/ {ta->^ t/^< QL-K^^t^fc^ MINNESOTA DEPARTMENT OF LABOR AND INDUSTRIES BUREAU OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN LOUISE E. SCHUTZ. Superintendent St. Paul, Minnesota WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN MINNESOTA IN 1918 FIELD INVESTIGATION Carried on by Women in Industry Committee Council of National Defence and Bureau of Women and Children MINNESOTA DEPARTMENT OF LABOR AND INDUSTRIES BUREAU OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN LOUISE E. SCHUTZ, Superintendent WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN MINNESOTA IN 1918 FIELD INVESTIGATION Carried on by Women in Industry Committee Council of National Defence and Bureau of Women and Children Written by CAROL ARONOVICI. Ph. D. Special Agent for the State Department of Labor ond Industries 3^ n^:i CONTENTS Letter ol' Transmittal 'S Foreword -l-S Extent ot the Investigation t> Analytical Tables 6-33 Industries and Wages, Tables 1 to 4 6-S>' Marital Condition and Family Support, Tables 5 to 7 9-11 Marital Condition and Support ot Children, Tables S to 10 11-13 Wages, Ages, and Trade, Tables 11 to 29 14-24 Hours ot Labor, Tables 30 to 36 24-2S Nativity and Conjugal Condition of Wage Earners, Tables 37 to 47 28-33 Recommendations 34 Conclusions 35 o7 of i::!. SEP , 16 1929 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. Minnesota Department of Labor and Industries Bureau of Women and Children St. Paul, June 11, 1920. Sir: We have the honor to submit herewitli the report giving the results of the survey made by the Committee of Women in Industry, Women's Division, Minnesota Commission of Public Safety, United States Council of Defense, and the Bureau of Women and Children, Department of Labor and Industries. The survey was begun in March, 1918, at a time when, because of the great war and the need of increased production, it seemed that women in larger numbers than ever before were engaging in work outside the home. The survey was closed in December, 1919. The members of the state committee were: Miss Agnes L. Peterson, superintendent of the Bureau of Women and Children, Chairman; Miss Victoria Ericson, Duluth; Miss Florence Burton, Minneapolis; and Miss Louise E. Schutz, St. Paul, inspectors of the Bureau of Women and Children; Mr. E. G. Hall, president of the Minnesota State Federation of Labor, Min- neapolis. After Miss Peterson was called for federal work. Miss Louise E. Schutz, who was made active chairman of the Committee of Women in Industry and superintendent of the Bureau of Women and Children, directed the work to its close and completed the survey. Members of the Women's Committee in all but seven of the eighty-six counties in the state took part in the work and made the survey possible. The statistical woi'k was done by the staff of the Bureau of Women and Children in co-operation with the Bureau of Statistics, Department of Labor and Industries. The report was written by Carol Aronovici, Ph.D. Respectfully submitted, LOUISp E. SCHUTZ, Superintendent of the Bureau of Women and Children. Hon. J. A. A. Burnquist, Governor of Minnesota, State Capitol, St. Paul, Minn. WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN MINNESOTA FOREWORD. The data upon which the following study is based were gathered by volunteers in the various committees throughout the state of Minnesota, where a sufficient number of women were employed to justify a local in- quiry. While the collection of statistical data by volunteers is open to some objections, the fact that the work was done during the war, and that the women giving their services were selected among the leaders in commimity service in each locality who had already done work requiring accurate study and recording of facts, and the prompt and painstaking way in which the reports were returned, would warrant confidence in the data both as rep- resentative of conditions in the particular localities studied, and as char- acteristic of the distribution, wages and employment of women throughout the state of Minnesota. Of the many women intrusted with the investigation of conditions in their own locality some of course failed to make returns, while those who were compelled to delay their work were in most instances prevented by ill- ness, war work or difficulties placed in the way of the investigators by employers of women labor. The committee on women in industry of the Council of National De- fense, under whose auspices the investigation was carried on, had a double object in view when the work was launched. The committee desired ac- curate data relative to women workers in the state which could be used in the shaping of a constructive policy for the protection of women wage earners; and also to inform the local communities, particularly the leaders, as to the local conditions which they could be instrumental in improving. The vast correspondence carried on in connection with this work brought daily evidence of the enlightening influence that the personal investigation of conditions was having. Selecting at random from the many letters, we may quote the following sentences as characteristic: "The work is very interesting and I am grateful for the privilege of assisting. A very important and worthy work, for this is the ideal way of obtaining information first hand and correctly on such matters." "I do not wish to give up this public work, and have been too selfish to let any one else do it for you." "My, what a lot there is which might be accomplished if everybody lived with the thought of making the best of himself and doing the work for others." The educational value to the women who helped make the survey can- not be estimated, but without doubt many women, for the first time, became interested in the working girl and the conditions under which she works. Some learned that we have in Minnesota Child Welfare Boards, and Mothers' Pensions are available under certain conditions in cases where there is need. As the result of investigations, questions came into the bureau of women and children asking what course should be taken when neglected children were discovered, or when hard working, deserving women were found who, in spite of their best efforts, had neither the time nor money to give their children proper care and the necessities of life. Some women were astonished to find that girls in telephone and telegraph establishments in small towns, where we are prone to believe that there are no abuses, were working from 105 to 168 hours per week, and often stayed all night in the exchange, even when it was in an isolated place. From one small town came this revelation: "There are at least 30 wo- oot.^ ^^ , ■ ^^"^^^^ w'^o so out working by the day hoeing, cutting sugar cane, husking corn, scrubbing, washing, and some even pitch bundles of gram tor the threshing machines. These conditions have not been brought about by the war, but rather, I should say, by the liquor evil, for there are a great many widows and women whose husbands drink and do not properly support their families. Some of these women leave small children at home to look after themselves while they go out to work by the day Others go out just to be earning a little extra money. They have formed IZ ^L^ ''''WJ'' ^^'^';^ '^ '''' cutting down of wages, and I believe they are gettmg $2.00 per day this fall, which I am sure they consider good wages for a ten-hour day." ^ A summary of the Minnesota hour laws for women and the minimum wage orders will not be out of order here. The Minnesota hour law for women provides that women shall not work more than 58 hours a week in mercantile establishments anywhere m the state; and 58 hours in factories and mechanical establishments outside of cities of the first and second class. The law limits the emnlov- ment of women in mechanical, manufacturing, telephone and telegraph establishments to 54 hours in any one week in cities of the first and second Class 1 he hours of employment of women in restaurants, eating houses and kitchens in connection therewith are limited to 58 hours in one week in cities of the first and second class. Minnesota has no law limiting the employment of women in restaurants outside of cities of the first and second class, and no law at all limiting the hours women may work in hotels anv- where in the state. •' On July 26, 1918, the minimum wage commission of Minnesota first f^i^rrr^ ^^^f'^i'ce the minimum wage order which provided for a minimum of $8.75 in some occupations and $9.00 in others in the larger cities with a slightly lower rate applicable to the small towns in Minnesota. In August 5 1919, a new minimum wage order went into effect which provided that in towns of a,000 or over $11.00 should be paid for a 48-hour week or less to a worker who has passed the apprenticeship or learner stage with 23c for each additional hour over the 48. The rate in municipalities of le^^ than 5,000 population is $10.25 per week for a week of 48 hours or less for ''•.u'\^-.''i/^^''^^'u^''^'°. ^^^^ P^^^^^ ^^^^ apprenticeship or beginner's stage with 211^0 per hour for additional hours. ^ ' EXTENT OF THE INVESTIGATION. The inquiry upon wliicli lliis report is based includes communities in every county in this state, and relates to 51,361 women wage earners em- ployed in all the important branches of industry, mercantile work, personal service, telegraph and telephone, and other employment. It is unfortunate that in many instances the occupation was given in rather an indefinite way; and the absence of information regarding the trade processes has made it impossible to establish a close relationship between prevalence of long hours, low wages, and types of employment and trade processes. In so far as this was found possible, every age and wage group is represented in this study. It is to be regretted that there are no extensive wage statistics available in the state of Minnesota upon which to base comparisons. There is no doubt, however, of the value of the present data as a means of determining the adequacy of such wages in the light of the present cost of living. The hours of labor, the extent of dependency of others upon the wage earners studied, their marital condition, nativity, etc., will be shown to have a value both as bearing upon law and law enforcement, and upon the social condi- tions and personal responsibilities of the workers. A special study of age, wages and occupation in the city of Minneapolis, is also included in this report, and is intended to deal more specifically with special industries and the conditions that prevail in the largest population center of the state of Minnesota. This study was made at the instigation of the Minne- apolis Y. W. C. A. and revealed some very striking conditions in that city. INDUSTRIES AND WAGES. Table I. A general classification of industries and the distribution of women wage earners in these industries, shows the following distribution: Class of Industry Number of Wage Earners Per Cent Wage Earners Manufaeturc Mercantile establishments Telephone and telegraph. . Personal service All other industries Total 17,810 13,608 3,107 0,248 10,528 51,361 34.7 26.5 6.2 12.1 20.5 100.0 As tWfere has been no recent census of women in industry, it is impossi- ble to estimate with any degree of accuracy the proportion of the women wage earners represented in this inquiry out of the total number of women wage earners in the state of Minnesota at the time of the investigation. It is evident that the largest proportion of women wage earners con- sidered in this investigation was in the manufacturing industi-y, and that the smallest number were employed in the telephone and telegraph service of the state. While it is not possible from the data collected to ascertain the charac- ter of preparation or experience of the workers in relation to their wages, and while we are not able to ascertain the grading of workers in particular trade and trade processes, the fundamental fact is the average wage found in the various occupational classes considered in this report. The follow- ing table shows the distribution of women wage earners according to wages and occupational classes. 6 womln^workers^^'"'^'''^ occupational classes according to weekly wages of NUMBER EARNING SPECIFIED WAGES BY NDUSTRY Weekly Wages Earned Total Number of Women INDUSTRY Manu- facturing Mercantile Telegraph and Telephone Service All Other Industries Under $ 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 109 169 414 1,309 2,016 2,211 4,640 6,591 15 28 33 112 472 755 2,013 2,790 31 45 102 258 567 556 1,089 2,166 1 14 19 48 84 1.39 322 632 51 54 217 748 712 610 8.59 670 11 28 43 143 181 151 357 333 10 11 12 13 14 6,437 3,271 4,253 2,758 2,525 2,511 1,371 1,775 973 962 1,944 727 1,369 712 641 620 539 146 206 75 550 181 213 172 314 812 453 720 695 533 15 16 17 18 19 3,553 1.574 1,135 1,884 954 1,085 597 433 579 199 1,027 346 260 447 171 86 61 25 29 30 223 48 32 70 47 1,132 522 385 759 507 20 21 22 23 24 25 Over 25 No wage given .... 1,193 626 429 496 148 783 698 1,185 271 110 70 87 26 84 109 350 320 74 56 90 24 167 107 312 21 14 5 6 2 2 5 36 39 25 6 15 7 109 56 190 542 403 292 298 89 421 421 297 51,361 17,810 1 13,608 3,167 6,248 10,528 It IS evident that the above figures relate to a wide range of wage groups, and that a comparatively small proportion of the workers 692 or 1.35 per cent, received less than $5.00 per week, while 698, or practically the same proportion received more than $25 per week. When we consider the various occupational classes, we find that the mercantile establishments waee nMp°.f th^r'.? "''""^ ^^'^ ^''I^f ^ proportion of wage earners with a wage of less than $5 per week, and the smallest proportion of wage earners with a wage of over $25 per week. ^ eainers If we may venture a classification of the wage groups represented in the presen investigation as indicated by the above table, we would suggest the following grouping as indicative of the relation between the wage and the standard of living possible within these wage groups- Wage Group Economic Class ?m°n'J^ *«,°;°AnP'''' '^'"'^, S^'o^ subsistence line «! - Hn iJnR« P*""" ''■''^^ Minimum subsistence f .iJJ ■J;);^*^?*'^ P^^ '•'•'^'^^ Normal subsistence »20.00 and over Normal standard The above grouping, while open to challenge because of the arranee- wMch r^'^f iP^.r^^ "T,'"f °^ ^^^^^^' represents, nevertheless, standards Which can at least roughly be recognized as falling between designations diosen for this classification. The only other mefhod of classffj^g ?hl wage groups would have been to assume that $1, which is the mini- mum recognized in the state of Minnesota, represents a fixed and econom - cally true standard. With the constant fluctuation in prices, such cS- fication IS hardly feasible. It must also be recognized thatWhat was es- sential to know from the point of view of tliis subject, was not only to discover the number of women wage earners receiving a wage below and above the minimum wage scale, but to discover, at least in a general way, the extent of the fluctuation in wages above the minimum, and it is for this reason that this classification was adopted. In accordance with this classification, we have endeavored to classify the 51,361 workers studied with the following results: Table III. Showing number and per cent of woman wage earners ac- cording to wage groups and occupational classes. PERCENTAGES AT DIFFERENT WAGES IN DIFFERENT INDUSTRIES Total Number PER CENT Wage Manu- faturiug Mercantile Telephone and Telegraph Service All Other Industries Total Per Cent $ 3-0 10-14 15-19 20-25 25 + No wage given 17,459 19,244 9,100 3,675 698 1,185 51,361 6,218 or 35 . 6 % 7,592 or 39 . 5 % 2,893 or 31.8% 648 or 17.6% 109 or 15.6% 350 or 29.5% 17,810 4,814 or 27 . 5 % 5,393 or 28.0% 2,251 or 24.7% 731 or 19.9% 107 or 15.4% 312 or 26 . 3 % 13,608 1,2.59 or 7.2% 1,586 or 8.2% 231 or 2.6% 50 or 1.4% 5 or .7% 36 or 3.2% 3,167 3,921 or 22.5% 1,460 or 7.6% 420 or 4.6% 201 or 5.5% 56 or 8.0% 190 or 16.0% 6,248 1,247 or 7.2% 3,213 or 16.7% 3,305 or 36 .3 % 2,045 or : 55.6% 421 or 60.3% 297 or 25.0% 10,528 100. 100. 100. 100. 100. 100. An analysis of the above table shows that out of a total of 17,459 wage earners receiving less than $10 a week, the largest proportion are found in the manufacturing industries, with the mercantile employes next in im- portance. The remarkable fact, however, shown by this table, is that 34.05 per cent of all the women wage earners considered in this investigation re- ceived less than a minimum subsistence wage. With over a third of the wage earners studied receiving less than a subsistence wage, the effects of the war upon wages are not nearly as obvious as it has been claimed. When we consider the minimum subsistence group of wage earners, we find that they include 19,244 or 37.49 per cent of the total number of women wage earners considered. In other words, 71.54 per cent, or very close to three-fifths of 51,361 wage earners considered, received sufficient wages for only a bare existence or less. The largest proportion of the wage earners receiving wages for a minimum subsistence is found in manufac- turing industries. The workers included in the wage group designated as of normal standard includes 4,373 or 8.53 per cent of the workers included in this study. This constitutes only one-twelfth of the half hundred thousand wage earners considered, most of whom were employed in industries outside of manufacturing or mercantile establishments. The classification we have attempted is perhaps out of proportion with the ordinary wages of pre- war times. It must be recognized that living costs have increased from 50 per cent to 55 per cent during the period preceding the war in 1914 and June, 1918. This reduces the purchasing value of a $9.00 weekly wage to $6.00, and of a $14.00 weekly wage to $9.33, if we admit the increase in the necessities of life to have been only 50 per cent, and not 55 per cent. It 8 should be remembered also that the lower the wage the greater the propor- tion spent for food; and the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics found upon investigation that between the mid-summer, of 1914, and June 1918 the cost of 16 essential articles of food increased 62 per cent. We have discussed the wages of the various classes of workers, and their relation to their present purchasing value as compared with the values prior to the summer of 1914, when the war broke out in Europe. There IS still another important element in the relation between wages and living standard which must be considered, and that is the family obligation of the individual workers or contribution to the family support. The following tables show the distribution of women wage earners according to their economic relation to the family. Table IV. Showing number and proportion of wage earners contribut- ing and not contributing towards the support of their families, according to weekly wages. Weekly Wage Under SlO. . . 810-14 15-19 20-25 25 and over Not given. . . Total . . . Contributing 22,011 4,417 1,432 475 137 211 28,683 Not Contributin! 19,260 2,009 722 246 46 395 22,678 Total 41,271 6,426 2,154 721 183 606 51,361 Table IV shows that 28,683 or 55.8 per cent of all the wage earners fl.l^^}. ^„T*^ contribution towards the support of their families; and that 22,011 or 76.7 per cent of the 28,683 contributing towards the support ^r-+, .^i' orf."" ^*^^' ^^^'^ receiving a wage of less than $10.00 per week. With 41,271 wage earners or 80.35 per cent receiving less than $10.00 per week, and with 22,011 or 52.8 per cent of those receiving less than $10.00 a week contributing towards the support of their families, it is hardly possi- ble to excuse low wages for women workers on the ground that they have no family responsibility. It is of course difficult to ascertain in an investi- gation ot this character, the extent of this family responsibility; but in the discussion of the figures relating to women wage earners responsible for the support of the children, we may be able to form some conception of the responsibilities of at least this group of workers MARITAL CONDITION AND FAMILY SUPPORT. In the study of the relation between support and family relationships, the only adequate data obtainable related to the marital condition of the women wage earners. The following table shows the distribution of the 51,361 women wage earners studied according to weekly wages, family support, and marital condition. ' "''""'^ 9 Table V. Showing distribution of wage earners according to weekly wages, marital condition and contribution towards family support: MARITAL CONDITION Total Women SINGLE MARRIED WIDOWED Weekly Wa^e Earned Contributing to Family Support Contributing to Family Support Contributing to Family .Support Yes No Yes No Yes No Under $3 3... 4.. . . 5. . . . 0. . . . 7. . . . 8 9. . . . 109 169 414 1,309 2,016 2,211 4,610 6,591 14 28 80 246 722 866 1,923 2,922 77 108 248 851 993 951 1,828 2,. 358 8 15 34 71 78 173 391 538 4 6 11 54 75 77 173 268 2 9 17 32 47 37 120 179 2 1 9 22 42 40 68 107 10 11. . . . 12. .. . 13 14. . . . 6,437 3,271 4,253 2,758 2,525 2,759 1,522 1,758 1,293 1,075 2,380 1,127 1,465 981 842 600 ; 303 486 209 205 234 104 180 92 229 191 86 156 72 83 79 31 60 39 28 15 16. . . . 17. . . . 18 19. . . . 3,553 1,574 1,135 1,884 954 1,651 778 564 853 489 1,222 479 382 641 343 296 140 97 223 52 1.30 62 29 45 20 106 42 24 48 17 48 23 7 28 10 20. . . . 21 22... . 23... 24 25. . . . Over 25 No wage given 1,193 626 429 496 148 783 698 1,185 582 291 229 240 62 362 320 382 378 226 124 178 53 279 243 503 102 64 31 31 13 51 49 157 42 18 21 15 5 22 21 72 38 12 8 11 4 33 29 29 18 7 4 5 3 10 14 17 Total 51,361 22,011 19,260 4,417 2,009 1,432 722 To make analysis of these figures less difficult, we have summarized the above table in order to indicate wage classification, and the relation between wages and marital condition. Table VI. Showing wage groups and marital condition by family support: Weekly Total SINGLE MARRIED WIDOWED Wage Group Support No Support Support No Support Support No Support Under $10.00. $10-14 15-19 20-25 25+ Not given. . . , 17,459 19,244 9,100 3,675 698 1,185 6,801 8,407 4,335 1,766 320 382 7,414 6,795 3,067 1,238 243 503 1,308 1,803 808 292 49 157 608 839 286 123 21 • 72 443 588 237 106 29 29 291 237 116 47 14 17 Total 51,361 22,011 19,200 4,417 2,009 1,432 722 10 TABLE VI— Continued Weekly Total Wage Group DIVORCED DESERTED SEPARATED Support No Support Support No Support Support No Support Under SIO.OO 124 179 100 48 13 11 88 90 37 17 7 56 54 21 5 1 93 76 25 12 145 $10-14 28 14 3 14-19 162 20-25 65 25+ 21 Not given 1 5 2 Total 475 246 137 40 211 395 The above figures indicate tlie rather surprising fact that out of a total of 6,426 married women working, 4,417 or 68.74 per cent were making a contribution towards the support of the family. Whether this contribution is; to be interpreted merely as work for pin money, or as a means of mater- ially supporting the family, is not possible to ascertain with any degree of accuracy. The individual records of workers made in the past have shown that pm money work among married women is not very common and that usually it is of short duration. Perhaps it would be easier to preceive the prevalence of family support according to marital condition if we consider the following percentage table. Table VII. Number and percentage distribution of marital condition of women wage earners by family support: Marital Condition Single. . . . Married. . Widowed. Divorced. Deserted. Separated Total Support Number Percentage 22,011 4,417 1,432 4,075 137 211 28,683 34.8 55.8 No Support Number Percentage 19,260 2,009 722 246 46 395 22,078 46.6 31.2 33.5 34.1 25.1 65.1 44.2 Total Number 41,371 6,426 2,154 721 183 606 51,361 The evidence as indicated by the above figures seem to show that with the exception of the deserted women, where no economic adjustment is made and where family conditions are most unsettled, the married women most frequently contribute towards the family support, as more than two- thirds of the women employed contributed towards the support of their families, while in the case of deserted women workers, 74.8 per cent con- tributed towards the support of their families. Where only a separation has taken place, responsibility for family support is least frequent To what extent this family support involves care of children will be considered presently. MARITAL CONDITION AND SUPPORT OF CHILDREN. Where industrial life of the mother is made necessary because of the economic necessity involved by the need for child support, the problem of the mother is most serious and the responsibility of the state most grave. The following table shows the distribution of mothers according to marital condition and number of children. 11 Table VIII. Showing working motliers according to their marital condition and the number of tlieir cliildren: Marital NUMBER OF CHILDREN IN FAMILY Total With Condition 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Children Married Widowed Divorced 1,055 427 223 53 181 472 229 70 29 72 271 94 33 11 23 166 53 7 15 13 74 18 1 7 1 55 4 4 1 7 2 3 3 2,205 827 341 116 Separated 290 Total 1,939 972 432 254 101 64 14 3 3,779 DIVORCED DESERTED SEPARATED Contributing to Family Support Contributing to Family Support Contributing to Family Support Yes No Yes No Yes No 1 1 2 3 5 12 14 29 60 1 7 16 11 20 33 3 6 7 4 13 23 1 1 5 3 7 11 2 6 7 16 28 34 5 8 12 19 40 58 49 37 48 22 23 31 12 31 10 6 21 9 11 6 7 7 1 2 T 3 26 10 25 7 8 60 29 31 26 16 41 21 10 19 4 4 4 12 4 3 2 1 1 7 6 5 6 1 20 14 8 16 18 12 1 5 13 5 1 4 3 2 2 7 7 4 1 4 7 6 5 1 3 1 3 2 7 3 3 2 14 7 13 1 1 11 5 2 475 246 137 46 211 395 This table shows 3,779 mothers with children at work or 7.5 per cent of the total number of wage earners considered in this study; and of this number slightly less than one-half had more than one child. When we consider the same figures on the basis of number of children whose maternal care is involved in the mother's industrial life, we find that it involves the destinies of 7,206 children below working age, or the child population of a city of 25,000 population. It is of course hazardous to say to what extent tills employment is essential to the economic well-being of tlie family. It is hardly conceivable, however, that any considerable proportion of the mothers with more than one child under working age would seek employment merely as a diversion, or as a means of securing pin money. If we consider only those cases where the mother is not living in normal married life, we find 1,574 families witli 1,952 cliildren of which 1,500 were supported by widows. These figures are particularly significant because 12 they show that the "Mothers' Pensions" are hardly sufficient to support the mothers with their children; or at least, that the standard set for the families by the amounts granted through the "Mothers' Pensions" is hardly sufficient to protect the children either against an abnormally low standard of living, or against the lack of motherly care that comes through the mothers' entrance into industrial life. It is sometimes alleged that the cities are more frequently favorable to the employment of married women, and that in the smaller communities the demands upon the families are such as to make the employment of the mother less necessary, and hence less frequent. An examination of the figures relating to the three cities and the rest of the state, shows the following distribution of employment according to marital condition and the presence or absence of minor children in the family. Table IX. Showing distribution of women wage earners according to marital condition and presence of children in the family, in the cities of Minneapolis, St. Paul, Duluth and the rest of the states. Minneapolis St. Paul Duluth Rest of State Marital Condition With Children Without Children With Children Without Children With Children Without Children With Children Without Children 17,351 2,034 665 158 26 162 592' 198 75 28 80 9,633 988 334 120 19 84 185' 88 49 14 29 3,841 468 94 22 1 31 379' 191 65 20 46 10,446 731 1,049 350 152 54 135 234 Divorced 80 21 39 Total 1,740 20,396 973 11,178 365 4,457 701 11,551 Table X. If we eliminate the single women wage earners from con- sideration, we find the following distribution of women workers: Total Women Less Married Women Per cent of Total 22,136 12,151 4,822 12,252 4,785 2,518 981 1,806 21 6 St. Paul 20 7 Duluth 20 3 14 7 Total 51,361 10,082 19 6 The above figures show the largest proportion, 21.6 per cent of women who are or who have been married, in the city of Minneapolis; while only 14.7 per cent of the same class of women were found among the workers in the state outside the three largest cities. These figures, if representative of conditions throughout the state, which no doubt they are, would tend to show that the smaller communities do not draw so heavily upon the class of women who have been married as do the larger population centers. If we consider the proportion of women with children as compared with those without children, we find the wage earners with children, among those not classed as single, distributed as follows: Minneapolis, 36.4 per cent; St. Paul, 38.7 per cent; Duluth, 37.2 per cent; and the rest of the state, 38.8 per cent. In other words, there was a larger proportion of women with children working in the communities outside the three large cities than in any of the cities, while St. Paul showed the largest propor- tion of women with children working of any of the other cities. 13 WAGES, AGES AND TRADES. In order to throw some light upon the relation between wages, ages and occupations, we have selected 19 occupations, lor which we had more than 200 individual records, and a detailed tabulation of all the data avail- able was made. We shall endeavor a brief discussion of these occupations on the basis of this tabulation. UNSKILLED LABOR. Table XI. Taking the women wage earners in the unskilled occupa- tions or trades, we find the following conditions : AGE GROUPS Wages per Week Less than 18 • 18-21 22-25 25-35 36-45 46 Total Less than $10. $10-14 15-19 20 4 20 11 13 10 2 48 51 11 51 33 19 3 44 13 6 202 122 38 20-24 3 25 + 1 1 Total. . . . 24 37 26 110 100 63 366 The above table shows a distribution of wage groups with 202 or 55.2 per cent of the 366 women wage earners receiving less than the subsistence wage, and 122 or 33.3 per cent with a minimum subsistence wage. In other words, 88.5 per cent of the women in the unskilled industries were receiving lesf than a wage sufficient for normal subsistence; and of this number, 240 or 74.1 per cent of the wage earners considered were over 26 years of age, while 99 or 30.5 per cent were between 26 and 35 years of age, or the age of highest productivity. DOMESTIC SERVICE. The domestic service problem is perhaps one of the most perplexing to householders, and social workers not infrequently seek to solve some of the personal problems of their charges by placing them in domestic service. Within the last two years we have been told astonishing tales about wages paid to domestics. The figures contained in the following tables are sufficiently representative to give some conception of the wage standards that prevail. Table XII. Showing age and wage distribution of 410 domestics in the city of Minneapolis. AGE GROUPS Wages per Week Less than 18 18-21 22-25 26-35 30-45 45 + Total Less than $10. $10-14 10 58 11 10 45 9 8 1 88 34 6 1 58 28 3 24 13 283 95 15-19 3 30 20-24 2 25 + Total 13 79 63 129 89 37 410 With 283 or 69 per cent domestics receiving less than $10.00 per week out of a total of 410 such wage earners, it is hardly possible to claim that this class of workers is receiving abnormally high wages; 32 only or 7.8 per cent were found to receive $15.00 a week or over, and none received 14 $25 00 a week or more. In the case of the domestic servants, as in the case ot the unskilled workers, the largest proportion were 26 years of age or over, while 122 or 32.3 per cent of the age of highest productivity were receiving less than $15.00 a week. It must be remembered that the domestics in most cases are receiving their maintenance in addition to their wages, and that with the present cost of living as high as it is, their wages are only to be considered as a comparatively small part of their revenue or wages. KITCHEN HELPERS. By kitchen helpers, for the purposes of this study, is meant workers m restaurants, hotels, etc., who may be getting all or part of their meals at their place of employment, but do not reside there. The following table shows the distribution of these workers according to age and wage groups. ^ Table XIII. Showing the distribution of 298 kitchen helpers according to their age and wage groups in Minneapolis. AGE GROUPS Wages per Week Less than 18 18-21 22-25 26-35 36-45 46 + Total Leas than SIO. $10-14 15 61 6 36 15 63 16 2 1 44 10 1 21 5 240 15-19 52 3 1 2 20-24 25 + 1 1 Total. . . . 15 67 52 82 56 26 298 This group of wage earners seems to be one of the lowest in the scale from the point of view of wage standards, as 240 or 80.5 per cent received less than $10.00 per week, while practically all of these wage earners re- ceived less than a normal subsistence wage. It is also to be observed that there is no perceptible difference in the age distribution among the kitchen helpers as compared with the domestic servants. WAITRESSES. Another important occupation of the type generally classed as personal service, is waiting in restaurants and other food dispensing establishments Of this type of worker, 525 were found among the women wage earners studied. They were distributed as follows: Table XIV. Showing distribution of 525 waitresses according to a°-e and wage groups in the city of Minneapolis. ° AGE GROUPS • Wage's per Week Less than 18 18-21 22-25 2.5-35 36-45 46 + Total Less than $10 $10-14 15-19 37 8 155 29 109 25 1 111 28 4 9 4 3 2 424 96 5 20-24 25 + Total 45 184 135 143 13 5 525 The wage of waitresses, as indicated by the above table, shows 424 or 80.7 per cent receiving less than a subsistence wage, and 520 or 99 per cent 15 with a wage sufficient only for a bare subsistence. From the point of view of age distribution liowever, these low paid wage earners show a lower age than either the domestics or the kitchen helpei'S, a condition that is naturally characteristic of the occupation. To what extent wages are supplemented by the tipping system can, of course, not be estimated with any degree of accuracy. WASHERWOMEN AND LAUNDRESSES. One aspect of domestic service which is more or less irregular is that of washerwomen and laundresses, particularly those working in private homes. It is unfortunate that the figures do not give the classification of these workers according to place of employment, as there is a very considerable difference in the condition of work, hours and regularity. There are how- ever, certain conditions which are worthy of consideration, and which are evidenced by the following statistical table. Table XV. Showing age and wage distribution of 472 washerwomen and laundresses in Minneapolis. AGE GROUPS Wages per Week Less than 18 18-21 22-25 26-35 36-45 40 + Total Less than $10. $10-14 15-19 36 3 54 25 3 42 36 3 59 75 7 37 41 9 26 15 1 254 195 23 20-24 25 + Total 39 82 81 141 87 42 472 Out of a total of 472, the above table shows 254 or 55.9 per cent received a wage insufficient for a normal subsistence. Considering the character of the work and the increase in the cost of laundry service of the last two years, the above table is scant evidence of unreasonable labor cost in the laundry industry. The above wage distribution is particularly striking when we consider the age distribution of the workers, which shows only 121 or 25.6 per cent of the woi-kers under 22 years of age. In other words, they wei*e most mature workers and hence dependent in most instances upon their own earnings for a livelihood. COOKS. As in the case of the laundresses, we have no classification of the cooks according to place of employment, but as the figures were gathered mostly from business establishments, it is safe to assume that they were employed in restaurants, lunch rooms, and other eating establishments. The figures gathered relate to 220 such employes, the distribution of which according to wage and age groups is shown in the following table: Table XVI. Showing distribution of 220 cooks according to wage and age groups as found in the city of Minneapolis. AGE GROUPS Wages per Week Less than 18 18-21 22-25 26-35 36-45 46 + Total Less than $10 $10-14 15-19 2 1 14 8 2 12 21 3 20 38 14 2 2 13 37 15 2 4 9 1 65 114 35 20-24 4 25 4- 2 Total 3 24 30 76 67 14 220 16 With a total of 65 or 29.5 per cent of the cooks included in this study receiving a wage of less than $10.00 per week, and 114 or 51.8 per cent re- ceiving between $10.00 and $14.00 per week, the cooks in the various estab- lishments studied do not appear to be a highly paid group of wage earners. It must be remembered, however, that, considering the present cost of food and the fact that in practically all instances the cooks received one or more meals a day in their place of employment, the wage standards while low are comparatively higher than in some of the other occupations studied. As in the case of the washerwomen and laundresses, the workers in this occupation are older than in other occupations. MACHINE OPERATORS. The largest single group of workers studied in Minneapolis was ma- chine operators in various industries. The types of work and condition of employment varied with the industry and the establishments considered. The wage and age distribution have a direct relation to the standards of living which is more or less independent of the industry studied. Some very striking conditions were revealed by the wage study of this group of workers, as indicated by the following table. Table XVII. Showing distribution of 2,540 machine operators in Minne- apolis according to age and wage groups. AGE GROUPS Wages per Week Less than 18 18-21 22-25 26-35 36-45 46 + Total Less than $10 $10-14 15-19 20-24 78 29 4 1 228 311 90 11 140 316 167 24 154 313 235 49 3 73 146 80 15 16 41 16 689 1,156 592 100 25 + 3 Total 112 640 647 754 314 73 2,540 As in the case of most women workers studied, there seems to be a disproportionate number of wage earners receiving less than $10.00 per week, as there were 689 women workers at this wage out of a total of 2,540 or 27.1 per cent. When we consider those receiving a subsistence wage of between $10.00 and $14.00 per week, we find that they constitute 1,156 or 45.5 per cent of the total machine operators studied. In other words, almost three-fourths of the total operators considered in this study received only a minimum subsistence wage or less, while only 103 or 3.9 per cent, received a living wage or more. Of these workers only 752 or 29.9 per cent were less than 22 years of age. This would seem to indicate that among the operators as among many of the other workers, those who m.ight be presumed to be only partially dependent upon their own earnings because of their age, were not nearly as numerous as might be presumed. The figures of dependency discussed elsewhere only strengthen the accuracy of this contention, and verify the general conclusion regarding the unwarranted belief that much of the industrial wage of women workers is merely used to piece out incomes, but is not depended upon for full individual mainten- ance. SEAMSTRESSES AND SEWING. The figures relating to this occupation are not perhaps commensurate with the large number of such workers employed in various fields of indus- try. They are, however, significant as indicating wage and age distribution. 17 Table XVIII. Showing the age and wage distribution of 521 women workers in Minneapolis working as seamstresses, and in other occupations requiring sewing. AGE GROUPS Wages per Week Less than 18 18-21 22-25 26-35 36-45 46 + Total Less than $10. $10-14 15-10 20-24 31 12 1 30 56 5 20 70 13 16 88 32 3 1 17 50 13 1 14 43 5 128 319 69 4 25 + 1 Total... . 44 91 103 140 81 62 521 Of the total of 521 women wage earners engaged in this class of work, 128 or 24.6 per cent received less than a subsistence wage, wliile 319 or 61.2 per cent received a mere subsistence wage of between $10.00 and $14.00 a week. In all, more than 85 per cent of this class of wage earners received a mere subsistence wage or less. In the case of this group of workers, as in all others considered, there is no evidence of a large pro- portion of young girls working for pin money. PRINTERS AND PRESSERS. The printers and pressers represent a more or less skilled occupation requiring training and experience. The distribution of wage^ of tliis group of workers sliould therefore show a very considerable advantage over such occupations as waitresses, seamstresses, etc. This is actually the case as is shown by the following table. Table XIX. Showing age and wage distribution of 332 printers and pressers in the city of Minneapolis. AGE GROUPS Wages per Week Less than 18 18-21 22-25 26-35 36-45 46 + Total 27 5 2 33 61 7 17 88 4 1 .5 55 3 1 3 13 2 85 $10-14 15-19 20-24 1 1 223 19 2 25 + . 1 2 3 Total 34 102 110 64 20 2 332 While it is evident that only a comparatively small number of this class of wage earners (85 or 25.6 per cent) receive less than a living wage, the vast majority of them (223 or 67.1 per cent) receive a subsistence wage only. Considering tlie extent of the organization of this trade, and the skill and experience required, it seems tliat little advance has been made in the wages when 92.7 per cent of the workers receive a mere subsistence wage or less. PACKERS. The women employed as packers in stores and shops represent an un- skilled group, not likely to become organized and fluctuating with the seasonal changes in the various lines of business in which they are employed. The distribution of the 424 packers included in this study is shown in the following table. 18 Table XX. Showing distribution of 424 packers according to age and wage groups in the city of Minneapolis. AGE GROUPS Wages per Week Less than 18 18-21 22-25 26-35 36-45 46 + Total Less than SIO. $10-14 15-19 73 25 4 51 83 36 G 18 42 n 1 20 17 7 6 17 1 2 3 170 187 59 20-24 7 25 + 1 1 Total. . . . 102 176 72 44 25 5 424 The above figures show a very unusual number of young wage earners, as 278 or 65.6 per cent were less than 22 years of age, while the wages were commensurately low with 170 or 40.4 per cent receiving less than a subsistence wage and 187 or 44.1 per cent receiving only a mere subsistence wage. It is interesting to compare in this connection the wages of printers and pressers with the wages of packers which represent a comparatively unskilled occupation. In the case of the former we find a larger proportion of workers i-eceiving a subsistence wage, but in the case of the packers the proportion of those receiving above the subsistence wage is 15.5 per cent as compared with the printers and pressers with only 7.3 per cent receiving more than a mere subsistence wage. When to this fact we add the greater maturity of the printers and pressers, we notice that skill has not been a very potent factor in determining wages, and that some means of standardizing is essential. SALESWOMEN. One of the most common occupations among the wage earning women is as saleswomen in mercantile establishments. The 1,227 women in this occupation studied in connection with this inquii-y, show the following age and wage distribution. Table XXI. Showing the age and wage distribution of 1,227 saleswomen in the city of Minneapolis. AGE GROUPS Wages per Week Less than 18 18-21 22-25 26-35 36-45 46-1- Total Less than $10. $10-14 15-19 20-24 . . . . 120 22 4 172 145 21 1 96 146 32 4 65 150 85 18 12 22 42 23 6 9 4 18 4 2 4 479 523 169 31 25 + 25 Total 146 339 278 330 102 32 1.227 When we consider the distribution of wages in the above table, we find that 479 or 39.0 per cent of the wage earners in this occupation receive less than a subsistence wage, while 523 or 43.4 per cent of this group of wage earners received a mere living wage. We find, however, in this group of workers a reasonable proportion of workers receiving above a living wage to the extent of 56 or 4.5 per cent. It is also evident from the above table that age counts as a factor in the increase of wages. 19 OFFICE ASSISTANTS. This group of wage earners represents a semi-professional class with a gradual but regular increase in wages. The fact that schooling and official training are still required for this type of work has no doubt con- tributed towards the maintenance of a reasonably higher standard of wages as compared with the prevailing wages in the industries and in mer- cantile establishments. The prevailing wages affecting 1,913 such workers studied in this inquiry are indicated in the following table. Table XXII. Showing age and wage distribution of 1,913 office assis- tants in the city of Minneapolis. AQE GROUPS Wages per Less than Week 18 18-21 22-25 26-35 36-45 46 + Total Less than $10. 79 127 19 12 2 4 243 $10-14 01 347 239 141 17 2 807 15-19 10 134 195 110 28 9 516 20 24 7 87 68 92 16 4 274 25+ 6 14 36 13 4 73 Total 157 701 535 421 76 23 1,913 It is clear from the above table that the wages of these workers are considerably above the average so far discovered, as only 213 or 12.7 per cent received less than a subsistence wage, while 347 or 18.1 per cent re- ceived $20.00 a week or more, which is a normal living wage under war conditions of prices. Even in this group, however, there were 1,050 wage earners or more than half of the total studied receiving a minimum sub- sistence wage or less. The comparatively high wage standard that prevails in this type of occupation is particularly striking, because it involves workers whose rela- tion to their employment does not lend itself to organization, and 858 or 44.8 per cent were less than 22 years of age, while the largest single group was between 18 and 21 years of age. STENOGRAPHERS. Closely allied to the office assistants are the stenographers, of which 3,285 were studied in connection with the present inquiry. While this type of wage earners does not require a greater amount of general training, they do require preparation which necessitates schooling especially designed to fit the person for the task to be performed. The 3,285 stenographers studied were distributed according to age and wage groups as follows: Table XXIII. Showing age and wage groups of 3,285 stenographers in the city of Minneapolis. AGE GROUPS Wages per Week Less than 18 18-21 22-25 26-35 36-45 46 + Total Less than $10. $10-14 15-19 20-24 25 + 43 71 14 2 82 487 382 91 13 20 291 566 199 26 8 99 387 267 84 4 21 40 43 30 157 3 3 5 4 972 1,392 607 157 Total 130 1,055 1,102 845 138 15 3,285 The above table shows several rather striking facts. The age distribu- tion shows a constantly increasing number of workers with advancing age 20 up to 35, wliile the number of those under 18 is negligible. The proportion of those receiving less than a subsistence wage was only 157 or 4.7 per cent, which is less than in any group of wage earners so far considered, while the proportion of those receiving over and above a mere subsistence wage was 2,155 or 65.5 per cent, the largest proportion so far found in any group of workers considered. The fact that only 32 out of the 157 stenographers receiving less than $10.00 a week were over 22 years of age, would seem to indicate that skill and experience play a rather important part in determin- ing the wage in this class of work which, like the office assistants, repre- sents a semi-professional group. BOOKKEEPERS. The next occupation which shows a tendency towards larger wage standards as compared with the other occupations considered in this study, is the group classed as bookkeepers. They belong to what might be called a semi-professional class which requires a considerable amount of training and experience particularly related to the employment and the industry or business in which the worker is employed. The 1,189 bookkeepers studied are distributed according to age and wages as follows: Table XXIV. Showing age and wage distribution of 1,189 bookkeepers employed in the city of Minneapolis. AGE GROUPS Wages per Week Less than 18 18-21 22-25 20-35 36-45 46 + Total Less than $10. $10-14 15-19 20 24 .... 5 17 3 23 120 100 17 4 11 92 171 51 9 3 68 189 107 67 2 16 48 25 21 3 4 6 5 2 47 317 517 205 25 + 103 Total... . 25 264 334 434 112 20 1,189 The above table shows that among the bookkeepers there were prac- tically no workers receiving less than a subsistence wage, although there were 317 or 26.6 per cent of the bookkeepers receiving between $10.00 and $14.00 a week or a mere subsistence wage. It is interesting to note that 880 or 64 per cent of the workers considered were of the ages of highest productivity, as they range between 22 and 45 years of age. In point of wages, 517 or 43.5 per cent of these workers received a minimum living wage as compared with 1,392 or 42.3 per cent of the stenographers classed in the same group. When, however, we consider the bookkeepers receiving $25.00 a week or more, we find that they constitute 103 or 8.7 per cent of the total as compared with 157 or 4.8 per cent of the stenographers classed in the same group. While in the case of the bookkeepers, the proportion of those receiving less than a minimum subsistence wage was less than half the proportion of those receiving $25.00 a week or more, in the case of the stenographers the proportion of these two wage groups was equal. TELEPHONE OPERATORS. In view of the fact that the data relating to the telephone operators was gathered about the time when there was considerable discontent among the wage earners in this group, the statistical data contained in the follow- ing table, although limited is of considerable value as indicative of actual wage standards. 21 Table XXV. Showing the age and wage distribution of 534 telephone operators in tlie city of Minneapolis. AQE GROUPS Wages per Week Less than 18 18-21 22-25 20-35 36-45 46 + Total r,os9 than $10 30 32 2 43 125 25 5 1 17 105 26 10 1 7 47 30 5 1 1 10 3 98 $10-14 15-19 2 .321 92 20-24 20 3 25 + Total. . . . 64 199 159 96 14 2 534 It Is evident from the above figures that out of a total of 534 telephone operators 98 or 18.3 per cent received less than a minimum subsistence wage, while 321 or 60.1 per cent received merely a subsistence wage. In other words, four-fifths of the telephone operators considered in this inves- tigation were receiving wages which would cover the cost of mere subsis- tence or less. Of those receiving at the time of the investigation more than $14.00 a week, 82 out of a total of 115 were 22 years of age or more. The number of those receiving less than a minimum subsistence wage was four times greater than the number of those receiving a living wage. GENERAL OFFICE HELP. The office helpers comprise a wide range of people with varying training and related to business in ways that could with difficulty be desig- nated in an investigation of this kind. The main value of the figures is perhaps in the fact that it shows a large number of workers not classed either as office assistants or steno- graphers, or as bookkeepers. The 1,793 office helpers studied, divided into age and wage groups, show the following classification: Table XXVI. Showing age and wage distribution of 1,793 office helpers in the city of Minneapolis. AGE GROUPS Wage.s per Week Less than 18 18-21 22-25 20- 35 36-45 46 + Total Less than $10. $10-14 15-19 99 36 148 404 58 17 5 53 267 132 45 10 32 162 126 56 43 9 23 21 12 12 1 9 13 2 8 342 901 350 132 78 20-24 25 + Total 135 632 507 419 77 33 1,803 The above table shows the largest proportion of office helpers between 18 and 21 years of age, and with 1,274 or 71 per cent of the workers under 26 years of age. The wages received by the office helpers show a wide range of distri- bution. Those receiving less than a minimum subsistence wage num- bered 342 or 19.0 per cent of the total, while those receiving a living wage or more numbered 200 or 11.1 per cent. The largest proportion was found, however, among those receiving a minimum subsistence wage. This group consisted of 901 wage earners or 50.2 per cent of the total. With seven- tenths of the wage earners in this group receiving a mere subsistence wage or less, the standard of remuneration can hardly be considered high although it must be admitted that a large proportion of those employed in this field were comparatively young women. 22 CASHIERS. Although there is a considerable difference in the duties of cashiers, depending upon the type of business and its size, the wage distribution shows a tendency to remain more or less stationary, while the age distribu- tion shows more mature workers than in some of the other occupations. The figures showing the distribution of the 370 cashiers studied are given in the following table. Table XXVII. Showing age and wage distribution of 370 cashiers in the city of Minneapolis. AGE GROUPS Wages per Week Less than 18 18-21 22-25 26-35 36-45 46 + Total Less than $10 16 4 37 30 13 7 21 51 25 10 2 16 28 41 17 20 2 2 2 92 $10-14 15-19 4 7 5 9 119 88 20-24 39 25 + 1 32 Total. . . . 20 87 109 122 25 7 370 While in the case of office helpers 71 per cent were under 26 years of age, the cashiers showed 216 or 58.4 per cent of the same age groups. On the other hand, the office helpers received less than a minimum subsis- tence wage in only 19 per cent of the cases, while the cashiers re- ceived such a low wage in 92 or 24.9 per cent of the cases. On the other hand, those receiving a living wage or more numbered 71 or 19.1 per cent as compared with 11.1 per cent in this wage group among the office helpers. On the whole, the majority of these workers still remain in the wage groups which permit of only minimum subsistence or less. FORELADIES. The foreladies represent a supervising group of workers presumably with experience in the trade in which they are employed, and on the average older than the women workers in the other trades. The following table shows the distribution of the foreladies by age and wage groups. Table XXVIII. Showing the age and wage distribution of 557 foreladies employed in the city of Minneapolis. AGE GROUPS Wages per Week Less than 18 18-21 22-25 26-35 36-45 46 + Total Less than $10. $10-14 15-19 25 4 26 82 23 3 1 9 65 43 17 6 8 45 60 31 27 5 13 23 12 13 4 3 2 77 212 151 20 24 63 25 + 7 54 Total 29 135 140 171 66 16 557 It is surprising to find that despite the experience required in the per- formance of the duties of forelady (forewoman) 304 or 54.6 per cent were under 26 years of age. The wages of this group of workers vary only slightly from the other group, as 77 or 13.8 per cent received less than a minimum subsistence wage, and 212 or 38 per cent received a mere subsis- tence wage. In other words, more than half of this group of supposed ex- perienced and skilled workers received a bare subsistence wage or less. Just what the duties of these workers are we were unable to ascertain from the data gathered. It is evident, however, that in a considerable number of instances the work is of such character as to command a fair wage, since 117 or 21 per cent of these wage earners received a living wage or more. FACTORY WORKERS. One of the most important groups studied in the course of this inquiry was that of the 2,537 factory workers, as their wages and age distribution 23 are quite typical of the general industrial situation among the women. The following table shows the conditions found. Table XXIX. Showing age and wage distribution of 2,537 factory work- ers in the city of Minneapolis. AGE GROUPS Wages per Week Less than 18 18-21 ^-1 22-25 20-35 36-45 ' 40 + Total Less than $10. $10-14 15-19 20-24 424 128 9 317 425 70 5 2 130 221 92 7 1 135 208 08 8 2 00 93 29 3 42 47 5 1,108 1,122 279 23 25 + 5 Total. . . . 561 825 451 421 185 94 2,537 Table XXIX shows that 1,387 or 58.9 per cent of this type of workers were less than 22 years of age, while there was a comparatively small num- ber of these workers above 35 years of age. The wage distribution, how- ever, is indicative of a very serious condition, with 1,108 or 43.8 per cent of the workers receiving less than a subsistence wage, and 1,122 or 40.4 per cent receiving a mere subsistence wage. Only 28 or 1.1 per cent received a normal wage which allows of a proper standard. The discussion of the wage and age distribution among workers in specific occupations would seem to show that wages have remained during the war so low as to permit of little improvement in the standard of living; and that the majority of the workers are compelled to struggle with the problems of mere subsistence; and that only in comparatively few instances, and particularly in the semi-professional occupations, have wages reached a point where a normal living can be secured on the wage received. HOURS OF LABOR. There is no condition of labor that so fundamentally affects the health and welfare of the workers as the number of hours of work per week. In order to ascertain what the distribution of hours of labor is in relation to the 54,115 women employed in the various establishments considered in the course of this investigation, a study was made of the distiibution of such hours of labor according to cities, and according to the five main classes of occupation. The following table shows the distribution of hours of labor throughout the state. TABLE No. XXX Showing Distribution of Women WorJcers According to Hours of Labor and Occupation Throughout the State Industry I^ess than 44 44-48 49-54 55-60 01-67 08-72 73-78 79-84 Over 84 Totals 446 2.37 5,071 26.93 12,424 05.97 848 4.5 26 .14 12 .06 5 .03 18,832 100. MorcanLile.. Percent. . . . 497 3.48 3,032 21.23 7,123 49.88 2,9.37 20.57 426 2.98 158 1.11 55 .38 23 .16 30 .21 14,281 100. Telephone & Telegraph Percent. . . . 149 4.5 1,548 40.74 533 16.09 864 26.09 97 2.92 42 1.27 13 .39 38 1.15 28 .85 3,312 100. Service Percent 744 9.99 837 11.24 1,116 14.99 2,459 33.02 1,135 15.24 453 6.08 195 2.62 370 4.97 138 1.85 7,447 100. All other Industries Percent .... 2,005 20.16 5,228 51.04 1,762 17.2 1,080 10.54 53 .52 41 .4 7 .07 6 .06 1 .01 10,2t3 100. Totals Percent. . . . 3,901 7.21 15,710 29.04 22,958 42.42 8,188 15.13 1,737 3.21 706 1.3 275 .51 437 .81 197 .37 54.115 100. The above table shows that only 7.21 per cent of the workers are em-r ployed at tasks requiring less than 44 hours of work per week, and that 24 29.04 per cent were employed between 44 and 48 hours per week. The largest proportion of workers, however, were employed between 49 and 54 hours per week, as 22,958 or 42.42 per cent were so employed. The most remarkable situation is to be found in the fact that 909 workers were employed for 73 hours or more per week, or an average of 12 hours a day and over. This would undoubtedly seem an excessive number of hours of employment for any industry. When we consider the five classes of occupation, we find that the longest hours prevail in the telegraph and telephone plants, and in the various lines of service, and other types of that character. The shortest hours seem to prevail in the miscellaneous industries where, out of a total of 10,243 workers, 7,293 or 71.2 of 1 per cent, were employed only 48 hours a week or less. The largest proportion of women workers, working between 55 and 60 hours per week, is found among the telegraph and telephone workers and in service. The fact that 11,540 workers were employed for 55 hours or more each week, indicates that there is a very considerable amount of employment beyond vi^hat would seem a reasonable day's work or over nine hours a day for six days a week. The discrepancy in totals is due to the fact that there was a difference in the number of schedules for which certain kinds of information was ob- tained or was lacking. In order to ascertain the different conditions and the distribution of hours of labor throughout the state, we have divided the 54,115 women, studying them from the point of view of hours of labor, into groups repre- senting the three largest cities, Minneapolis, St. Paul and Duluth, and the rest of the state, and have studied the distribution of hours according to occupational groups. The following tables present the detailed data re- garding this distribution of hours. TABLE XXXI Showing the Distribution of Hours According to the Cities and the rest of the State Less than 44 44-48 49-54 55- GO 61-67 68-72 73-78 79-84 Over 84 Totals Minneapoli Totals Per Cent . . . St. Paul- Totals Per Cent. . . Duluth— Totals Per Cent. . . State outsi Totals Per Cent. . . 1,684 7.88 83.3 6.18 421 6.86 de Citi 963 7.33 6,930 32.46 4,714 34 . 96 (34.967) 1,799 29.32 2,273 17.29 9,838 46.07 6,720 49 . 83 2,484 40.48 3,916 29.79 1,852 8.67 1,175 8.71 1,274 20.76 3,887 29.58 982 4.60 28 .21 (.207) 630 4.79 33 .18 5 .03 (.037) 26 .42 642 4.88 7 .06 (.059) 232 1.76 9 .04 4 .07 ( . 066) 424 3.24 9 .15 (.1466) 176 1.34 21.351 100 13,485 100 6.136 100 13,143 These figures indicate that there is a smaller proportion of women em- ployed working 48 hours a day or less outside of the larger cities than in any of the three important cities of the state. It is also clear that there is a larger proportion of women employed between 49 and 54 hours a day in the city of St. Paul than in any of the rest of the state. It is also evi- dent that there is a larger proportion of women working less than 55 hours a week in the city of Minneapolis than in the rest of the state. Practically one-half of the women employed in the city of St. Paul 49.83 per cent were employed between 49 and 54 hours a week. The greatest frequency of long hours was found outside of the cities of the state with Minneapolis next in order of importance. 25 In order to determine the differences in conditions that prevail in various industries, we have divided the workers according to occupational groups and we have found the following conditions: TABLE XXXII Showing the Distribution of Women Worl