfax, (gold mane.) But Odin rebuked him, saying that so excellent a horse ought .not to have been given to the son of a hag, but to himself. Thor went home to Thrudvang, (thunder world,) but the flint-stone — half of Hrungnir’s huge whet- stone — remained sticking fast in his forehead. A prophetess, or vala, came to Thrudvang, whose name was Groa. She was the wife of Orvandel the Wise, and she sang incantations and uttered spells over Thor until the stone was loosened in his head. Thor discovered this, and just at the moment he expected the stone to fall he was so overjoyed that he wished to reward Groa for what she had done for him. To gladden her heart he gave her tidings of her beloved husband ; told her how he, Thor, had waded from the far North through the rivers, Eliva- gar, and had brought Orvandel away from Jotun- SOME OF THOR’S ADVENTURES. 235 heim in an iron basket ; in proof of which he related how one of Orvandel’s toes had stuck out of the basket and got frost-bitten ; and how he, Thor, had broken it off and thrown it up to heaven, and made of it the star called Orvandel’s Toe. When the god finally assured her that it would not be long before Orvandel’s return home, Groa was so filled with de- light that she forgot all her magic songs and spells, and the flint-stone would loosen no more, but remained just as it was, sticking fast in Thor’s fore- head ; therefore no one must cast a whetstone across the floor, for then the stone moves in Thor’s head. This is one of the most complete of all the nature- myths with which the old Norse religion abounds, although some parts of it are obscure and hard to interpret. It is easy to see that Hrungnir, with his stone head and breastplate, his peaked, triangular heart and whetstone club, is the stone mountain. He lives properly enough in Stonetown, the region of huge precipices and boulders. His stony head pierces the blue sky and intrudes into Asgard, (heaven.) The chase which he gives sky-god Odin, mounted on Goldmane, may refer to the shifting, swiftly-moving clouds that surround his crest. He is a huge, windy, blustering, boastful giant ; and of so thirsty a nature that his stone mouth empties the clouds, absorbs the dew and rain of heaven, and thus threatens to exhaust the gods’ supply of beer, which we know is nothing more than the humidity and vapor of the air. His head., rising as it does into heaven, makes him particularly arrogant ; for he imagines he can pull 236 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. down the shining houses of the gods and slay the JE sir. He has a strong desire to possess Freyja and Sif, because the mountains yearn to draw to themselves the most exquisite beauty of form and tint, represented by the love-goddess, and also to clothe their bleak sides with grass, which they can- not do unless Sif will come and live with them. Freyja pours out the giant’s drink, perhaps, because the beauty of the mountains is enhanced by clouds and tempests. When he boasts that he will drink up all the gods’ mead he means to swallow or drive away the clouds and show his craggy head against the sky. The great stony peak, thus boldly lifted up, by its very existence challenges a contest with the thunder-god. The other giants — mere masses of matter or lower mountains — dread the combat, because Thor, with his torrents, being the great leveler, their collective existence is threatened if he breaks down the prin- cipal peak. They talk together of what is impend- ing across great stretches of country, and finally decide to create the clay man Mokkerkalfe to stand by him in the fight. This clay giant is the low, flanking foot-hills, which easily crumble and wash down in severe storms. He is a coward, for he trembles and sweats at the approach of Thor. The shield which Hrungnir stands on is the rocky base of the mountain, and Thor darts into the earth in the form of chain lightning. It seems probable that portions of two or more myths have been joined together to make this one. The fall of Hrungnir may refer to avalanches and SOME OF THOR'S ADVENTURES. 237 glaciers that suddenly descend mountain-sides, and half bury the plains by bringing with them huge boulders and masses of earth. Thor is crushed under them ; for in winter he is silent. The strokes of his hammer resound no longer among the af- frighted mountains. In poetical language Hrung- nir’s foot lies over the neck of the thunder-god. The HLsir come and successively try to lift off the foot, but all through the cold season they remain powerless. Now comes Magni, Thor’s little son by the giant maiden, Jarnsaxa, who with her eight sis- ters has been nourished on the strength of the earth and the cold sea. Magni is only three days old, but he casts off Hrungnir’s foot with the great- est ease. Now Magni, I think, is plainly the new year, the strength of the spring, which has easily dis- solved the snow and ice and set free the thunder. A portion of the flint-stone sticks fast in Thor’s forehead. This is, perhaps, a symbol of the broad surface of the earth, which Thor’s bolt was popu- larly supposed to enter during thunder-storms. It is more probable that it refers to the frost, which sinks deep into the ground and renders it as hard as a rock. The prophetess employed to extract the stone from Thor’s forehead is Groa, an earth-deity, whose name means letting grow, or causing to grow. Her husband is the young and tender plant Orvan- del. Groa evidently comes too early in the season to unfix the stone in the god’s forehead by her songs and incantations. She is the premature ef- fects of light and heat on the frozen ground, or the 238 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. first warm days that are followed by intense cold. Thor feels the stone loosen, and in his joy and haste to reward her he tells Groa an obscure fable of her husband Orvandel, the plant, whom he carried out of Jotunheim, over ice-cold rivers, in an iron basket ; and how one of Orvandel’s toes stuck out of the basket and was frozen, and finally formed a star in the Great Bear, or Charles’ Wain, as it was called in the North. When he tells the vala that her hus- band will soon return, she is delighted beyond measure, and forgets her magic songs, and the stone loosens no more. This shows that Groa is the premature spring, who comes to partially lure the frost from the ground. The true spring will not appear until Orvandel, her husband, the little sprout, returns to the earth. Probably because of the nourishing in- fluence of early showers, the sprout is intrusted to Thor, who carries it in an iron gasket, the earth. But, unluckily, it protrudes too early from the ground, and is nipped by frost. Thjalfe, Thor’s attendant, is a swift runner, and goes in advance of the god. He, no doubt, sym- bolizes the rushing, roaring torrents of rain that often come a little before the thunder. He beats down the clay mountain, and with his impetuous streams tears it in pieces. There are few more per- fect nature-myths than this, which shows the thun- der-god contending with the mountain-giants in his efforts to open valleys and level plains, and sub- due the surface of the earth for man’s use. In these contests his all-powerful hammer symbolizes SOME OF THOR’S ADVENTURES. 239 the lightning ; his unequaled strength is represent- ed by the belt with which his waist is girded, and the pealing and muttering and rumbling of the thunder by the roll of his chariot wheels. He con- tended mightily with the mountain-giants ; but he was also the bitter enemy of the frost and sea giants. He melted the former by his warm, impet- uous showers, and dashed them to pieces with his winds. The latter he subdued by terrible hurri- canes and fierce tornadoes. His conflict with the Midgard Serpent is the most famous of all his ex- ploits, and in the next chapter I will give you the oldest version of that mighty battle, and the events which induced Thor to undertake it. 240 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. CHAPTER XVIII. HOW THOR WENT FISHING FOR THE MIDGARD SERPENT. GIR, the great sea-deity, annually invited the gods of Asgard to visit and feast with him and the assembled vans, divinities of air and water. This happened at a time when sky and sea were very tranquil, and great harmony prevailed between heaven and earth. Now it occurred unluckily on a certain occasion that the gods who were visiting JEgir could not get enough to drink, because JEgir was sadly in want of a kettle for brewing ale. He asked Thor to kindly go and fetch a kettle for him, but neither the gods nor the vans knew where one could be procured, until Tyr, the strong god, told Thor that his father, Hymir, who lived east of the ice-cold rivers, called Elivager, at the far end of heaven, had an excellent kettle, strong and well made, and a mile deep. “ Do you think we can get it ? ” quoth Thor. “ Yes, by stratagem it may be procured/' returned Tyr. Thor deter- mined to undertake the adventure, and assumed the semblance of a young man. He traveled with Tyr and his goats until they came to a person named Egil, with whom they left the goats, and they then kept on to Hymir’s Hall. Here Tyr en- HOW THOR WENT FISHING. 24I countered his grandmother, a frightful old giantess, with nine hundred heads ; but his mother, a lovely light-browed woman, all shining with gold, came and gave them drink, and advised them to hide un- der the kettles, in the hall, because of Hymir, who was not fond of strangers, and was of a cruel dispo- sition. Hymir returned very late from fishing, and as he came into the hall the icebergs echoed and rang. His beard was full of frost, and a hard-frozen wood stood on his cheek. Then Tyr’s mother spoke, and said, “ I welcome you home, Hymir. Our son, whom we have so long desired to see, has at last come, and with him the avowed enemy of the giant race, the friend of man and protector of Asgard. They have concealed themselves behind a pillar at the end of the hall.” Hymir merely looked at the pil- lar which his wife had indicated, and it burst asun- der and the cross-beam was snapped and eight ket- tles fell down with a crash. Only one was so strong that it did not break in falling. Both Tyr and Thor were now obliged to stand forth, and the giant eyed the thunder-god with sus- picion. He was not too well pleased to see the great enemy of his race standing in his own hall ; but still he acknowledged the rights of the stranger, and certain duties of hospitality which bound all classes of beings. He therefore ordered three oxen to be cooked for supper, and when they were served Thor, whose appetite was enormous, coolly pro- ceeded to devour two out of the three. Hymir felt alarmed at this exhibition of greed at his own 10 242 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. table ; he feared being eaten out of house and h.ome. He therefore informed his unwelcome guests that the next day they must go out to fish in order to procure a supply of food for the evening meal. Thor spent the night at the giant’s house, and the next morning, in accordance with Hymir’s in- vitation, they rowed out to sea, to the spot where Hymir was accustomed to catch whales. Thor in- sisted on rowing far beyond this place, for he had in mind to fish for the Midgard Serpent, the largest and most horrible of all the monsters that live in the deep. Hymir caught two whales at one haul. Thor also fished, but the Midgard Serpent took his bait, and the mighty god drew the horrible spotted snake up to the side of the boat. His head was monstrous, and the foam and venom from his mouth spouted mountain high. Thor struck the serpent’s head with his hammer, whereupon a mighty tumult broke forth ; the rocks burst, the caverns thundered, old mother Earth shrank and shuddered in her bed, and the frightened fishes fell to the bottom of the sea. Then, it is said, the giant became so terrified he cut Thor’s line, and the dread- ful serpent dropped into the waves. Thor was angry at the interference of the giant just at the moment when his victory seemed as- sured, and he struck him a sound blow on the ear with his fist, and old Hymir fell headforemost into the water. But finally the giant managed to crawl back into the boat, and they rowed to land, taking the two whales Elymir had caught along with them. The giant was silent and sullen all the way, and HOW THOR WENT FISHING. 243 when they came to shore, Thor picked up the boat and all it contained and carried it to Hymir’s hall. The giant was not appeased, but remained sulky after the day’s adventures. However, he compli- mented the god on his rowing, and challenged him to again show his strength by trying to break his drinking-cup. Thor took the goblet in his hand and dashed it against an upright rock; but the rock was shattered to pieces, and the cup remained un- broken. He then threw it against the pillars of the hall, but it was brought back perfect and entire to Hymir’s hand. The beautiful, shining-browed woman now whispered a word of good advice in Thor’s ear. “ Hurl it against Hymir’s forehead,’ said she, “ for it is harder than any drinking-horn.” Thor then raised himself on his knee, and assumed his As strength, or god-like might. The cup flew from his hand, but the old giant’s brow remained as before. The drinking-horn was dashed into frag- ments. Hymir had lost a great treasure, but he complimented Thor on his performance, and told him there remained but one further trial of his strength. “You must now,” said he, “make the attempt to carry the beer kettle out of the hall.” Tyr, who was tremendously strong, tried twice to lift the kettle, but could not stir it. Then Thor took hold of it at the rim with such a grip that his feet broke through the floor. He placed the kettle on his head, and its rungs rang about his feet. He then set off with Tyr, his companion ; but on look- ing back he saw a host of many-headed giants 244 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. swarming out of Hymir’s caverns. Then he lifted off the kettle from his shoulders, and swung might- ily Mjolnir, the hammer, and crushed these pursu- ers with a blow. Then picking up the kettle again, he kept on his way as far as Egil’s, where he had left his goats, and he had not got far away from that place when one of his goats fell lame. But at last, after all his toils and conflicts, he came to the feast of the gods, bringing the welcome beer kettle ; and every year at the time of the flax harvest JEgir brews ale in it to feast the ^Esir. Here we have the oldest version of this wonder- ful story ; but there is another from the prose Edda of Snorri, which differs from it in some important particulars. It has no connection with ^Egir’s feast or Hymir’s kettle, but we are told that Thor pre- sented himself to the sea-god, disguised as a young man, and begged to be allowed to go out fishing with him. Hymir answered contemptuously that a puny stripling, such as he was, could be of no great use to him in fishing. “ Besides,” he added, “ you will take cold if you go as far out and remain as long as I am accustomed to do.” Thor replied that he was good at rowing, and it was far from certain which of the two would first tire and wish to return to land. He was enraged with the giant, and his fingers itched to seize the mallet and swing it about his ears ; but, intending otherwise to em- ploy his strength, he stifled his anger, and asked Hymir what he meant to use for bait. Hymir re- plied that he might provide his own bait, where- upon Thor strode up to a herd of oxen, and seizing HOW THOR WENT FISHING. 245 the largest, named Himnibrjot, wrung off its head, and returned with it to the boat. Then he and Hymir rowed out to sea. Thor rowed aft with two oars, and so powerfully, that the giant was obliged to acknowledge they were speeding very fast through the water. He himself rowed at the prow, and it was not long before he informed the god that they had already come to the place where he was in the habit of catching flat fish. But Thor was anxious to go on, and they con- tinued rowing for some time. Hymir now observed that they had come into the neighborhood of the Midgard Serpent, where it would be dangerous to remain. But nevertheless Thor kept on rowing mightily, and it was yet a long time before he would desist. Finally he put down his oars, and attached the head of the ox to a very strong hook and line. The old serpent immediately snapped at the bait, and the hook stuck fast in his throat. Maddened by the pain, he tugged so stoutly at the hook that Thor was obliged to hold fast with both hands at the pegs that bear against the oars. This made the god frantic with anger, and he assumed all his divine strength, and pulled until his feet went through the boat to the bottom of the sea. By main force he now drew the monster up alongside the boat, and the conflict ensued much as it is described in the previous version. ^ Hymir saw the serpent rising from the waves, and turned pale and trembled with dread. The water was entering his boat on all sides ; quickly he drew his knife, just as Thor raised his hammer, and cut 246 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. the line, and the snake fell back into the sea. Thor let fly his hammer, and some say the serpent’s head was struck off, but the old enemy still lives, coiled all about the earth, at the bottom of the sea, and shall exist until Ragnarock. The thunder-god then struck Hymir under the ear, and laid him flat in the water, after which the god, with great strides, waded ashore, and it is to be inferred that he left the giant to pick himself up and save his boat as best he could. This battle with the Midgard Serpent is the most famous of all Thor’s exploits, the one that has clung most tenaciously to the popular mind. It contains all the notions and fancies of the ancients concern- ing very remote regions of the sea. They were pretty well acquainted with the sea as far as Hy- mir’s fishing-ground, or the parts near the shore, where they were in the habit of cruising in their little boats. Into the deep ocean they did not ven- ture, for there their excited fancy told them lay the dread Midgard Serpent which, when angry, lashed the waves into turmoil, heaved them mountain high, and spouted forth torrents of foam. Thor may be called the first explorer in those awful un- known regions, and he makes use of the shore- giant’s boat to perform his journey. But we well know that Thor is only the thunder- storm moving with power and majesty over the deep. Hymir’s kettle is a large pool in the rocks, somewhere along the shore. y£gir is destitute of a kettle, and cannot brew ale for the gods, because he is an open-sea divinity, and does not control- the HOW THOR WENT FISHING. 247 coast. Thor, who can travel anywhere with the swiftness of wind and cloud, goes to fetch Hymir’s pot. Now, that Hymir is a giant of the far North, is evident from the frost on his beard and the frozen woo'd that stands upon his cheek. Higir’s beer is the frothing, foaming, boiling surf when, on a swollen tide, it rushes into all the bays and hol- lows and inlets of the shore. Tyr, who accompanies Thor on this expedition, is a war-god and god of strength. Those pos- sessed of unusual bodily power are called Tyr, (strong.) He gives glory to the brave lighter. Sometimes he is called the son of Odin by a giant maiden ; but here he appears as the son of old, coastwise Hymir, by a very beautiful shining woman, who proves friendly to Thor. Tyr’s hid- eous old grandmother, with her nine hundred heads, is, doubtless, only the terror of the many-headed waves. His shining mother is the calm brightness and loveliness of the quiet sea. He is strength, born of serenity. The seven pots, which shiver and break when Hymir comes into the hall, are probably still, frozen pools in the rocks ; but the stout, unbroken pot is the whirlpool, which never freezes. Hymir is a grim, old, frost-bearded giant, well suited to con- trol the dark and frowning cliffs along the shore ; but he does not like to venture far away from land, and the fear of the great deep, the Midgard Ser- pent, is ever before his eyes. For this reason he remonstrates with Thor when he wishes to row out to sea. Thor’s swift rowing is the fierce and rapid 248 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. motion of the thunder-cloud over water. The Mid- gard Serpent rears his head mountain high, just as the sea swells in a great storm, and Thor strikes him with his hammer — the thunderbolt ; then, after a terrible commotion of wind and rain, lightning and thunder and lashing waves, the old serpent again sinks down to the bottom, and the sea gradu- ally grows calm. Hymir is involved in the fray, for when a great storm occurs in the distant sea the rocks and cliffs along the shore soon feel its fury. When they re- turn home Hymir is sullen and gloomy, like his own wreck-strewn beaches and inlets, with the thunder- cloud brooding overhead. The might of the waves, spending the effects of the tempest along the coast, is shown in a very pretty fable. Old Hymir hands Thor a drinking-cup, which is nothing less than the seething, foaming ocean, and requests him to try his strength by shattering it in pieces. The god hurls it against various objects, which stand for the detached rocks and buttresses of the shore ; they are shattered to pieces, as cliffs and headlands are beaten down and washed away by the action of waves, but the cup remains unharmed. At last the beautiful giantess whispers to Thor to cast the cup against Hymir’s forehead. He obeys, and it is broken into fragments. Hymir’s forehead repre- sents the whole rocky barrier of the shore, which, though its outposts may be torn down by the en- croaching sea, still forms the great safeguard of continents, and says to the waves, “ Thus far, and no farther.” HOW THOR WENT FISHING. 249 When the divinities try their strength at lifting the kettle Tyr fails, for though a strong god, he is not strong enough. He is not the strength of the earth, but the sudden inflow of vigor that comes when courage is quickly and violently aroused. Thor’s strength is like the pull of gravitation, by which the sun draws the planets ; therefore he lifts the kettle easily, and walks off with it over his head. The rungs which rattle about his feet refer, perhaps, to the great circles of the whirlpool. The many- headed giants that come swarming out of Hymir’s caves are only the racing, frothing, crowding waves along the shore. Thor lifts off the kettle for a moment and deals them a blow with his ham- mer, and then pursues his way to the feast of the gods. This wonderful myth is only the various aspects of the sea put into a little tale. Though the great- est mystery of nature to the ancients, its plan, as it lay mapped out in their minds, was very simple. They thought of it as a broad stream surrounding the entire disk of the earth, which was flat and round. At the bottom lay coiled the mighty Mid- gard Serpent, child of the evil-minded Loki, holding its tail in its mouth. The Midgard Serpent was the sea itself ; but it was popularly regarded as the ter- ror, mystery, and destructive forces of water, imag- ined in the form of a huge dragon that, in stormy weather, rises and lashes the waves into fury, and in calm weather lies peacefully coiled asleep at the bottom of the ocean. The Midgard Serpent is evil because, before man 250 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. learns to control it, the sea is looked upon as his great enemy. For this reason the sea is the off- spring of the wicked Loki, and will finally help to overthrow the gods and to destroy the universe. All ancient poetry is filled with descriptions of the terror of the sea, which, before men became naviga- tors, filled them with shuddering dread. They were like children running before an incoming tide, which chased them, and sometimes overwhelmed them, as they believed, owing to the malignant dispo- sition of some being that lay hidden behind the natural appearance. This being the Norsemen im- agined to be in the form of the mighty Midgard Serpent. It is possible that the germ of the old Midgard dragon can be traced back to the ancient serpent worship of the East. Instead of coiling their sacred snake about the trunk of a tree, as a symbol of life or of eternity, the gigantic imagination of the North threw it into the ocean and allowed it to encircle the whole earth. This myth has been many times changed and reborn, and the popular tales about sea-serpents, krakens, and sea-monsters of various forms can be directly traced to the Midgard snake, which embraces all that was once conjectured or imagined about remote and unknown parts of the sea. Old Midgard is the father of a dreadful brood that still haunts the excited fancy of mankind. I will now tell you a very humorous story of how Thor lost and recovered his hammer. Thor had slept, probably during the cold winter, HOW THOR WENT FISHING. 2$ I when thunder-storms but seldom occur. Sudden- ly Ving Thor (winged Thor) awoke. His beard shook and his mighty head trembled with rage, for he missed his hammer. It had been stolen during his sleep. He looked around and thus spoke to the fire-god, who was near him : “ Mark, Loki, what I say — that no one knows, either in earth or in high heaven, that my hammer has been stolen.” The two gods set off together for the house of Freyja, beautiful goddess of love, and asked her to lend them her feather dress that they might get back the hammer. Freyja complied willingly, and sly Loki put on the dress and flew away out of gods’ world into giants.’ world, where he saw Thrym, the king of the giants, sitting on a hill outside his hall. He was twisting gold bands or collars for his dogs and smoothing out the manes of his horses. He greeted Loki very civilly. “ How fares it,” quoth he, “ with the zEsir [gods] and the Alfar, [elves,] and why do you come alone to giants’ land ? ” “ 111 fare the ^Esir ancL the Alfar,” returned Loki ; “ and I came to ask if you have hidden Thor’s hammer ?” “ I have hidden Thor’s hammer,” returned Thrym, “ rasts [miles] under the ground, and no one shall get it back unless he brings me Freyja for my bride.” Then Loki turned about, and his falcon plumage whizzed as he flew from giants’ world back to gods’ world. Thor met him and bade him tell his news 2^2 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. straight before perching. “For,” said he, “who- ever reclines often speaks falsehoods.” “ Thrym has your hammer,” returned Loki; “and he vows no one shall get it back unless he gives him Freyja for his bride.” Then the two gods repaired to the lovely Freyja and gave her news of the hammer, and requested her to put on a bridal veil and ride with them to giants’ world. But Freyja was outraged by the proposal, and flew into a dreadful passion. The heavenly halls trembled, and her necklace, the Brisingamen, snapped in two. “ I must indeed be very amorous and fond of men’s society,” said she, “ were I to go with thee to giants’ world.” Then all the gods held a meeting in the doom- ring, and the goddesses also consulted together to devise some means of getting back the hammer, which was absolutely essential to the safety of heaven. Heimdall, the white god, who was a van, and could look into the future, spoke and said : “ Let us bind a bridal veil on Thor, and decorate him with the necklace, Brisingamen. Let keys jin- gle at his waist and a woman’s dress cover his knees. Let precious stones be placed upon his breast and an elegant head-dress on his head.” But Thor, the great thunder-god, was for once ashamed. “ The gods,” he said, “ will jeer at me if I am decked out in a bridal veil.” Loki replied that unless the hammer was soon brought back the giants would come to live in gods’ world. So they dressed Thor exactly as Heimdall had recommended, and Loki accompanied him on HOW THOR WENT FISHING. 253 the journey disguised as his waiting-maid. Thor’s progress to giants* world was magnificent. The goats skipped, the mountains burst, the earth blazed, when Thor drove past in his chariot. Then the giant-king said to his attendants : “ Stand up, giants ! Spread cushions on the benches, and lead to me the bride Freyja. Let gold-horned cows and coal-black oxen be brought in multitudes to my dwelling. I have enough ornaments and treasure to satisfy my desires, and Freyja alone was want- ing to me.” Early in the evening the bride arrived, the giants assembled, and the festivities began. Thor sat down to supper and devoured an ox, eight salmon, and all the dainties and knickknacks prepared for the ladies. He washed down his repast with three large vessels of mead. Thrym looked amazed at this ex- h b'tion, and remarked that he had never seen a bride eat so much or drink so large a quantity of beer. The wily waiting-maid, Loki, sat near. She replied that for eight nights and days Freyja had eaten nothing, so ardently did she long after Jotun- heim. The giant was flattered, and raised the bride’s veil, and bent forward with the design of giving her a kiss, but he started back in horror and rushed through the hall crying: “ Why has Freyja such a piercing look? Her eyes burn like coals of fire.” Loki shrewdly replied that Freyja had not slept for eight nights, so great was her longing for Jotun- heim. At this moment the giant-king’s unlucky old sister came into the hall to beg a bridal gift. “ If 254 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. you would win my love and favor,” said she to the pretended bride, “ give me the rings of red gold you wear on your hand.” Thrym then ordered that Thor’s hammer be brought in and laid on the bride’s lap, as a consecrating rite, and that they be immediately united in the name of Vor, the oath- god. Thor’s heart laughed in his breast when he felt the hammer on his knees. Instantly he seized and swung it, and slew Thrym and all the race of giants. The poor old sister who had begged for bridal presents he did not spare. For gifts and rings he gave her blows. Thrym is a stupid old thunderer, who sets up to rival Thor in his own department, and thus tries to bring beauty and productiveness in the form of Freyja to live with him. He is, perhaps, a lofty arid mountain, always resounding with noisy water- falls and rushing avalanches. He steals the god’s hammer and locks it, probably by means of frost, deep in the earth. Thor borrows the raiment and necklace of Freyja, just as the thunder-cloud often borrows the most exquisite loveliness from the sun and air, and seems to deck itself with jewels and a bridal veil. The black oxen and the cows with gilded horns, which opulent Thyrm prepares for the feast, are the clouds about his lofty head. Thor has a vora- cious appetite, just as the summer tempest seems to swallow and devour the earth. The bringing forth of the hammer to consecrate the bridal shows that the sign of the hammer was used in ancient times at wedding ceremonies. The cunning Loki HOW THOR WENT FISHING. 255 goes along as waiting-maid and uses his arts to deceive Thrym, for fire is always disguised and hidden somewhere in the thunder-cloud. This myth is in the broadest comic vein, and was in- tended, perhaps, to shake the sides of the gods in Asgard. 2$6 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. CHAPTER XIX. THOR AND UTGARD LOKI. HERE are fragments of tradition scattered 1- through Scandinavia which hint at the exist- ence of a small, dark race of men, who, in very re- mote times, lived in caves, and, together with some men of monstrous stature, the giants, fully peopled the land before invaders from Asia came and drove them into the far North. These ancient native people, it has been conject- ured, were the ancestors of the Lapps and Finns, and, because of their diminutive size and their knowledge of magic, gave rise to the innumerable dwarf and elf stories, that are still to be found in all parts of the North. The remnant of the giant-race, not exterminated by the invaders, so says tradition, betook them- selves to the hills and forests, where their descend- ants still lingered in the beginning of Christian times. Those who seek a historical basis for the Northern mythology explain the conflicts between the gods and giants as real events, fierce and pro- tracted wars waged between the early inhabitants and the Asiatic invaders, ancestors of the ancient Norsemen. These questions it is now impossible to settle. THOR AND UTGARD LOKI. 257 We can neither positively affirm or deny that the myths have a historical foundation, and refer to events so lost in the obscurity of time, that it is out of the question to do more than guess their nature. The symbolic and highly figurative language of myths precludes them from being turned into nar- ratives of actual events. They belong to the realm of poetry. But they, no doubt, do indicate such broad and general facts as the migration of races, important changes in religious belief, or the deifi- cation of some great chieftain. In this curious story of Utgard Loki we are in- troduced to a new system of gods, who are con- trasted with the Odinic JEsir and partly in conflict with them. Some scholars have conjectured that these are the old Finnish gods, who were widely worshiped before the advent of the Eastern divini- ties, and were then driven into a corner. It is pos- sible that the first idea of Loki was borrowed from this faith, and then expanded and changed, untfl there were two Lokis in existence — one, the capri- cious, artful fire-god, and evil demon of the new religion; the other, Utgard Loki, (outside Loki,) the pure nature-god and magic worker of the old race. It is possible that this myth was invented by the adherents of the old faith to prove its superior- ity over the upstart religion brought from Asia. The ancient Finns and Lapps are celebrated for their skill in necromancy. This story abounds in deceptions, and seems like the model of the wonder- tales of the nursery, such as Cinderella and Jack the Giant-killer. Many such stories sprang indirectly 17 258 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. from heathenism, and some of them, perhaps, had in the beginning a mythical meaning, now lost be- cause of the numerous changes through which they have passed. With a few slight alterations, Utgard Loki might have become as popular as Puss in Boots or Blue Beard, while it really embraces some vague account of two rival religions. In the prose Edda we are told that Gylfi, or Gang- ler, the wise Swedish king, made diligent inquiry of the gods as to whether Thor had ever been over- come in any of his expeditions, either by spells or by downright force. Har gave an ambiguous an- swer to this question. He said Thor had often fared badly in his encounters, but no one would undertake to say that he had been actually worsted, for both gods and men were bound to believe him invincible. Gangler pressed for more explicit infor- mation on this point, and Thridi, the highest god, after warning him to observe a becoming silence in reference to the story he was about to tell, evident- ly because the yEsir were ashamed of Thor’s defeat and wished to conceal it, finally related the follow- ing adventure : Once upon a time, Thor drove out in his goat chariot, accompanied by Loki, and in the evening they arrived at the house of a peasant, where they put up for the night. Thor killed his goats, and, after flaying them, put them into the kettle to boil. When the meat was cooked he invited the peasant and his wife, his son, named Thjalfi, and his daugh- ter, Roskva, to sup with him, and he desired them, after picking the bones, to throw them all into the THOR AND UTGARD LOKI. 259 goat-skins which were spread out near the fire-place. But young Thjalfi carelessly broke a thigh-bone to get at the marrow. Thor slept in the cottage that night, and rose at dawn of day, and when he was dressed he lifted Mjolnir, his hammer, high in the air, and consecrated the goat-skins. Immediately the goats sprang up alive, but one was lame and limped with his hind-leg. Thor, perceiving this, called angrily to the peasant, and told him that he, or one of his family, had too roughly handled the shank-bone of his goat, for he now saw that it had been broken. The peasant was ready to sink into the earth with dismay when he saw the god’s black and angry brow and his knuckles strained white as he clutched the handle of his hammer. The looks - of the god were too terrifying to endure, and the peasant and his family begged piteously for pardon, and offered to atone for the offense by giving up their little all. Thor seeing the fright he had in- spired grew more placable, and finally satisfied him- self by taking the peasant’s two children, his son, Thjalfi, and his daughter, Roskva, for his servants. At that time they became his constant attendants, and have followed him ever since. Thjalfi, you will remember, was Thor’s second, who demolished the clay-man in the fight with Hrungnir. He is prob- ably the mighty rushing wind, which goes before the thunder-storm. Leaving the goats with the peasant, Thor pro- ceeded eastward on the road to Jotunheim. He came to the shores of a vast sea, which he crossed, and then penetrated into a strange country with 260 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. Loki, Thjalfi, and Roskva. They had not gone far when they came to a very large, dark forest, where they wandered about all day. Thjalfi was the best runner among men, and he carried Thor’s wallet ; but the forest was destitute of food — they could find nothing to stow away in the wallet. When darkness came on they searched on all sides for a place to pass the night, and at last came to a very large hall, with a door at one end, as wide as the house itself. Here they entered and chose out a place to sleep, but at midnight an earthquake shook the ground, and the house trembled in every joint. Thor arose, and called his companions to seek with him some place of safety. Groping along in the dark, they found a large adjoining chamber, which they entered. Loki and the attendants shook with fear and crept into the remotest corner; but Thor sat down in the doorway, hammer in hand, prepared to defend himself come what might. His followers were terrified by a terrible groaning heard during all hours of the night. At the first peep of day Thor went out, and discovered an enormous giant lying near him on the ground, who slept and snored loudly. He could now account for the fright- ful noises which had disturbed them during the night, and he buckled on his belt of strength, of which he stood in immediate need. The giant awoke, shook himself, and rose up, and it is said that for once in his life Thor was afraid to swing his hammer. He contented himself with civilly inquiring the giant’s name. “ My name is Skrymir,” returned the giant; “but I have no need THOR AND UTGARD LOKI. 26l to ask thy name, for I know thou art the god Thor. But what hast thou done with my glove ?” And, stretching out his hand, he picked up his glove, which Thor perceived was what he and his compan- ions had mistaken, the previous night, for a hall. The chamber where they had found shelter was the thumb. Skrymir then asked permission to join their company, and Thor gave his consent. The giant untied his wallet, and began to munch his breakfast. Thor and his companions took their morning meal in a place apart. Then Skrymir proposed that they should put their provisions together in one bag. Thor did not object, and Skrymir emptied all the meat into a wallet and slung it over his shoulder. Thus he walked on before Thor and his party the whole day, taking tremendous strides. Late in the evening they found a place to sleep under an immense oak-tree. The giant said he would lie down and rest, but they might take the wallet and prepare their supper. Skrymir soon fell asleep and snored fearfully, but, strange as it may seem, Thor, when he tried to open the wallet, could not untie a single knot, or loosen one of the straps. Seeing his labors were in vain, he grew very angry, and, grasping his hammer with both hands, he ad- vanced a step, and launched it with power at the giant’s head. Skrymir awoke, and asked drowsily if a leaf had fallen on his head. He also inquired whether they had taken their supper and were ready to go to sleep. Thor replied grimly that they were just ready for bed. After having shown this polite solicitude for his 2 62 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. companions’ welfare, the giant went and laid him- self down under another oak tree, and was soo slumbering. But sleep did not visit Thor’s eyes, and when, at midnight, the forest resounded wit’ Skrymir’s snoring, he arose and grasped his ham mer, and threw it with such force at the giant’s hea< that it sank up to the handle in his skull. Skrymi roused himself at this, and said : “ What is the mat- ter? Did an acorn fall on my head ? How goes it with thee, Thor ? ” But Thor went hastily away, saying that he had just been awakened ; that it was only midnight, and there was still time for sleep. He now resolved, if he could find opportunity, to strike a third blow that should settle all accounts between him and the giant. A little before day- break he perceived that Skrymir was again fast asleep ; so he arose, grasped Mjolnir with all his might, and hurled it from him with such violence that it forced its way into the giant’s cheek up to the handle. Now Skrymir, raising himself on his elbow, patted and stroked his cheek, and said, “ Are there any birds above me in this tree ? It seemed, as I awoke, that a feather fell from the bough on my head. Are you awake, Thor ? It is now time to get up and dress, for we are not far from the fa- mous city called Utgard, (outer world.) I have heard you chatting with your companions, and say- ing that I am a man of no small stature. But if you come into the city of Utgard you will see there many men taller than I am. I will give you a friendly piece of advice : When you come to Utgard do not boast and make too much of yourselves, for THOR AND UTGARD LOKI. 263 the followers of Utgard Loki will not endure the bragging of such little creatures as you are. If you follow my counsel you will turn about and go home now, but if you still persist in visiting the city, keep on the road that runs to the eastward, for mine now lies north toward yonder rocks and mountains which you see in the distance.” Skrymir then slung his wallet over his shoulder, and took the path that led into the forest, and it has never been rumored that Thor or any of the other gods wished again to meet with him. The thunder-god and his comrades pursued their journey until noon, when they saw a city on a vast plain, so lofty they were forced to bend their necks quite back on their shoulders before they could get sight of the top of it. On arriving at this wonder- ful place they found it inclosed by walls and a gate of brass securely locked and bolted. Thor and his companions tried in vain to open the gate, but at last they contrived to creep through the bars, and thus stole into the city. A large palace rose before them with the door wide open. They entered atid found a company of men of immense stature sitting on two benches. The god and his comrades strode on through the hall, and came to the place where the king, Utgard Loki, was sitting. They greeted him with great civility, but the king answered their salutations with a contemptuous look, and, after scanning them from head to foot for some time, said scornfully, “ It is tedious to ask travelers to relate the particulars of a long journey, yet, if I am not mistaken, that little 264 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. fellow yonder is Aku (charioteer) Thor, though perhaps,” addressing him, “ you are taller than you appear. But tell me what are the achievements that you and your followers are skilled in, for no one is allowed to remain here who, in some feat, does not excel all others.” Loki entered last, and he answered with ready wit : “ One feat I know, and I am ready to exhibit forthwith. I can devour my food as expeditiously as another. I am prepared to prove my skill against any one here. Who will compete with me ? ” “That,” returned Utgard Loki, “will be a nota- ble feat, provided you perform what you prom- ise, and it shall forthwith be tried.” He then called one of his men from the farther end of the bench, whose name was Logi, (devouring flame,) to come forward and try his skill with Loki. A trough filled with meat was placed on the floor, and Loki seated himself at one end and Logi at the other, and both ate with all speed until they met in the middle of the trough. Loki had devoured the flesh and left the bones, but Logi had eaten flesh and bones, and the trough also. All the company then cried out that Loki from Asgard (gods’ world) was fairly beaten. Utgard Loki then inquired what game Thor’s serving-man could excel in. Thjalfi, the fleet-footed, replied that he would try a race with any one whom Ut- gard Loki might select. The king replied that skill in running was an excellent art, but the youth must indeed be very swift of foot if he would win the race. He then arose with all his company and THOR AND UTGARD LOKI. 265 went to a beautiful plain where there was a fine race-course, and calling to him a young man named Hugi, (spirit-thought,) he bade him run a match with Thjalfi. In the first course Hugi gained the advantage so far that when he had reached the stake he turned and came to meet Thor’s serving- man. Utgard Loki enjoyed the joke, and he called out, “ You must make better time than that, Thjalfi, if you expect to win. I am fain to confess I have never seen a better runner among men.” In the second course poor Thjalfi was a long bow-shot from the goal when his opponent came up to it. “ Bravely done, Thjalfi ! ” cried the old king, “ but I fear you will not win ; however, the third course must settle that.” They now ran the third heat, and Hugi was at the goal before Thor’s man had reached the middle of the course, and the whole company gave the victory to Hugi. Utgard Loki now very politely inquired of Thor what were the feats which he himself wished to exhibit, and which would confirm the popular rumor of his great strength. Thor answered that he would undertake to drink with any of the men of Utgard, and, the king agreeing to this proposal, they all returned to the hall, where he ordered his cup-bearer to bring the large horn of atonement out of which his followers were forced to drink when they had broken any of the laws of that country. The cup-bearer having presented the horn to Thor, Utgard Loki casually remarked that he who is con- sidered a good drinker will empty the horn at a single draught, though some stout men can only 266 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. empty it at two attempts, but the puniest drinker is able to drain it in three. Thor surveyed the drinking-cup, which did not appear to him very large, though it looked long. As he was extremely thirsty he put the horn to his lips, and, without drawing breath, drank as long and as stoutly as he possibly could, that he might not be obliged to pull twice. But what was his mortification when, on setting down the horn and looking in, he could see that the liquor had scarcely fallen at all in the cup. “ You have done tolerably well,” returned Utgard Loki, “ but still nothing to boast of. I would not have believed, had it been reported to me, that Asa Thor (god Thor) was unable to drink more. But I am very confident you will drain the horn at the second draught.” Thor prudently refrained from answering, but he raised the horn to his lips and drank with all his might. When he had done it seemed as though he had swallowed less than be- fore, although he could now carry the horn without spilling. Utgard Loki cried out jeeringly, “ How now, Thor ? Don’t spare yourself more than is becom- ing. If you mean to empty the horn at the third draught you must pull deeply, and I am forced to say, you will not be called so great a man here as elsewhere if you do not distinguish yourself in other games more than you appear likely to do in this.” Utgard Loki’s speech was very galling to the thunder-god, and, in great anger, he raised the horn to his lips and exerted himself to the utmost to THOR AND UTGARD LOKI. 267 quaff the whole of what remained. But on looking into the cup he saw the liquor was scarcely lower than before : but a small part of its contents had disappeared. Thor then gave the cup to the cup- bearer, and would make no further attempt. 268 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. CHAPTER XX. THOR AND UTGARD LOKI — CONCLUDED. HEN Thor acknowledged himself defeated * V by refusing to drink again from the king’s horn, Utgard Loki said scornfully, “ I now see that you are not so stout as we thought you. Are you inclined to try other feats ? though, methinks, if you do make the attempt you are not likely to bear away a prize.” Thor answered, in a sullen mood, that he was willing to try other feats of strength and skill, and he added that he was very sure such draughts as he had taken would not be counted small among the gods. “ What new trial of my strength have you to propose ? ” “ We have a very trifling game in this country,” returned Utgard Loki, “ with which we amuse and exercise children. It is merely the act of lifting a cat from the ground ; nor should I have dared to propose such an insignificant feat to Asa Thor (god Thor) if I had not observed that you are not what we took you to be.” Scarcely had he finished speaking when a large gray cat sprang into the mid- dle of the hall. The cat arched its back. Thor drew near, put his hand under the cat’s body, and exerted himself to the utmost to lift her from the THOR AND UTGARD LOKI — CONCLUDED. 269 ground, but he only succeeded in raising one foot from the floor. Thor would not try again at this task. “ It has turned out just as I expected,” said Utgard Loki. “ The cat is large, and Thor is small when compared with our men.” “ Small as I am,” cried Thor, “ I challenge any one here to come forth and try a hug with me, now that I am angry.” “ There is no one here,” returned Utgard Loki, as he glanced at the huge men seated on the benches, “ who would not think it beneath him to wrestle with you. But let some of my attendants call in the old crone Elli, (age,) my foster-mother. She has thrown many a man as strong and mighty as Asa Thor.” A toothless old woman now tottered into the hall, and the king commanded her to lay hold of Thor. The tale is brief, for the more Thor tight- ened his hold, the more desperately he struggled, the more firmly she stood her ground. The old beldame tried to trip him up, and the contest was desperate, but soon Thor lost his footing, and was brought down upon one knee. Utgard Loki now closed the contest by saying that night was drawing on and it was needless for Thor to challenge any one else in his hall. He then invited the god and his companions to take seats, and they passed a cheerful evening together. The next morning, at daybreak, Thor and his comrades dressed themselves and prepared to con- tinue their journey. Utgard Loki came and greeted them with the air of a hospitable host. He ordered a table to be set and well furnished with meat and 270 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. drink. When the guests had eaten their breakfast Utgard Loki accompanied them to the gate of the city, and inquired of Thor what he thought of his visit, and whether he had met with any one stronger than himself. Thor replied that he could not deny having brought great discredit on himself ; “ and what troubles me most,” he added, “ is that you will speak slightingly of me, and call me a very weak, worthless person.” “No,” replied Utgard Loki, “now that we are out of the city I must confess the truth, and as long as I have power you shall not enter here again. I swear to you that had I known beforehand of what strength you are possessed, and that you would so nearly have brought a great misfortune on me, I never would have allowed you to gain admittance. Know, then, that by magic alone I have deceived you. When we first met in the forest and you tried to untie the wallet, I had fastened it with iron wire in such a manner that you could not find out how the knot might be loosened. Afterward you gave me three blows with your hammer. The first, though the least and lightest, would have put an end to my life had it fallen on me. I transported a rocky mountain, and placed it before me as a shield, which you did not perceive. In this mountain, if you examine it, you will find three glens, one of them exceedingly deep. These are the dents made by your hammer. In like manner were managed the sports and games at which you played with my people. In the first contest Loki was fierce with hunger, and devoured the meat ; but his opponent, THOR AND UTGARD LOKI — CONCLUDED. 271 Logi, was fire, and he ate not only the flesh, but the bones and the trough which held it. Hugi, with whom Thjalfi ran, was thought, with whom it is impossible for the best runner in the world to suc- cessfully contend. And when you, Asa Thor, came to drink from the horn, with apparently such small success, you did, in truth, perform a miracle such as I had never imagined possible, if I had not seen it myself. One end of the horn dipped into the sea, and of this you were ignorant ; but when you come to the shore you will perceive how much the depth of the ocean is diminished by the draughts you have taken, which have caused a depression now called the ebb. “ Moreover,” he continued, “ you performed a feat no less wonderful when you raised the cat, and we were all in deadly terror when we saw that one of her paws had been lifted from the floor. What you mistook for a cat was nothing less than the great Midgard Serpent which encircles the world. When you lifted him up he was barely long enough to in- close the earth between his head and tail, so far had your hand exalted him toward heaven. Your wrest- ling with Elli was also a great marvel. Elli is old age, and there never was, and never will be, a man whom Elli cannot, sooner or later, floor if he awaits her coming. But, now that I am about to say fare- well, let me add that it will be best for both of us if you never come this way again, though I can pro- tect my city by other spells, and it is not in your power to injure me.” When Utgard Loki uttered these words Thor felt 272 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. rage swell in his heart. He seized his hammer and would have hurled it at him, but the king of the outer world had disappeared ; and when he again turned to the city, with the design of destroying it, it had vanished, and only a beautiful, wide-spread- ing plain lay before him. We are told in the prose Edda that Thor immediately resolved to make that attack on the Midgard Serpent which has already been related ; but in an older account the story of the Midgard Serpent is disconnected from Utgard Loki. I have already told you why Thor is a great trav- eler who penetrates into many strange lands. From the nature of the thunder-storm it is constantly in motion, traversing wide regions of the air on the wings of the wind. When Thor was silent in win- ter his simple-minded worshipers inferred that he had gone off to the far North to fight frost-giants, and the poets composed lays of the stealing of Thor’s hammer by some envious thunderer. The visit to Utgard Loki evidently takes place in the winter. At the end of the first day’s journey he lodges with a peasant, who, in the elder Edda, is called a dweller by the sea. The boiling of the goats in the pot for supper may possibly refer to a night-storm which the thunder-god raises at sea. The morning beams out fair over heaven and earth, and Thor, with his hammer, brings his goats to life, but one of them has fallen lame. The peasant’s son, Thjalfi, to get at the marrow of the bone, has broken one of his shanks. In other words Thjalfi, who, from his being a fleet runner, we may infer is THOR AND UTGARD LOKI — CONCLUDED. 273 the fierce, swift wind of winter, has dispersed the electric clouds and brought clear weather. Thor is very angry when he finds his thunder and lightning have been tampered with, but as the cold season has come he is obliged to stable his goats — the leaping flame — and his chariot with its rumbling wheels — the thunder. He leaves them with the peasant, and takes the man’s children, Thjalfi and his sister Roskva, to be his perpetual servants, as the thunder- storm is preceded and attended by strong winds and rushing rain-clouds. Like her brother's, Ros- kva’s name indicates great swiftness of motion. It has been conjectured that the huge giant Skrymir, whom Thor meets in the forest, is the transformed god of winter. His glove is the sym- bol of the cold season. He is a great sleeper, and a. tremendous snorer, which hint perhaps at the lethargy of the vegetable world and the roaring of winter winds and tempests in the Northern forests. Thor’s power is ineffectual, his goats have fallen lame, and his thunderbolts are of but little avail. He throws his hammer at the giant’s head, but can- not injure him, because winter is the time of illu- sion. It is nature’s time to work her miracles and weave her magic spells, to fill up valleys and cover precipices and bridge rivers and change the familiar aspect of the earth. You will remember that the handle of Thor’s hammer was shortened in the furnace, owing to Loki’s malignity. This per- haps refers to the fact that the hammer is powerless during part of the year. In midwinter Thor finds the haft too short. 18 274 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. The thunder-god and his companions pursue their journey to the realm of Utgard Loki. Here they are outside and beyond the domain of gods and the world of men. They have come into an outer sphere, which has a king of its own, and acknowl- edges not Odin and the Hisir, whose rule is limited to Asgard and Midgard. All that follows looks like an attempt to graft on the myth of Thor and the god of winter some proof of the superiority of a system of ancient nature-worship' which dealt large- ly with magic and all forms of deception, over the faith of the gods, which inculcated higher ideas of truth, honor, and courage. The thirst of Thor is due to the nature of the thunder-cloud, which is always eagerly drinking up vapor from the earth and sea. The fact that the old myth-makers imag- ined the ebb of the sea to be caused by the drink- ing of the clouds, shows how crude were the an- swers their minds suggested to the questions they constantly asked about the causes of things in na- ture. Thor appears to be vanquished by a series of tricks, though he really comes off victor in the con- tests, and the lord of Utgard is obliged to confess the fraud before he allows him to depart. The sin- cerity and uprightness of Thor’s character as com- pared with this sham deity is the proof of his god- head, and before this Utgard Loki is forced to bow. There is a curious resemblance in the names of these rival gods. Utgard Loki is the outer world’s Loki, and the principal god evidently, because he excels in the art of deception, in which Asgard’s THOR AND UTGARD LOKI — CONCLUDED. 275 Loki was very expert. It is possible that the Odinic Loki was borrowed from this crude old nature-god, whom the invaders found deeply rooted in the soil of the North, and, after a long period of change, was brought face to face with him, unable to recognize his father. Such modifications were constantly taking place in the gods of these peo- ples, who supplanted other nations, borrowed relig- ious ideas from the nations with whom they traded, or were welded into larger communities by the blending of tribes. Loki, who accompanies Thor as the electric spark, is vanquished in his contest with wild elemental flame. The world of Utgard Loki is a fantastic, false imitation of the world of the gods. It probably lies in the extreme North, where, owing to the transformations of winter, na- ture is most wild and strange. It belongs to night, to dreams, and to the fancy of disordered brains. The forms it presents are monstrous and grotesque, but they have no reality. When Thor turns to de- stroy the city of Utgard it has entirely vanished. This myth shows us that on his spiritual side Thor stands for truth. He is so genuine that the sham gods are obliged to confess to him. When he is forced to make .use of arts, as in the recovery of the hammer, he is ashamed of the deception. Without this foundation of verity, which made him so real to the Norsemen, he could not have been the great endurer, the mighty helper, the bulwark of heaven and earth. There is good reason to believe that Thor was worshiped by our remote ancestors, the ancient 2y6 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. Saxons, although the mode of worship may not have been precisely like that of the Norsemen. Evidence of their knowledge of Thor is preserved in the word Thursday, (Thor’s day,) the fifth day of the week, sacred to this god. Among the ancient Germans he was called Thunaer, or Donar. Those who trusted to their own prowess in war- fare rather than to the favor of Odin chose Thor, the Strength-giver, for their favorite god, and at all sacred feasts and festivals they drank the first horn in his name and to his health. These horns were consecrated by the hammer sign. There were im- portant temples where Thor was worshiped as the highest god. We are told that in the large temple of Maeri, in Inner Throndheim, Thor’s statue had the principal place. It was very large, and repre- sented the god sitting in a beautiful car, to which were attached two goats, finely carved in wood. Both the car and the goats were placed on wheels, and around the horns of the goats was fastened a silver chain, by which the whole group was drawn. The god himself was decked with gold and silver. When Olaf Tryggveson, the great idol-breaker, be- held this work of Northern art, he was filled with astonishment. We know that the idols in the shrines and tem- ples were thought to be nourished by the food which their worshipers placed near them. This idea probably arose from the belief that the gods partook of sacrifices, and were strengthened by the food thus provided. This gross conception, which furnished divine beings with a craving appetite for THOR AND UTGARD LOKI — CONCLUDED. 277 bread and meat, may have grown out of the man- ner in which the ancients regarded the souls of the dead. They were looked upon as material, and as living in the tomb with the body, and we know that among the Greeks and many other nations, as among the Chinese of the present day, a regular supply of food was provided for dead ancestors. A curious story is told of a statue of Thor at a place called Randsey, in Naundal, which received a large supply of food and other offerings, and was so strengthened by them, that it could talk with its devout worshiper, whose name was Rand. Finally it gained power to accompany him in rambles about the island, and could raise storms by blowing in its beard. This sham Thor was fond of playing the game of drawing hooks over a fire, and at last proved that it was nothing but a, stupid block of wood by falling into the flames and getting burned up. Some very interesting popular legends are con- nected with the decay of Thor worship in the North. In a part of Norway, called the Upper Thellemark, there is a curious cluster of large stones which, seen from the water, resemble the roofs and gables of a town. One of these rocks is called the church-stone, and the peasants say that a church and two dwellings formerly stood in this place. In these two houses two weddings were held on the same day, and it occurred to the god Thor that he would go down and visit his friends in that neighborhood. At the first house where he entered Thor was cordially received. The beer-cup 278 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. was constantly passing among the guests, and the bridegroom took up the cask and drank the health of the god/and then passed it to Thor. This gen- erous hospitality was very pleasing to him. He liked the beer, and went on his way to taste the wedding-cup at the next house. Here he was very well treated, but the people had so far forgotten old customs, and the worship of their fathers’ gods, that they neglected to drink to him in a general bowl. He dashed the cup on the ground, and went away swinging his hammer in a threatening manner. He returned to the bridal party who had offered him the cask, and placed them with their guests in safety on a neighboring hill. Then, in his wrath, he let fly his hammer at the mountain, which fell with a crash, and buried the other wedding party under the ruins of the house. But Thor’s power had waned. He was a god out of employment, who could only do an occasional stroke of business. In his fury he let his hammer slip, and as it had lost its power of returning volun- tarily to his hand, he was obliged to go down among the masses of rock and hunt for it. He threw the great fragments aside in his hasty search, and to this day the path through the rocks is called Thor’s Way. It is curious to observe in this popular tale how Thor retains the character of a great drinker, but instead of drinking the sea through his horn, the water-spout, he has come down to small beer. His anger and sorrow, in finding himself half-forgotten in the land where all had once been his worshipers, THOR AND UTGARD LOKI — CONCLUDED. 279 remind us of the lamentations heard along the shores of Greece at the death of beloved Pan. There is a story told of the way Thor presented himself to the great idol-smasher and uprooter of heathenism, Olaf Tryggveson. His father, Odin, also paid a visit to the champion of the new faith. As King Olaf was one day sailing along the coast, a man called to him from a projecting cliff, and asked to be taken on board. He was tall and hand- some, and had a bright red beard. The sailors were delighted with his jokes and stories, and his knowl- edge of the past, and finally they led him to the king. Olaf requested him to give a narrative of past events. “ I will begin then,” said the stranger, “ by telling you how the country past which we are sailing was in old times inhabited by giants. A general de- struction fell on these people, and they all perished at the same time, except two women. After that men from the East came to live in the country, but those giant women tormented and plagued them, and they could not exist in peace until they called on Redbeard to come and help them. So I imme- diately seized my hammer and destroyed those women, and the people of the country continued to call on my name until you, O' king, came and made havoc among my old friends, and vengeance ought to fall on your head.” He looked at the king with a bitter, sarcastic smile, and then darted like an arrow over the side of the ship, and was seen no more. The love of the Northern people for Thor is seen 280 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. in the way they endowed Olaf, their favorite saint, with many of his attributes. Olaf, though he had no Mjolnir, possessed a red beard, and was thought to strikingly resemble the god in person. He had power over trolls, who, true to their old character of frost-builders, are said to have erected for St. Olaf the first churches of Norway. The reward he promised them for their labors was generally the sun and moon, but he always prevented them from putting the crowning touch to their work, and thus the reward was forfeited. This, you see, is the old heathen myth worked over to meet the demands of a Christian age. The people had a lingering tenderness for the old thunder-god after he had ceased to be power- ful. He is vaguely remembered still in many tradi- tions and superstitions which date ages back. The smooth, wedge-shaped stones found in the earth are called Thor’s wedges, which it is believed he hurled at trolls and giants. The peasants who live in secluded districts still tell you that the mountain jotuns are frightened in thunder-storms, and some- times seek the protection of man. Hundreds of legends refer to the fear of thunder experienced by dwarfs and trolls. The conflict between mountain and storm-cloud, summer and winter, light and darkness, has left distinct traces in those popular tales, the origin of which is now forgotten by the simple people who still half believe them, and tremble at the imaginary terrors they awaken. In some places of Sweden Thor was changed into a saint, and has a well THOR AND UTGARD LOKI — CONCLUDED. 2.8 I dedicated to him, called the Well of Heilige Thor, (holy Thor;) but whether he exists as saint or demon, he can be traced directly back to the im- petuous old nature-god, hot-tempered and prone to anger, but still frank and good-humored, and ever ready to fight and toil for the defense of heaven and earth. 282 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. CHAPTER XXL NJORD AND FREY, AND THEIR BRIDES SICADI AND GERDA. HERE are three orders of beings among the -i- higher powers : the gods, the vans, and the giants. These three orders may represent three distinct systems of religion, which were wholly or partially blended into one. The union between the gods and giants was incomplete, for although the gods often married among them, an implacable hatred never ceased to exist, and the eternal war- fare of Thor and the frost and mountain jotuns knew no truce. In remote times strife also existed between the gods and vans, but at an unknown period a last- ing peace was proclaimed, and the vans took one or more of the gods as hostages, while the gods re- ceived some of the vans into their circle of deities, and they became gods by adoption. One of these foster-brothers of the Hisir was reverenced extreme- ly by the Norsemen, who admitted him into the trinity of three highest gods worshiped in the great temple of Upsala in Sweden. This was Frey, the god of the earth’s fertility. He was greatly beloved by the Swedes, and his place in the temple was just below that of the father and son. NJORD AND FREY, AND THEIR BRIDES. 283 We are told in the elder Edda that Frey is the god of the year, the giver of cattle, the liberator of captives. In the beginning of time Alfheim (elf world) was given him by the gods, as tooth-money. He reigns over the light-elves, who are more beau- teous than the sun, while the dark-elves, who are blacker than pitch, dwell in the bowels of the earth. He rides in a chariot drawn by the hog, Gullin- bursti, (gold-bristle.) Frey was born in or near the sea, like the floating clouds, but he works in heaven and in earth, and for this reason the JEsir were obliged to adopt him. Frey is lord of growth in the vegetable kingdom, and brings peace and good harvests. Alfheim is given to him as a heritage, because the light-elves, busy little rays of sunshine, are ever at work about the roots, and stems, and blossoms of plants. We do not know why the boar was sacred to Frey, but it is thought to have been a symbol of fertility. In some parts of Sweden, even in modern times, it was the custom to bake little pigs of dough at Christmas, although the people had long before entirely forgotten Frey and the meaning of the symbol. Frey was the fruitful god who presided over rain and sunshine, and brought the verdure aad flowers of spring. He was dearly beloved by all classes of men, being the god of peace, and all simple and in- nocent pleasures. Warfare interfered with Frey’s functions, the tilling of the ground, the sowing of the fields, and the ingathering of the harvests. When the fierce Norseman grew sick of bloodshed 284* TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. and scenes of carnage, he turned to the worship of mild Frey with a kind of rapture. Frey had a sister, Freyja, the goddess of love and beauty. - They were united by the closest ties, and worked together to bless the earth. Frey, the be- neficent giver, the food-bringer, and his glorious sis- ter, were peculiarly dear to the North, where the soil is cold and stubborn, the winters long, and the summers brief, though very beautiful. This loving brother and sister, who conspire to render the earth a pleasant home for men, resemble, in the closeness of their union, the Greek twins, Artemis and Apollo, the sun and moon. But Freyja is really the Greek Aphrodite or Venus. She represents the reproduc- tive principle in the animal world, which Frey sym- bolizes in the vegetable kingdom. Like the lovely Greek goddess she was born of the sea. Njord the rich, father of Frey and Freyja, was an important sea-divinity, whom the wise powers had created in Vanaheim, (sea-gods’ world.) He was given to the gods, together with his two beautiful children, at the time the ^Esir and Vanir exchanged hostages. Njord lived in a heavenly place called Noatun, which means, literally, the ship-meadow. He is the mild and gentle sea-wind, which gives good voyages to fishermen and coasters who do not venture far from the shore. He has a limited rule over the waves, but his dominion does not extend into the great: deep, where JEgir welcomes the gods every year at a banquet. He is called the rich god, probably because he possesses all the hid treasures of the sea, and has command over coastwise trade NJORD AND FREY, AND THEIR BRIDES. 285 and traffic. He can speed the merchantman on his way and give him a safe and prosperous voyage. He was invoked by the enterprising traders and sea- faring men, who, grateful for his protection and the good weather he had provided, placed votive or thank offerings in his temples. He was the patron of all temples and sacred places. Perhaps this office was bestowed upon him because he was a peace-god. In time of war the altars and holy precincts were in danger of desecration from the foe. When Njord and his children were sent as hos- tages into Asgard, the vans received in his stead Hcenir, one of the creative gods. We have seen that Hoenir did not give full satisfaction to the vans, and in consequence the wise Mimir lost his head. Those who hold that Odin was a deified man point to the story of Mimir as a proof of their theory. They say Odin was a magician, who em- balmed wise Mimir’s head in order to make the people believe that it spoke to him and revealed the secrets of the future. It probably hints at the fact that Odin was the source of the magic arts, which in the North were looked upon with rever- ence and respect, owing to the belief in their divine origin. Njord represents both the elements of air and water which stimulate reproduction and growth. Frey and Freyja, his children, are the god and god- dess of birth and growth. There is a story repre- senting Njord and Frey as northern kings, who act- ually lived in some remote age of the world. It is probably as trustworthy as the account of the 286 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. historical Odin. According to this tale, Njord reigned in Sweden and was succeeded by his son Frey, who enjoyed a very prosperous reign. The harvests were abundant and the people happy. After Frey died in bed his body was carried into a cave, and for three years the people were made to believe he still lived. I will now tell you how Njord married Skadi. You will remember old giant Thjassi, who got pos- session of Iduna and her apples by a trick, and was finally roasted by the gods in Asgard. When Skadi, the giant’s daughter, heard that her father had been slain, she put on helmet and corslet and came fully armed to Asgard to avenge his death. But the gods offered to make an atonement for him, and a very curious atonement it was. They gave her leave to choose a husband from among their num- ber on condition that she should see only their feet. The gods concealed all but their lower extremities. The giantess went busily around to choose a beautiful pair of feet, and at last a pair pleased her fancy, and she exclaimed, exultingly, “ Thee I will choose, for Baldur possesses few deformities.” She flattered herself that she was securing the young and lovely god of summer, but it turned out that the feet belonged to Njord, and she was obliged to take him for her spouse. The grim giantess, who, perhaps, had never smiled in her life, stipulated, be- fore making peace, that the gods should make her laugh. Loki, who was the clown of Asgard, played some funny tricks with a goat, and she was betrayed into laughter. NJORD AND FREY, AND THEIR BRIDES. 287 Odin did more than he had promised. He took out Thjassi’s eyes and threw them up into the sky, where they were changed into two stars. But Skadi still retained her grim temper, and she and mild father Njord did not live very happily together. Skadi did not like Njord’s house at Noatun. She much preferred her father’s dwelling up in the high mountains of Thrymheim. But Njord loved to be near the sea, and at last they made a kind of com- promise, and agreed to stay alternately nine nights in Thrymheim and three in Noatun. Njord was of an easy temper; but when he returned to Noatun, his beloved ship-meadow, he sang this rhyme in Skaldic fashion : “Of mountains I’m weary. Not long was I there — Not more than nine nights ; But the howl of the wolf Methought sounded ill To the song of the swan-bird.” Then Skadi replied as follows, from the mountain- tops : “ Ne’er can I sleep On my couch on the strand, For the screams of the sea-fowl, The mew, as she comes Every morn from the main Is sure to awake me.” Skadi then withdrew into the rocky mountains, and lived permanently in her beloved Thrymheim, where she runs on snow skates and shoots wild beasts with her bow and arrow. From her home among the icy mountain peaks she sends very per- nicious influences to plague Loki, who was foremost 288 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. in causing the death of her father. This Northern Artemis, (Diana,) fur-clad, and running on snow- shoes to shoot the bear and wolf with her shining bow, would make a charming subject for art. The whole myth is pretty and suggestive, and I think it means the marriage of the sea with wild mountain streams. Skadi comes to Asgard fully armed, prob- ably at a season when her torrents are clad in icy mail. She desires to marry Baldur, the summer- god, because her mountains are unfruitful and bar- ren ; but she must wed Njord, the sea, though with reluctance, just as the free, leaping mountain rivers must at last come to the plain and be merged in the great ocean. Njord visits Thrymheim with his tides and moist winds and clouds, but he is glad to get back as soon as possible to his warm house in the lowlands. Skadi glories in the life of a clear, rushing torrent, but she abhors the plain, and finds her husband’s home very humdrum and uninterest- ing. She loves the high, cold mountains with ardor, and in winter, when the upland waters are frozen, she is divorced from her lord and becomes a pretty skating nymph, and amuses herself with the chase. The allusion to her enmity to Loki is explained by the fact that when the fire-god receives his punish- ment, in the depths of the earth, and becomes vol- canic fire, Skadi hangs a serpent (the cold mountain stream) over his head, whose venom, when it drips upon his face, causes writhings and anguish. The taunts of the sea to the mountains, and the reply of the mountains to the sea, are highly poetical. Njord’s son, Frey, also had trials in courtship and NJORD AND FREY, AND THEIR BRIDES. 289 marriage. One day, being out of employment, he seated himself in Allfather’s high seat, which com- manded a view of all worlds, and on looking toward Jotunheim, (giants’ world,) beheld a stately man- sion, which a beautiful maiden was just about to enter. She was called Gerda, and was the daughter of Gymir and Aurboda, kinsfolk of old Thjassi. As she lifted the latch such a bright radiance was thrown from her hands and arms that air and water and all worlds sparkled and glistened with the reflection. Frey had shown great temerity in venturing to seat himself in Hildskjalf, and, as a punishment, he fell deeply in love with the beautiful giant maid, and could neither eat, drink, nor sleep. No one ventured to ask him the cause of his sadness. But his father, Njord, perceiving the condition into which his son had fallen, summoned Skirnir, Frey’s servant, and ordered him to go to his master, and inquire why he was silent and depressed. Skirnir obeyed, and went in search of the melancholy Frey, and asked why he sat alone all day long in the great hall. It was with dread that Skirnir made this inquiry, for he expected nothing short of a re- buff. Frey replied that he could not describe his affliction. The sun shone every day, but not on his pleasure. “ Confide in me,” returned Skirnir. “ In Time’s morning we were young together, and we ought to feel mutual trust and confidence.” Frey replied that he had seen in the hall of the giant Gymir a maiden whom he loved unspeaka- 19 29O TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. bly, but neither the gods nor the elves (y£sir nor Alfar) would permit them to come together. “ Give me your swift horse,” replied Skirnir, “ which can bear me through flame and smoke, and your sword, which kills the giants of itself when he who carries it is brave and stout of heart, and I will win for you the maiden.” Frey made Skirnir a present of his horse and his sword. The servant rode away on his master’s steed, and he said to the steed : “ It is dark, and high time for us to ride over hoar mountains to where the giants live. We shall both return, or that mighty giant will capture us.” Skirnir rode to giants’ world, and to Giant Gy- mir’s hall, and found fierce dogs chained at the gate. He approached a herdsman, who was sitting on a little hill, and asked him how he could get past the dogs and hold some conversation with the fair maiden within. The herdsman grimly inquired whether he was doomed to death, or already a specter, “ for,” said he, “ you will never get speech with Gerda.” Skirnir bravely replied, “ It is needless to weep for one who willingly meets his fate, especially as his days are numbered.” Now the maiden Gerda heard a confused noise outside, and she inquired what was going on. Her maid replied that a stranger had arrived on horse- back, and was allowing his steed to graze. “ Bring him in,” said Gerda, “ and give him bright mead to drink, though I am very much afraid that my brother’s slayer stands outside.” NJORD AND FREY, AND THEIR BRIDES. 29 1 Skirnir was brought in, and Gerda asked whether he belonged to the gods, the vans, or the elves, and why he had come through raging flames to visit her house. Skirnir then unfolded his message. He had come to demand her hand for his master Frey. At first she positively declined the offer, al- though Skirnir held out the most tempting induce- ments. He promised to give her eleven golden apples and Odin’s magic ring, Draupnir, which was laid on the funeral pile of the beautiful young Baldur. But Gerda steadily declined the proposal, saying she had plenty of gold in her father’s house. Then Skirnir changed his tone, and made use of several dreadful threats, declaring that he would cut off her head, and slay her old father ; that he would strike her with a magic wand, and bring terrible curses upon her. He would turn her days to wretched- ness and her nights to bitterness; she should marry a three-headed giant, or never marry at all, if she did not accept Frey. He pronounced awful male- dictions, declaring her life should be barren and un- fruitful, and calling on the gods to witness his oath, until at last poor Gerda was forced to listen favora- bly to Frey’s suit. She promised in nine nights to visit a warm and pleasant wood, called Barri, and there wed the lord of the year. When Frey received this message from his faith- ful Skirnir his impatience was extreme, so ar- dently did he desire to wed the giant maid. He had given up his sword to win her love ; but a time of great need came, when he found himself without 292 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. arms. He fought a battle with Beli, and slew him with a stag’s antlers. Who Beli was we do not know. His story probably belonged to some lost myth. In the prose Edda we are told that Frey could have killed Beli with a blow of his fist, but at the last day, when the sons of Muspel come out to fight the gods, Frey will deplore the loss of his good sword. The explanation of this myth is very pleasing and simple. The story is told in one of the most vigorous of the Eddaic lays or ballads. Frey, the growing principle, lord of the year, and of the earth’s productiveness, being out of business in winter, seats himself idly in Allfather’s throne, and looks over the earth before there are any signs of spring. Afar off he sees Gerda, the bright yellow grain seed. The reflection of her arms in air and water is a symbol of the golden harvest-field. She lives with the giants, probably because, at this sea- son, she is torpid and inert, and therefore allied to the giant powers of nature, which are the do-noth- ing powers. Frey is violently smitten with her charms, because he cannot make the earth bring forth unless he unites with Gerda. His mourning and dejection is a symbol of the sterile winter earth, when poor Frey finds his occupation gone. His messenger to his reluctant lady love is Skirnir, the warm wind. It is Skirnir’s duty to drive Gerda forth into the air and light. But the wooing is difficult, because Gerda, before she has felt Frey’s genial warmth, is hard and cold. She does not NJORD AND FREY, AND THEIR BRIDES. 293 wish to wed, and Skirnir, in order to impel her forth, makes the most dreadful threats. He vows he will .shut her up among the frost-giants, and de- bar her forever from the joys of germination and growth unless she yield-s to Frey. Frightened by the horrible prospect, the cold maiden is touched with the first impulse of life, and promises to come a little later in the season, for it is still too early for spring, and be the willing bride of Frey. Unless Gerda meets Frey in the warm wood, the buds can- not burst, nor the leaves and flowers spring forth. It is a beautiful allegory of the courtship of the ground and the seed. We cannot readily under- stand why Frey gave away his sword, or what is symbolized by Beli, who, it has been suggested, was Gerda’s brother, of whom she speaks while convers- ing about Skirnir. You will remember those cunning dwarf smiths, the sons of Ivald, who made Frey’s golden boar, and also his wonderful ship, called Skidbladnir. This was the best and most artfully contrived of all ships, except Naglfar, belonging to the fiery sphere Muspel, of which we shall hear more by and by. Skidbladnir is so spacious that all the gods, with their weapons and war stores, can find room on board. As soon as the sails are set a fair wind arises and carries her wherever she wishes to go. She is made of so many pieces, and with so much art, that when not in use Frey can fold her up like a handkerchief and put her in his pocket. In other places this magic ship is spoken of as the property of Odin, or of all the Hisir. It was originally given 294 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. to Frey, doubtless because, being the god of agri- culture, he made trade possible between distant countries. In some parts of Germany it was the custom to carry a ship and a plow at the spring festival, and the connection is obvious. But Skidbladnir is essentially the gods’ war-ship and pleasure-boat. A maritime people like the Norsemen, ardent lovers of the sea, would naturally bestow a ship upon their gods ; and the manner it was propelled, by the wishes and intentions of the ./Esir, make it more wonderful than a modern steam vessel. Its handy trick of folding up small and slipping into Frey’s pocket reminds us of the magic tent in the Arabian Nights ; and we discover in myths of this kind the germs of the wonder-lore of the world. The horse was sacred to Frey, no doubt because of its use in tillage. Horses, we are told, were some- times kept in his temples, which were, probably, little better than barns for stabling the gods’ steeds. In Throndheim, Norway, there was a temple in the days of Olaf Tryggveson, the idol-breaker, where Frey was devoutly worshiped. After the king had overthrown the god’s statue he upbraided the peo- ple for their stupid idolatry, and inquired how Frey had ever done them good. They answered that Frey often talked with them and foretold the fu- ture, and sent good harvests and peace and prosper- ity. The foretelling of the future by Frey indicates that he was sometimes regarded as an oracle. There is a beautiful little story about an ancient Icelander, Thorgrim of Gjobolwas, who seems to NJORD AND FREY, AND THEIR BRIDES. 295 have worshiped Frey in singleness of heart. When Thorgrim was dead and buried the snow never fell on his funeral mound. It was always green, and the people said that the god loved him, and would not allow it to become cold between them. In Friday, the name of the sixth day of the week, we still may have a kind of record of the peaceful god, though it is possible this day was sacred to his sister, Freyja, or to the earth goddess, Frigga. 296 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. CHAPTER XXII. LOKI AND HIS CHILDREN — THE FENRIS-WOLF, HEL, AND MIDGARD SERPENT. I HAVE called trust in Odin the war-god, and in Valhalla, the heroes’ heaven, the central doc- trine of the Norseman’s creed. Next to Odin ranks Thor, the incessant toiler, the tireless endurer. These gods, in their later form, sprang from the excessive reverence of the people for courage and strength, and reacted by intensifying these ideas, which still underlie national character in the North. The sword still has multitudes of devout worship- ers. Odin is still the god of court and camp, al- though his name has faded from men’s minds. The low forms of courage, which are little more to be respected than brute force, still receive too much admiration and applause ; but, during the ages, new and better ideas of courage have been gaining ground. The highest admiration of the world is reserved for displays of moral courage in defense of truth and justice, instead of the physical prowess which butchers a foe or overcomes an enemy on the battle-field. Thor’s hammer has gained new meaning. It is no longer the sign of the god who can deal the strongest blows, but of the artisan, the mechanic, LOKI AND HIS CHILDREN. 297 the worker of modern days, whose toil has made the nations great in wealth and enterprise ; and still, in a certain sense, it remains the symbol of the busy and industrious North. Then comes in the third god — good, easy-tem- pered, benevolent Frey — who caused the earth to bring forth in due season, and was beloved of the farmer, the shepherd, and herdsman, who made of- ferings to him of pork at Yuleftide and drank his health in cups of bubbling mead. Next in importance to these three deities we have the element of fire thought of as a god, and called Loki. The root of the word Loki is found in several languages, but I am not aware that it has yet been discovered just where our Norse Loki came from, or what nation or tribe were his earliest worshipers. Although many nations have fire-gods, this particular form of fire-god, so witty and yet so wicked, so annoying and yet so useful to the gods, so utterly unprincipled and yet so pleasant, is not met with elsewhere. Although at first he was the uncorrupted element of heavenly heat, he later be- came the embodiment of evil because of his un- equaled power for mischief. He brought forth a brood of monsters to curse the universe, even while he lived with the gods and was counted one of their number. They were arrayed against him, and often threatened him with destruction. At last, when he had filled up the measure of his sins by conniving at the death of Baldur, who was beloved by all nature, they chained him down, and he be- came volcanic fire in the bowels of the earth. 298 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. In the beginning of time, when Loki was mild, elemental heat, he became the foster-brother of Odin, and they mixed blood together and took the vow of eternal friendship. He assisted Allfather and Hoenir in the creation of man, and was then known as Lodur. This Lodur, or Lopt, if he was borrowed from the aboriginal inhabitants by the Eastern invaders and adopted into the new religion, naturally became Odin’s foster-brother. We have already heard of Utgard Loki, (outer-world Loki,) a hideous, misshapen giant, who probably repre- sents physical evil, as the handsome and subtle Loki represents moral evil. It is easy to understand the primitive worship of fire by a people living in a frozen region like the far North of Europe. The fire-deity was an indispensable god, the sustainer of life. The Linns and Lapps were deeply skilled in sorcery and magic, and these arts seem to have been accompanied by some species of fire-worship, just as modern witches are supposed to congregate about fires. The Edda tells us that Asa Loki, God Loki, or Lopt, as he is sometimes called, is reckoned in the number of the JEsir, though he is known to be the traducer of the gods and the disgrace of both gods and men. The gods needed fire in heaven, although its presence was always a menace ; for no one could tell at what moment it might break loose and darken the celestial mansions with clouds of smoke and ashes. The tolerance of Loki, spiritually regarded, sprang from a deep knowledge of life and human nature, where good and bad exist together, even in LOKI AND HIS CHILDREN. 299 the same breast, and the rain falls and the sun shines on the just and on the unjust. Loki’s father was the giant Farbauti ; his mother was Laufey, (leafy isle,) or Nal, (needle,) and is said to refer to the sharp pine needles, which crackle easily in a blaze. His brothers are Byleist, and Helblindi, probably different forms of what we call wildfire. He is handsome and well made, like the beautiful, glancing, ever-changing flame ; but his disposition, on account of his elemental nature, is. very changeable and capricious. He is crafty, sub- tle, and insinuating, and herein lie his power to do mischief. So long as he is controlled and kept within bounds he is a delightful companion and a useful ally, but he surpasses all other beings in malice, perfidy, and guile. He has often brought great perils on the gods by his tricks and his treach- ery, from which he has been forced to free them by cunning. His wife is Signi, or Siguna, which, inter- preted, means a water-course, or possibly hot- springs. Their sons are called Nari, or Narfi, and Vali, or Ali. Loki had also another family of hideous children by a grim giantess from Jotunheim, named Angur- boda, (anguish-boding.) She bore him the dread Fenris-wolf, or howler of the deep, who is volcanic fire; also Jormungand, or the Midgard Serpent; and Hel, the goddess of the dead, and ruler of the nine worlds of Niflheim. Odin and Loki, sky and mild ethereal warmth, were foster-brothers, and Allfather would never hold a feast in Asgard unless his dear Loki was present. He often took him on 300 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. his journeys when wandering disguised over the earth. But a time came when the fire-god left the serene spaces of heaven and went down into the dark abysses of the earth, where he remained eight years, and where he changed his nature, and even his sex. He ceased to be the beneficent warmth of the upper air, and became raging, roaring flame, pent up in earth’s dens and caverns. At one time he took the form of a cow, and at another of a woman, and gave birth to monstrous children. His mind was seared, and he found a woman’s heart half burnt up. He became false and wicked, and the cause of all the unhappiness on earth. The fall of Loki from heavenly places to murky caverns is the change from purity to moral evil, from white innocence to black wickedness. The half-burnt heart of a woman and the searing of his own mind indicate the destructive, blasting power of the pas- sions when men yield themselves completely to their sway.* After eight years spent in the howling caves Loki returned to Asgard, and the gods received him kindly, and for a long time were patient, until his wickedness became intolerable. Loki’s fall has a deep lesson for the human heart, which has its own Loki lurking within it, and, though born to walk on heavenly heights, is too often dragged down into the abysses of the lower life. Still there are touches of his better nature remaining. * In the Norse fables of the wicked Loki, are partly embedded the scriptural revelations of the nature, fall, mischievous working, and ultimate doom of the devil. — E d. LOKI AND HIS CHILDREN. 301 By his aid the skillful dwarfs make wonderful works for the gods. His evil, impish propensities lead him to try to spoil them, just as the fire would ruin what it aids in making if it could get free from con- trol. Until his wickedness renders him intolerable the gods enjoy his company, for he is a cheerful creature in spite of all his faults. When the gods learned that Loki’s monstrous brood of children by Anguish-boding were being bred up in giant world, they discovered, by spells and divination, all the evils they would bring upon them ; for though the mother was very wicked, the father was worse. Allfather pondered on this men- acing danger, and finally thought it best to send the gods to fetch the children to him. When they came he cast the Midgard Serpent into the deep sea, which encircles all lands. The snake has grown to such an enormous size that, holding his tail in his mouth, he now surrounds the earth. He often causes the whole atmosphere to quiver, and sends snow-storms and fierce winds and pelting rain. The goddess Hel Allfather cast down into Nifl- heim, the under world, and gave her authority over nine regions, where she assigns places to all who die of sickness and old age. Her abode is very large, and is shut in by exceedingly high walls and strongly barred gates. Her hall is called Elvidnir. Hunger is her dish, her knife is starvation. Her serving man and woman are named delay. Her threshold is a precipice, her bed is the couch of sickness, her bed-hangings are splendid misery, or burning anguish. She is half-livid, or black, and 302 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. half the color of flesh, and therefore very easily re- cognized ; her whole aspect is fierce and grim. This is the terrible description of the goddess of death, born of the marriage of Loki, subterranean fire, with some principle of tormented and agonized nature, called Anguish-boding. The gods gave her rule over the cold regions of Niflheim, and finally her name became descriptive of all the lower world, although in Norse mythology her realm is not a place of punishment for the wicked. It was a cheerless and chilly region, assigned to such as were not so fortunate as to die by the sword — a place of negative rather than of positive misery. There was a lower deep called Nastrond, where the hopelessly wicked were tortured.* The wolf, Fenrir, was bred up among the .Esir, but courageous Tyr was the only one who dared to feed him. When the gods perceived that he grew rapidly every day, and were warned by the oracles that he would finally destroy them, they deter- mined to have a very strong iron chain made wherewith to bind him. This chain was called Laeding, and the yEsir took it to the wolf with a friendly air and requested him to try his strength upon it. The wolf thought he could easily break the chain, as it did not appear very strong ; so he remained quiet, and let them do with him as they pleased. But the moment he stretched himself the chain snapped in two, and he was loose again. Then the gods forged another chain half as strong * Hel and Nastrond correspond in large measure to the Hades and Gehenna of divine revelation. — E d. LOKI AND HIS' CHILDREN. 303 again, called Dromi. . This they took to the wolf, and prevailed on him with artful words to be bound. They assured him he would win great renown by breaking the strong bond Dromi. Crafty Fenrir plainly saw that this fetter was ex- ceedingly strong, but his strength had vastly in- creased since he broke Lseding, and he knew if he ever became famous he must run great risks. He therefore quietly allowed them to bind him a sec- ond time. When the JE sir told him they had fin- ished, Fenrir shook himself, rolled violently on the ground, strained every nerve and fiber, and the chain suddenly gave way, and the fragments flew to a great distance. Thus Fenrir freed himself from Dromi, and the expression, “ To get loose from Laeding,” or “ To burst Dromi,” has, when any thing costs great exertion, passed into a prov- erb. After this the gods almost despaired of ever binding the wolf, and they sent Skirnir, (clear, se- rene air,) Frey’s servant, to the country of the swart-elves, who were marvelous workmen, to en- gage them to make the bond called Gleipnir. This was composed of six things, as follows : The sound of a cat’s footsteps, a woman’s beard, the roots of stones or of a mountain, the sinews of a bear, the breath of a fish, and the spittle of a bird. Women have no beards, cats make no noise when they tread, there are.no roots under stones or mount- ains. In spite of these facts the fetter was smithied by the dwarfs, and was as soft and supple as a silk cord, though of exceeding great strength. 304 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. When Skirnir brought it to the gods they thanked him warmly for the trouble he had taken in their service. Then they conveyed the wolf to a heathy island, called Lyngvi, in the black or marshy country of Amsvartnir. There they showed him the cord, and asked him if he thought he could snap it asun- der, frankly telling him that the cord was stronger than, judging from its size and thickness, it ap- peared to be. The gods passed it from one to the other, and tried their strength upon it, but not one was able to break it. “You see, Fenrir,” said they, flattering the wolf’s vanity, “ that you alone are able to accomplish this feat. We are not strong enough to break it ; but you, if you try, can snap the fetter with ease.” The wolf replied that he did not think there was much honor or glory to be acquired by breaking a slender cord, but he added, suspecting a snare, “ As cunning and deception have doubtless been em- ployed to make it appear small and frail, I shall not permit it to be put on my feet.” The gods replied that he could easily break a silken thread, as he had already burst strong iron bonds. “But,” they added, “if you cannot rend it, you have nothing to fear from us. We shall then know that you are too weak to cause the gods apprehension, and we shall instantly unbind you.” The wolf replied thoughtfully, “ If you bind me so fast that I cannot free myself by my own efforts, I am pretty sure I shall wait a long time before I am unbound by you. I am very unwilling, there- LOKI AND HIS CHILDREN. 305 fore, to have the cord put about me, but rather than allow you to accuse me of cowardice,. I will consent if one of you will place his hand in my mouth, as a pledge of your sincerity.” The gods now looked at one another in dismay and remained silent. Their courage was put to the proof, but not one durst reach forth his hand, until Tyr, the courageous, stepped forward and thrust his right hand in between the monster’s jaws. The gods now securely tied the wolf. He stretched him- self and pulled as he had done before, he rolled on the ground, and struggled and strained, but the more he strove to break loose the tighter grew the cord, until all the gods, except poor Tyr, whose hand had been bitten off, and who could see no joke in the case, laughed loud and long. When the gods were convinced that they had ef- fectually bound Fenrir, they drew the chain called Gelgja, which was fastened to the cord, through a huge rock called Gjoll, which they anchored far down in the earth ; and, to secure it still better, they tied the end of the cord to a massive stone called Thviti, which they sank deeper. The wolf made the most violent, though futile, efforts to break loose, and, opening his huge jaws, he tried to bite the gods. Seeing their danger, they thrust a sword into his yawning mouth. The hilt was driven into the low- er, and the point thrust through the upper jaw, so that it touched his palate. He then began to howl horribly, and since that time the foam pours from his mouth in such abundance that it forms a river called Von, whence he is also called Vonargand. 20 306 tales from THE NORSE grandmother. There the wolf will lie until Ragnarock, the Twi- light of the Gods. When the JE sir were asked why they did not slay Fenrir, their great enemy, whom they had such cause to dread, they replied that they respected the peacesteads of heaven, and would not stain them with the blood of the wolf, although it had been plainly foretold that one day he would become the bane of Odin. By volcanic action Loki produces the Midgard Serpent, which is the encircling sea, and is the ene- my of the gods, because when upheaved by subter- ranean heat, it writhes convulsively, and darkens heaven and blots out the golden mansions. Thor, who lives in the thick black clouds, grapples with the serpent, but is unable to conquer or kill it. The goddess Hel is born of darkness, in those hot caverns where Loki’s mind was seared. Her father is elemental fire, but she rules over the icy world of death, and, perhaps, in some way typifies the passage from the warmth of life to the chill of dis- solution. This idea seems to be expressed by her appearance, for she is half the color of flesh and half livid. The description of her hall is terribly sublime. There is no other picture of death which excels it in lurid grandeur. The wolf, whose lower jaw rests on the earth, while his upper jaw reaches heaven, is volcanic fire. The gods do not kill him, because the terrible contest would stain their peace- steads, the serene spaces of the sky, with blood. In other words, the flames would mount up and red- den the atmosphere, and. be reflected from the LOKI AND HIS CHILDREN. 307 clouds in lurid colors. As a moral monster he can- not be destroyed until the appointed time. They content themselves, therefore, with binding him down in a volcano. They take him to an island in the midst of a black lake, which is the burning mountain, scarred and desolated by fire. The river of foam, Von, is the vapor pouring from the crater, whose lips are called Gjolnar. The chains and band with which Fenrir is bound are of two kinds : the iron fetter he easily melts in his fervent heat, but the silken string, Gleipnir, is made of those secret forces of nature, the invisible, silent laws, which we do not understand any better than the ancient Norseman, who compared them to things which have no existence and yet possess the deadly strength of fate. It was forged in darkness, deep down in the earth, and looked like an inno- cent, fragile string. This time Fenrir had met his match. He could not melt it, he could not break it. The more he writhed, the more it stretched, the closer it clung. The strength that lies in apparent weakness is beautifully shown in this myth, and we shall see another illustration of it when we come to the death of Baldur. The great forces work without fuss or noise. They work in atoms instead of great masses. They work by little changes, often too minute for the subtlest instrument to detect, but they are mightier than the tempest or the earthquake. 308 tales from THE NORSE grandmother. CHAPTER XXIII. THE DEATH OF BALDUR. EARLY every mythology has a summer-god 1 ll of perfect beauty and goodness, who dies or is slain by malice or accident, and is passionately mourned by all nature, until, in the lapse of time, he rises again from the dark ground in the form of the young shoot or plant. A striking example of the summer-god was the Greek Adonis, who spent a certain number of months each year with the queen of Hades, the under-world, and then returned to Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty. Baldur is the Adonis of the Scandinavians, and he also unites some of the attributes of the Greek Apollo. As nature-god he is lord of the summer weather, god of the bright brows, the spirit of warmth, life, cheerfulness, and hope. As mind-god he reigns over the innocent, pure heart, and probably would have been the cre- ator and inspirer of the fine arts had the Northern nations early developed a genius for painting and sculpture. But, with the exception of poetry, the higher arts were not yet born in the North. There is no pictured or carved representation of Baldur dating back to ancient times. He remains a spirit- ual influence, like the odor of some exquisite flower; THE DEATH OF BALDUR. 309 and no myth, in the whole range of old religions, is more beautiful than that of his death. Baldur is ideal beauty thought of in the form of a young and shining god, with manners so mild and gracious that the whole world adores him. It is his mission to expand the higher nature of man by the contemplation of his loveliness. He is simply to be, and not to act. He has nothing to do with war or violence or effort. He is not a prodigious toiler like Thor, nor a great fighter like Odin. His influence is soft and stealing as the summer air. He makes himself manifest to the heart like Spring’s silent movements, which cover the ground thick with leafage and flowers. Baldur must be slain, because the cold winter is doomed to kill him in his natural form. In his moral and spiritual aspect, Evil, in the shape of the malignant Loki, who feels Baldur’s innocence as a reproach, will connive at his death. Baldur’s myth is the tragedy of virtue, which men worship with the higher nature while they slay it with their -bestial passions. Baldur was the second son of Odin by Frigga, the earth-goddess. The sky sheds its vital influence upon the ground which Thor has rendered fit for growth, in the form of light, heat, and moisture, and Baldur is born. In the cold, sterile North his birth is welcomed with rapture by all beings, and he is called the best-beloved god. No creature can wholly resist his influence, for he enters the senses and the heart in every ray of sunshine, every breath of fragrance, every sight or sound of beauty. His 310 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER.' face, we are told, is dazzling and fair, and from it issue rays of light as from the sun ; and such is the beauty of his hair that the whitest of all plants is called Baldur’s brow. In Denmark, Sweden, and Iceland there are flowers which still bear his name. He is the god of wisdom and of eloquence, and also of justice, for no one can pervert or alter his judg- ments. He lives in the heavenly house called Breidablik, the abode of peace and purity, where nothing unclean enters. In Grimnis Lay it is said : ’Tis Breidablik called Where Baldur the fair Hath built him a bower, In that land where I know The least loathliness lies. This clean, pure house, is the perfect serenity of air and sky in the most beautiful summer weather, when there are neither dark clouds nor violent winds nor thick fogs to stain the heavens and ob- scure the earth. Those recesses of pure azure and crystal are the halls of Breidablik, “ where least loathliness lies.” It is a very brief period of joy, and for this reason Baldur dies young ; but, by contrast with the long, interminable winter, its beauty has a magical charm, surpassing the loveli- ness of Southern summers, and Baldur is passion- ately beloved. Baldur marries the goddess Nanna, daughter of Nef, or Nep. She is the busy, active goddess, who incites the toil of the farmer. While her husband spreads a beautiful bloom on the hills and a glow over the waters, she is urging on the plowman and THE DEATH OF BALDUR. 31 1 the gardener, or is busy in the hay-meadow and the grain-field, among the tanned cocks and sheaves. Nanna is use, Baldur is beauty, and their marriage is, therefore, perfect. Their son is the god Forseti, who lives in the heavenly house called Glitnir, which is supported on gold pillars and roofed over with silver. The name Forseti denotes a presider or judge, one who arbitrates and renders decrees, and whose judgments are always righteous. He is born of the spotless purity of Baldur and the activ- ity of Nanna. Forseti lives in the gold and silver house because of the shining nature of justice. * All our interest in Baldur centers in his death. His life, so pure, holy, and calm, was without events. His evil genius, Loki, casts a shadow over him, as the smoke of fire can obscure the brightest day. They appear together in the tragedy of Northern mythology as the good and evil principles. It is strange that the shining young Baldur and the dark and sinister Loki have not found fitting representa- tion in Northern* art, for a more striking and noble subject could scarcely be imagined. But Loki ap- pears to have passed into a form of Satan, the wily, worldly-wise, smooth, and well-bred tempter, and perhaps we may detect some traces of Baldur in the guileless young man who, in thousands of Northern legends, loses his soul by dealing with the Evil One. Baldur the Good was troubled with threatening dreams, and constantly impressed with the idea that his life was in danger. He called an assembly of the gods in the doom-ring, and told them of his forebodings. His words pained the ^Esir deeply, 312 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. for Baldur’s life was very essential to their happi- ness. A very mystical poem contained in the elder Edda, and called “ Odin’s Raven Cry,” is thought to express the anguish and unrest of the gods at Baldur’s approaching doom. They are filled with the dread of coming disaster, and they resolve to pray for Baldur’s safety in every danger. Frigga, his mother, made a journey through the world, and exacted an oath from fire, water, iron, and all metals, as well as from stones, earths, dis- eases, beasts, birds, poisons, and venomous snakes, that they would not injure her beloved son, Baldur. When the gods had taken all these precautions they imagined Baldur was perfectly invulnerable. The whole of nature was pledged to save and prolong his life ; and it became a favorite play among them, at their feasts, to get Baldur to stand up and serve as a target, while some hurled darts and stones at him, and others shot at him with their bows, or hewed at him with their battle-axes. For, though assailed in all ways, nothing could harm him, and the gods, by these sham assaults, thought they were showing great honor to Baldur. Although the life of his dear son now seemed se- cure from all possible harm, the heart of Odin was secretly troubled. He feared lest something un- fortunate should occur in spite of all precautions. Not being possessed of foreknowledge or prophetic power, he dreaded lest the happy Norns, or Fates, should secretly depart from Asgard. As this pain- ful state of foreboding could no longer be endured, Allfather resolved to make a journey to the infernal THE DEATH OF BALDUR. 3 T 3 regions. He therefore placed the saddle on the back of his horse, Sleipnir, and took his way down to Niflheim for the purpose of raising and ques- tioning a dead vala, or prophetess, whose grave lay close to the eastern gate of Hel’s domain. Here he encountered Hel’s terrible watch-dog, named Garm, a beast with bloody breast and jaws, that howled by Gnipa’s cave. Garm closely resem- bles the Greek Cerberus, the three-headed dog which keeps the door of Pluto’s infernal regions. Odin’s course was not checked by Garm. He rode on until he reached the grave of the vala, or proph- etess ; then, turning his face to the North, he sang magic songs and uttered powerful spells until she was unwillingly forced to arise and come forth from her tomb. She demanded sternly what man it was who had ventured to intrude upon her rest. The disguised Odin replied that he was Vegtam, son of Valtam, and he proceeded to inquire- why the benches and gilded couches, such as the Norse folk brought forth on festive occasions, were preparing in Hel’s hall. The Vala was forced to tell him that all this hol- iday show in the house of death was in honor of his beloved son, and she then desired permission to re- turn to her grave and to be left in peace. But the wretched father persisted in questioning her at length about the fatal events of the future, and she relates the manner of Baldur’s death and what will follow, and again asks piteously to be allowed to return to her repose in the grave. But Odin will not let her go. He inquires who those maidens are 314 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. who do not weep for Baldur — “ those maidens with head-dresses flaunting toward heaven.” Whether this refers to the three Norns we are not told, but the question reveals to the vala the godhead of Odin, and she cries out that he is not Vegtam, but Odin, chief of men and gods. Odin replies: “ Nei- ther are you a vala, nor a wise woman, but the mother of three giants.” The prophetess meets this retort by bidding him ride home and boast of his feat of dragging her from the grave, and she adds : “ Never shall mortal visit me again until Loki shall have burst his chains and Ragnarock be come.” This wonderful scene is full of striking and original power, as can be gathered even from its bare out- line. The death of Baldur is a symbol and a proph- ecy of the destruction of the universe and of the gods themselves at Ragnarock. Dread of the im- pending misfortune drives peace and security from heaven. Odin cannot trust implicitly to the safe- guards which have been thrown around his son. So he leaves Asgard and rides down to the dark realms of death, there to summon the unwilling spirit of a vala by means of magic arts. He sees Death’s dark hall decked out in festal array, and his heart shivers with dread. The expected coming of Baldur the Beautiful has thrown an air of good cheer over those murky dungeons. Baldur is so pure and bright that the anticipation of his arrival in Hel’s abode changes the character of the place. This is a poetic touch of exquisite beauty. But the heart of Odin shudders at the sight, and by virtue of his godship THE DEATH OF BALDUR. 315 he forces the intelligence from the prophetess that Baldur is doomed, and the news fills him with such anguish that he taunts the vala, just as a person in great distress over some sad event feels momentarily angry at the bringer of bad news. The vala retorts by hinting at his own impending doom at Ragna- rock, and then goes back gladly to her grave. The second act in the drama of Baldur’s death shows us the evil Loki looking on at the sports of the gods with Baldur, chagrined because he is not hurt by the missiles cast at him. The fire-god could assume any form he pleased, and therefore, putting on the shape of an old woman, he went to visit Frigga, the earth, in her mansion called Fen- salir, (place of marshes or fens.) The goddess in- quired of the pretended woman if she knew what the gods were doing at their feast. She replied that they were all throwing stones or darts at Bal- dur, without inflicting injury upon him. Frigga was not surprised at the seeming miracle. Neither weapon nor wood nor stone, she said, could hurt Baldur, because she had exacted an oath from them all to remain harmless to him. “ What ! ” exclaimed her visitor, in astonishment, “have all things sworn to spare Baldur?” “Yes,” returned Frigga, “all except one little shrub which grows on the side of Valhalla, and is called mistletoe. I did not demand an oath of it, for I thought it too weak a thing — too worthless and insignificant — to harm Baldur.” Loki was overjoyed to have wormed the secret from Frigga. He immediately took leave, and, as- 3 16 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. suming his own shape, visited the place where the mistletoe grew, gathered it and took it with him to the assembly of the gods, who were still amusing themselves in casting missiles at Baldur. Hodur, the blind brother of Baldur, stood aside and took no part in the sport. “ Why,” said Loki, approach- ing him, “do you not also cast something at Baldur?” “ Because I am blind,” replied Hodur. “ I see not where Baldur stands, and I have nothing to throw.” “ But,” returned Loki, “ it is your duty to do as the others do, and thus to show honor to Baldur. Take this twig and cast it at him. I will direct your arm toward the place where he stands.” Luckless Hodur, cajoled by Loki, took the twig and hurled it at his brother, and lo ! to the horror of heaven and earth, he fell down dead, for it had pierced him through and through. This was the most terrible event that, until that time, had hap- pened to gods and men. When Baldur, the beau- tiful and the good, fell lifeless, the ^Esirwere struck speechless with horror and lost all presence of mind. They looked at each other in dumb anguish of spirit, and were moved by a common impulse to take vengeance on him who had done the deed. But they were obliged to defer the punishment of this crime on account of the peacestead. The doom-ring and thingfield of both gods and men was a place held sacred from all violence and from the shedding of blood. When they tried to speak tears gushed from their eyes and the words were THE DEATH OF BALDUR. 317 choked with sobs. Loud lamentations and wails were heard in heaven, and the deepest anguish took possession of all the ^Esir. Odin was more deeply afflicted than any of the others, for he saw more clearly than the rest how much the gods would suffer in consequence of Bal- dur’s death. When in time the gods had regained some degree of composure, Frigga inquired which of them wished to win all her love and favor by riding to the dominions of Death to make search for Baldur, and to offer the death-goddess, Hel, a ran- som for his return to Asgard. Hermod, Odin’s son and also his trusty messenger, promised to under- take the journey. His father’s horse, Sleipnir, was led forth for him, and he mounted and galloped away to Niflheim. • Leaving Hermod to pursue his journey to Hel’s abode, we will glance at some of the most striking features of this beautiful myth. Baldur’s bad dreams are undoubtedly the first cool, dark days of late summer or early autumn, when premonitions of the great impending change fill the earth with weeping clouds and sobbing winds. The whole of nature feels the touch of prophetic sadness which afflicts the spirits of the JEsir. Frigga, Baldurs loving mother, bestirs herself to avert the doom of her son by exacting a promise for his safety from every thing over which she has power, with one fatal exception. The bright warm days come again, and the gods, believing Baldur invincible, amuse themselves by casting darts and spears at him, which are powerless to inflict injury. 3 18 TALES FROM THE NORSE- GRANDMOTHER. But Odin’s heart is ill at ease. He rides to Hel’s gate, and by magic raises the dead vala and forces her to reveal the future. The mistletoe, as you doubt- less know, is a parasitic evergreen plant, which contin- ues unfaded all the year. As the symbol of winter it was chosen for the slaying of Baldur. All nature was leagued to protect him ; because, as the bright summer-god, he was the source of infinite blessings. Winter, or cold and darkness, alone could do him harm. But there was no malice in winter. He was simply a blind god, negative in all his powers. He had no eyes to perceive the malice of Loki or the consequences of his own act. He is the shadow side of the bright half of the year, the dark brother of Baldur. Frigga’s confiding innocence, which leads her to neglect a needful precaution for Baldur’s safety, in t failing to exact an oath from the insignificant mis- tletoe, hints at the imperfection of her prophetic powers. She is not an intellectual or mind goddess. Although she sometimes sees the fate of men, she is tongue-tied. She partakes of the blindness and mental dullness of the earth, and therefore despises the weak and puny thing that is destined to work her endless woe. The myth is twofold, for Loki schemes in his demon character, as far as we can perceive, aside from his part as fire-god. He cannot endure Bal- dur’s innocence, contrasted with his malignity, and therefore slays him. Baldur, great and glorious as he was, is con- signed to Hel’s cold regions. He did not die in THE DEATH OF BALDUR. 319 battle, and therefore could not be received into Valhalla. Like the decay of summer flowers and verdure, which sprang into life through his influ- ence, he, too, must take his place in the under- world. But grim Hel recognized his glorious na- ture by decking her cheerless halls with hangings and golden benches. The gods weep and sob and lament, filling heaven and earth with their woe. This is the touching way in which the old myth- makers idealized the storms and sad wailing winds of late autumn, while showers of dead leaves, the tatters of Baldur’s beautiful garments, are whirled through the air, and the clouds trail along the mountain sides, like funereal processions with re- versed torches, moving slowly through the sky. The slaying of Baldur is a vast symbol for every form of death, both natural and moral. It is the death of the year, the death of mankind, and the death of innocence and purity, which allows evil to get the upper hand in the world. There is here an intimation that the Norseman regarded death, not as the result of a great law of nature, which it is impossible to evade, 1 but as pro- ceeding from the malice of a powerful demon. Such a belief is held by many savage tribes, who do not look upon death as inevitable, but ascribe it to the influence of evil spirits.* * The Pagan belief that death has been occasioned by the malice of an evil demon, preserves the memory of the temptation and fall of Adam and Eve, and the consequent subjection of themselves and all their posterity to death. — E d. 320 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. CHAPTER XXIV. BALDUR’S FUNERAL. P ERHAPS the most recent theory of the origin of religious ideas may be called the ghost theory. It teaches that every form of faith sprang from the worship of disembodied human spirits, and nearly every religious observance is traced back to funeral rites. The ghost idea, entertained by the lowest savage, came mainly, we are told, from the shadow cast by the body, and the apparent power of the soul to wander away from the body in dreams and trances. The soul was first thought of as material, and as living after death in the grave, or as wandering about its former dwelling-place. From this arose the custom of placing food on or near the grave for the sustenance of the ghost, which craves food the same as when in the flesh, and of providing it with clothing and arms ; and, in the case of a great chief, with companions and servants, by the slaughter of kindred, friends, and slaves at the funeral feast. We are asked to believe that fetish worship, ani- mal worship, tree worship, and, at last, the worship of the great objects of nature, like the sea and the sun, arose from the idea that the spirits of the dead had taken possession of them. The chief or great BALDUR’S FUNERAL. 321 man of his tribe became the principal god, and was identified with some mountain, or other region, whence came the race. Dead ancestors grew into the first gods. Their tombs, where offerings of food, etc., were laid, were the first altars, and the temple itself was only an enlarged sepulchral cham- ber, adorned with statues of the gods, which, in the first place, were made to represent deified human beings. Undoubtedly the idea of spirit, as living in or behind natural objects and appearances, must have been preceded by the primitive man’s discovery of his own spirit. Belief in the human soul must have arisen before belief in gods and demons. We know that ancestor-worship existed along with such elab- orate systems of mythology as the Greek. If, in the rudest ages, the gods were human ghosts, which had taken up their abode in mountains and rivers, they were put there by the imagination of the sav- age to explain the mysteries of nature. They were answers to the questions the world had suggested to his mind. But if this be true, by the time the great mythological systems were formed the human origin of the gods was forgotten. They were, to all intents and purposes, personified powers of na- ture, and have no less significance as such than as if they had arisen in some other way. But it is as difficult to believe that all the gods of mythology were once ghosts as it is to believe that they were invented, as we now see them, by low and degraded savages, or were deceptions palmed off upon the ignorant people by priestly 21 322 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. artifice. We may say that the gods grew, and were developed through numberless changes and modifi- cations, and throughout long periods of time. If man’s own soul was the germ whence came the gods, they embody his wonder, awe, fear, love, and reverence for an unknown power the same as if they had arisen in some other way.* There are few signs of ancestor worship in the old Norse faith, but distinct traces of the belief that the spirit lived in the tomb along with the body of the deceased is found in the account, given in the last chapter, of Odin, who calls up the dead vala. Baldur’s funeral rites furnish the type of the * The apostle Paul, in the first chapter of his Epistle to the Ro- mans, shows, not only with historic accuracy, but with inspired truthfulness, how idolatry originated. Dr. Whedon pertinently remarks that “ in his unfallen state man deeply and perfectly knew his God with a knowledge of holy love. ... By the fall that knowl- edge and love became primitively dim and feeble. Then man, his- torically not liking the holy God, nor glorifying him, nor feeling thankful,” became vain in his imaginations. “ God being dim to their perceptions, their reasonings in regard to him became foolish and wicked. ... So that the twilight of pantheism first came on, and then the midnight of atheism or idolatry. In pantheism God became as a universal mist, losing his true personality and his moral attributes. Then the universal pantheistic mist was separated into parts, and the figures of finite nature-gods and goddesses emerged, and so idolatry arose.” — Whedon’s “ Commentary on the New Test- ament,” vol. iii, p. 299. “ In the progress of idolatry,” says Schlegel, “it needs came to pass that what was originally revered only as the symbol of a higher principle, was gradually confounded or identified with that object and worshiped, till this error in worship led to a more degraded form of idolatry ; for it should be remembered that as error is not merely the absence of truth, but a false and counterfeit imitation of the truth, it has, like the latter, a principle of permanent growth and internal development.” — “ Philosophy of History,” p. 198. Ed. BALDUR’S FUNERAL. 323 Northern funeral, and are peculiarly interesting in view of the theory that all religious worship was developed from funeral observances. The gods tenderly took up Baldur’s body and carried it to the sea-shore. There, on the strand, stood Baldur’s ship, Hringhorn, which was called the largest ship in the world. It was the design of the gods to burn Baldur’s body on Hringhorn, but they could not launch it. We have seen how, on another occasion, their efforts were powerless to lift Hrungnir’s foot from Thor’s neck. Now they sent a summons to giant-world, begging a certain giantess, named Hyrroken, to come to their aid. The giantess came, mounted on a wolf, with a bri- dle of twisted serpents, and when she had dis- mounted, four men, called Berserkers, endowed with supernatural strength, were ordered by Odin to hold her steed, which they could only do by cast- ing it on the ground. The mighty Hyrroken then went to the prow of the ship, and, by a single push, sent it forward with such force that fire flashed from the rollers, and the earth trembled. Thor was so enraged at this mark of disrespect shown to Baldur, that he seized his hammer, and wished to break her head, and would have done so had not the other gods interfered. Baldur’s body was then laid out on the ship. His wife, Nanna, the daughter of Nep, wept and grieved so intensely that her heart was broken, and she was laid on the same pile with her husband. The pile was then lighted, and Thor, who acted as priest at his brother’s funeral, stood up and consecrated it 324 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. with his sacred hammer. Daring the ceremony a dwarf named Litur annoyed him by running about under his feet, and he kicked him into the flames. There was a great concourse of people at this magnificent funeral. Odin came with his wife Frigga ; they were chief mourners. His two ravens, Thought and Memory, were perched upon his shoul- ders. The glorious armed maidens, the Valkyrjur, or corse-choosers, accompanied Allfather. Frey appeared in his chariot, drawn by the golden boar, Gullinbursti, (gold bristles.) Heimdall, the white god, came riding on his horse Gull-topp, (gold mane.) Freyja, the goddess of love, drove in her chariot drawn by cats ; and great multitudes of frost and mountain giants came to show respect to the good and beautiful Baldur. Odin laid on the pile his famous ring, Draupnir, which henceforth, every ninth night, let drop eight rings of equal size and weight. Baldur’s horse, with all his housings and trappings, was also cast into the fire. Here we see reflected, as in a mirror, the ancient burial rites of the Scandinavians. The body was placed upon a pile, with the arms, vestments, and most precious possessions of the deceased, sym- bolized by Baldur’s steed and trappings, and conse- crated by the priest with Thor’s hammer-sign, and then fired and burned to ashes. We learn in the old legends that human victims were sometimes slaughtered in the North to accompany the soul of the deceased, but in Baldur’s myth there is no trace of this cruel custom, for the wife, Nanna, dies of a broken heart. At a later day burial in stone BALDUR’S FUNERAL. 325 cairns, and sometimes in ships, was substituted for pile-burning. We have a hint of ship-burial in the fact that Baldur’s pile was made on Hringhorn.* The portions illustrating funeral customs can be easily separated from the nature-myth. The gods cannot launch Baldur’s death-ship, and they call in the aid of Hurricane, who is of giant race. She comes riding on a wolf with a bridle of twisted snakes, probably descriptive of the wild, contorted, weltering clouds that accompany violent wind- storms. Here we have the first mention of the Berserker, the ferocious strong man of the North, who was thought to be directly inspired by Odin. The Berserker’s strength came upon him at inter- vals, and was probably due to sudden and violent fits of temporary insanity. In heathen and early Christian times he was the pest of the North. He could challenge farmers to fight for their land, and if they declined the invitation they forfeited, by law, their estates ; if killed, their possessions passed into the hands of these pestilent bullies and ruffians. When the strength-fit came on the Berserker was twelve times as strong as before, and when it passed off he became weak and exhausted, and was often forced to take to his bed. Some scholars tell us that Berserker means bare-sark, and refers to the fact that these men fought without defensive armor. Others would have us believe that it means bear- sark, or skin, because they clothed themselves in the skins of wild animals. The strength-fit came upon * The ships of dead vikings with the funeral pile upon them were sometimes fired and sent adrift on the waves. 326 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. some men of good character, who regarded it as a curse. There is a beautiful little story, in one of the sagas, of a man thus afflicted, who looked upon the seizure with dread. One day it came in his way to save the life of a little child who had been exposed to die in the cold, and from that time the Berserker fits left him. These strong men, on re- ceiving Christian baptism, were almost uniformly deprived of their phenomenal strength. The new faith seemed to tame the wild-beast nature by dis- pelling some of the dark superstitions of the past and letting in the daylight of humanity. Let us return now to Baldur’s funeral. Hyrroken’s violence and rudeness disgusted Thor, who was, perhaps, the most sincere mourner, be- cause, summer being over, he could no longer exert his activity on the giants. He cannot harm her, but he expends his wrath by kicking the teasing dwarf into the fire. This dwarf we know, from the meaning of his name, is color, which must perish in the dreary darkness of autumn, when nature puts on robes of russet and gray. The flaming splendors of Baldur’s funeral pile are gloriously displayed in our October woods, where Litur (color) dies a won- derful death. The frost and mountain giants come in great crowds to the funeral, for even frozen realms and arid mountain-peaks, in spite of resistance, were un- consciously blessed by the bright Baldur. His death has been an irreparable loss to the gods, for joy and cheerfulness depended on his existence, and now the shining halls of heaven will be darkened. by BALDUR’S FUNERAL. 327 storm-clouds and hung with black palls and all the symbols of mourning. Odin lays the ring Draupnir — sign of the new birth in nature — on Baldur’s pile, for although the cast-off raiment of Baldur, the dead verdure of forest and field, must be burned up, the god’s essence is to reappear upon the earth in new forms. Now let us return to Hermod, Odin’s messenger, whom we last saw wending his way down to Hel’s dark regions, to learn if the grim goddess would not consent to take an atonement for Baldur, and allow him to return to Asgard. He rode nine nights and days through deep valleys, (the valley of the shadow of death,) so dark he could see nothing before his face, until he came to the River Gjoll, which he crossed on a bridge paved with shining gold. Mod- gud, a female warrior, kept the bridge. Like the dog Garm, she was one of the guardians of the un- der world. She inquired Hermod’s name and race. The day before, she said, five troops of dead people had ridden over the bridge who did not shake it as he had done. “ You have not the color of death,” she added, “ and why do you ride the way that leads to Hel ? ” (not in the sense in which we use the term, but meaning the way to the goddess Death.) “ I ride to Hel,” returned Hermod, “ to seek Baldur. Perchance you may have seen him riding along this road.” She replied that Baldur had passed over the Gjoll bridge ; but “ there below,” said she, pointing northward, “ lies the path to the abodes of death.” Hermod rode on until he came 328 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. to the barred gate of Hel’s dominion. Here he alighted to tighten the strap of his saddle, and, re- mounting, plied both spurs upon the flanks of Sleipnir, and made him leap the gate, without touching it, at one tremendous bound. Hermod then rode straight on to Hel’s hall, where he found his brother Baldur sitting in the high seat, the place of honor. He sat down and passed the night be- side him in loving converse, and in the morning sought the goddess of death, and entreated her to allow Baldur to ride home with him to Asgard. He depicted the extreme grief and dismay of the gods at Baldur’s death, and described the wailing and sobbing and loud lamentations that were heard in heaven. Hel replied that she would now test the rumor about Baldur, whether, indeed, he was as much be- loved as he was reported to be. She therefore promised that if every living and lifeless thing on earth would weep for Baldur, she would release him from death’s domain, and allow him to return to the upper world. But if any one thing or creature spoke against him, or refused to weep, then should he be kept in Hel. Hermod rose to depart, and Baldur led him out of the hall, and gave him the ring Draupnir to return to Odin as a keepsake. Nanna sent a veil with other presents to Frigga, and to Fulla she sent a finger ring. Hermod returned at once to Asgard, and report- ed to the iEsirhvhat he had seen in Hel, and the words the death-goddess had spoken. The gods, thereupon, sent messengers throughout the world, BALDUR’S FUNERAL. 329 praying all things to weep for Baldur that he might be delivered from Hel. All things willingly com- plied ; men, beasts, earth, stones, wood, and all metals fell to weeping, as all things weep or are covered with moisture when they come out of the frost into a hot place. As the messengers were returning to heaven, rejoicing in the complete suc- cess of their mission, they found an old hag named Thankt or Thokt, sitting in a cavern. They begged and besought Thokt to help weep Baldur out of Hel, but she answered sarcastically: Thokt will wail With arid tears Baldur’s bale-fire. Nought, quick or dead, By man's son gain I: Let Hela hold what’s hers. The effort to induce all nature to weep Baldur out of the infernal regions was defeated. It was strongly suspected that the hag in the cave was no other than Loki himself, who was forever contriving evil against the gods. As the god of innocence Baldur could not then return to heaven. His death was the first act of a great moral drama, in which the powers of darkness were destined to gradually gain the ascendency, until they accomplished the overthrow of the world, and the destruction of the gods at Ragnarock. In the restored and purified universe to succeed this tragedy of nature, Baldur would again appear as lord of spiritual light. As a nature-god Baldur sends back to Odin the ring Draupnir, symbol of renewed life. Nanna also 330 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. returns her attributes to the earth, and the earth’s handmaid, Fulla, in the form of a veil and a ring. Baldur’s death was avenged by Odin’s son, Vali, who, when an infant, one day old, unwashed and uncombed, slew the blind Hodur. Hermod’s mis- sion to release Baldur from Hel reminds us of similar stories in Greek mythology. He is the messenger of Odin, as Hermes (Mercury) was the messenger of Zeus. Hermes conducted the dead to the lower regions, but Hermod went below to plead for the restoration of a soul. Orpheus visited Hades to deliver his beloved Eurydice, and Herakles drew from the shades the spirit of the devoted Alcestis. All these lovely myths refer to the inert life prin- ciple in the cold ground, which seeks the warmth and light withdrawn at the end of summer, and which, germinating in the dark, comes forth in the glory of spring. We learn from Hermod’s journey that there were two ways leading to Hel. One through the earth, guarded by the terrible watch-dog, Garm ; the other, over the Gjoll bridge, connecting the upper air with Niflheim. This bridge must not be confounded with Bifrost, the tremulous rainbow which led from earth to heaven. Gjoll bridge was kept by a giant- ess named Modgud, and may be called the dark bridge, in contrast to the bright and shining bow. It is the mysterious, solemn passage from life to death, and the crossing over of whole troops of the dead presents a sublime image. We are told that Baldur’s bale-fires blazed on the way to Hel. We here find an intimation of the BALDUR’S FUNERAL. 33 1 reason why it was customary to light fires at the tombs of ancestors. They were kindled to light and cheer the soul on its way to the under-ground abodes of death. The bonfire which is kindled in our streets on holiday occasions is one of the oldest remains of paganism. The bale-fire dates directly back to the Eastern sun-god Baal ; and to this day a beacon in the North is called a bale-fire. Fires belonged to the worship of Baldur as summer-god, because, at the end of the season, it was customary to clear the land by burning brush and stubble. The beautiful idea of all nature weeping for Bal- dur was probably suggested by the rains of autumn, when all creatures and things partake of the grief of mother earth, mourning- for her darling son. Nanna, the pleasant bustle and activity of summer, dies with her husband, and is burned on the same pile ; because after the harvests are gathered from field and orchard and garden she can no longer exist. Thokt, the old woman in the cavern, whose form Loki assumed, was probably fire hidden by cinders and ashes. There is a saying in Iceland to the effect that all things were willing to help weep Baldur out of Hel except coal. This explains the hag’s expression, when she says that she will only weep arid tears, in other words, dry sparks. Fire receives no advantage from the life of summer, and will suf- fer no loss at its death. The Druids, who reverenced the mistletoe as a sacred plant, seem to have known Baldur’s myth ; for, at a certain season of the year, it was the 332 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. custom of the Druid priest to climb the oak, and cut off the mistletoe with a golden knife, saying that it should not harm Baldur. The infant Vali, who slays Hodur before he is washed or combed, is the new year ; and it is out of lingering memories of heathen traditions that we still depict him as a young child, wearing a bright crown, and armed with a bow. He is Baldur’s brother, because each year differs from the one that has preceded it, and must be born into a new likeness. When Christianity was established in the North some of the old rites and observances crept into the new religion, or were permitted to find a home there. The festival of the summer solstice, or death of Bal- dur, was made to coincide with the feast of the na- tivity of St. John the Baptist. In place of Baldur’s- brow, which had been sacred to the god, a new plant, Hypericum, or St. John’s Wort, was given to the saint. In England this plant was formerly thought to be so holy that it was used to drive out witches and evil spirits ; but at this day the young maidens of Lower Saxony apply it to a different purpose. They pin a sprig of it to their chamber-wall at night, which, if fresh next morning, indicates an approach- ing lover, but, if withered, denotes early death. We know there were temples devoted largely, if not entirely, to the worship of Baldur, for a beauti- ful ancient poem, called Frithiof’s Saga, describes such a temple situated at Sokn. This place was considered very holy. Baldur’s worship was pure and innocent, like his nature, and no violence or BALDUR’S FUNERAL. 333 uncleanness was allowed in his temple. Frithiof’s Saga has been given to the world, in a beautiful modern dress, by the great Scandinavian poet, Tegner. There is a popular tradition found, I believe, in Denmark, which tells us that on the right-hand side of the road leading from Copenhagen to Roeskilde, there is a well called Baldur’s Brind, which the god is said to have made to refresh his men after a bat- tle with Hodur. This well was produced by a kick from the hoof of his horse, in the same way that the Muses’ well was opened by a kick from the foot of the winged horse, Pegasus. Baldur seems to have been worshiped in ancient Germany under the name of Phol, as is gathered from a very old manuscript, wherein he is so called. 334 tales from the norse grandmother. CHAPTER XXV. LOKI’S PUNISHMENT. HEN Loki existed as celestial heat, he mixed V V blood with Odin, and became his foster brother. The custom of mixing blood is exceed- ingly old, and still exists in a modified form. The German students sometimes perform a ceremony, commemorating the ancient rite, before they adopt the familiar “ thou.” We have a well known sym- bol of it in the interchange of locks of hair between friends and lovers. It probably arose from the idea that some personal virtue was transmitted with the blood, which enabled the receiver to share in the very nature of his friend. The same idea can be traced in animal transfor- mations. In the North it is still believed by the ig- norant that some peculiarly endowed persons can change themselves into wolves. This superstition is the most hideous remnant of the old faith. Odin, Loki, Freyja, Frigga, and the other gods, could en- ter into the bodies of fish, birds, and animals. Odin’s body remained in a torpid state, while his soul made excursions in other forms. The were-wolf was a human being, who pos- sessed this exceptional power. Sometimes he used a magic ointment to produce the change, and some- LOKI’S PUNISHMENT. 335 times he put on a wolf-skin or belt. There were others upon whom the seizure came unwittingly, as the strength fit came upon the Berserker. Only the eyes of the wolf retained a human aspect. These grisly creatures had the man and the beast nature combined. They ranged the forest, and killed and devoured all that came in their way. When the fit passed off they were exhausted, and sometimes ill -for several days. Mr. Baring-Gould, who has written a treatise on were-wolves, would have us believe that they were violent lunatics, with a craving for blood, who dressed themselves in beast-skins, and who ate the people they killed. Although the superstition may have been kept alive by such frenzied beings, who, perhaps, imagined they actually were wild beasts, it must have originated in the old faith, in the trans- formation, perhaps transmigration, of souls, brought in distant ages, from the far East. Loki was adopted into the family of the zEsir, and probably sprang from an entirely different race of gods. In the fragment of an old myth, still ex- isting, we hear of Forniot and his three sons, Hler, (the sea,) Logi, (fire,) and Kari, (the wind.) These gods are supposed to have belonged to the old Fin- nish religion, and in this Logi we find a hint of the possible origin of our fire-demon. In early days Odin loved Loki, and would not give a feast without him. He was useful on such occasions, and probably assisted in preparing the food. Fire was doubtless as necessary in the kitch- en of the gods as it is in earthly houses. He also 336 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. amused the guests by his wit and buffoonery, as in the case of the grim Skadi, who was forced to laugh at his tricks. Loki’s comic side, which sometimes made him an amusing companion, was due to the sly, cunning nature of fire, which caused it to burst forth in many strange and unexpected freaks. Now, for some reason, which is not stated in the myth, Loki’s punishment did not take place until after the great autumnal banquet, which the sea- god, ^Egir, annually gave to the ^Esir, when the host brewed ale in the mighty pot which Thor had won from the giant Hymir. On this occasion the gods and elves were all assembled in ^Egir’s hall, but Thor was not present. The brazen-faced Loki was there, although he was 'an object of ab- horrence to the gods for having plotted the death of Baldur. ^Egir’s servants were highly commend- ed for their quickness and agility in serving and their attention to the comfort of the guests. This enraged Loki, for it was galling to him to hear oth- ers praised, and, in a passion, he slew one of yEgir’s attendants, nafned Funfeng. The gods rose in a body and expelled him from the banquet, and he was forced to flee and hide himself in the woods. But soon he came creeping back into the hall, and, stealthily approaching Elder, another servant belonging to ^Egir’s household, he inquired of him what the gods spoke of at the feast. “ They speak of their weapons and their bravery,” returned Elder, “ but neither the gods nor the elves ever speak well of you.” LORI'S PUNISHMENT. 337 Then Loki determined to go boldly into the hall, and make his insulting presence known to the of- fended gods. When he entered, and the guests saw who it was, they all sat silent, and Loki spoke up and said that he was thirsty, and that he had journeyed a long way to request the gods to give him a cup of their foaming mead. Still they an- swered not a word, and he cried out with even more assurance : “ Why are you silent, gods, and sit so stubborn and tongue-tied ? Give me a seat and a place at your banquet, or turn me away.” Then Bragi, the god of eloquence and poetry, the good speaker, replied : “ The gods will never give you a seat and a place at the banquet, for they well know whom they will admit here.” Loki then broke out into terrible abuse of the gods. He reminded Odin how once, in the morn- ing of time, they had been brothers, and had mixed blood together, and carried his reproaches so far, that Vidar, the silent god, was forced to yield him his seat. Before Loki drank he sneeringly sa- luted all the gods and goddesses, except Bragi, who sat on the innermost bench. He poured out a stream of abuse on them all, and, at the very last, quarreled with Sif, the wife of Thor. At that mo- ment the thunder-god returned from a distant ex- pedition. He entered the hall with his tremendous stride, and threatened to crush Loki with his ham- mer. But the artful god made his escape, and, on going out, cursed JEg ir, and expressed the hope that 22 338 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. he might never more entertain the gods at a ban- quet, and that flames might play over his domin- ions. Now the time had come when Loki was to be punished for the death of Baldur and his detention in Hel. The fire-god’s cup of iniquity was full and running over. When he perceived how angry the gods were he fled to the mountains and hid him- . self in a house which he had built with four doors, looking to all the points of the compass, so that he could see every thing that passed on all sides. As he had the power of changing his shape at will, in the daytime he often took the form of a salmon, and concealed himself in the waters of a cascade, Franangurs-fors, the bright or glistening waterfall. Here he busied himself in divining and defeating the many plans which the gods had formed for his capture. One day, as he sat in his house with a fire burn- ing before him, Loki took flax and yarn and wrought them into meshes, like the fish-nets of later times. While thus engaged he was surprised by the gods, who, when he perceived them, were not far off. Odin had spied out his retreat from Hildskjalf. When the gods were near at hand Loki threw his net into the fire, and ran to hide himself in the river. The JEsir took possession of his deserted house, and Kvasir, who was more quick-witted and penetrating than any of them, on seeing traces of the net-work in the ashes, concluded that it must be designed for catching fish. He pointed this out to Odin, and the At sir set to work and wove a -net out LORI'S PUNISHMENT. 339 of hempen cord after the pattern they had seen in the fire. This net, when finished, they threw into the river to drag the waterfall. Thor held it at one end and all the gods drew it at the other. But Loki was very cunning, and put himself between two stones. The net passed harmlessly over him, and the gods only perceived that something living had touched it. The next time the ALsir cast out the net they hung to it a great weight which raked the river-bed. But Loki, finding himself near the sea, gave an im- mense leap over the net back into the waterfall. The gods now knew where he was, and returned to the fall. They separated into two bands. Thor behind, waded down the middle of the stream and followed the net, while the others dragged it toward the sea. Loki now saw there were only two ways of saving his life open to him ; either he must risk all by swimming out into the ocean, or again jump over the net. He chose the latter course, but as he gave a tremendous leap Thor caught him in his hand. Loki was very slippery, but Thor contrived to hold him by the tail. For this reason the sal- mon’s tail is very thin and pointed. So says tra- dition, and who can doubt it ? The gods having captured Loki dragged him without mercy into a cavern, where they set up three sharp-pointed rocks and bored holes through them. They then seized Loki’s two sons, Vali (Ali) and Narfi, (Nari.) Vali they changed into a were-wolf, and in this form he tore his brother in pieces. The gods took the intestines of Loki’s 340 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. children and made cords of them, with which they bound him over the points of the rocks. One cord passes over his shoulders, another under his loins, and a third under his hams. These cords the gods then changed into bands of iron. Skadi, the wife of Njord, suspended a venomous snake over Loki’s head in such a manner that the poison might fall on his face drop by drop. But his devoted wife, Siguna, stands by him and receives the drops in a cup or vase, which, as fast as it fills, she empties. But while she is emptying the cup the poison falls on Loki’s face, and he howls with rage and horror, and violently twists and contorts his body, so that the whole earth is shaken. These convulsive throes produce what men call the earth- quake. Loki will lie bound in the cave until Rag- narock, the twilight of the gods. JEg ir’s banquet, in the shining, luminous hall, which, perhaps, refers to the phosphorescence of the sea, was set and served like an earthly feast, on the old Norse model. The gods took their places on benches ranged around tables, and huge horns of foaming mead were passed from hand to hand. Lo- ki’s quarrel with the left-handed servant, whom he slays, undoubtedly has something to do with the elemental strife between fire and water. He is banished from the feast, and then slips stealthily back, demanding drink. His thirsty nature can be easily understood. As one of the oldest of the gods, who took part in the creation and mixed blood with Odin, he demands his seat at the ban- quet, which Bragi, the spokesman of the feast, de- LOKl’S PUNISHMENT. 341 nies him. But Vidar, the silent god, who was not made for strife and contention, is finally obliged to yield his seat, whereupon Loki’s wild passions leap forth like flame, and he roundly abuses all the gods and quarrels with Sif, whose golden locks, as you will remember, he had formerly sheared off, and was forced to get a new head of golden hair made for her by the dwarf smiths. As a crowning insult, he hopes that ^Egir may never give another banquet to the gods, and that flames may play over his do- minions. This story may, in some dim way, refer to a con- flict between the fire and water worshipers. The vans and gods are reconciled. Strife ceases between them, and they are welded into one system ; but Loki is an alien adopted into the family of the Aisir, and his old hatred for a hostile race of gods breaks forth in the peaceful banquet. His slaugh- ter of the servant, like the quarrel with Sif, may refer to the intense heat which withers the grass and burns up or disperses the clouds. The gods sit mute and speechless when Loki has the assur- ance to present himself a second time at the feast. They seem powerless to check him while he pours out gibes and taunts upon their heads. But the day of his doom is only deferred. The silent in- dignation of the gods is noble in contrast to his shallow and tonguey malice. We are not told why they deferred his well-merited punishment ; but their long-suffering was probably due to the fact that Loki had once been innocent, and had rendered important services to both gods and men. This 342 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. seems to hint at the fact that the evil principle did not belong to the most ancient form of the .^Esir faith ; but the struggles of nature and the perils of human life, where decay and destruction and vio- lence were always at work, led our ancestors insen- sibly to imagine that there was an evil power in direct conflict with the good, and the dangerous na- ture of uncontrolled fire finally gave moral attri- butes to a nature-god who in the first place was destitute of .them. To escape from the gods who had suffered so severely from his evil plots, and whom he now had cause to dread, Loki took up his abode in a volcanic mountain where he could see all ways, and thus watch the movements-of the gods. But in the day-time, when the doors and windows of his house shone less brightly, and a gray column of smoke arose from the crater, he assumed the shape of a salmon, and secreted himself under the waterfall. The red color of the salmon and its quick motion, like the leaping flame, probably caused Loki to as- sume this appearance. There is an old Finnish myth which tells us that fire, originally made by the gods, fell into the sea in little balls, and was swallowed by the salmon, and, when the fish was captured, was found in its interior. This explains why Loki hid himself in the salmon. This fish is very difficult to catch, and the fisherman in pursuit of it wades up tidal streams in the same way that Thor and his comrades waded through the river’s bed in search of the slippery god. The gods transformed Loki’s strong son, Vali, or LOKI’S PUNISHMENT. 343 Ali, into a were-wolf, and he tore his brother Narfi, or Nari, (the binding,) in pieces, and Loki was bound with cords made from his entrails. This is, perhaps, the first mention of the were-wolf found in Northern mythology, and shows that the supersti- tion dates back to very ancient times. Loki was imprisoned in the volcanic mountain and bound by laws of nature stronger than his own wild, irregular being. The devotion of his wife, Siguna, is beauti- ful, both as a nature-myth and as a spiritual sym- bol of self-sacrifice, even toward the unworthy, who are suffering justly for their sins. Skadi, the wife of Njord, the rushing mountain torrent, hangs a serpent over Loki’s head, that the venom may drip down upon his face. This venom is the trickling water that steals through rock crevices until it reaches the volcanic fire. Siguna, who sits so patiently by Loki’s side and catc.hes the serpent’s venom in her vase, is the warm spring heated by underground fires. When her vase fills she is obliged to empty it, and then the venom falls on Loki, and he hisses and howls and writhes and screams, and earthquakes ensue. In other words, the cold mountain stream, swollen by rains or the melting of ice and snow, overflows the hot spring and rushes upon the central fire, causing such a rapid generation of steam and gases that the earth is shaken and torn by earthquakes to allow it to escape. Here is one of the modern scientific theo- ries of volcanoes very ingeniously wrapped up in. an old myth. According to the elder Edda Loki lies under Hveralund, (the wood or forest of hot 344 TALES from THE NORSE grandmother. springs,) and his wife, Siguna, sits, not right glad, with him. At Ragnarock, Loki and his child, the wolf Fenrir, both of them forms of subterranean or volcanic fire, will be released from bondage and become active agents of destruction. In many old religions we find traces of a belief that the world is finally to be destroyed by fire and thus reduced to the condi- tion of a black and lifeless cinder. The existence of volcanoes, those chimneys of the earth’s internal furnace, may have originated the idea. But mod- ern science assures us that, though the earth was once red hot, it has been gradually cooling through unnumbered ages, and may one day become too cold to support life and in all respects like the pres- ent condition of the moon, which is a mere torpid, frozen mass of matter whirling about our planet. But to the ancients the idea of the destruction of the earth from the breaking out of internal fires was familiar and natural.* Although Loki is not the most important, he is the most original, figure in Northern mythology. The people were dependent upon him for comfort and even life ; but his wild, incalculable nature made * The Jews have a tradition that it was revealed to Adam that the world should be destroyed twice— first by water and then by fire, That it is to be eventually destroyed by the instrumentality of fire is scientifically probable in the estimation of many learned astrono- mers. That it will certainly be thus destroyed admits of no doubt in Christian minds in view of what the Apostle Peter wrote in his Second General Epistle, iii, io: “The elements shall melt with fervent heat ; the earth also, and the works that are therein, shall be burned up.” — E d. LORI'S PUNISHMENT. 345 his escapades and adventures the dread of the world, especially in winter, when the streams were frozen and there was no water at hand to put out the flames. When Loki went down into the earth’s abysses, filled with boiling, seething flame, he grew hopelessly evil, and lost his place in the trinity of gods, who had completed the work of creation by making man. He then assumed the character of a sprite or demon. His power of changing his form, his astonishing tricks and mimicry, made him the clown of the gods ; but his witty side had scarcely a touch of good nature. He was always crafty, treacherous, and essentially wicked. In the crea- tion of man you will remember Lodur, Loki gave the red color and motion to the blood, vital heat, and the warmth of the animal nature. Many ideas attaching to the heathen Loki seem to have passed over to the popular Northern idea of the devil. The red flame color of his dress, and the flashes of fire from his dreadful eyes, show that he is a near relative of the ancient fire-god. The beast foot and the tail are later additions, or may have been grafted on to the conception from some linger- ing memories of a remote animal worship. There is also another difference to be pointed out — the devil of Northern folk-stories is often outwitted in his dealings with human beings, and appears in the light of a clumsy, stupid fiend ; but Loki always has his wits about him, and is plausible enough to deceive the gods. When at last they lay hold of him he is obliged to yield, for they express law and order, the regulating and binding powers of the 346 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. world, while Loki was looked upon as the irrespon- sible principle of nature. Loki was born in a leafy place, of his mother, dry foliage, and his father, the wind. His brothers were devastation and ruin. All his adventures point more or less directly to his nature. At one time he flutters along a wall like a bird, and peeps in at a window ; but he cannot fly away, because his feet are clogged. He is earthly fire. His name, Loptur, signifies the ethereal, and when he assumes the form of heavenly fire he is driven by storm- winds, and flies over the forest or is dragged over stones and rough ground. But his flights are not long. He must come down to earth to find food, and he allows himself to be shut up and almost starved. Then he lives only as a spark in a bed of ashes. His lips are sewed up, but he is not killed ; his heart glows in the form of a live coal until he goes into the abyss, and brings forth children with a giantess, the hidden metal. Then his heart is burned up and appears in the form of slag and cin- ders thrown from a furnace. Could we get at the very heart of the Loki myth we might possibly discover nearly all the old Norse- man thought and felt about the great mystery of evil, which pressed so hard upon him from an arctic climate and barren soil, and in the form of wild beasts swarming in the forest, and of savage human foes. We cannot wonder that his faith was dark- ened by the shadow of fatalism, or that Loki grew to be a very powerful and active agent in the affairs of life. Out of myths long lifeless, but which once LUKES PUNISHMENT. 347 lived in human hearts and in human action, we may still draw some consolation. We may even light a torch of hope at the bale-fire, the evil Loki, seeing that he was not created bad, but became so through the working of his evil passions in dark abysses, and might perhaps again climb to innocence and purity in the clear spaces of the sky. There are still some traces of Loki to be met in Northern traditions. When the fire crackles on the hearth the Norwegian house-mother tells her little ones that Loki is whipping his children. When the sun draws water the peasants say that Loki is drinking. They also believe he has the power to raise vapors, and when a peculiar tremulous motion is imparted to the air they say Loki is sowing his oats in the grain fields. When a fire breaks out they call it the red cock which crows over the roofs of the houses. 348 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. CHAPTER XXVI. THE TWILIGHT OF THE GODS. HE sublime myth of Ragnarock is probably -L based on the severe and violent change of season in the North, where the brief summer and the long winter seem in perpetual conflict. The encroachments of winter, in exceptionally hard years, and its apparent victory over light and warmth, may have led to the belief that the pres- ent form of the universe was limited, and a general destruction might be looked for to prepare crea- tion for a new birth. As summer seemed so often worsted in the battle, a natural dread and expecta- tion arose that it would finally be killed, and thus came into being the myth of the slaying of Baldur, the first act in the great drama of universal ruin. After Baldur was killed thick ice formed upon the earth, snow-storms raged with fury, whirlwinds of sleet and hail were let loose, and darkness and horror prevailed. It ought to be remarked that the long winter of the Edda corresponds to the glacial period, which geologists tell us at one time plated large portions of the earth’s surface with a solid armor of ice. This terrible time, which prob- ably existed, in fact, some millions of years ago, the poets and old myth-makers created from the THE TWILIGHT OF THE GODS. 349 imagination and the reality of the Northern win- ter. The ancients saw fire spouting from the craters of volcanoes, and they symbolized it under the form of a demon, and his child, the all-devouring wolf. It was the great enemy chained for a time, but which would one day break loose and burn up the earth, and send rolling clouds of smoke and tongues of flame up to heaven to burn and blacken the shining houses of the gods. But fire is not the only agent of destruction released on this dread day. The Midgard Serpent will overwhelm the land, and the powers of darkness unite with fire and water. Terrible days will befall human kind : “ Great abominations there shall be : an axe-tide, a sword-tide ; shields shall be cloven ; a wind-tide, a wolf-tide, ere the world perishes ; no man will then spare his brother.” The elder Edda goes on to tell us that Loki lay chained under the hot spring’s grove. In the iron forest, east of Midgard, the old giantess brought forth Fenrir’s progeny, one of which, named Skoll, will pursue the sun to the encircling ocean. The other, Hati, Hrodvitnir’s son, called also Managarm, will run before the sun, and will swallow up the moon. He will be sated with the lives of the dy- ing. On a height will sit the giantess, watching the dauntless Egdir (eagle) strike his harp. Over him, in the bird-wood, will crow the light red cock. Over the gods will crow the gold-combed cock that wakens heroes in Odin’s hall. But a soot-red cock will crow beneath the earth in Hel’s abode. Glad 350 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. shall the eagle scream, and with his pale beak tear corpses. Loki will steer Naglfar. All Jotunheim resounds. The dwarfs moan before their stony doors. The stone mountains crack, the giantesses stumble. Then shall come Hlin’s (Frigga’s) second sorrow, (Baldur’s death was the first.) Then shall all men their homes forsake. Smoky clouds shall encircle the all-nourishing tree, Yggdrasill. There are strong points of sublimity and pathos in this description, and it is well ,to note the terri- ble image of the wolf sated with the lives of the dying, of the screaming eagle that tears corpses with its pale beak, and of the dwarfs, moaning and helpless before their stony doors. The gods and heroes of Valhalla come forth cheerfully to fight their foes in the last day, al- though the Fates had long since foretold their down- fall. They ride forth to the last conflict with brave, high looks and bold hearts. There is nothing more beautiful and suggestive in all mythology than the courage of these gods spurring forth to death, un- der the shadow of a relentless destiny. The Odinic system of faith must perish, because it contains the seeds of decay. It is based on the idea of conflict, both in nature and in life and in the human heart, and the high aim of creation is peace on earth, good-will to men, which shall come after the old order has perished. Odin dies, but Vidar and Vali still live. Vidar is the imperishable, silent power in water, earth, and air, which brings all things to pass without noise or tumult. Vidar must operate in the new world as he did in the old, for nothing THE TWILIGHT OF THE GODS. 35 I can exist without his quiet force. Vali is the tri- umphant new year, eternal youth, that steps into the place of decrepit age, and restores the world. Baldur, the golden-browed summer, again appears and lives in harmony with his blind brother, Hodur. Thor perishes, but he leaves his children to the re- generated world. Conflict and endurance, which he typified, are at an end, and only Modi and Magni, young courage and strength, remain in nature. Hoenir also lives, who is the creative spiritual power, and operates in the soul, as Vidar acts in the natural world. When the great battle is over, the ever-living gods will gather in Gimli, the stain- less heaven, as clear as crystal. They will gather to the sound of trumpets, and the mighty and eter- nal One, who is greater than Odin, and whose exist- ence is more than once referred to in the Edda, will sit in judgment. Then men will live in peace with their old enemies — the giants and elves — and a final separation will take place between the good and evil. Glorious rewards await the righteous, but the wicked are reserved for dire punishments. We will now return to the sublime and terrible description of Ragnarock, or the Norse doomsday. In the beginning, the Edda tells us, will come a winter, called Fimbul-winter, during which snow will fall from the four quarters of the globe, the frosts will be terrible, the wind piercing, and the weather convulsed by storms and tempests. In those days the sun will impart no gladness. Three such fearful winters will pass, without one summer to mel-t the icy fetters. Three other winters of a 352 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. like kind will follow, during which war and carnage will fill the earth. Brothers for gain shall kill each other, and no man for mercy will spare either his parents or his children. In Voluspd, one of the Eddaic poems, it is said: Then shall brethren be Each other’s bane, And sister’s children rend The ties of kin ; Hard will be the age, And harlotry prevail. An ax-age, a sword-age, Shields oft cleft in twain ; A storm-age, a wolf-age, Ere earth shall meet its doom. Then terrible prodigies shall be seen in the earth. One wolf shall swallow the sun, and a great loss will that be to man, and the other shall devour the moon. This also will be a great disaster. The stars will disappear from heaven. Then all that binds the solid earth together will be loosened. It will be violently shaken. Trees will be torn up by the roots, and mountains will come tumbling down upon the plain. The Fenris-wolf will then break loose, and the sea will tear its way over the land, because the Midgard Serpent will writhe with all its might and come to shore. Then on the waters will float the death ship, Naglfar, which is made of dead people’s nails. For this reason it should be remembered that when any one dies with uncut nails he helps to build Naglfar, the completion of which both gods and men desire to put off as long as possible. In this world-flood THE TWILIGHT OF THE GODS. 353 Naglfar will float, steered by the giant Hrym. The Fenris-wolf will go forth with his enormous mouth distended. The lower jaw reaches to the earth and the upper jaw to heaven. If there were room the wolf would gape even more widely. Fire flames from his eyes and nostrils. The Midgard Serpent takes his stand by the side of the wolf, and vomits out floods of venom. During the destruction heaven is cleft in two, and through the gap ride the sons of Muspel. Surtur rides first, and both before and behind him fire flames. His sword outshines the brightness of the sun. As Muspel’s sons ride over Bifrost, it will break in pieces. They will take their way to the battle plain, called Vigrid. There will come also the Fen- ris-wolf and the Midgard Serpent. Loki will come there, and the giant Hrym with all the frost-giants. All the friends of the death-goddess, Hel, will fol- low Loki, but the sons of Muspel will keep their bright battalions apart from the others on the field of battle. Vigrid’s plain is a hundred miles each way. When these events have taken place, Heimdall, the white god, guardian of heaven, stands up and blows with all his might on Giallar-horn to summon every god to the assembly. Odin then rides to Mimir’s Well, the fountain of earthly inspiration, to consult with Mimir as to how he and his warriors shall en- ter into action. Then the great ash, Yggdrasill, trembles, and in this awful hour nothing in heaven or on earth is saved from dread. The gods and all the Einherjar, or chosen heroes, 23 354 tales from the norse grandmother. speed forth to the battle-field, led by Odin, clad in his golden helmet and shining corselet, and grasping his mighty spear, Gungnir. Odin places himself to fight the Fenris-wolf. Thor will be at his side, but he cannot help him because he is obliged to engage with the Midgard Serpent. Frey, the god of the fruitful earth, will fight with Surtur, and, after a terrible struggle, will fall. His defeat will be due to the lack of his good sword, which you will remem- ber he gave to Skirnir. Then will Garm, bound in Ginpa’s cave, the hound of Hel, be let loose. He is the most terrible monster of them all, and will fight with the brave Tyr, and slay him. Thor will gain great glory by slaying the Midgard Serpent, but he will fall back nine paces, and then drop dead from the venom spouted on him by the expiring snake. The wolf will swallow Odin, but at that moment the silent Vidar will advance, and, setting his foot on the monster’s lower jaw, with his hand he will seize his upper jaw, and thus tear and rend his mouth until he dies. Vidar can do this, for he wears wonderful shoes, made of stuff which has been gathering in all ages — the shreds of leather which are cut off to form the heels and toes of shoes. It is for this reason, we are told, that those who would render a service to the gods should take care to throw such shreds away. Loki and Heimdall will fight and destroy each other, after which Sur- tur will hurl fire and flame over the whole earth, and it will be totally consumed. The immortality of the soul is distinctly asserted THE TWILIGHT OF THE GODS. 355 in the prose Edda. Every one, we are there told, shall continue to exist in some one of the worlds throughout eternity. After the great burning many abodes will remain, some good and some bad. Gimli is the best mansion in heaven, but all those who love good drink will find a large store of it in the hall called Brimir, which stands in a heavenly country called Okolnir. The drinking heaven is an original thought, and, as far as I know, is not to be met with except in the North, where drinking formed one of the great pleasures of life. There is also a fair hall of red gold, which stands on Nida mount, and is called Sindri. In these halls shall dwell good, holy, and upright men. In Nas- trond there is a vast and dreadful house, with doors that face the north. It is formed entirely of ser- pents, wattled together in basket-work. The ser- pent’s heads are all turned toward the inside of the dwelling, and they continually pour forth floods of venom, which flows in streams through the hall, and in this terrible river wade perjurers and murderers: She saw a hall, Far from the sun. In Nastrond standing. Northward the doors look, And venom drops Fall in through loop-holes. Formed is that hall Of wreathed serpents. There saw she wade, Through heavy streams, Men foresworn, And murderers, And those who others’ wives Essayed to blemish. 356 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. It is a remarkable fact that the Norseman’s low- est and worst place of torment for the wicked was a serpent cave. The North produces few venomous reptiles, and, probably, none capable of inspiring much terror: and here we find another proof, if it were needed, that the Odinic system was brought from the warm countries of the East. A still more horrible place than Nastrond is Hver- gelmir, where' the relentless death-serpent, Nidhogg, preys on corpses, and where the River Slid falls from the east through poisonous valleys filled with mud and swords. The ring was a sacred symbol in the North, and we here see the vast circle which began with the creation of the universe, and which the birth of gods, giants, vans, men, dwarfs, and elves completed. This round of being perishes, but a new one is born as the magic ring, Draupnir, gave birth to new rings every ninth night. Odin and his y£sir formed only one of the great creative circles, and they were doomed to pass away. Ragnarock means the darkness or twilight of the gods. They came into being with the birth of light, and mainly represent the forces and activities of light. The great battle on the day of doom begins with the extinction of the sun. Darkness is the first and last great enemy. It is chaos come again. It loosens the bands that tie the world together, and takes all force from the great laws and harmonies of nature and life. The meaning of some of the obscure imagery is lost to us. We do not know who the dauntless THE TWILIGHT OF THE GODS. 357 Egdir or eagle was, nor why he is called the watcher of the giantess, who will sit upon a height and strike his harp. The light red cock, Fjalar, and the gold- combed cock that wakens heroes in Odin’s hall, and the soot-red cock that crows beneath the earth in Hel’s abode, appear to represent different forms of fire. Odin and his gods stand for natural and spiritual truth as then known. They seem also, in many ways, to typify the earthly career, full of trials, struggles, conflicts, and hardships, termi- nated by the apparent defeat of death. They must perish to give place to immortality. The images of this great poem are too vast and sublime to be fully comprehended. Here we have the greatest drama the human mind can conceive, compressed within a few brief sentences. The myth, doubtless, came down through the ages in a much simpler form, and was at last wrought over by the genius of some great poet, some Dante or Milton now forgotten. The sun swallowed up, the stars vanishing from the sky, the trembling earth and toppling mountains, the sea bursting over the land, and fire spouting from the earth, remind us of some of the sublime and awful descriptions of Revelation.* * The old Norse traditions were in all probability colored by the faith of the men who committed them to writing. They “ to whom the collection of the ancient pagan poetry of Iceland is commonly ascribed were men of Christian learning ; the one, the founder of a public school, the other, famous as the author of a history of the North, the ‘ Heimskringla.’ ’’—Max Muller’s “Chips from a German Workshop,” vol. ii, p. 192. They doubtless vivified and gave clean- cut distinctions to obscure legends that had been extant for ages. — E d. 353 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. The ship Naglfar, the largest of all ships, made of the finger-nails of the dead, is supposed by Grimm, the famous German scholar, to refer to the very long time which must elapse before the end of the world. Those who cut and burn the nails of the departed assist in prolonging the time. This strange fancy is, therefore, an image of duration. In the elder Edda Loki is said to steer this dreadful ship, but in Snorri’s Edda the giant Hrym is named as steersman. The Midgard Serpent, who turns and seeks the land, is an irruption of the sea through all the defenses of the shore. The venom he blows forth is foam, mist, and vapor. The cleaving or breaking of heaven’s crystal, the blue sky, with Surtur issuing through, at the head of Muspel’s sons, is an image unsurpassed for grandeur. Vig- rid’s battle-field seems to be the center of things, and there all ranks and orders of beings, from the frost-giants to the elves, assemble to witness the great fight. The myth of Vidar’s shoe seems a childish fancy, a fragment of a folk-story, inserted by accident in the terrible detail of ruin and disas- ter. Nastrond, the place of final punishment, means the strand of corpses, and Nidhogg is the gnawing serpent of death. Most of the heavenly houses refer to some aspect of the sky. Gimli is the clear, bright heaven ; Vid- blain and Audlung the spacious blue firmament and boundless ether. The Norseman, disheartened much of the year by stormy and lowering weather, gave expression in many ways to his ardent love of the clear, bright heavens, and placed there his fu- THE TWILIGHT OF THE GODS. 359 ture hope and joy. Okolnir means the warm abode, a thought so dear to the inhabitants of frozen lands that we are told the Esquimaux believe that fortu- nate souls go to the under world, which is warm and comfortable and well stocked with provisions, rather than to the cold, starved regions of the sky. There is reason to believe that this old faith pro- vided for the happy immortality of giants and dwarfs. In the many mansions of the supreme fa- ther there was room even for these undeveloped natures. All quarrels between mind and matter, darkness and light, good and evil, man's animal be- ing and his spiritual instincts and aspirations, were at last composed. The happy universe was to bud and blossom anew. The restored universe provides for the ultimate salvation of all beings except the most hardened and abandoned sinners. Three classes of these are ex- pressly mentioned. It is a little singular that cow- ards are not included in the list. For them even there was ultimate hope, but perjurers, murderers, and beguilers of other men’s wives were doomed to lasting torments in horrible Nastrond. The Greek mythology had a lowest depth corresponding to this place, called Tartarus. It was inhabited chiefly by those who had committed unnatural and mon- strous crimes. 360 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. CHAPTER XXVII. A NEW CREATION. HE Eddas tell us that after Ragnarock the -L earth will rise a second time from the ocean in radiant beauty. A second time order is evoked, but it is far more perfect and harmonious than be- fore. It is the ideal of the first creation realized, the promise of a perished world fulfilled in a new universe.* In this regenerated earth waterfalls will descend ; the eagle will again fly over to catch fish in mount- ain streams, and pleasant fields will abound where the grain grows unsown. The gods, those who have outlived the ruin of worlds, will again meet on Ida’s plain, where Asgard formerly stood. Vidar, the silent principle, and Vali, eternal youth, will sur- * In their traditional prophecies of a new creation the Norse myth-makers embodied the promise of the Almighty made, per- chance, at different epochs, and recorded about seven centuries be- fore Christ by Isaiah, chap, lxv, 17: “For, behold, I create new heavens, and a new earth:” which (chap, lxvi, 22) “ shall remain be- fore me, saith the Lord a promise to which Peter refers in his Second General Epistle, chap, iii, 13, in the words: “Nevertheless we, according to his promise, look for new heavens and a new earth, wherein dwelleth righteousness.” How the Norsemen became pos- sessed of this expectation is only conjecturable. In some form or other it seems to have been a part of the common property of man since the loss of Eden. — E d. A NEW CREATION. 36l vive, for neither the sea floods nor Surtur’s fire has harmed them. The sons of Thor, Modi and Magni, (strength and courage,) shall come, bringing with them their father’s renowned hammer, Mjolnir. From the abodes of Hel Baldur and his blind brother, Hodur, shall appear. And they shall sit down and talk together of the mighty earth-encir- cler, (the Midgard Serpent,) and the fight with the wolf and their ancient perils. They will recall the great deeds of old and the half-forgotten wisdom of the glorious gods. In the grass they will find the golden tables which, in the beginning of time, were possessed by the prince of the gods and Fjolnir’s (Odin’s) race, as it is written in the Edda — There dwell Vidar and Vali In the gods’ holy seats, When slaked Surtur’s fire is. But Modi and Magni Will Mjolnir possess And strife put an end to. Hcenir shall receive offerings there, and two brothers’ sons inhabit the spacious Vindheim. In Gimli there will be a hall brighter than the sun and roofed with gold. Virtuous people shall dwell there, and enjoy happiness forever. Then the mighty One will come to the council of the gods — he who rules all things. He will declare judgment and appease quarrels and establish peace that shall last forever. But from beneath the mountains of Nida the dusky, spotted serpent, Nidhogg, will come flying, and bearing dead bodies on his wings. 362 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. During the burning of the world caused by Sur- tur’s fire, a woman named Lif (life) and a man named Lifthrasir will lie concealed in Hodmimir’s wood. They shall feed on morning dew. Their descendants shall soon spread over the whole earth. What is still more wonderful, before the wolf de- stroys the sun she will give birth to a daughter far more beautiful than herself, and this maiden shall ride on her mother’s road, through the heavens, after the death of the gods. The sublime and awful conflict of Ragnarock is followed by this lovely picture of peace and har- mony in restored nature. The gods who survive the great burning belong not to time but to eter- nity. They underlie all the shifting aspects and changes of matter, and are the reality of things which science tells us can never be known in its es- sence — only in the way in which it manifests itself to our senses. Such is Vidar the Silent, who in- habits the solitudes and secret places of nature, and works we know not when or how, but brings all things to pass, from the formation of a crystal to the sprouting of a blade of grass. Such is Vali, the immortal infant, who steps into the place of the old, the decrepit, and the dying, and renews the world with fresh young life-blood. Such are the sons of Thor, Modi and Magni, who, after the great con- flict is fought out by their much-enduring father and his comrades, must still, as strength and cour- age, under-prop the foundations of peace. After the mighty revolution has worked through the whole circle of change., golden-browed Baldur is re- A NEW CREATION. 363 leased from Hel, and comes leading in his blind brother, Hodur. What a lovely picture is this, where all the op- posing forces, the warring elements, are reconciled and harmonized, and the enemies of the past sit down together in perfect peace ! It has been seized upon by the old poet of the Edda, who imagines the ever-living gods meeting on Ida’s plain, where ancient Asgard formerly stood, to talk over the events of the dim past, the age of conflict, and re- call the mighty deeds of the dead gods, who be- longed to the old world and an order of things which has perished. There, in the grass, they come by accident upon the golden tablets of the gods, which were dropped and forgotten ages gone, just as our modern antiquaries might chance to dig up an engraved stone in old Nineveh or Thebes, which, when deciphered, would throw a flood of light on the religions of the ancient world. The only hint of destruction in the renovated world is the picture of the eagle flying over to catch fish in the mount- ain streams. We have the grand image of death fleeing away over the dark mountains, in the form of the serpent, Nidhogg, who has now taken wing, and vanishes in the distance, bearing dead bodies upon his pinions. The old adversary that for ages lay coiled about the universe tree, eating away its substance in the darkness, has now become a winged creature, and we can trace its majestic course through the sky until it finally sinks down out of sight forever. Hcenir, who is to receive offerings in the new 364 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. world, is a creative spirit. His origin and attri- butes are always more or less involved in mystery. We know he was present when man was made, and bestowed upon him a certain third of his nature, which has been explained as the understanding. His gift was perhaps the power of spiritual percep- tion, as distinct from the vital force and the breath of life given by Odin. At any rate he is a more enduring creative power than Allfather, and there- fore lives in the regenerated world after the death of Odin. The two brothers, whose sons are to in- habit Vindheim, it is difficult to identify, although some scholars have held that this passage refers to Thor and Baldur. Gimli is here spoken of as the final, imperishable home of the good, as the hall of dread in Nastrond is the hopeless abode of the evil. In that passage of the Edda where we are told that the mighty One shall come to rule over the councils of the gods, we have proof that in some thoughtful minds there lived the doctrine of a God above all gods, imperishable, eternal, unlimited, a Being so dread, so supreme, and sacred, the myth-makers did not venture to give him a name, but describe him in paraphrase as “ the mighty One,” and “ he who sent forth the heat.” The preservation of the undying life principle is beautifully symbolized under the form of the woman, Lif, and her husband, Lifthrasir, (vitality,) who hide in the wood of knowledge, and feed on the morning dew, lying still and unharmed, and when the pow- ers of destruction have spent themselves, come forth to create a new race. In every change and A NEW CREATION. 365 process of decay, in every form of death, the life- principle hides and waits its turn to come forth and work new miracles of growth. It hides in knowl- edge, and has its seat in the divine mind, where lies all renewing and creative power. This is extremely beautiful, and the longer we reflect upon the myth the more we are struck by the depth and richness of its meaning. Before she is swallowed by the wolf, the sun brings forth a lovely daughter, to take her place in driving the light chariot through the heavens. This is the new birth of light, after the fierce struggles of fire and water, the breaking loose of chaos, and the reign of death and darkness. The reappearance of serene depths of clear sky, the young innocence and purity of light after a black tempest, can easily account for the myth of a new sun. When the mother dies amid the fear and trembling of the universe, the daughter, a pure young virgin, takes her place in the heavens. We have now come to the appropriate end of the doctrinal part of this well-rounded mythology. In the prose Edda the gods can relate nothing more to the inquiring Gylfi or Gangler. Their prophetic powers have found a limit, and the guidance of the universe is henceforth left to One whose ways are inscrutable and past finding out.* * L. A. Blackwell, in his “ Critical Examination of the Leading Doctrines of the Scandinavian System of Mythology,” affirms that “ a belief in a higher deity ” than Odin, “ in a real Supreme Being, may possibly have been entertained by a few enlightened skalds and Pontiff chieftains, but there is little or nothing to show that this be- lief was inculcated as a doctrine.” As in other nations, it may have 366 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. It now seems proper to glance briefly over the whole system of faith as held by our Norse ances- tors. We know that the creeds and articles of re- ligion held by any nation are quite different from the working, practical rule of life which people ap- ply to conduct. It was so in old times, and is so still. It is not to be supposed that the spiritual doctrines of the Odinic system were understood by the common people, who knew no god above All- father, and worshiped him principally under the symbol of the sword. But such as these men were, they were our forefathers, and it is well to try and know them just as they lived and thought and acted. All the noble and great things the race has achieved sprang from these worshipers of a war- god. All our saints, philosophers, poets, states- men, and thinkers must trace their line back to the old Saxon or Norse heathens ; and if we revolt at some of their ideas and customs we must exercise charity of the broadest kind, because of the half- been concealed from the vulgar as one of the unrevealable myster- ies. “ In the elder Edda there are only two allusions to such an omnipotent Being, and even these are very obscure, as the reader will find by the following literal translation of the strophes that con- tain them : 4 Then cometh the mighty one (inn uki) to the divine judgment — the potent form above, who all [things] swayeth. He giveth judgment, putletb an end to strife, and ordaineth laws, [or a holy peace] which shall last for evermore.’ — Voluspa, st. 58. ‘An- other and a mightier one [than Thor] whom I venture not to name, will then come. Few there are who can look beyond the time when Odin will go against the wall.’ ” — Hyndlu-Yd6, st. 41. Mal- let’s “ Northern Antiquities,” p. 483. The idea of a Supreme Being, once communicated to man, appears to be incapable of being wholly lost. — E d. A NEW CREATION. 367 unfolded nature of those ancient men, who had in them the germs of so much goodness, greatness, and moral grandeur. Their every-day religion was a working scheme, very narrow, but well suited to the mental state of its worshipers. They had but cramped notions of the physical world, the world of real things, for they possessed no maps, and had only the vaguest ideas of the extension of the earth’s surface. Be- yond the traditions handed down to him by ances- tors more ignorant than himself, the ancient Norse- man only knew the earth as he saw it with his own eyes or experienced it in his own person. But the time came when his spirit chafed at ignorance and the narrow limits of his life, when his restless nature drove him forth, and, as the world-renowned viking, he became the terror of Europe and the great explorer of the stormy western seas. But his myth-making and poetic period was then long over. It is impossible for us to imagine ourselves in the position of the ancient man ; but if we can fancy how it would be had we from infancy been de- prived of all true knowledge of the past, the gar- nered science, art, and wisdom of the world, we could partly reconstruct the old Norseman’s mind, and understand how he thought and felt. Though much less than the modern man, so far as accurate infor- mation and the extension of ideas go, he was greater in some other ways. As a child of nature he learned all that he knew at first-hand. The world was his only book, his powers of observation were quick- 368 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. ened, and the mystery of the world excited his im- agination and made him an unconscious poet. The extension of knowledge has rendered people prosaic. We have learned so much about causes that common things no longer excite us. The sky and clouds, night and day, cannot awaken wonder in ordinary minds. People must be unusually gift- ed to have these sublime things strike out new im- ages, and excite fresh emotions. But it was not so to the Norseman. The world was very narrow to him. He stood in the center of it, and felt the great and awful powers pressing upon him, brood- ing over him, filling him with joy and fear and won- der and adoration. When he asked why the wind blew, why the cloud thundered, why the waterfall tumbled down the steep mountain cliff, he was generally satisfied with the answers his imagination furnished, that a person like himself, though more powerful, lay behind the wind and the cloud and the cliff, and caused these appearances. Every thing in nature spoke to him with a human tongue. The earliest myths were his artless report of what he had seen and heard from those mighty friends or foes, who lived hidden behind thunder, mount- ains, and icebergs. Whether in the beginning those spirits were human ghosts, as some would have us believe, it is needless to inquire. However they originated, they became to all intents and purposes the spirits of those objects of nature which they were supposed to occupy and animate. But as the Norse race grew older, and thought more, it unconsciously formed what is called a sys- A NEW CREATION. 369 tem of faith, and wove into the simple old myths certain doctrines about life, death, and immortality, and these, as I have tried to show, were all colored by the national bias for warfare. But this system was narrow and close bound in the ring of destiny, except when the ancient mind became very clear, or, by a strange flash of inspira- tion, seemed to see the limitless heavens above As- gard, and the Almighty One sitting above the finite Odin. It was, perhaps, owing to these glimpses of a higher truth that the Norseman set a term to his gods, and believed, even while he loved them and lived by them, that they would pass away to make room for better things. But only the wiser minds may have seen the possibility of a holier religion. Ordi- narily the faith of Odin was all the Norseman felt that he needed. He could only worship gods who came very close to him and partook of his human failings. He loved them because they were imper- fect beings like himself, with certain attributes of power and majesty added. Odin was but a narrow spiritual sovereign, although he was fondly called Allfather. He could lay no claims to boundless wisdom, for he was created ; he had a beginning, and the giants, his progenitors, were wiser in some things than he was. He was superior in divine en- ergy and in the attributes of a moral law-maker and governor ; but to gain the wisdom that lay be- neath the earth he must quaff of Mimir’s well, and to acquire heavenly inspiration he must drink of the waters of the heavenly Urdar fountain. He even allowed himself to be bound in the dwarfs 24 370 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. house, as related in the Volsunga legends, and had to pay a ransom for a misdeed. When the doom is hanging over Baldur he is obliged to raise the rnwilling vala from her tomb and question her about the future. And on the dread day of Ragna- rock he consulted Mimiras to the best course to be pursued in the battle. Many more proofs could be gathered, if required, of his limited nature. Thor, though the great compeller, the bulwark of heaven, was rather stupid. We have seen, in some of the popular stories, how the giants could outwit him. Loki, with his quick wit and ready invention, was personified evil and the father of lies. His own wickedness at last overwhelmed him, but at times he seemed stronger than the combined forces of the JEsir. Frey, the beneficent god of the earth’s fertility, gave away his sword to gratify his love. Frigga, although she loved her son Baldur with all a mother’s devotion, had not the wisdom to see that the weakest thing that grows in winter would destroy her child. So with the other gods : there is every-where a limit to their powers, a flaw in their perfections. They were very human, and thus came close the hearts of those ancient people, like us, their remote descendants, in many ways ; and we have in us still some of the tendencies im- planted by that old heathen faith. But the Norseman, in his clearer moments, got glimpses of those elements of decay and death that lay hidden in the old faith. His heart was pro- phetic of its doom. The best minds in the North — minds like Olaf Tryggveson and St. Olaf— hailed A NEW CREATION. 371 Christianity as the purer religion which was to sup- plant their fathers’ gods. They had a hard struggle with the tough, stubborn heathenism of the lower orders of people ; for their own minds were like mountain-tops that catch the first rays of the rising sun long before the dark valleys are illumined. The old faith had strong twisted roots deep down in the soil, and for two or three centuries it sur- vived in corners and by-places after Christianity be- came the established religion. There was a time when the two existed side by side, and men could scarcely tell whether they were Christian or pagan. We hear of some who were Christians on land and pagans at sea, because the old gods, they believed, had always protected them on the waves. Many of the rites and ceremonies of the old faith insen- sibly crept into the new. The people no longer bowed down to idols, but they worshiped the im- ages of saints. Many of the customs which survived were harmless and kindly, and served to keep the heart open toward nature. It took ages to root out the idea that blood-re- venge was a sacred duty, a religious obligation ; and for this reason the new doctrines of forgiveness, humanity, and love could work but slowly in the people’s hearts, to temper their reckless courage and awaken new thoughts of life and death, of duty to God and to one’s neighbor, which the old re- ligion, grand and suggestive as it was in many ways, was incapable of arousing. Long after Chris- tianity became the nominal religion of Iceland the blood-feud raged so violently that all the best men 372 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. of the island were in danger of being extermi- nated. But after some centuries the wild spirit of the Viking was tamed. Warfare ceased to be a holy calling. The Norseman’s hand was no longer against every man. He had expended his terrible energies along the coasts of Europe by revolutionizing gov- ernments and pouring an infusion of new blood and an increased stock of vigor into weaker races. At home he was restless, because his land was small, cold, and barren, and furnished no adequate field for his boundless ambition. He was a great man in a confined sphere, and so he went forth seeking to conquer other lands. When he had made him- self master of a country his character changed and he became grave, courtly, polite, and famed for his indomitable pride. Such were the Normans who brought important elements of national life and lan- guage into England. The ancient Norseman belonged to what we call a fine stock. He has invigorated wide regions of the earth. The religion of strife he brought from the East, and remodeled, was but partial and tempo- rary ; but another and a mightier than Odin was to come from the East to tame those savage natures and bow those stubborn minds and break the yoke of superstition, and then Valhalla, with its glittering shield-maidens and its armed heroes, was to pass away like the baseless fabric of a dream. THE LESSER GODS. 373 CHAPTER XXVIII. THE LESSER GODS. I HAVE already pointed out the remarkable co- incidence between the Greek Zeus, (Jupiter,) with his court of twelve gods, and Odin, with his heavenly council of the same number. But it is difficult to settle positively which were the twelve great gods of the Greeks, and the same difficulty exists in the Norse system ; for whomsoever you include you appear to leave out others of equal im- portance. The tradition of the twelve gods may have sprung from the twelve judges who sat in the doom-ring of an earthly court, or it may possibly bear some remote relation to the twelve months of the year or the twelve signs of the zodiac. All the principal gods were provided with spacious and splendid houses. The rigor of the climate made the mind shrink from exposing them to its changes. In the warm South the lovely gods and goddesses could live in the open air or in the sea, or could recline on clouds, or mountain sides, provided with the slightest of draperies. But the shivering fancy of the North gave the gods abodes, where they sat and feasted in comfort. It even provided the mer- maids with swan’s plumage, which they could lay aside at pleasure. 374 tales from THE NORSE grandmother. We have already made acquaintance with the chief gods of the North, the principal members of that mighty ALsir family, and it now remains to consider the more humble brothers and sisters, each of whom ruled over some special department of nature or of life. Besides Odin, who, in a general sense, was the god of battles, there was a special god of valor, whose chief duty seems to have been to infuse courage into the warrior’s heart. Tyr is called the most intrepid of all the gods. As a giver of victory he was invoked by men of reckless cour- age, who for this reason were called Tyr-strong. You will remember that, when the gods wished to bind Fenrir, Tyr consented to put his hand into the monster’s mouth and that it was bitten off. To steadily hold the hand in a flame has ever been the extreme test of courage. The joint of the wrist, where Fenrir bit off Tyr’s hand, was called the wolf- joint. Tyr was the maimed, one-handed god, and this was his defect, as the loss of Frey’s sword was his. The impediments of the gods show how pro- foundly the old myth-makers had looked into them- selves. They molded their deities out of what they knew of their own natures, and never failed to put in the fault which hinders the greatest human being from attaining perfection. You will remem- ber that when Thor went to borrow Hymir’s pot for JEgir, who wished to brew beer for the gods, he was accompanied by Tyr. In Hymir’s myth Tyr is spoken of as the son of the giant and a beautiful giantess ; but he is elsewhere called Odin’s son by a giantess. Courage, on the moral side, is allied to THE LESSER GODS. 375 the gods, while its blind, brutal fury is joined to the lower forces of nature. The ancients spoke of giant- strength and As-strength ; the one is the strength of earth, the other of heaven. Loki twits Tyr with the loss of his hand, which makes it impossible for him to bear a shield. He also tells him that he has tampered with the affec- tions of his wife, and brags that the god of valor was unable to recover a cent of damage. But, as Loki was the prince of liars, we find nothing in the Eddas to confirm the truth of this story. Tyr is a nobler figure than the brutal Greek Mars, whom the fighting Romans made their chief god. The loss of his hand under circumstances so honorable to himself, though it detracts from the perfection of his godhead, throws over him a ray of human pathos. You will remember that Tyr falls at Rag- narock fighting with Garm, Hel’s watch-dog, whom he slays before expiring. We next come to a god of peace and joy, who filled the hearts of men with soft emotions. He loved feasts and good cheer and social intercourse and kindly communion. He is the good and wise Bragi, celebrated for his eloquence. He is the skilled orator, acquainted with the most elegant and correct forms of speech. He is the most charm- ing of all poets, and men and women skilled in poetry, or in the art of speaking wisely and well, are called Bragr-men and Bragr-women. Poetry was named Bragr in the North. He is a son of Odin, and wears his beard long. He who wore his beard in this fashion was called Skeggbragi, the 3 ?6 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. bearded poet. Perhaps this explains the fancy which poets frequently have shown for long beards. Bragi was very appropriately wedded to Iduna, the beautiful young goddess of immortality. She kept in her vase the magic apples which the gods were forced to eat when they felt old age stealing upon them. You will remember the great calamity which threatened the gods when, through the wiles of Loki, Iduna and her apples were enticed away from Asgard. Bragi is a great lover of peace, be- cause poetry and eloquence can only flourish in those intervals when war has ceased to distract the minds of men. He once offered to give Loki a horse and a sword if he would cease from stirring up strife among the JEsir. But Loki reviles and upbraids him for being the most cowardly of all the race of gods and elves present in Asgard. Iduna entreats her husband not to quarrel with the wicked Loki, and declares that she will refrain from speak- ing scoffing words of the reviler of the gods, and will try and pacify Bragi, who is somewhat excited by drink. But Loki responds to the gentle efforts of the peacemaker with taunts and insults ; for it was one of his pastimes to throw out malicious in- sinuations about the wives of the gods. The whole scene was probably invented to illustrate the peace- loving character of gentle Bragi, who fared not too well among the rude, wild spirits of the North. In the South music and poetry went hand in hand. They were twin-born, or existed in the same god. The infant Hermes (Mercury) sang while he played upon his tortoise-shell lyre ; Apollo played THE LESSER GODS. 377 upon the harp, while the Muses sang to his accom- paniment ; Pan, the rustic god, had a set of pipes made from the river reeds, on which he discoursed sweet sounds; but in Norse mythology music is seldom if ever mentioned as one of the attributes of the gods, and no god of music is spoken of in the Eddas. Men could not bestow music upon the ALsir before it had been created on earth. Many ages were to pass away before Germany, one of the chosen seats of modern music, could produce a Beet- hoven 6r a Mozart. But Bragi’s speech was like music; and we are told, in the highly metaphorical language of the an- cients, that runes were inscribed on his tongue. At all festivals and feasts, whether solemn or joyous, whether religious or social, the Bragarfull, or Bragi- cup, was quaffed, while skalds recited the heroic feats of dead and living heroes. The skald, or poet, who drew all his inspiration from Bragi, was a very important figure at Northern banquets, where long- haired jarls sat quaffing huge bumpers of mead, and loved to have their vanity tickled by listening to the recital of their deeds in battle. But, judging from many of the verses handed down to us, the skald’s effusions were often little better than a string of wretched doggerel. The forgotten skalds who threw the ballads of the Edda into their present form were true poets of a very high order. At the death of a king or jarl a great funeral feast was held, whereat all the clansmen and friends assem- bled. The heir sat on a lower bench in front of the high seat or throne of his father. As soon as Bragi’s 378 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. cup was brought in he arose to receive it, made a vow, and drank the cup, after which he was led up to take his seat in his father’s place. Bragi’s cup at funeral ceremonies suggests the theory that the earliest songs and poetical compositions were dirges sung or recited over the dead. The most primitive music among savage tribes is said to be the beating together of two sticks called tom-tom. This is used to call the tribe together for war, to summon the people to rude merry-makings, or to accom- pany the monotonous wail of mourners over the dead. Out of the tom-tom, and other devices as rude, we are told, has been developed every musical instrument we possess, up to the piano, the harp, and the organ. The dirge for the dead, according to this theory, grew into a religious hymn, when the departed chief, or great man of the tribe, was dei- fied and became a god. It developed into the heroic ode when the deeds of ancestors were sung or recited at feasts, and took a wider range when the exploits of the living were celebrated by the poet or wandering bard, who by that time had be- come a musician, and could accompany himself on a rude harp of five or seven strings. When guilds or clubs met to sacrifice to the gods the chief made the sign of Thor’s hammer on the meat and on the cup, and the first horn was quaffed to Odin for victory and power to the king; the second to Njord and Frey for peace and plenty, and the last to Bragi. This was the cup of vows, when hot-blooded young heroes made brags or promises to accomplish great and mighty things, so that the skald THE LESSER GODS. 379 might find a fitting subject for song in the recital of their deeds. Odin, as god of the intellect, you will remember, secured for the gods the poets’ inspiring mead ; but Bragi represents the poetic art as it comes into the homes of the people, and makes itself welcome by diffusing a cheerful, happy, and contented spirit. As a lover and advocate of peace Bragi is present at weddings and harvest festivals and all rustic merry-makings. He is the good and graceful speak- er, who refines the boorishness of the ignorant, and gives them ease and self-command. Odin took poetry up to heaven, but Bragi brought it down again to earth to be the solace and delight of man- kind. One of the most sacred and powerful of the gods is Heimdall, who is called the white or bright god. He was born in the dawn of time, on the confines of the earth, and is the son of nine sisters, giant- maidens, who nourished him on the strength of the earth and the cold sea. These maidens were named Gjalp, Greip, Eistla, Angeyja, Ulfrun, Ayrgjafa, Imd, Atla, and Jarnsaxa. He drinks mead in his bright hall, Himinbjorg, at the head of Bifrost- bridge. He sits as the watchman of the gods at the very end of heaven, to guard the bridge con- necting it with earth from the attacks of mountain giants. He is often wet through with the rain, or, as Loki says, gets a wet back. He needs less sleep than a bird, and his sight is so good he sees by night as well as by day a hundred miles around. His hearing is very acute, for he can hear grass 380 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. grow on the ground and wool on the sheep’s back. His horn, Gjoll, (Giallar-horn,) is hidden under the sacred tree, Yggdrasill, but when he blows it, its sound is heard through all worlds. He is called Hallinskeidi, (descending,) and Gullin-tauni, (gold- en-tooth,) because his teeth are of gold. The head is called Heirndall’s Sword, because he was once pierced through with a human head. The myth to which the above refers is lost. Heimdall had a contest with Loki about Brisinga- men, Freyja’s necklace. He is the personified rain- bow, and guards the borders of heaven from the en- croaching giants, who were always seeking to gain access to the bright worlds above. He is born on the verge of the universe, because the arch of the rainbow seems to spring from earth’s remotest bound. He is called the white god because he is pure white light before it has been divided into colors by the tiny prisms of the rain-drops. As he belongs to the air and the sea he is a van, but as he spans the sky he is Odin’s son. He is a pure nature-god, like Thor, and one of the most lovely in the whole Northern system. Iris, the Greek rainbow, will not compare with him in beautiful significance. He. has nine mothers, giant-maidens, who are supposed to refer to the different substances which the ancients thought en- tered into the composition of the rainbow. The colors of the rainbow were adjudged three, even in ancient times, therefore Heimdall’s mothers cannot refer to them. Nine was a sacred number with Northern as well as with Southern nations. The THE LESSER GODS. 381 Greeks worshiped nine sacred muses. ^Egir, and his wife, Ran, had nine beautiful daughters, the sea waves. Odin’s ring every ninth night shed eight other rings of equal weight. The cause of the rainbow was not known to the ancients, and as the most striking wonder of na- ture, if we except thunder, the excited fancy shaped the natural and familiar image of a bridge between heaven and earth, which, at rare intervals, was re- vealed to expectant eyes. The bridge must have a warder to warn the gods of approaching danger from the giants, and hence Heimdall’s double na- ture. He is the white and shining watchman who stands up against the sky, and blows his horn until it echoes through all worlds ; and he is the rainbow itself, as we know from his name, (descending,) which refers to its curved shape. It is probable that Heimdall is one of the oldest gods of the system. He was called golden-tooth, because his teeth were of pure gold. This simply signifies his general brightness and beauty, and is one of those childish fancies we find, here and there, in all mythologies. In Norway, the land of steep mountain cascades, the broken rainbow spanning such a fall, is still called a weather-post. From this idea of the pole or post of the world comes the name Heimdall. When the rainbow appeared in its full beauty, like the perfect arch of a heavenly bridge, they called it Bifrost, or the quivering way, which refers no doubt to the shimmer of color which seems to play over the bow. The curve of the bow gave rise to the myth of t 382 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. Gjallar-horn, which the guardian Heimdall blows to arouse all worlds. One end of it touches Gjoll, the horizon, the other reaches Himinbjorg, heaven, or the clouds. As sky-watchman and warder of the bridge, Heimdall is endowed with senses of marvel- ous keenness. He is personified vigilance, which never sleeps, and also a god of exquisite attributes. The rainbow bridge, though one of the simplest, is one of the loveliest, conceptions of mythology. It answers the intense longing of the human heart for a way to heaven, an escape out of the bondage of earth to the shining spheres which lie somewhere hidden behind the heavens. Heimdall’s horse is named Gulltop, gold mane : “ ’Tis Himinbjorg called, Where Heimdall, they say, Hath dwelling and rule ; There the gods’ warden drinks, In peaceful old halls Gladsome, the good mead.” Mark this beautiful picture of the white god, in his peaceful cloud-halls, quaffing mead from the golden beakers of the sun. Heimdall contended with Loki for Freyja’s neck- lace, Brisingamen. This is supposed to refer to the show of brilliant colors in the rainbow, in fire, and in the phosphorescence of the sea, from which Freyja was born. Her necklace is only a shimmer of splendid hues in the air, and over the summer sea. Heimdall, the divine care-taker, watches day and night, and never slumbers or sleeps. This lovely idea of trust in One above, that the savage and the THE LESSER GODS. 383 civilized man dimly feels when he lies down in the darkness, has been woven into a myth with the sleepless Heimdall, his horse and horn, in the high watch-tower of the sky. Heimdall, as personified light, appears in the myth of Rig. Blind Hodur, son of Odin, who, owing to the malice of Loki, slew his brother Baldur, is also reckoned a god, although in truth he is only the negation or shadow side of summer. He is blind but exceedingly strong, a kind of Norse Samson. Gods and men abhor his name, and would never hear it spoken, for it reminds them of the terrible misfortune his hand inflicted. His name refers, it is said, to war, and suggests the endless strife of light and darkness. He does harm merely because he cannot see the good, and thus typifies the dark- ened mind, buried in sense, which is not actively malicious, but sluggish and besotted, and may do calamitous things unawares, when it becomes the instrument of evil. How beautiful and pathetic is the picture of blind Hodur, who slays his brother unwittingly, and after Ragnarock is reconciled and led into the restored and purified heavens by the shining Baldur, who sits down with him in peace. Vali, the new year, was counted a god. He was born to avenge Baldur and slay Hodur, but after Ragnrock he appears reconciled and happy in com- pany with his brothers, who have been released from death. Vali is the son of Odin by Rinda. Allfather courted his mother under great difficulties ; for as Rinda was simply the hard-frozen ground, she long resisted his advances. But at last she gave birth 384 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. to a victorious crowned infant, with a bow in his hand. Vidar is the silent god, born of Odin and the gi- antess Grid. He has a very thick shoe, which some of the myths say was made of scraps of leather, and others of iron. This shoe did him good service at Ragnarock. He is the strongest of all the gods ex- cept Thor, and in time of trouble the JEsir turn to him for aid. Vidar lives in Landvidi, a place thickly overgrown with bushes and high grass. His home is in wild lairs and thickets and in the trackless forest. There is an instinct in man to go into the wilderness to meet God and to commune with his own soui. The old Norseman gave to the silent, mysterious, brooding spirit of awe that inhabits mountains and deserts the name of Vidar. He will live after the noisy Thor has perished, for he is the undying life of the planet, as Hcenir is the undying spirit of man. His shoe is the symbol of his strength. He makes no sound, but he leaves a mark. The forests and mountains and cultivated fields are clothed and stripped and clothed again. Vidar is at work. As Heimdall is God’s sleepless care, thought of in the form of a god, Vidar is his undying force, his changeless essence. The Norsemen regarded the Holmgang, or duel, as a religious act, and they made for themselves a god of single combats, called Ullur. He is also a hunting-god, and travels rapidly both on skates and snow-shoes. We are told that he crossed the sea on a bone — probably skates, for the most ancient skates were made of the bones of animals. With THE LESSER GODS. 335 these he crossed some portion of the frozen sea. Originally Ullur may have been some form of light or sun-god. This is indicated by his bow and rapid motion. Being an excellent archer he was invoked by fighters. He is sometimes called Ydal, and he was the son of Sif (mountain grass) and the step-son of Thor. Forseti, the presider, god, of justice and judgment, I have already told you, was the son of Baldur and Nanna. He was devoutly worshiped by the Fris- ians, and possessed an important temple on the isl- and of Heligoland. It is obscurely hinted that, after Ragnarock, he lived in heavenly Vindheim. Her- mod, as you will remember, was the son of Odin, sent to try and deliver Baldur from Hel. He is simply a messenger-god. The remaining sons of Odin, whose attributes are not well defined in the Eddas, are Meili, a brother of Thor ; Nep, or Nef, the father of Nanna ; and Hildolf. 25 386 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. CHAPTER XXIX. THE ASYNJUR. S the whole primitive system of mythology Jr\ proceeds from heaven and earth, father and mother god, the oldest form of earth-goddess is simply a mountain — Fiorgynn, Hlodyn, or the heaped or piled earth, without reference to its pro- ductive powers. She gives birth to Thor, the thunder-god. But although Fiorgynn, or Hlodyn, appears to be the oldest, she is not the most important earth- goddess. The place of Odin’s queen is assigned to Frigga. She. sometimes seats herself in Hilds- kjalf, the high seat of the universe, by the side of her spouse. We hear of no other goddess whose right it is to assume this exalted position. She has the dignity of Allfather’s wife, and protects mar- riage and the domestic hearth. As the matron of Asgard she is a very important character, and her influence is all thrown into the scale of a pure family life. She did not approve of the irregular marriages Odin entered into with her rivals, but those rivals were only different forms of herself under varying conditions of season and climate. Frigga is the rich, productive summer-earth. Her name comes from a root denoting fruitful. The TIIE ASYNJUR. 387 goddess had a magnificent hall called Fensalir, the deep, moist earth. She had nothing to do with barren mountains, tangled wild woods, or unculti- vated wastes. She spread her bounteous skirts over broad meadows, rich grain-fields, blooming orchards and gardens, and all varieties of tilled land val- uable to the husbandman. She was a more intel- lectual goddess than Hlodyn, and, in an imperfect way, was endowed with the gift of prophecy ; but though she knew man’s destiny she was doomed to silence, because the earth is profoundly discreet and keeps all secrets to itself. Frigga is the goddess of marriage, and her purity seems undoubted, although the malicious Loki reproached her for unfaithful- ness to Odin. Once, when Allfather was long ab- sent on a journey, she is said to have married his two brothers, Vili and Ve. What this myth means we cannot say, for we are unacquainted with the nature of Odin’s brothers. They probably sym- bolize some of the elements, as understood by the ancients — perhaps air, water, light, or heat — and in the absence of Odin they united themselves with Frigga, that the earth might bring forth. It is possible that a very ancient form of marriage, called polyandry, where one wife married several brothers of the same family, may be hinted at in this obscure myth. We know that this form of marriage was practiced in ancient India, but I am not aware that any traces of it are to be found in the North. Frigga had great honor and dignity, and is ranked with Freyja as the highest among the goddesses. In the temples these two goddesses were sometimes 388 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. accorded an equal rank with the most exalted of the Hisir. We are told of a temple in Iceland where their statues were seated upon thrones oppo- site those of Thor and Frey. It is still uncertain whether the sixth day of the week perpetuates the name of Frigga, Freyja, or Frey, or whether it was sacred to all of them. It is difficult to understand why this day has, for ages, been considered unlucky, and has gathered about it a great variety of super- stitions. Not one of the heathen deities to whom it possibly was sacred was a bringer of misfortune to the world, but, on the contrary, they were among the happiest and best-beloved of the gods of Asgard. It is more than probable that this superstition dates back no further than early Christian times, and arose in connection with the crucifixion of our Lord Jesus Christ on the sixth day of the week. Frigga was called Nanna’s stepmother, because this lovely goddess was the wife of Baldur. Her rivals in Odin’s affections were Rinda, Gunlod, and Gerda. These were all different aspects of Frigga, so changed by change of season that she did not recognize herself in them. Rinda, as you will re- member, was the earth’s frozen crust. She is still known to us as the rind, or hard outside of things. Gunlod is supposed to be the autumnal earth, whose juices are fermenting in fruits and grains. Odin, through his endearments, the warm sunshine and wooing air, obtained from her the poetic mead, Gerda is the mellow earth of spring that buds and blossoms forth under the genial light of lengthening days. She might be represented as a very young THE ASYNJUR. 389 girl, wearing snow-drops in her bosom. Frigga had a dress made of the falcon’s plumage, with which she could wing her way through the air. It refers, perhaps, to the flight of summer, when the earth loses its bright dress and puts on a somber suit of gray. Frigga had a beautiful dressing-maid and confi- dant, named Fulla, who wore rich, flowing tresses, bound with a golden band. She was a blithe, bux- om damsel, the same to whom Nanna, after her journey to Hel’s abode, sent back a finger-ring. This maiden had charge of Frigga’s slippers, and knew all her secrets. Her name, Fulla, tells us that she was the beautiful harvest goddess, or, as we might say, peace and plenty. Golden, rippling grain-fields are symbolized by the sunny shine and sheen of her loose hair. As mistress of the ward- robe, she carried Frigga’s casket of jewels, and helped both to put on and to take off her queenly garments, the verdure and bloom, the flowers and fruits of earth. The casket expresses the hidden riches of the ground. The veil, which Nanna sent from Hel as a present to Frigga, probably hints at the mystery with which she covers all her opera- tions, while Nanna’s ring is a sign of fruitfulness. Nanna could not keep it in the under-world, but must return it to earth, though she comes not back herself. Fulla is Frigga’s dressing-maid, but Gna is her messenger, who rides through the air and over the sea into all worlds, whither her mistress may send her on errands. Her good steed is called Hofvarp- 3QO TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. nir. Some vans (sea-gods) once saw her riding through the air, and called aloud : “ What flieth there, What goeth there ? In the air aloft what glideth ? ” To which Gna replied: “ I fly not, though I go And glide through the air On Hofvarpnir, Whose sire is Hamskirpir, And dam Gardrofa.” Gna may be the summer breeze, or a high, rapidly moving cloud. The name of her horse, and of his father and mother, indicate an airy spirit, borne on- ward with great speed. She is related to Frigga as Iris is to the Greek Hera, or Juno. Another beautiful young goddess, closely con- nected with Frigga, is Hlina, or Hlin. She helps those whom Frigga wishes to free from danger. We know that Hlin is an earth-goddess, because Frigga is sometimes called by that name. She is the warmth of summer, the life-preserving principle in plants, and she guards vegetation from the dan- ger of cold. We can imagine this lovely young goddess tripping noiselessly about the earth to sheath the flowers, and cover the leaf-buds with woolly or glazed coats, and to save the sprouting grain from late frosts that would gladly destroy the promise of the year if good, kind Hlin did not spread her cloak over all growing things. Sif, the wild grass, is even more famous for her head of hair than golden-tressed Fulla. She takes THE ASYNJUR. 391 possession of mountain sides and uncultivated fields, and is kept ever fresh and young by brim- ming mountain torrents. She fascinates the' poet’s imagination more than Fulla, who provides bread for the people. Loki, you know, played her a very bad trick by burning up her tresses one hot sum- mer, and had to get the underground people to make her a new set of golden locks. You already know the pathetic story of Nanna, the busy activity of summer, who dies with her husband, and of Siguna, the hot spring, who watches by the chained and tortured Loki. To this beautiful group of nature-goddesses — fit subject for the pencil of some great artist — belongs Iduna, the wife of Bragi. She is called a daughter of the elf Ivald, but he is not the same as the father of those cunning dwarf smiths, of whom I told you. Iduna’s dwelling is called Brunnakr. In Odin’s “ Raven Song,” an obscure poem that no one has yet interpreted, Iduna falls from Yggdrasill to the lower regions. Odin then sends her the dress of a wolf, and delegates Heimdall, Bragi, and Loki to find out what she knows about the length of time that heaven and the lower regions are to endure. She does not answer the questions put to her, but bursts into tears. Her fall from the universe tree, like a leaf, seems to indicate that she is tree verdure, as Sif is mountain grass. She protects the fruit of life. Loki plots against Iduna as he plots against Sif, because in a droughty summer the heat kills and dries up the leaves, and exposes the fruits of gardens and orchards to danger. She is the symbol of per- 392 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. petual youth, and can therefore renovate the failing energies of the gods, but when she sinks down into the under-world, as the leaf sinks into the mold, she is sad and weeps, thus symbolizing the melan- choly of autumn. Iduna resembles both the Greek Proserpine (spring bloom) and Hebe, the cup-bearer of the gods. Here we have perhaps the most exquisite group of nature-goddesses that mythology can furnish. There is another group of almost equal beauty clustered about Freyja, the Northern Venus, who was the loved friend and companion of Frigga, and is generally united with her in the Northern fancy. Freyja is the love-principle in all nature, and she is born of the sea, because of its beauty and its fic- kleness. Her famous necklace, Brisingamen, is probably the phosphorescence of the waves, which gives forth exquisite colors. Her necklace seems to be related to her power, as the girdle or cestus of Aphrodite (Venus) is to hers. Freyja, as you know, was the daughter of Njord, the sea-king, and the sister of Frey, the earth’s fertility. She was essen- tial to the process of growth, as moisture is neces- sary to the sprouting plant. She united all beings in marriage. We know that Freyja was given as a hostage to the gods along with her brother. Born of the vans, air and sea divinities, she went over to the ^Esir to make peace, and here we have another proof of her uniting power. Freyja lives in Folks-vang, or among the people. She is a goddess of humanity. Her THE ASYNJUR. 393 hall is called Sessrumnir, (roomy-seated.) She fills homes with children, and brings abundance and prosperity. But the love which unites men and women may be evil as well as good. It may excite low passions, stir up strife, and cause bloodshed. The character of Freyja is therefore not free from violence. She partakes of the nature of a Valkyrja, or chooser of the slain, and when she rides to the field of battle, one half of the slain belong to her and one half to Odin. For this reason she is some- times called Valfreyja, goddess of the slain. It has been surmised that her mission, as a death-goddess, was to reunite husbands and wives who had sin- cerely loved each other in this world. Freyja delighted in love-songs, and was invoked by all lovers. Her character is made up of contra- dictions, for it embraces many varieties of love, from the divine principle that animates the soul of deity down to the brutal instincts of beasts. In all aspects she is beautiful, and in some of them terri- ble. Freyja married Odur, the intoxicating pleas- ure of love, which soon passes away from souls not raised to the contemplation of higher things, and leaves only sorrow, regret, and satiety. Freyja and Odur had one daughter named Hnossa, (highest en- joyment,) who is so lovely that whatever is beauti- ful and beloved is called by her name. Odur, ow- ing to his inconstant nature, left Freyja to visit distant lands, and since that time the goddess is sad, and often weeps, and her tears are drops of pure red gold. She has traveled over the world in search of her faithless husband, and she bears many 394 TALES from THE NORSE grandmother. names, because each people spoke of her in their own tongue. She is called Mardoll, (sea-nymph,) Horn, (im- petuous current,) Gefn, (giver,) and Syr and Van- adis, (beautiful sea-nymph.) Most of these names relate to Freyja, as a sea-goddess, and point to her origin and birth. The treacherous, uncertain na- ture of the sea is allied to the caprice and fickleness of earthly passion. Water raised to vapor forms the beauty of the visible heaven, as love exalted becomes perfect spiritual beauty; but love brought down into the mire is like water in muddy ditches. Freyja presides in the home where happy children surround their loving parents, and there she is a good and beneficent providence. In spite of all her caprices she is captivating to the fancy, and will ever remain the poet’s idol. Frey and Freyja are different aspects of the same principle, and really mean master and mistress. Frey is the deity of noble, well-born men, and Freyja, of women of exalted station, who were called Freyjor. She sheds the charm and sweetness of life over such as these, and in her essence finds easy access to all hearts. There is a myth of late date and small value, which relates how Freyja gave herself to some skilled dwarfs to win the necklace, Brisingamen, which they had made. Loki discov- ered the fact, and revealed it to Odin, who com- manded him to get possession of the necklace. This was difficult to do, as Freyja kept it in her locked bower. The weather was cold, and made the fire-god shiver, but,- at last, he transformed him- THE ASYNJUR. 395 self into a fly and slipped through a hole in the roof. Thus he contrived to secure the ornament, and, unlocking the bower, departed with it to Odin. But Freyja is not slow in discovering the trick by which she has been defrauded, and, repairing to Odin’s hall, she upbraids him with the theft, and recovers her necklace. This myth is not very ancient in its present form, but its main outlines may have been borrowed from one much older, and, if so, it undoubtedly relates to Freyja as a nature-goddess. She surrenders herself to the dwarfs — the subtle, silent, busy powers of growth in the dark ground, and secures Brisinga- men, the aurora of beauty that in summer crowns sea and air and earth. Her locked bower is prob- ably the ice-bound winter world, which Loki, the fire-god, melts and penetrates. He carries the neck- lace off to heaven, but Freyja, by complaining to Allfather, recovers her treasure, and then skies be- gin to soften, and the glow of spring beauty plays over all nature. Freyja had her earthly favorites whom she helped and protected. In the story of Hyndla, she visits the giantess, Hyndla, and requests her to ride to Valhalla and ask success for her Norse favorite, Ottur, who has been deprived of his estates, and is obliged to go to law. She promises to give the giantess a safe conduct, and to appease Odin and Thor, who are the rank enemies of her race. In order to make good his title to the disputed prop- erty, Ottur must enumerate the names of all his ancestors; but he is ignorant of the past, though 396 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. devoted to the worship of Freyja. The goddess wishes to help him, but not being sufficiently versed in the knowledge of antiquity, which belongs to the older giant race, she goes to wise Hyndla, who is thoroughly informed in regard to the pedigrees and the destinies of gods and men. Hyndla consents to give an account of Ottur’s ancestors, and of several noble old Northern fam- ilies. She concludes by speaking of the origin of the gods, and of a god more mighty than all, who is to come after Ragnarock, and whom she dare not name. She refuses to prophesy beyond the twilight of the gods. Freyja then requests her to give Ottur a drink of remembrance that he may be able to recall all he has heard two days hence, when his lawsuit comes on. Hyndla refuses the request, and indulges in abusive language ; where- upon Freyja breaks forth in wrath, and threatens to build a fire around the giantess unless she com- plies. At the breaking out of the morning aurora Hyndla gives the drink, but she places a curse upon it, which Freyja removes by blessings and prayers to all gods for the success of Ottur’s lawsuit. Freyja’s encounter with Hyndla seems to point to some old nature-myth, of the struggle of the principle of growth with the giant resistance of the frozen ground. On this has been grafted one of those fabulous legends so gratifying to the vanity of the ancients, by which they traced their lineage up to the gods. As Freyja watches over the growth of families she is the presiding deity at Hyndla’s narration. THE ASYNJUR. 397 We can now contemplate Freyja in the whole course of her development. We see her first as a van or spirit of air and water, who must aid her brother Frey in fructifying the ground. Presently she is transformed into the capricious, wayward, idolized deity, who unites all beings in love. Then she appears at the family hearth — dignified, noble, serene — surrounding family life with the holiest sanctions. Then we see her as a war-goddess, com- pletely armed, who, by the violence of her sway, leads to deeds of blood. Then she is the race-god- dess, watching over the genealogical tree, and wa- tering it with the cup of remembrance ; and, lastly, she is the goddess of death, who receives her quota of slain heroes and the souls of noble women into her heavenly abode. Freyja was so closely united to her beloved brother, Frey, in all her attributes and symbols, that she, too, possessed a golden boar, called Gullin- bursti, or Hilda’s vini, (the swine of war,) which was made for her by the dwarfs Dani and Nabbi. This wonderful pig lights up the thickest darkness with its golden bristles. It is said that the feminine title of rank in Denmark and Germany — fru, frue, and frau — can be traced to its root in Freyja. Thus the queen of love, who so long ruled over men's hearts, still gives her name to the queen of society and the mistress of the family. Grouped around Freyja are several subordinate goddesses of a kindred nature. Liofn or Sjofn is one of these, who brings thoughts of love to both men and women. A lover is called Liafin. Lofna, is a 398 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. goddess appealed to by those who have love troub- les. She has the permission of Odin or Freyja to bring together those who love each other in spite of all difficulties. She is called Lof, praise, because she is a goddess beloved and praised by men. Vara, is the goddess who listens attentively to troth plighted between men and women, and pun- ishes those who break their vows. She is wise and sagacious, and nothing can be hidden from her. As love is secret, she is endowed with marvelous insight. Besides these two great groups of goddesses — one, presiding over the earth’s fruitfulness, and creating the comfort of physical life, the other uniting men and women by love, and presiding over homes, families, and domestic peace — there remain several others, having distinct functions. Eir is a good doctress or leech. Among the ancient Germans, Tacitus tells us, women had in their keeping all the secrets of leech-craft. Their knowledge probably did not extend further than the properties of roots and herbs, nor their surgical skill beyond the power to stanch bleeding, and bind up wounds. There were also spae-women, or enchantresses, in the North, who were supposed to have miraculous heal- ing power. Doubtless, magic arts entered very largely into all leech-craft. Those early doctresses were about as well skilled in the healing art as the medicine-men of our native Indians. But, as all the medical art that existed was entirely in the hands of women, it was eminently proper that the divine doctor should wear a woman’s form. THE ASYNJUR. 399 I have already spoken of Saga, goddess of history, who sits and converses with Odin by the ever-flow- ing stream of Time. She is one of the noblest figures in all mythology. There are several goddesses drawn from the giant race. The giant maidens differ materially. Some of them are wise and lovely, others are malignant and hideous to behold. Gefjon marries with the giants, although she belongs to the Asynjur. There is a legend about Gefjon which shows that the Danes had good cause to worship her : King Gylfi the Wise, a man well skilled in magic, the same who questions the gods in the prose Edda, once ruled over the land which is now called Svithiod, (Sweden.) It is told of him that, on a certain occa- sion, he gave a stranger woman who had pleased him with a song, as much of his kingdom as she could plow in a day and a night. This woman was called Gefjon. She took four oxen from the North out of giant world. They were the four sons she had borne to a giant. These she harnessed to a plow, which made such a very deep furrow that it detached part of the land of Sweden. The oxen drew the fragment away westward out to sea, and there the goddess established the land and called it Sseland. Where the land was plowed and drawn away now appeared a lake called Malar Lake, and the inlets and bays of this lake correspond exactly with the headlands of Saeland. This is a geograph- ical myth, and shows the very fanciful manner in which the ancients accounted for the configuration of sea and land. 400 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. We have three principal forms under which the ocean is symbolized. Mimir’s well is the great en- circling deep, where the sun sinks and where Odin goes to drink in wisdom. ^Egir signifies the stormy, turbulent mid-ocean, friendly to the gods in fair weather, and with whom they annually feast. Njord, the gentle shore divinity, inhabits the ship-meadow, and has been fully adopted into the ^Esir family. He is a pledge that the ocean shall not destroy the land. Ran, zEgir’s wife, represents the cruel, craving na- ture of the sea, which strives to swallow all that floats upon it. Her name means robbery, or rob- bing, ^and expresses the desire of the sea for a hu- man sacrifice. She catches the bodies of drowned people in her net, and keeps them in her own abode. She has nine beautiful daughters, the waves, who are not friendly to human beings. In some parts of England a water-spout is still called an ^Egir, after the old, long-forgotten god of the sea.* There were local gods worshiped in some parts of the North who did not belong to the zEsir family. They were probably remains of an old religious sys- tem which had mainly perished or been driven into obscurity. One of these was Halogi, (high flame,) or Helgi, (holy,) who was a king of the district, and gave his name to Halogaland, or Holgaland. * On the eastern coast of England the great tidal wave frojn Hel- igoland, which smites the shores and runs up the rivers with such resistless force twice every day, is still called the ZEgir by people of all ranks and classes. They have forgotten the old sea-god, but still perpetuate his name in the huge, foaming billow. — E d. THE ASYNJUR. 401 He may have been, as his name indicates, an old Finnish fire-god. He had three daughters — Thor- gerd, Horgabrud, and Irpa. The first of these was devoutly worshiped by wicked old Hakon Jarl, who, it is said, sacrificed to her his little seven-year-old boy, Erling, to gain a victory over the Jomsberg pirates. Thorgerd was a fighting goddess, and is said to have appeared on this occasion in a raging hail-storm from the North. The superstitious pirates thought they saw both Thorgerd and her sister Irpa on board the jari’s ship. An arrow flew from each of her fingers, and every arrow slaugh- tered a man. This ferocious goddess was also wor- shiped in Iceland. 26 402 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. CHAPTER XXX. MORALITY, SOCIAL LIFE, AND ANCIENT WORSHIP. ORTHERN mythology contains but a small 1 ^1 amount of direct moral teaching; but, small as it is, it is more than can be found in kindred sys- tems of ancient faith. The savage man feels the need of propitiating spirits by prayer and sacrifice before he feels the need of maxims to guide him in his dealings with his neighbor. Men did not meet together in the temples to be instructed in duty, but to appease and gratify the gods. Such religious instruction as they received was given them by the godi, or priest, who delivered the asa doctrines orally, often in the form of odes or ballads, which were probably recited at the festivals. The ballads composing the elder Edda may have been thus re- cited at Yule-tide and other great meetings. Allfather was judged a righteous god, who gave victory in battle to the just cause. But we are no- where told that the fallen hero who embraced the unjust cause was barred out of Valhalla. Some scholars would have us believe that traces of a higher doctrine are to be found, both in the Eddas and in the later Sagas. We are told that iniquitous men, through brave, could not enter Valhalla: that the state after death was according to the life. MORALITY, SOCIAL LIFE, AND WORSHIP. 403 “To the good death appeared as a bright goddess of deliverance; to the wicked as a dark and pursu- ing deity.” This interpretation of the Norse doctrine of future rewards and punishments is mainly based on that passage in the Edda where three classes of sinners are mentioned who will endure endless torments in Nastrond. These are murderers, perjurers, and the betrayers of other men’s wives. Probably any man, though as brave as Odin, who committed either or all of these crimes would be excluded from Val- halla. Hel’s abode was not a place of torment. Her name is generally derived from a root meaning intense cold, and in the popular stories Hel is always spoken of as a cold place where provisions are scanty. The great German scholar, Grimm, de- rives Hel from a word meaning to conceal, in the sense of subterranean. We know her realm was not a place of punishment, because Baldur, the bright god of innocence, went there to live after death, and received great honors in Hel. The latest theory in regard to the underground world of the dead traces its origin to the very ancient custom of cave- burial. As the soul was supposed to live in the grave with the body, the idea was gradually devel- oped of a vast subterranean region inhabited exclu- sively by spirits. The characters of the gods had a powerful indirect moral influence on the minds and the conduct of their worshipers. The people chose favorite deities, and their whole lives were more or less shaped in conformity to these ideals. There were a few 404 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. broad, simple, moral principles like honor, purity, courage, hospitality, and truth, which the gods seemed to inculcate by example. Only large dis- tinctions of right and wrong were much regarded. In a general way it was believed that the gods would reward righteousness and punish injustice. Courage took precedence of all the virtues. A man might be a saint in other respects, but if he was a coward there was a doom reserved for him equal to that of malefactors. There is a certain consist- ency in the glorification of courage in its best sense ; for without it the most saintly virtues seem to lack a solid foundation. But the abuse of courage, stim- ulating the war-like and aggressive spirit, has filled the world with graves. Among the Eddaic poems there is one devoted to ethics, or morals, called the Hava-mal. In old times the simple people believed that Odin had composed this poem and given it to mankind for their guidance ; but it is, in fact, only a string of maxims which embody the earliest practical wis- dom of the people about every-day life, and which we call proverbs. Many of these are shrewd bits of common-sense, which tell men howto manage their affairs and to insure peace at home and pros- perity in business. They are hints toward a pru- dent and well-regulated life, which probably grew into their present form in the experience and prac- tice of ages. Among a people much given to quaffing huge horns of beer the duty of temperance would naturally be enjoined by the old proverb-maker. “ The more MORALITY, SOCIAL LIFE, AND WORSHIP. 405 the drunkard swallows,” says the Hava-mal, “ the less is his wisdom, until he loses his reason. The bird of oblivion sings before those who inebriate themselves, and steals away their souls.” In another sentence we have the germ of several English proverbs about home ; and we see how very long and deep are the roots of this sacred love of home and hearth said to be peculiar to Northern nations, and which underlies so much that is beau- tiful in domestic life : “ One’s home is the best home, though never so small. Every thing one eats at home is sweet. He who lives at another man’s table is often obliged to wrong his palate.” In the next sentence is drawn the broad dividing line between heathenism and Christianity. The Gospel says, “ Love your enemies, do good to them that hate you and despitefully use you,” but all over the heathen world these maxims of the Hava- mal prevailed : “ Love both your friends and your friends’ friends ; but do not favor the friend of your enemy. Make your friend’s misfortune your own, but give your enemy no peace.” There are several beautiful sentiments pertaining to friendship : “ Never be the first to break off rashly with your friend. Sorrow consumes the heart when you have no one to whom you can open your whole mind. That is communion of soul where each can say confidentially to the other all his thoughts. Any thing is better than to be false. He is not a friend who speaks only fair words.” Though the Norsemen dearly loved the sunshine and the bright gold of the South, they were neither 4 06 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. sordid nor ungenerous in their use of money. The Hava-mal says : “ While we live let us live well, for be a man never so rich when he lights his fire, death may perhaps enter his door before it is burned out. Remember that earthly riches are perishable, and in connection therewith struggle to gain a good reputation and a renown which shall reach beyond this life, and be cherished and honored by posterity. The master of the house should be cheerful at home, kind to his guests, and circumspect. Let him be attentive and affable.” So few Norsemen were satisfied with their lot that the sage of the Hava-mal felt it incumbent upon him to enjoin contentment as a supreme vir- tue : “ The heart alone knows what passes within the heart, and that which betrays the soul is the soul itself. There is no sickness or malady more severe than not to be content with one’s lot.” The next passages show a wise tolerance of hu- man weakness and infirmity, a belief in the soul of good in things evil : “ Where is there to be found a virtuous man without some failing, or one so wicked as to have no good quality ? The recogni- tion of man’s imperfections should challenge in him a struggle against his own evil propensities, and forbearance toward the weakness of others.” These are a few of the most striking passages in the old Norse book of morals. It is too long to insert as a whole, and would teach us nothing new as to the character and customs of the people. The myth-making age is distinct from the age which produces systems of morals. The one is a MORALITY, . SOCIAL LIFE, AND WORSHIP. 4 oy childish period, when the gods are supposed to chiefly take note of the observance or neglect of their worship. The other is a thoughtful age, when deity is supposed to give more heed to man’s treat- ment of his brother than to prayers and oblations. The gods of mythology, especially those typical of the various activities of nature, are moral in their essence, although they may not seem so in their lives. Odin unites himself to Frigga, to Rinda, and to Gunlod, but as soon as we know that these va- rious wives are different states of the earth — the fruitful, the frozen, and the hidden strength of the ground — the immoral idea vanishes, and Allfather is saved from reproach. Nearly every process of animate and inanimate nature was pictured to the mind under the form of a marriage, and perhaps .it might be shown that this idea is as philosophical as ft is highly poetical. The government, whether in Norway under kings and jarls, or in Iceland under priestly chieftains ruling over things, was always aristocratic. There is a curious old myth showing how the different so- cial orders which divided the ancient Scandinavian world came into being. In this story Heimdall, who was the guardian of heaven, figures as a sun- god, and wanders through green ways and along the sea-shore. He is a strong, active, upright deity, and takes the name of Rig or Rigi. The earth was then but thinly peopled with the immediate descendants of Ask and Embla, the first man and woman. Heimdall first visits a hut inhabited by Ai and Edda, (great-grandfather and great-grandmother.) 408 tales from THE NORSE grandmother. He is warmly welcomed, and remains three nights. He then goes on to where Afi (grandfather) and Amma (grandmother) live in a more comfortable dwelling, and pays them a like visit. Lastly he wends his way to Fadir (father) and Modir, (moth- er,) who possess a splendid mansion. Owing to his beneficent power it happens that each hostess gives birth to a child some months after his visit. The babies are sprinkled with water at the moment of birth, according to an old Norse custom identical with infant baptism. Edda’s (great-grandmother’s) child was born in a hut, and is the natural slave of his betters. He is named Thrall. Amma’s (grandmother’s) son is called Churl, and is a peg higher in the social scale. He is the ancestor of the peasant race. But Modir’s son re- ceives the name of Jarl, (earl.) He marries Erna, a daughter of Hersir, (baron,) and the youngest of their sons is named Konng, (king.) All three children have a numerous offspring; but Rig particularly watches over the race of nobles, and is anxious about their nurture and education. The poor little Thralls and Churls must scramble up in life as best they can. The Thralls have black hair, and are coarse and uncouth in feature, and of low, deformed stature. They are born clodhop- pers, and must toil unceasingly that by their labor the Churls may obtain sufficient yield from the soil to enable them to pay a high rent to the nobles, who live in splendor and without work. Thrall’s sons bear names appropriate to their low origin, and are called Frowsy, Stumpy, Plumpy, Sootyface, MORALITY, SOCIAL LIFE, AND WORSHIP. 409 Slowpace, and Homespun. The daughters are known as Lazybody, Cranefoot, and Smokynose. The Churls were a little better formed than the Thrall family. They are described as having red hair and a florid complexion. The sons were named Stiffbeard, Husbandman, Smith, etc. ; and the daughters, who, in beauty and grace, are con- siderably superior to Thralls’ maidens, are called Pretty-face, Swan-neck, Blithe-speech, and Chatter- box. The Nobles are renowned for beauty. They have fair hair, clear white skins, and piercing eyes. Their sole occupation is to practice with the sword and javelin, and to break and ride fiery steeds. They employ themselves in hunting and the chase, and kill time by many elegant amusements. The names of Jarls’ sons denote relationship, like cousin and nephew. They mark the importance of family ties and the value of aristocratic blood. This curious old myth indicates the high-water mark of the caste spirit in the JJorth. The poet gratifies his aristocratic passion by inventing a dis- tinct origin for each social order, but, oddly enough, he makes the Thrall family older than all others. Thrall and Churl were obliged to subdue the earth by their labor, and make it a pleasant abode for the high-born fighting Jarl. For ages the ideas contained in this myth operated to keep down the toiling mill- ions under the heel of the aristocratic class. Only a little more than a century ago did the world be- gin to learn the great lesson that God created all men free and equal, instead of showing the cruel 410 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. injustice and partiality which would have con- demned poor Edda’s son to eternal vassalage. The truth, so simple to us, that all men are enti- tled to the fruits of their labor, and to the means of education and improvement, cost millions of lives, and created the greatest revolution the world has ever known. It was after Jarl had brutalized the children of Thrall and Churl, and deprived them of every right by binding them down as slaves of the soil on which they labored, that he probably employed his skald, or poet, to invent the above fable. But the day came when poor Thrall and Churl began to understand that they too were hu- man beings, and had the power to think and speak, and to call themselves men. They too learned the use of weapons in self-defense and in fighting for their own liberty, and since that time Jarl has been less loud in his claims, and more modest in the as- sertion that he was made by a separate act of crea- tion, and was the especial favorite of heaven. Thrall and Churl, reduced to the extreme limit of misery and degradation, which they could no longer endure, brought about the French Revolution, and have struck almost every blow for freedom in mod- ern times. We now call them the sovereign peo- ple. The aristocratic and caste spirit was very strong in the North. The Norman conquerors brought it over into England, and the Norman barons were the proudest and haughtiest men of their day. But the spirit of civil and religious liberty was stronger than caste, or feudal privilege, and folded MORALITY, SOCIAL LIFE, AND WORSHIP. 41 1 up within it, like the flower in the bud, lay our own glorious Declaration of Independence. In heathen days three great festivals were cele- brated every year, when there was much sacrificing to the gods, and a general time of feasting. The first, as I have told you, was held at the new year, and corresponded to our Christmas, for in the North the year began with the winter solstice, (December 21,) which was poetically called the mother-night, because the new year leaped forth from its arms. The great sacrifice at this season was called Thora- blot, after some old god of the ancient Finnish peo- ple, as it is supposed. The Yule merry-making was celebrated in England for centuries after the estab- lishment of Christianity, and to this day the Yule- log is burned at Christmas-tide. The great things, or assemblies, were held at Yule, and kings and jarls, in all that Northern country, made grand feasts. The rich brewed great hogsheads of beer for their dependents and neighbors, but the poor, who had no wealthy friends, clubbed together and held feasts of their own, where they drank immense quantities of what was called social ale. The term “ social glass” has probably come down to us from this custom. The Christmas feasting, the greens and revelry, are a heritage from heathen times, but the giving of gifts may be a purely Christian cus- tom. A great number of animals were slaughtered at Yule, and offered principally to Odin, with the prayer that he would send success in war, and to Frey, for a fruitful year. War and farming were 412 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. the two principal avocations in early times ; but, later on, sea-roving absorbed the life and energies of the people. In Sweden, where Frey was the fa- vorite god, swine were slaughtered in large quanti- ties. The swine, it was believed, had first taught men to plow, perhaps by rooting up the earth with its snout. Hogs were especially fattened for Yule, as we fatten turkeys for Thanksgiving, and were led out, gayly trimmed and adorned. The Northern people were much given to making vows, and these were sometimes made over the carcass of a sacred pig, but more frequently when quaffing huge bum- pers at the Yule feast. Then those fierce, impetu- ous jarls and barons indulged in the wildest prom- ises, and planned mighty feats of arms. The whole of Yule-month was given up to mirth, revelry, and games. It was called the merry month. In En- gland, until comparatively recent- times, twelve days were celebrated at Christmas. The hearty mirth of the old pagan festival was very dear to the people. They would not let it die, but grafted the lovely celebration of the infant Jesus upon this ancient stock. The coloring, feasting, and merriment of our Christmas can be traced back ages upon ages, perhaps to the old home of the race in the mid- lands of Asia. The mid-winter sacrifice quickly followed Yule. It was held at the first new moon after the great o new year festival, in honor of the earth-goddess, Goa, who was called the daughter of Thois, and was thought to rule over the earth’s fertility. Probably Frigga was associated with her, but in MORALITY, SOCIAL LIFE, AND WORSHIP. 413 time the worship of an ancient mythical queen, named Disa, almost supplanted the other goddesses at this feast. The myth about Queen Disa is very curious, and may have some remote foundation in fact. Far back in heathen ages King Frey ruled in the North, and the inhabitants increased so rapidly, that one winter they found themselves destitute of food ; so Frey decreed, as a quick and easy solution of the difficulty, that all the old, sickly, deformed, and idle people should be offered up in sacrifice to Odin. But the daughter of one of the king’s min- isters, when she heard of this decree, made bold to say that she could give better advice. This was reported to the king, and, when he heard of it, he was angry at the maid’s presumption, and sarcastic- ally promised to take her into his council, on con- dition that she came to him neither on foot nor on horseback, neither driving nor sailing, neither clad nor unclad, not in a year nor a month, not by day nor by night, not in the moon’s increase nor in its wane. Disa was at a loss how to solve this practical rid- dle ; but she prayed to the goddess Frigga, and, having received her advice, went to the king in the following manner : she harnessed two young men to a sledge, and a goat was led by the side. One foot she placed in the sledge, the other on the goat’s back. She covered herself with a net, and came neither in a year nor month, but on the third day before Yule, one of the days not reckoned as be- longing to the year, but as a complementary day 4H TALES from THE NORSE grandmother. not included in any month. She came neither in the waxing nor the waning moon, but in the full ; neither by day nor by night, but in the twilight. All the conditions were fulfilled, for she neither walked nor rode, drove nor sailed ; neither did she come clad nor unclad. The king was charmed with her wisdom, beauty, and excellent conversation, and made her his queen. He followed her advice by dividing the people by lot, and sending one portion to the uninhabited regions of the North to estab- lish a colony. Disa was highly prized for her wis- dom, and became an arbitrator and settler of dis- putes. The great mid-winter festival was in time celebrated in her honor; and in modern days there is a mid-winter fair held at Upsala, in Sweden, which may be a lingering remnant of ancient cus- toms. This pretty myth of the humane Disa may refer to the actual formation of a new colony under the guid- ance of the good goddess of agriculture. Her claim to be considered a historical character is the same as that of Frey and Odin, and neither has the authority of great age. We are told that Frey took the king- dom after the death of his father Njord, and the land was blessed with good seasons. The supersti- tious Swedes attributed these to Frey and began to worship him. When he died they carried him secretly into a mound and told the people that he was alive. They kept watch over him for three years, and brought all the taxes into the mound, and peace and prosperity continued. However she may have originated, Disa unques- MORALITY, SOCIAL LIFE, AND WORSHIP. 415 tionably became an earth-goddess. According to some scholars, she represents the nearly bare earth in early spring, when grass starts and buds swell, but the ground is neither clad nor unclad. Then it is not good to travel in sledge nor wagon, and the husbandman must watch the changes of the heav- enly bodies and all the influences of the season. Disa softens the hard frozen heart of her spouse and renders him merciful. The third great festival is held at the beginning of spring to sacrifice to Odin, and render him favor- able to the naval and warlike expeditions then pre- paring. The winter put an end to the Norseman’s favorite vocation — warfare ; and with the opening spring he invoked Odin and rushed to arms. 41 6 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. CHAPTER XXXI. FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS. O the forgotten poets, whose names have per- P ished, we owe such magnificent myths as Ygg- drasill, the death of Baldur, the twilight of the gods, and the restoration of the universe. All these, and others, sprang from the observation of nature on a grand scale. But the common people, the un- learned peasantry, with minds uncultivated, but with feelings and fancy very lively, conceived of nature in a different way, and filled the whole world with homely, familiar, but often poetic, images. The wild Northern scenery was lonely and op- pressive to the heart, although sublime. The peas- ant brought it more in sympathy with himself by peopling the vast snowy jokul, the rugged stony fells, and the endless evergreen forests, with swarm- ing trolls, elves, and dwarfs. The waters he filled with mermaids and mermen, fountain and swan maidens, and the dangerous Neck. These beings made the world a more companionable place, and imparted a kind of living interest to every knoll and stream. They had it in their power to do him great injury and to annoy him with petty mischief; but they gave a vivid charm to life, for they embod- ied the spirit of romance, which brightens the hum- FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS. 417 blest existence and inspires the highest order of genius. Shakspeare’s Ariel and Puck, the most delightful creations of fairy lore, are only expan- sions of the elf of mythology. Still the elves of Northern folk-lore are not pre- cisely the same as the elves of the JEsir religion : those busy little powers of nature at work in the formation of gems and metals and about the roots and fibers of plants. The nature-powers have been forgotten, and the elves of the story-books are -almost human, except in their diminutive size, and the fact that they live in an underground world of their own, which is pretty accurately planned on the model of the world of men and women. The theory that these elves were originally ghosts peopling the interior of the globe fails to explain their small stature. How did the idea of a race of little peo- ple arise ? Some scholars tell us that it grew out of traditions of a nation of small men who inhabited the land before it was occupied by invaders from the East. Not content with filling the whole of the under- ground world with busy, grotesque, long-armed, little folk, the Norse peasant brought them into his own home, and made of them kind or mischievous household spirits, who, if well treated, brought good luck to the master, or played roguish tricks when mocked by the children or servants. He was glad to have these little beings inhabit the place under his hearthstone, his barn, and stable, or the cottage loft under the thatch. After the introduction of Christianity, true to his old instinct, he gave a spirit 27 4 1 8 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. to the church and church-yard. It is said that only the nations belonging to the great Aryan family possess a fairy lore. The English fairy and the Northern elf-wife is one and the same being modi- fied by climate and national character. The popular elf combined the attributes of both the light and dark elves of mythology. The troll who lives in the stony fell, who shuns the light of day, and is a great glutton, is the transformed jotun of the old religion. All the bloody-minded giants of our nursery tales are lineal descendants of the icebergs and mountains with which Thor fought. The myths have been degraded into little stories to amuse or frighten children, and most of the ancient religious ideas that float about among the people are fossilized in what is called folk-lore. Let us then keep in mind that elves and fairies were probably, in the first place, only the thoughts of heathen people about light and darkness, the growth of plants, and the wonders of gems and metals buried in the earth. If they arose from a race of small people, or from the ghosts of these people after death, their origin was lost, and in time they became parts of wonder-working nature. Let us remember that trolls and giants, even the giants of our nursery rhymes, were in the first place ice- bergs and craggy mountains. But the active fancy of the people played about these beings and worked them over into new forms, giving them a thousand human traits, and thus bringing them nearer to themselves. The priests and teachers of Christian- FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS. 419 ity found the dear old superstitions too thoroughly ingrained to be got rid of, and in some cases they invented new legends to account for them, and in time the origin of the popular beliefs was forgotten, while the beliefs themselves still flourished, as many of them do to this day. There is a curious Christian legend to account for the origin of elves, or under-groundlings. In this it is stated that they are descended from Adam by his first wife, a sorceress named Lileth, who is men- tioned in some old rabbinical books. One day Lileth was washing her children when our Lord ap- proached, and for shame she hid those of them that remained unwashed. Our Lord inquired if the children before him were all she had, and the false Lileth answered “ Yes ; ” whereupon he said, “ Let those that are hidden remain hidden,” and from the concealed children of Lileth descended all the sub- terranean people. Another legend, found with slight variations in several Northern countries, tells us that elves and under-groundlings generally are descended from the fallen angels who were cast out of heaven at the time of Satan’s revolt, the worst of whom fell into hell, while others not so wicked fell into woods and forests, into green fields, into the water, and among houses. Those who fell in woods and forests be- came wood trolls, those who fell in green fields Vaettir, those who fell into water necks, or Nacher, those among houses Tomte-buggar, and those in trees Elfvar. These five varieties embrace the larger part of the invisible people who take up so 420 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. much room in the Northern fancy, and are known under the general term of elves, although the stories about them vary slightly in different countries. The superstitious peasants dare not meddle with trees, caves, mounds, and barrows where they are supposed to live ; and it is said that the custom of making offerings to propitiate their good-will has not entirely died out. The antiquity of these pop- ular superstitions, under their present form, is at- tested by the most ancient historians, who testify to the fact that the Northern people worship many spirits in heaven, air, earth, and sea, and some that are said to inhabit the waters of springs and rivers. Though these little people were powerless to ex- pel their human foes, they could annoy them and do much mischief by driving off cattle, changing children at birth, and enticing young maidens into caves and giving them stupefying drinks. From these ideas arose the innumerable stories of en- chantments and changelings. The greatest care was taken of a new-born baby, lest the elfin people should steal it away and put one of their own un- canny little creatures in its place. The great Dr. Martin Luther believed in changelings, and thought he had seen one. He adjudged them to be mere lumps of flesh without souls. One mode of getting rid of a changeling was to beat it unmercifully, when the elfin mother would appear and take away her child, leaving the true one in its place. It is probable that the changelings of old times, with which the folk-stories teem, were idiotic children, diseased and malformed from their birth. FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS. 42 1 There is a great diversity of popular opinion con- cerning the elves. In some places they are as large as men, white, fair, and in the main well-disposed toward human beings. Others among them are only eighteen inches high. They wear glass shoes and have very delicate hands and feet. Some ap- pear as little naked boys, wearing a hat. In Ger- many they wear a mist cap or mantle which ren- ders them invisible, like the garment Knight Sieg- fried won from the dwarf Andvari. They are very clever smiths, and, though good-humored, are mis- chievous and meddlesome. It is believed that the German elves have adopted the true faith, and ar- dently desire salvation through Jesus Christ. In Norway many fine old trees are supposed to be the homes of elves, and are regarded with pecul- iar veneration. The owners cherish these elf-trees with the greatest care, and fancy that their good or bad luck depends upon the tree’s life. This su- perstition has its gentle aspect, for it sometimes prevents the peasant from desecrating the wood- land, and thus adds to the fertility of the soil and the beauty of the country-side. It is almost need- less to speak of the proverbial elfin fondness for dancing by moonlight over the wet grass in merry rings. Though dwarfs and elves are pretty well* blended together in the North, in Norway, we are told, the dwarfs are regarded as solitary and unso- cial, while the elves are passionately fond of music and dancing. There was another side of elfin char- acter less cheerful. Certain diseases of cattle were attributed to the under-groundlings, and there was 422 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. a superstition that their breath or spittle caused swelling in human beings. The wives of elves were very beautiful in front, but behind they were hollow and hideous. This curious idea of hollowness, we shall see, applies to more than one class of sub- terraneans. Other classes of Norwegian elves are called Thus- ser and Vaettir. There is some reason to suppose that the thusser were the ancient inhabitants, from the fact that an old historian tells us that in Norway the thusser so swarmed that it was impossible for Christians to live in the country until they had in- termarried with them. There are numerous stories of the intermarriage of mortals with elves and gi- ants ; and some historic persons are said to have been descended from them, either on one side or the other. The elves possess beautiful black cattle, which are generally invisible, but sometimes show themselves in the light of day, and often graze un- seen among the flocks of men. One of the most curious Northern nymphs is Huldra, who seems to form a connecting link be- tween human beings and the animal tribes. In front she is a lovely woman, clad in a blue petticoat and a white snood, but behind she is either hollow or furnished with a cow’s tail. Her mixed nature imparts deep pathos to her character, for her life is solitary and her song sad. We do, however, some- times hear of Huldre-men as well as women. These people are supposed to take possession of aban- doned pastures, and occasionally they live in mounds like the under-groundlings. To get possession of a FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS. 423 Huldra it is necessary to throw steel oyer her head. There are stories of beautiful Huldras who fell into the possession of hunters and became their wives. At the wedding the cow’s tail was an em- barrassment, but after marriage this appendage sometimes disappeared. All the barrow, mount, forest, and tree elves are excessively fond of feasting. Their chief festival is held at Christmas, which corresponds with the hea- then Yule. Then their mounds are raised up on red pillars, revealing tables set out with gold and silver dishes. When mortals approach the scene of festivity they are politely invited in to drink and dance. If they comply they fall under an enchant- ment from which they can seldom break away. When a horseman is passing a mount an elf some- times issues forth and offers him a horn of beer. If he is wise he will not drink, for the liquor is a pow- erful spell, and will deliver him, body and soul, into elfin power. His true way, according to the folk- stories, is to dash the liquor behind him and to ride off with the cup. He is generally pursued by the elves or trolls he has outwitted, and who swarm after him like a pack of dogs. Though the breath and other emanations of elves are thought to be noxious to human beings, the re- lations between the two races is often kindly and helpful. The little people are more or less depend- ent on their big neighbors. There are many touch- ing stories of suffering elf-wives, who take the form of frogs, and who are bound up and cared for by kind peasant women. When an elf-child is to 424 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. be born the elf-wife must have the care and help of her mortal sister. Such services are generally re- warded with riches and prosperity. These gentle superstitions entwine the heart-strings with every part of nature, with birds and unsightly things, even reptiles, and keep the affections tender toward the lowest of God’s creatures. It is said that elves change their dwelling-place on New-year’s night. Then the kindly Icelander, when he goes to bed, leaves tables set out and doors open to welcome the new inhabitants. Some- times the elves migrate in a body from one part of the country to another, or journey by sea from place to place. There are many curious stories of sea captains who have been engaged to transport shiploads of elves from the old habitation to a new one. It is to be inferred that they are driven out by new fashions and modes of life, and prefer the places where the old customs and beliefs still linger. It is said that there is no superstition more deeply rooted in the Norse mind than belief in the exist- ence of the Nisser or Nisse. This blithe little house- hold spirit is found in all parts of the North. In England he is called Goblin, in Scotland Brownie, in Germany Kobold, and in the Netherlands Kabon- terermannikin. He is a shrewd, clever little creat- ure, about the size of a child two or three years old, and generally wears a suit of coarse gray, and a red, pointed cap. He likes to live in the barn or stable, and help to care for the cattle and horses. For a favorite horse he will sometimes steal oats FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS. 425 and hay from a neighbor’s store. He watches the hostler very jealously to see that he does not neg- lect his duty, or abuse the animals under his charge. He also has the interest of the master much at heart, and, if kindly treated, will work hard for him, and bring him good luck. Little Nisse is sensitive and high-spirited to a degree, and will generally disappear if presented with new clothes. The only favors he is willing to accept are presents of sweet porridge, dressed with butter, and cakes and beer. In many houses it was formerly the custom to set out these dishes each night for the Nisse, who always responded to kindness by his fidelity to the interests of the family. Sometimes he showed his queer little figure to the inmates, and the men- servants often heard him laugh loud and long in the stable. But Nisse was not always good. Occa- sionally he proved to be so persistently mischievous that the family was driven from the house. There are several stories of this kind, which describe the household stuff all piled upon the cart, when Nisse would poke up his head from a churn or some other receptacle, and cry out in his queer little voice : “ We are removing to-day.” But on the whole the influence of this quaint sprite was beneficial, for he exacted kindness to the lower animals, and was no eye-servant, but a faithful little worker, who labored for love. A singular class of fateful beings, called Disir, were often counted among the elves, and some- times among the land vaettir. They were named after the fabulous Queen Disa, of whom I have 426 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. •told you, and in heathen times the great sacrifice on winter night, called Disa-blot, was held chiefly to propitiate them. The name Disir, is said to de- note goddesses, and it was given to several varie- ties of guardian and protecting spirits attached to mankind. The Disir had the character of individ- ual Fates, and were in the first place attached to the Norns as messengers, but they were finally stripped of their general attributes, and became attendant spirits, connected with races, families, and individ- uals. They were always thought of as feminine beings, who generally protected, but sometimes per- secuted, the people to whom they were attached. The Disir were often confounded with the Haming- jur and Fylgjur, whom I have described in another place. It is possible that in the first place all these beings were ancestral spirits, who, after death, were still supposed to interest themselves in the fortunes of their descendants. The traditional ghost, belong- ing to certain royal and noble families in Europe, and which appears on the eve of a misfortune, is probably a remnant of the ancient Disir supersti- tion. The various classes of elves form the larger part of the underground people. They are scarcely dis- tinguishable from the dwarfs, except that the latter are skilled smiths. In ancient times there was hard- ly a well-chased gold or silver bowl or drinking- horn, a finely-tempered sword, or a beautiful piece of armor, that was not spoken of as dwarf-made. In the oid legends the dwarfs appear as instructors of men in smith-work, and also in wisdom, for the FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS. 427 lore of ancient times was supposed to be in their keeping. The popular giant retains all the bad traits of his heathen ancestor, although he is shorn of much of his power. There are several varieties of these beings, but they are all known by the general name of Troll. The jutul, a gigantic monster, is proper- ly the mountain-giant, but little transformed since Thor fought with Hrungnir. He is still greedy and of an evil nature ; he is wealthy, and owns some cattle. He is very partial to Christian blood, but hates the sound of church bells. He also dis- likes drums, because they remind him of his former conflicts with the thunder-god. When the wind howls fiercely among the rocks on the high mount- ains then the people say the jutul is shaking him- self, and the pots and kettles echo in which his wife is cooking the family dinner. When they seek to account for the large stones lying about the valleys, they say the jutul cast them down to de- stroy the church, but they invariably fell short of the mark. The holy St. Olaf, you will be informed, was in the habit of turning giants into stone stat- ues, simply by a sign of the cross. Landslips and nearly all the catastrophes of nature are attributed to giant power, and there are many stones to be met with where the peasants point out the prints of huge hands and fingers. Here is a description of one of these beings taken from an old Saga: “ He was quite black, except his eyes and teeth, which were white. His nose was large and hooked, his hair, which hung down all 428 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER over his forehead, was as coarse as fishes’ gills, and his eyes were like two pools of water.” This mon- ster, who, in the first place, was nothing more than a rocky mountain collecting the thunder-clouds about his head, has become the shivering delight and dread of the nursery. But it does not behoove any one to fear him now that we know his real nature. The troll proper inhabits caves and the lower mountain slopes. He is cunning, treacherous, and greedy, but sometimes enters into friendly relations with men. He cannot bear the light of day, and when caught out in the sun is apt to burst. Trolls imitate men in all their ways. They have churches, and keep cattle, and furnish their dwellings in hu- man fashion. At Christmas and on feast days they throng Christian houses and devour all the food. Both trolls and thusser are to be dreaded, because they have a fondness for human brides, and some- times are supposed to carry them off to their caves. Thusser are similar to trolls, only they are of a pale blue color. It is probable that both thusser and land vaettir were originally ancestral spirits. The latter watch over whole regions of country, and guard the coast from the approach of enemies. There are tradi- tions of wise and good men, who, after death, be- came the land vaettir of the district where they had lived. There is a large class of water sprites in the North, who, though but few, if any, traces of them are to be found in the Eddas, do undoubtedly come straight FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS. 429 down from heathen times. The most dangerous of these is the Norwegian Nok or Neck, who inhabits lakes and rivers, and requires the sacrifice of a hu- man being each year. According to the latest the- ory these beings are the ghosts of drowned people, who are supposed to haunt the places where they % died, and have gradually acquired the character of malignant spirits. The dangerous Nok inhabits whirlpools and waterfalls, and those who lose their lives in such places, through carelessness or accident, are naturally counted among his victims. He often assumes the shape of a horse with hoofs reversed, or of a half-boat lying quietly upon the water, and the person who touches these objects falls into his power. He is greedy for little children, and en- tices them to their ruin. There is a very dangerous sprite called the Fossegrim, who haunts mills and water-works, and plays on a violin to attract the unwary. The Swedish Neck is a far milder and more inte- resting being. Of a fine summer evening he ap- pears sitting on the surface of the water, wearing the aspect of a beautiful youth, with a golden harp in his hand. Those who wish to be instructed by him in music must offer him a black lamb, but above all things he desires to hear expressed from Chris- tian lips the hope of salvation for himself. He will often question passers-by as to whether he can ex- pect to be saved through Christ ; and when this hope is denied him he weeps bitterly. A Neck who lives under a bridge, or in a creek or river, is called a Strom-karl. He plays on a violin so sweetly that, 430 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. like the Grecian Orpheus, the clouds stand still, and trees and rocks come nearer to listen. There is a beautiful little story connected with the Neck’s pathetic desire for salvation, which I will here give you. A Christian priest was one evening riding over a bridge, when he heard ravish- ing notes from a violin, and, on looking about him, saw a Neck sitting on the surface of the water. The priest spoke to him severely, and said : “Why do you joyously strike your harp ? This dried stick, which I hold in my hand, shall sooner put forth green leaves and blossoms than you shall obtain salvation.” The poor unhappy Neck, hearing the priest’s cruel words, laid down his viol and wept bitterly. The priest then wheeled about his horse and pursued his journey, but, before he had gone very far, to his amazement, he saw green leaves and flowers spring- ing from his old staff. He stopped and mused, for this miracle seemed sent from heaven to instruct him to preach a new gospel of redemption. Again he turned his horse’s head, and rode to the sorrow- ful Neck, and showing him the blooming, staff, said: “ Behold, my old staff has grown green and flow- ery like a young branch in a rose garden. So, like- wise, may hope bloom in the hearts of all created beings; for their Redeemer liveth.” The happy Neck now took up his viol and played sweetly all night. This beautiful legend shows a singular mixture of Christian and heathen ideas. The doctrine of the salvation of elves and giants in the restored FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS. 43 1 universe after Ragnarock, may still have had some lingering power over the popular mind. The new priest naturally wished to expel such notions, but the simple-minded people desired to share the great gift of salvation and immortality with those vision- ary beings, who were very real to their fancy, and who brought so much poetry and romance into their lives. St. Olaf, we know, fell heir to the attributes of the thunder-god. To the common people he was Thor come back in a Christian guise. Odin met with a less enviable fate. He was changed into the Wild Huntsman, who is made familiar by numerous blood-curdling stories and- ballads. In North Ger- man legends the huntsman is called Wode, showing his direct connection with the old god. He rides a large white horse, and is followed by retainers and a pack of twenty-four hounds. When he passes the hedges fall, doors and gates fly open of themselves, and sometimes he goes clattering over the house- tops. Wode, the Old, is supposed to be a great enemy to the under-groundlings. He pursued elves and dwarfs with relentless fury until they disap- peared from earth, and now hunts them in the air. He is abroad chiefly during the twelve days of the ancient Christmas festival, which corresponds to the heathen Yule-tide. He is not always unfriend- ly to man, but sometimes bestows gold and silver in payment of the injuries his mad ride may have inflicted. Though many of the old superstitions were de- basing, some of them were sweet and kindly, im- 432 TALES FROM THE NORSE GRANDMOTHER. parting to the peasant a gentle sense of brotherhood toward helpless creatures dependent on his care, making him reverent of forest-trees and giving him a sense of companionship in wild woods and soli- tary mountains. Even the repulsive side of these superstitions, like the belief in were-wolves, has a touch of tenderness in it ; for it causes the mind to see a fallen friend or brother in the wild beast of the forest. The belief in witchcraft, though it led to such horrible consequences, was an acknowledg- ment of the subtle powers of nature, which some beings were thought able to turn to evil uses. Every-where, from the simplest nursery-tale of giant and fairy up to the sublimest myth, we can trace a spirit of unconscious reverence for the Power that framed and supports the world. THE END. . S • / ~ ' > - 1 .* '^Hwi # . i _ mm