WEBVTT 00:00.780 --> 00:18.330 align:start >> From the Library of Congress in Washington, DC. 00:18.330 --> 00:19.630 align:start >> Sasha Dowdy: My name is Sasha, 00:19.630 --> 00:22.340 align:start I work here in the Library of Congress Young Readers Center 00:22.340 --> 00:25.870 align:start and I hope that you're enjoying your visit 00:25.870 --> 00:27.170 align:start to the library so far. 00:27.170 --> 00:29.220 align:start Who's been here before? 00:29.220 --> 00:32.230 align:start Oh good. And your first then the two of you, 00:32.230 --> 00:34.030 align:start welcome so glad you're here. 00:34.030 --> 00:38.350 align:start So we have a pop quiz for you guys kind of. 00:38.350 --> 00:41.730 align:start Pop quiz slash fun facts how about that? 00:41.730 --> 00:44.980 align:start Okay, so in the Library of Congress we have millions 00:44.980 --> 00:47.490 align:start of things okay, we have millions and millions of items 00:47.490 --> 00:49.240 align:start and of course we have books. 00:49.240 --> 00:51.730 align:start So do you know what other items we might have 00:51.730 --> 00:53.030 align:start in the library's collections? 00:53.030 --> 00:54.330 align:start Yeah. 00:54.330 --> 00:55.630 align:start [ Inaudible ] 00:55.630 --> 00:56.930 align:start What's that? 00:56.930 --> 00:58.230 align:start [ Inaudible ] 00:58.230 --> 00:59.530 align:start Fossils, I think we do yeah. 00:59.530 --> 01:00.830 align:start [ Inaudible ] 01:00.830 --> 01:02.130 align:start Sculptures for sure. 01:02.130 --> 01:03.430 align:start >> Art. 01:03.430 --> 01:04.730 align:start >> Sasha Dowdy: Art. 01:04.730 --> 01:06.470 align:start Yeah, we have all kinds of photographs and artwork 01:06.470 --> 01:07.910 align:start and prints and everything. 01:07.910 --> 01:09.210 align:start Yeah. 01:09.210 --> 01:11.070 align:start [ Inaudible ] 01:11.070 --> 01:14.950 align:start We have so many old items from way back when. 01:14.950 --> 01:16.860 align:start You saw the museum part, that's awesome. 01:16.860 --> 01:18.600 align:start Yeah. 01:18.600 --> 01:21.040 align:start [ Inaudible ] 01:21.040 --> 01:22.810 align:start Journals, yeah absolutely. 01:22.810 --> 01:26.880 align:start We also have maps, 5 million maps in fact and a total 01:26.880 --> 01:30.360 align:start of about 167 million of things of all kinds. 01:30.360 --> 01:33.360 align:start We even have flutes, we have a ton of flutes, 01:33.360 --> 01:37.520 align:start we have real expensive violins, Stradivarius violins and cellos. 01:37.520 --> 01:40.030 align:start So we have all kinds of stuff and we're going to show you some 01:40.030 --> 01:43.310 align:start of it as we talk to some scientists 01:43.310 --> 01:46.640 align:start to celebrate women in science today. 01:46.640 --> 01:49.560 align:start So I am really happy to introduce you guys 01:49.560 --> 01:52.740 align:start to two scientists and the first one is going 01:52.740 --> 01:55.690 align:start to speak first Dr. Svetlana Kotliarova. 01:55.690 --> 02:01.600 align:start She got her PhD in human genetics from Tokyo University 02:01.600 --> 02:04.950 align:start and now she is a scientific review officer at NIH. 02:04.950 --> 02:07.150 align:start Have you guys heard of NIH before? 02:07.150 --> 02:11.220 align:start It stands for National Institutes of Health. 02:11.220 --> 02:13.220 align:start And she'll tell you a little bit more about what kind 02:13.220 --> 02:16.980 align:start of work she does there and how she got where she is now 02:16.980 --> 02:18.430 align:start and what kind of work she's doing there. 02:18.430 --> 02:20.510 align:start So how about we welcome Dr. K. 02:20.510 --> 02:25.290 align:start [ Applause ] 02:25.290 --> 02:26.590 align:start >> Dr. Svetlana Kotliarova: Thank you very much 02:26.590 --> 02:31.590 align:start for inviting me today and thank you Sasha for introduction. 02:31.590 --> 02:33.960 align:start So it's a great honor to be here 02:33.960 --> 02:37.820 align:start and to speak with you, our future. 02:37.820 --> 02:45.420 align:start So and I hope that I will infuse some excitement 02:45.420 --> 02:47.800 align:start into you about science. 02:47.800 --> 02:51.870 align:start So everyone has science class? 02:51.870 --> 02:53.170 align:start >> Yes. 02:53.170 --> 02:54.470 align:start >> Dr. Svetlana Kotliarova: Yeah. 02:54.470 --> 02:56.240 align:start So you like science? 02:56.240 --> 03:02.210 align:start That's great, that's great, so half of the job is done. 03:02.210 --> 03:15.050 align:start Actually I forgot I wanted to start with saying good morning. 03:15.050 --> 03:16.940 align:start >> Good morning. 03:16.940 --> 03:18.860 align:start >> Dr. Svetlana Kotliarova: [Foreign language]. 03:18.860 --> 03:25.230 align:start This is good morning in Russian. 03:25.230 --> 03:31.390 align:start And as you already figured out I came from Russia. 03:31.390 --> 03:37.620 align:start So I was born in the Ural Mountains in the like kind 03:37.620 --> 03:43.910 align:start of central or closer to Moscow side of Russia. 03:43.910 --> 03:51.540 align:start And everyone heard about Moscow, but maybe not so much 03:51.540 --> 03:56.220 align:start about Russia so I show you something about my hometown. 03:56.220 --> 04:04.370 align:start So the city of Ufa is in the mountains, Ural Mountains 04:04.370 --> 04:11.000 align:start and we have a lot of nice nature, 04:11.000 --> 04:16.950 align:start a lot of nice pictures you can take there if you ever go. 04:16.950 --> 04:22.790 align:start And this inspired me to learn more 04:22.790 --> 04:27.640 align:start about living things, about life science. 04:27.640 --> 04:35.880 align:start And this is a monument very famous, it's the national hero 04:35.880 --> 04:38.840 align:start of Bashkir people, so Ufa is capital 04:38.840 --> 04:43.080 align:start of Bashkir Republic inside of Russia. 04:43.080 --> 04:49.080 align:start And Bashkir about 30% people who live there. 04:49.080 --> 04:54.080 align:start And they have their special national clothing. 04:54.080 --> 04:59.020 align:start And this is how it maybe looks now snow, 04:59.020 --> 05:05.420 align:start there is still snow there. 05:05.420 --> 05:09.430 align:start So these are some pictures from my childhood. 05:09.430 --> 05:13.610 align:start So this is our very modest 05:13.610 --> 05:18.450 align:start and old apartment building, this is where I grew. 05:18.450 --> 05:25.000 align:start And this is my baby sister and maybe you figure this is me. 05:25.000 --> 05:27.230 align:start So how old are you guys? 05:27.230 --> 05:28.530 align:start >> Twelve. 05:28.530 --> 05:29.880 align:start >> Dr. Svetlana Kotliarova: Twelve, this is about me, 05:29.880 --> 05:32.270 align:start this is me at your age. 05:32.270 --> 05:34.690 align:start So and this is I'm wearing one of my dresses, 05:34.690 --> 05:40.420 align:start I have two dresses, one was [inaudible] to wash 05:40.420 --> 05:43.330 align:start and another I was wearing. 05:43.330 --> 05:47.510 align:start And this is my school, I liked school very much. 05:47.510 --> 05:52.540 align:start I went there to meet my friends and grade teachers 05:52.540 --> 05:55.730 align:start who inspired me and who teach me all the good things 05:55.730 --> 05:58.080 align:start that I can use in my life. 05:58.080 --> 06:05.240 align:start And I'm thankful for everyone who taught me all of this. 06:05.240 --> 06:10.900 align:start And this is me helping my mom after school drying clothes. 06:10.900 --> 06:14.970 align:start So we didn't have a dryer, so actually it's not, 06:14.970 --> 06:17.970 align:start it wasn't a cultural thing in Russia 06:17.970 --> 06:21.480 align:start and maybe now some people will have it. 06:21.480 --> 06:26.230 align:start And we always just dry them outside. 06:26.230 --> 06:33.490 align:start So why I'm telling you all this because regardless 06:33.490 --> 06:36.020 align:start of your background where you were born 06:36.020 --> 06:41.070 align:start if you have your dream you'll follow your dream 06:41.070 --> 06:47.160 align:start and you will do something that you couldn't even imagine. 06:47.160 --> 06:51.670 align:start So for example my parents were very much insisting 06:51.670 --> 06:56.280 align:start on good education, they were born before the World War II 06:56.280 --> 06:59.560 align:start and they didn't have higher education, but they wanted 06:59.560 --> 07:01.550 align:start for their kids to have it. 07:01.550 --> 07:05.350 align:start And they put us into school 07:05.350 --> 07:11.210 align:start with special emphasis on English language. 07:11.210 --> 07:14.630 align:start But Russia was very close country, I never saw any 07:14.630 --> 07:19.350 align:start of my relatives or friends going out to other countries 07:19.350 --> 07:23.490 align:start and I was asking myself why I'm learning English. 07:23.490 --> 07:26.690 align:start But then standing in front 07:26.690 --> 07:30.790 align:start of you today I would say my parents were right, 07:30.790 --> 07:34.260 align:start so they were enforcing something on me 07:34.260 --> 07:36.520 align:start that I maybe didn't understand 07:36.520 --> 07:40.120 align:start but it helped me through my life. 07:40.120 --> 07:48.130 align:start So I suggest that you listen to your parents. 07:48.130 --> 07:55.710 align:start So I have a lot of inspiration from my friends 07:55.710 --> 07:59.250 align:start and teachers and support. 07:59.250 --> 08:04.820 align:start This is what you seek when you are going to pursue your dream. 08:04.820 --> 08:15.920 align:start And so from Ufa having interest in science and more 08:15.920 --> 08:19.790 align:start in life sciences I went to Novosibirsk, 08:19.790 --> 08:23.620 align:start it's in Siberia maybe you've heard it's very cold there 08:23.620 --> 08:28.730 align:start but it can be also very warm, it can be 100 degrees in summer so 08:28.730 --> 08:32.240 align:start but it's dry, it feels different. 08:32.240 --> 08:36.900 align:start So I was studying there biology, 08:36.900 --> 08:39.550 align:start molecular biology and biochemistry. 08:39.550 --> 08:47.420 align:start And then it happened so I met my husband Dr. Yuri Kotliarov 08:47.420 --> 08:51.740 align:start during my university years. 08:51.740 --> 08:58.190 align:start And together with him we went to University of Tokyo in Japan 08:58.190 --> 09:03.890 align:start to study further and to get our PhD degrees. 09:03.890 --> 09:07.050 align:start And I worked in the Brain Science Institute 09:07.050 --> 09:11.280 align:start and I will show you some brain cells later. 09:11.280 --> 09:16.010 align:start And when we were in Japan we had a chance to go to a conference 09:16.010 --> 09:21.340 align:start to the United States and we were so impressed by the scientists 09:21.340 --> 09:25.430 align:start and by the opportunities that are in this country 09:25.430 --> 09:35.070 align:start for the research and we decided to work in the United States. 09:35.070 --> 09:44.970 align:start So we moved and it was almost like around the world journey. 09:44.970 --> 09:50.720 align:start So I'm talking that I'm scientist, 09:50.720 --> 09:53.110 align:start but what is really science? 09:53.110 --> 09:57.680 align:start Can you guys say something or write? 09:57.680 --> 10:02.640 align:start >> I think science is something that you can't explain, 10:02.640 --> 10:06.430 align:start but then later on you can explain it. 10:06.430 --> 10:07.730 align:start >> Dr. Svetlana Kotliarova: 10:07.730 --> 10:09.540 align:start To explain unexplained that's very good. 10:09.540 --> 10:15.710 align:start >> I think science is when you like have questions 10:15.710 --> 10:19.300 align:start about the world and things that you find 10:19.300 --> 10:24.240 align:start and then some stuff is never answered or things 10:24.240 --> 10:26.250 align:start that are very questionable. 10:26.250 --> 10:27.710 align:start >> Dr. Svetlana Kotliarova: That's very good. 10:27.710 --> 10:32.860 align:start >> I think science is something like a group of different things 10:32.860 --> 10:36.780 align:start that have something to do with like you wanted 10:36.780 --> 10:40.820 align:start to study what was it again? 10:40.820 --> 10:42.930 align:start >> Dr. Svetlana Kotliarova: Molecular biology, biochemistry. 10:42.930 --> 10:46.640 align:start >> Yes and you could, it's also like astronomy. 10:46.640 --> 10:52.980 align:start >> Dr. Svetlana Kotliarova: Yes, that's right. 10:52.980 --> 10:54.280 align:start >> And. 10:54.280 --> 10:56.060 align:start >> Dr. Svetlana Kotliarova: That's all great answers. 10:56.060 --> 11:00.590 align:start Science is the way we learn about the unknown things 11:00.590 --> 11:06.090 align:start in the world and it also includes all the knowledge 11:06.090 --> 11:10.380 align:start gained through centuries and generations -- 11:10.380 --> 11:13.490 align:start from generation to generation. 11:13.490 --> 11:17.860 align:start And scientists are using different tools. 11:17.860 --> 11:22.560 align:start So here you see a couple of tools already, 11:22.560 --> 11:26.520 align:start so anymore tools that, so what kind 11:26.520 --> 11:28.200 align:start of tools do you think scientists use, 11:28.200 --> 11:29.740 align:start just give me a couple examples? 11:29.740 --> 11:31.540 align:start Yes please. 11:31.540 --> 11:34.070 align:start [ Inaudible ] 11:34.070 --> 11:37.240 align:start How did you know I'm going to speak about microscope, 11:37.240 --> 11:39.570 align:start so you guessed it right? 11:39.570 --> 11:40.960 align:start Yes. 11:40.960 --> 11:43.040 align:start [ Inaudible ] 11:43.040 --> 11:44.340 align:start Telescopes all right. 11:44.340 --> 11:48.010 align:start So what are microscopes used for to see what kind of things? 11:48.010 --> 11:49.310 align:start [ Inaudible ] 11:49.310 --> 11:51.110 align:start Tiny objects and telescope? 11:51.110 --> 11:55.110 align:start [ Inaudible ] 11:55.110 --> 11:56.870 align:start Yes, that's right. 11:56.870 --> 11:58.670 align:start Yes. 11:58.670 --> 12:18.190 align:start [ Inaudible ] 12:18.190 --> 12:19.490 align:start Beakers that's very good. 12:19.490 --> 12:20.790 align:start Yes. 12:20.790 --> 12:22.090 align:start [ Inaudible ] 12:22.090 --> 12:27.230 align:start Yes, yes to measure exact and to mix things right. 12:27.230 --> 12:32.310 align:start So and what do scientists do, how does science work? 12:32.310 --> 12:35.870 align:start So what does it start from, like what? 12:35.870 --> 12:37.170 align:start Yes. 12:37.170 --> 12:38.470 align:start [ Inaudible ] 12:38.470 --> 12:40.900 align:start Question or hypothesis exactly. 12:40.900 --> 12:43.690 align:start And then we do what to test the hypothesis? 12:43.690 --> 12:44.990 align:start >> Experiments. 12:44.990 --> 12:46.290 align:start >> Dr. Svetlana Kotliarova: Experiments. 12:46.290 --> 12:48.740 align:start And then we get something results. 12:48.740 --> 12:54.400 align:start Exactly. And then we have to explain it, 12:54.400 --> 12:57.820 align:start is it the result we expected or is it something unexpected. 12:57.820 --> 13:01.670 align:start Then what do we do? 13:01.670 --> 13:05.670 align:start So a very important thing is to get the resources 13:05.670 --> 13:08.190 align:start to do all the experiments, so you need funding 13:08.190 --> 13:13.240 align:start and we will talk about funding a little bit later. 13:13.240 --> 13:17.200 align:start And before you start your experiment do you want to know 13:17.200 --> 13:19.740 align:start if this idea occurred to someone 13:19.740 --> 13:21.690 align:start and someone already resolved this? 13:21.690 --> 13:25.290 align:start Do you want to invent a new wheel or you want 13:25.290 --> 13:29.290 align:start to use the invented wheel and build the new more bigger? 13:29.290 --> 13:34.760 align:start So you go to get more information right 13:34.760 --> 13:37.100 align:start and now we have all the resources, 13:37.100 --> 13:41.900 align:start we have the computer internet, 13:41.900 --> 13:45.880 align:start we can check some ideas and find information. 13:45.880 --> 13:50.490 align:start Where else we go to get information about ideas 13:50.490 --> 13:52.260 align:start that you want to pursue? 13:52.260 --> 13:53.560 align:start Yes. 13:53.560 --> 13:54.860 align:start >> The library. 13:54.860 --> 13:56.160 align:start >> Dr. Svetlana Kotliarova: Of course 13:56.160 --> 14:00.150 align:start and that's why we are here right. 14:00.150 --> 14:03.110 align:start And we talked about the tools and [inaudible] 14:03.110 --> 14:07.660 align:start from the first try that we are talking about the microscope. 14:07.660 --> 14:13.270 align:start So when does microscope, 14:13.270 --> 14:17.110 align:start when did people start thinking about microscope? 14:17.110 --> 14:18.800 align:start Someone is thinking and sitting 14:18.800 --> 14:22.280 align:start and saying oh I will invent a microscope. 14:22.280 --> 14:29.280 align:start No, so actually there was no glass at first 14:29.280 --> 14:31.610 align:start and glass was invented and then they saw 14:31.610 --> 14:35.570 align:start like if they put some glass on some object they see 14:35.570 --> 14:37.680 align:start that it is become bigger. 14:37.680 --> 14:44.170 align:start And this was happening like in the first century romans 14:44.170 --> 14:45.740 align:start noticed that. 14:45.740 --> 14:52.850 align:start And then one scientist or some guy 14:52.850 --> 15:03.080 align:start in Italy made the first magnification eyeglass just 15:03.080 --> 15:10.960 align:start for one eye to help people to see. 15:10.960 --> 15:21.650 align:start And after that two Dutch spectacle makers made the first 15:21.650 --> 15:25.980 align:start microscope which was a tube, which was like consisted 15:25.980 --> 15:31.340 align:start of three tubes that you have to retract them. 15:31.340 --> 15:37.170 align:start And the first microscope that was used 15:37.170 --> 15:43.300 align:start for many things was invented again by a Dutcher draper 15:43.300 --> 15:46.720 align:start and scientist Anton van Leeuwenhoek. 15:46.720 --> 15:52.280 align:start So probably you heard his name because this is 15:52.280 --> 15:57.010 align:start when the real microscopy started and he was the first 15:57.010 --> 16:03.820 align:start to see tiny creatures under the microscope. 16:03.820 --> 16:11.250 align:start And in 1665, Robert Hooke, an English scientist, 16:11.250 --> 16:13.460 align:start published his micrographia. 16:13.460 --> 16:19.690 align:start The things that he observed under the microscope 16:19.690 --> 16:22.480 align:start and we will talk about this in a second. 16:22.480 --> 16:26.680 align:start So as you can see, there are Romans, Italians, Dutch people, 16:26.680 --> 16:32.930 align:start English scientists and centuries So in time 16:32.930 --> 16:36.600 align:start and space the microscope invention was continuing, 16:36.600 --> 16:40.150 align:start so this is how science works. 16:40.150 --> 16:45.970 align:start It is and now it is more like teamwork, 16:45.970 --> 16:54.480 align:start people can move using planes and helicopters you name it 16:54.480 --> 16:58.530 align:start to different areas to do research together. 16:58.530 --> 17:04.660 align:start And if you choose to be a scientist you could be also 17:04.660 --> 17:07.510 align:start traveling a lot and. 17:07.510 --> 17:15.050 align:start [ Inaudible ] 17:15.050 --> 17:20.280 align:start Excavation or archeologists yes, yes. 17:20.280 --> 17:25.820 align:start So and as we spoke about Robert Hooke, 17:25.820 --> 17:34.970 align:start the Library of Congress has his micrographia, so his drawing 17:34.970 --> 17:38.570 align:start that he made looking into the microscope. 17:38.570 --> 17:44.810 align:start And this website actually is a great resource both 17:44.810 --> 17:50.470 align:start for the students and for the teachers to get acquainted 17:50.470 --> 17:58.080 align:start to know more about different pieces, different information, 17:58.080 --> 18:00.160 align:start different information 18:00.160 --> 18:05.420 align:start on scientific discoveries, and so on. 18:05.420 --> 18:12.840 align:start And this is the micrographia that Robert Hooke made. 18:12.840 --> 18:16.910 align:start So what did he draw, what did he look at the microscope? 18:16.910 --> 18:22.430 align:start He look at the cork, cork, cork on the trees, 18:22.430 --> 18:24.510 align:start the cork like on the oak. 18:24.510 --> 18:27.040 align:start [ Inaudible ] 18:27.040 --> 18:33.780 align:start And he found some structures he called them pores or cells 18:33.780 --> 18:39.070 align:start and he called them cells because he was thinking when looking 18:39.070 --> 18:42.820 align:start at them that they reminded him cells of a monastery 18:42.820 --> 18:48.250 align:start where monks lived, like tiny cells in a monastery. 18:48.250 --> 18:50.710 align:start And guess what? 18:50.710 --> 18:54.370 align:start He was the first person whose named themselves, 18:54.370 --> 19:01.820 align:start since then this units of life are called cells. 19:01.820 --> 19:04.900 align:start Actually he was seeing the dead cells 19:04.900 --> 19:08.660 align:start and the walls of the cells. 19:08.660 --> 19:13.380 align:start And this is how cork cells look under modern microscope, 19:13.380 --> 19:16.670 align:start so he could draw very nicely. 19:16.670 --> 19:22.660 align:start And this is the living cells of onion under microscope. 19:22.660 --> 19:25.710 align:start Maybe you will do or already did this experiment 19:25.710 --> 19:30.600 align:start in your school looking at onions. 19:30.600 --> 19:35.460 align:start And this is the first microscope that was like a tube 19:35.460 --> 19:40.160 align:start and Robert Hooke draw his micrographia using this 19:40.160 --> 19:43.550 align:start microscope which he invented too 19:43.550 --> 19:46.560 align:start and this is how modern microscope looks 19:46.560 --> 19:48.430 align:start which you are familiar with. 19:48.430 --> 19:55.690 align:start And these are some of my data that were published 19:55.690 --> 20:03.090 align:start about the brain tumor, so when I did the brain cancer studies. 20:03.090 --> 20:07.400 align:start So as you can see, the shape of the cells is in green 20:07.400 --> 20:11.040 align:start because there is protein that is in the cell membrane 20:11.040 --> 20:13.180 align:start which is called [inaudible] and the nucleus 20:13.180 --> 20:18.120 align:start which is stained in blue. 20:18.120 --> 20:25.090 align:start So now I want to tell you a little bit 20:25.090 --> 20:28.010 align:start where scientists work. 20:28.010 --> 20:33.430 align:start So it could be an academic institution or university, 20:33.430 --> 20:35.170 align:start industry and government. 20:35.170 --> 20:39.020 align:start And I work in the government organization, 20:39.020 --> 20:41.940 align:start which is called National Institutes of Health. 20:41.940 --> 20:44.820 align:start This is one of the biggest research institutions 20:44.820 --> 20:48.750 align:start in the world and it's right here in Bethesda. 20:48.750 --> 20:52.500 align:start So it's just close to you and you can be part of it 20:52.500 --> 20:54.680 align:start and we'll talk about this later. 20:54.680 --> 21:02.200 align:start So there are many achievements that were done at NIH, 21:02.200 --> 21:09.640 align:start National Institutes of Health, everyone calls it NIH. 21:09.640 --> 21:13.400 align:start And for example, discovery of fluoride 21:13.400 --> 21:19.100 align:start to prevent the tooth decay or eradication of Ebola 21:19.100 --> 21:21.960 align:start as you heard recently. 21:21.960 --> 21:30.240 align:start And human genome was also sequenced at NIH. 21:30.240 --> 21:35.610 align:start So there are 27 institutes and scientific centers at NIH 21:35.610 --> 21:39.710 align:start and I work in the Center for Scientific Review 21:39.710 --> 21:41.720 align:start and what does it mean? 21:41.720 --> 21:44.740 align:start We will know in a minute. 21:44.740 --> 21:50.260 align:start So what do you think about scientific review? 21:50.260 --> 21:57.860 align:start So we were talking about experiments, hypothesis 21:57.860 --> 22:00.840 align:start and what do we do with the results, 22:00.840 --> 22:08.580 align:start and where does scientific peer review have place. 22:08.580 --> 22:12.400 align:start So there are five options for you 22:12.400 --> 22:17.410 align:start to guess what is scientific review, what is NIH peer review? 22:17.410 --> 22:27.490 align:start So but I warn you this is a tricky question so. 22:27.490 --> 22:33.820 align:start So who is for, do you have any ideas? 22:33.820 --> 22:35.700 align:start What is the idea? 22:35.700 --> 22:40.040 align:start >> Two. 22:40.040 --> 22:41.340 align:start >> Dr. Svetlana Kotliarova: Two, 22:41.340 --> 22:43.170 align:start scientists meet together to discuss science. 22:43.170 --> 22:45.200 align:start >> None of them [inaudible]. 22:45.200 --> 22:46.500 align:start >> Dr. Svetlana Kotliarova: Three, 22:46.500 --> 22:47.970 align:start scientists review scientific application 22:47.970 --> 22:49.520 align:start from other scientists. 22:49.520 --> 22:52.560 align:start Yeah, that's peer-to-peer very good. 22:52.560 --> 22:57.000 align:start But two was also correct and one is correct 22:57.000 --> 22:59.480 align:start because scientists write application 22:59.480 --> 23:03.630 align:start about their idea and submit it to NIH. 23:03.630 --> 23:11.220 align:start Also, when scientists meet they evaluate the application, 23:11.220 --> 23:15.060 align:start how interesting it is, how it will improve, 23:15.060 --> 23:18.270 align:start how it will advance science further. 23:18.270 --> 23:22.830 align:start And they will give it a score, so four is correct too. 23:22.830 --> 23:27.980 align:start And NIH is make sure that this process is all fair 23:27.980 --> 23:31.020 align:start and only experts review the applications. 23:31.020 --> 23:37.570 align:start And everything is done without bias and in a timely manner. 23:37.570 --> 23:43.760 align:start So going back to this schema, so we were talking about funding 23:43.760 --> 23:46.440 align:start and that we will talk about it later. 23:46.440 --> 23:52.120 align:start So and this is where the peer review comes into the picture. 23:52.120 --> 23:57.390 align:start How to distribute the funding, government funding for research. 23:57.390 --> 24:03.220 align:start So peer review makes sure that the most advanced 24:03.220 --> 24:08.470 align:start and important scientific questions will be examined 24:08.470 --> 24:11.190 align:start and this important knowledge will be available 24:11.190 --> 24:20.260 align:start for the whole population to advance health of the population 24:20.260 --> 24:22.710 align:start and the eradicate the disease. 24:22.710 --> 24:25.190 align:start And we need to make sure 24:25.190 --> 24:33.080 align:start that the best science will be promoted. 24:33.080 --> 24:43.570 align:start So I suggest that you experience how peer review works just now 24:43.570 --> 24:47.570 align:start by doing this small game. 24:47.570 --> 24:50.440 align:start So we have three proposals 24:50.440 --> 24:55.100 align:start that were submitted from some scientists. 24:55.100 --> 24:58.510 align:start And the first proposal is smoking, 24:58.510 --> 25:00.880 align:start is about smoking and lung cancer. 25:00.880 --> 25:05.480 align:start So the scientists want to know how the cigarette smoking causes 25:05.480 --> 25:09.670 align:start lung cancer and what chemicals are responsible 25:09.670 --> 25:12.630 align:start for damaging biological molecules. 25:12.630 --> 25:17.590 align:start So now you need to look at your badge that you have and see 25:17.590 --> 25:22.250 align:start if any one of you has expertise 25:22.250 --> 25:26.750 align:start to be a reviewer for this application. 25:26.750 --> 25:34.190 align:start They will study chemicals and biological molecules. 25:34.190 --> 25:39.610 align:start So any molecular biologists we have 25:39.610 --> 25:43.020 align:start or any chemists, what do you have? 25:43.020 --> 25:44.630 align:start Molecular biology? 25:44.630 --> 25:47.390 align:start Okay come here. 25:47.390 --> 25:50.090 align:start Any lung cancer specialists? 25:50.090 --> 25:51.670 align:start All right we have. 25:51.670 --> 25:53.170 align:start >> At the back. 25:53.170 --> 25:56.920 align:start >> One on the back. 25:56.920 --> 25:58.530 align:start Yeah, come here. 25:58.530 --> 26:05.710 align:start So and any chemists, chemistry or general cancer research? 26:05.710 --> 26:12.320 align:start We still have to have the third person for this number one, 26:12.320 --> 26:16.460 align:start any lung cancer, chemists, molecular biologists 26:16.460 --> 26:18.510 align:start or cancer, general cancer? 26:18.510 --> 26:22.140 align:start [ Inaudible ] 26:22.140 --> 26:24.540 align:start You, what do you have? 26:24.540 --> 26:25.840 align:start >> Cancer research. 26:25.840 --> 26:27.140 align:start >> Dr. Svetlana Kotliarova: Okay come here. 26:27.140 --> 26:28.440 align:start >> Cancer great. 26:28.440 --> 26:29.740 align:start >> Dr. Svetlana Kotliarova: Yeah. 26:29.740 --> 26:34.400 align:start And we have proposal number two about toothpaste and cavities. 26:34.400 --> 26:37.170 align:start So the questions that they will study, 26:37.170 --> 26:41.110 align:start which of the three chemicals is the best to protect your teeth? 26:41.110 --> 26:46.570 align:start Is it sugar, is it -- it sounds sweet right, it sounds good? 26:46.570 --> 26:49.490 align:start Baking soda or fluoride? 26:49.490 --> 27:01.220 align:start So we need some oral hygienists, some dentists, dentist. 27:01.220 --> 27:04.240 align:start >> I am dentistry so. 27:04.240 --> 27:05.790 align:start >> Dr. Svetlana Kotliarova: Dentistry perfect. 27:05.790 --> 27:08.090 align:start Oral hygiene come here. 27:08.090 --> 27:13.400 align:start And now again, some chemical expertise, 27:13.400 --> 27:15.730 align:start we are talking about chemicals. 27:15.730 --> 27:18.880 align:start No, no chemists? 27:18.880 --> 27:20.210 align:start Everyone is bacteria. 27:20.210 --> 27:21.590 align:start So this is one that's for you. 27:21.590 --> 27:29.370 align:start So someone need to pretend to be chemist, 27:29.370 --> 27:37.190 align:start so you want to be chemist? 27:37.190 --> 27:39.600 align:start Okay, all right. 27:39.600 --> 27:44.820 align:start And now the third proposal, 27:44.820 --> 27:47.860 align:start how do bacteria protect themselves from viruses? 27:47.860 --> 27:50.830 align:start Do they synthesize special molecules 27:50.830 --> 27:52.800 align:start that help them to do so? 27:52.800 --> 27:57.010 align:start So we have bacteriologists, virologists right. 27:57.010 --> 28:05.090 align:start So now we have all these three different topics 28:05.090 --> 28:13.340 align:start and we have, so okay. 28:13.340 --> 28:18.820 align:start These stickers, so I give everyone a sticker and please 28:18.820 --> 28:25.920 align:start if you think that the topic is important give it 28:25.920 --> 28:27.390 align:start three stickers. 28:27.390 --> 28:31.220 align:start If you think oh it would be good to know 28:31.220 --> 28:35.020 align:start but I'm not very excited give it two stickers. 28:35.020 --> 28:39.930 align:start And if you think maybe better not to do this type 28:39.930 --> 28:43.430 align:start of study give it one sticker okay. 28:43.430 --> 28:46.600 align:start And I have three boards for each of the proposals, 28:46.600 --> 28:50.510 align:start so put your stickers on each one of them. 28:50.510 --> 29:00.490 align:start So okay. So we start from you and I give you the stickers. 29:00.490 --> 29:06.190 align:start So there we go and to you. 29:06.190 --> 29:09.520 align:start And then you need to put your board, 29:09.520 --> 29:12.910 align:start to give your board to the next person. 29:12.910 --> 29:19.600 align:start All right we have 27 likes for bacteria and viruses, 29:19.600 --> 29:28.800 align:start 24 for smoking and cancer, so what do we have for toothpaste? 29:28.800 --> 29:34.160 align:start Less enthusiasm for toothpaste, so I guess everyone figured it 29:34.160 --> 29:38.100 align:start out already that sugar not so good. 29:38.100 --> 29:46.100 align:start All right so this is just an example, 29:46.100 --> 29:52.140 align:start just a game to give you an idea how peer review works, 29:52.140 --> 29:56.360 align:start like scientists from different areas 29:56.360 --> 29:59.900 align:start of science will gather together and decide 29:59.900 --> 30:02.260 align:start which is the most exciting project 30:02.260 --> 30:08.790 align:start and which will be beneficial to our nation. 30:08.790 --> 30:13.010 align:start So about importance of basis science. 30:13.010 --> 30:15.040 align:start As you know there is basic science 30:15.040 --> 30:17.980 align:start and applied or clinical science. 30:17.980 --> 30:21.880 align:start And you can easily figure out what clinical science means, 30:21.880 --> 30:27.190 align:start it's just immediately applicable to patients. 30:27.190 --> 30:36.850 align:start But basic science is science that will answer many questions 30:36.850 --> 30:40.290 align:start that are unknown, many questions about the disease 30:40.290 --> 30:43.270 align:start that are not known, maybe for those diseases 30:43.270 --> 30:45.660 align:start without cure such as cancer. 30:45.660 --> 30:48.200 align:start We need to gather a lot of knowledge 30:48.200 --> 30:50.880 align:start which probably will not be immediately introduced 30:50.880 --> 30:55.610 align:start into clinic but will be helpful in developing 30:55.610 --> 30:57.630 align:start such cure in the future. 30:57.630 --> 31:03.630 align:start And basic science important you appreciate it very much 31:03.630 --> 31:04.930 align:start and I'm very happy. 31:04.930 --> 31:08.570 align:start So let's talk about this viruses and bacteria. 31:08.570 --> 31:17.480 align:start So would you say maybe to cure diabetes would be more important 31:17.480 --> 31:22.980 align:start than to know how bacteria protect themselves 31:22.980 --> 31:24.660 align:start about the viruses? 31:24.660 --> 31:28.850 align:start It happened that National Institutes of Health 31:28.850 --> 31:31.930 align:start and National Science Foundation funded the bacteria 31:31.930 --> 31:34.080 align:start and viruses research. 31:34.080 --> 31:38.360 align:start And what they find that bacteria will protect themselves 31:38.360 --> 31:41.950 align:start against viruses by getting pieces of DNA. 31:41.950 --> 31:51.770 align:start And they found that human DNA can be also cut, 31:51.770 --> 32:02.060 align:start like piece of the human DNA you can cut. 32:02.060 --> 32:09.690 align:start For example with the gene that has coding for insulin protein 32:09.690 --> 32:14.020 align:start and then you put it into bacterial DNA. 32:14.020 --> 32:19.790 align:start So now you have the bacterial DNA which have human gene 32:19.790 --> 32:22.650 align:start and it will synthesize human protein 32:22.650 --> 32:26.270 align:start and then they purify protein and give it to patient. 32:26.270 --> 32:37.040 align:start So this is how basic science can lead to cure. 32:37.040 --> 32:42.310 align:start So you can be part of NIH too and there are several programs 32:42.310 --> 32:44.530 align:start that are available for high school students 32:44.530 --> 32:47.700 align:start and for university students. 32:47.700 --> 32:54.730 align:start And there are also a lot of resources, maybe Sasha can email 32:54.730 --> 33:03.160 align:start to your teacher these resources and you can investigate them 33:03.160 --> 33:05.330 align:start when you are doing some projects. 33:05.330 --> 33:06.630 align:start And there is a lot 33:06.630 --> 33:09.110 align:start of interesting information about science. 33:09.110 --> 33:13.660 align:start And if you are interested, if you have questions, 33:13.660 --> 33:21.740 align:start if you are patient, anyone with these qualities can scientists. 33:21.740 --> 33:24.490 align:start And of course you read books, you go to the library, 33:24.490 --> 33:27.080 align:start don't forget Library of Congress. 33:27.080 --> 33:34.290 align:start And you can do science camp, you can do a lot of activities 33:34.290 --> 33:37.570 align:start and go to earn your degree. 33:37.570 --> 33:43.200 align:start And there are some professions in biomedical research 33:43.200 --> 33:47.060 align:start or in biomedical science that do not require advanced degree. 33:47.060 --> 33:54.180 align:start So for example environmental field technicians, sonographers 33:54.180 --> 33:56.110 align:start or veterinary technicians, nurse, 33:56.110 --> 34:04.470 align:start and if you are interested doing forensic science for example. 34:04.470 --> 34:09.690 align:start So you still have to have education to do these things 34:09.690 --> 34:14.350 align:start that you are interested and you can choose 34:14.350 --> 34:21.230 align:start to pursue your academic career by going to a PhD studies 34:21.230 --> 34:25.590 align:start and have your own lab and ask your own questions, 34:25.590 --> 34:29.520 align:start apply for NIH for funding, and do your research 34:29.520 --> 34:33.070 align:start that you would love to do. 34:33.070 --> 34:37.160 align:start So just do not let your imagination 34:37.160 --> 34:42.460 align:start to give you boundaries, so dream big 34:42.460 --> 34:48.940 align:start and follow your dreams so to be a scientist. 34:48.940 --> 34:51.550 align:start That's the end of my presentation 34:51.550 --> 34:56.310 align:start and now Dr. Yuri will excite you. 34:56.310 --> 35:03.140 align:start And we will have questions maybe later together right. 35:03.140 --> 35:04.440 align:start >> Sasha Dowdy: Thank you very much. 35:04.440 --> 35:11.710 align:start So our next scientist and Yuri Kotliarov is the other half 35:11.710 --> 35:14.850 align:start of the scientific dynamic duo and he'll talk 35:14.850 --> 35:17.990 align:start to you a little bit about the kinds of work that he does 35:17.990 --> 35:19.930 align:start with scientific data, what happens 35:19.930 --> 35:23.570 align:start after you get the results of the experiments 35:23.570 --> 35:26.160 align:start and the questions that you are asking. 35:26.160 --> 35:29.130 align:start So he also went to Tokyo University, 35:29.130 --> 35:32.440 align:start got a PhD in engineering and now also works 35:32.440 --> 35:34.900 align:start at the National Institutes of Health in the Center 35:34.900 --> 35:37.280 align:start for Human Immunology, he's a staff scientist 35:37.280 --> 35:39.690 align:start so science is a daily thing. 35:39.690 --> 35:42.190 align:start Looking at a whole bunch of things and figuring 35:42.190 --> 35:44.550 align:start out how everything fits together. 35:44.550 --> 35:47.000 align:start So tell us a little bit more about your work. 35:47.000 --> 35:50.720 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: Okay, hello good morning again to you. 35:50.720 --> 35:53.020 align:start So just as question I want to ask you, 35:53.020 --> 35:56.500 align:start what do you think the most common tools now in science 35:56.500 --> 36:00.630 align:start as it was for centuries, like what scientists used 36:00.630 --> 36:04.850 align:start to generate hypothesis, thinking 36:04.850 --> 36:08.450 align:start about the nature, what is the tools? 36:08.450 --> 36:13.280 align:start So Svetlana before talked with you about some scientific tools. 36:13.280 --> 36:15.440 align:start So but what do you think, any ideas, 36:15.440 --> 36:20.040 align:start like very simple tools every scientist used for centuries? 36:20.040 --> 36:21.340 align:start Yes. 36:21.340 --> 36:22.640 align:start >> Magnifying [inaudible]. 36:22.640 --> 36:23.940 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: Magnifying glasses, 36:23.940 --> 36:28.770 align:start but yeah it was developed just maybe a few, 36:28.770 --> 36:31.180 align:start maybe a hundred years ago, something like this. 36:31.180 --> 36:33.920 align:start Something was simpler what scientists are using. 36:33.920 --> 36:35.220 align:start >> Water. 36:35.220 --> 36:38.670 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: Water okay, but not everyone maybe. 36:38.670 --> 36:39.970 align:start Yeah. 36:39.970 --> 36:41.520 align:start [ Inaudible ] 36:41.520 --> 36:48.150 align:start Exactly paper and pencil you have to write your ideas 36:48.150 --> 36:51.620 align:start and you kind of recording your findings right. 36:51.620 --> 36:56.530 align:start So in last years things change, what do we use now? 36:56.530 --> 37:01.290 align:start So we also use pen, paper and pencils and papers, 37:01.290 --> 37:02.640 align:start so what do we use now? 37:02.640 --> 37:03.940 align:start >> Technology. 37:03.940 --> 37:05.240 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: Technology, 37:05.240 --> 37:06.540 align:start what kind of technology? 37:06.540 --> 37:07.840 align:start >> Internet. 37:07.840 --> 37:09.140 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: Internet yes, but before? 37:09.140 --> 37:10.440 align:start [ Inaudible ] 37:10.440 --> 37:12.290 align:start Just let's say computers right more general 37:12.290 --> 37:16.930 align:start and machines it help us to store like large amount 37:16.930 --> 37:18.730 align:start of data and do the analysis. 37:18.730 --> 37:22.060 align:start [ Inaudible ] 37:22.060 --> 37:23.360 align:start Which machine? 37:23.360 --> 37:24.660 align:start [ Inaudible ] 37:24.660 --> 37:26.740 align:start Computers yeah. 37:26.740 --> 37:29.800 align:start >> [Inaudible] write it down first. 37:29.800 --> 37:32.720 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: So again Svetlana recently described you 37:32.720 --> 37:38.160 align:start that scientists who discovered microscopes they just draw the 37:38.160 --> 37:41.600 align:start pictures they saw under the microscope. 37:41.600 --> 37:48.420 align:start And many thought in hypothesis was built about the pictures. 37:48.420 --> 37:53.850 align:start So what current technology is recording is very complicated, 37:53.850 --> 37:57.280 align:start it's also images that converted to the data on the computer 37:57.280 --> 37:59.490 align:start and it's a large amount of data. 37:59.490 --> 38:02.520 align:start Maybe I can just show you. 38:02.520 --> 38:09.980 align:start So this is one of technologies, it's a little bit old. 38:09.980 --> 38:17.880 align:start We use these called DNA or MicroArrays. 38:17.880 --> 38:21.110 align:start You know all what is DNA and how it looks like, what is it, 38:21.110 --> 38:24.620 align:start did you study in your science class? 38:24.620 --> 38:27.960 align:start Does this look like this? 38:27.960 --> 38:30.010 align:start Yeah, like a [inaudible] molecule 38:30.010 --> 38:35.420 align:start that can pass the information about you from generation 38:35.420 --> 38:39.130 align:start to generation, why is we look your mom and dad 38:39.130 --> 38:42.240 align:start and why we different from animal, from bacteria. 38:42.240 --> 38:48.350 align:start Because every living thing they have DNA in their cells. 38:48.350 --> 38:52.630 align:start So this technology has, it's actually a very tiny chip, 38:52.630 --> 38:58.410 align:start it's about like one and a little bit more 38:58.410 --> 38:59.960 align:start [inaudible] centimeters. 38:59.960 --> 39:07.820 align:start And they have small pieces of DNA attached 39:07.820 --> 39:11.350 align:start to like every micron of this array 39:11.350 --> 39:14.470 align:start and the DNA is very different and it's light 39:14.470 --> 39:19.370 align:start when it finds similar DNA in your sample. 39:19.370 --> 39:23.370 align:start So we analyze like a lot of thousands of such images, 39:23.370 --> 39:24.670 align:start it's very complicated. 39:24.670 --> 39:26.700 align:start It's written by laser and basically 39:26.700 --> 39:34.280 align:start when the laser finds the light it means these genes also 39:34.280 --> 39:39.640 align:start present in your sample, the samples can be cells 39:39.640 --> 39:44.080 align:start or something from your blood, from mouse, 39:44.080 --> 39:46.700 align:start animals, bacteria and so on. 39:46.700 --> 39:51.300 align:start So the data takes a lot of space 39:51.300 --> 39:54.030 align:start and this requires computer to do the analysis. 39:54.030 --> 39:58.840 align:start For example, we can compare cancer patients some sample, 39:58.840 --> 40:02.120 align:start like blood sample from cancer patient 40:02.120 --> 40:06.040 align:start with a healthy patient just normal and see 40:06.040 --> 40:08.040 align:start which genes are different. 40:08.040 --> 40:11.360 align:start Maybe if some genes express more it means the gene's response 40:11.360 --> 40:14.770 align:start in cancer patients the gene responsible for the cancer 40:14.770 --> 40:18.410 align:start or if some genes we find less 40:18.410 --> 40:21.400 align:start in cancer patients maybe this gene is important 40:21.400 --> 40:24.110 align:start to protect healthy people from cancer. 40:24.110 --> 40:28.500 align:start So but the -- yes? 40:28.500 --> 40:30.110 align:start >> How is cancer formed? 40:30.110 --> 40:33.640 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: This is a complicated question, 40:33.640 --> 40:38.420 align:start this is actually under a very large study now how the 40:38.420 --> 40:39.720 align:start cancer form. 40:39.720 --> 40:44.380 align:start The problem is that the different cancer is very 40:44.380 --> 40:47.250 align:start different, from one patient -- if you compare one patient 40:47.250 --> 40:49.540 align:start and another patient even with the same type 40:49.540 --> 40:54.170 align:start of cancer let's say lung cancer the nature 40:54.170 --> 40:56.260 align:start of cancer might be very different. 40:56.260 --> 40:59.250 align:start Some maybe smoked a lot and got the cancer, 40:59.250 --> 41:03.140 align:start another one maybe lived in different environment 41:03.140 --> 41:12.500 align:start or had some genomic predisposition, 41:12.500 --> 41:16.000 align:start some mutations in their cells. 41:16.000 --> 41:20.400 align:start So it's a very difficult question and it's. 41:20.400 --> 41:27.510 align:start >> Are you saying that if someone 41:27.510 --> 41:31.590 align:start from different [inaudible], from different areas? 41:31.590 --> 41:34.840 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: Yeah, the are some -- yeah. 41:34.840 --> 41:36.140 align:start >> Dr. Svetlana Kotliarova: Can I answer? 41:36.140 --> 41:37.440 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: Yeah, you can answer. 41:37.440 --> 41:38.740 align:start >> Dr. Svetlana Kotliarova: 41:38.740 --> 41:41.600 align:start So cancer is although they are all different as Yuri said, 41:41.600 --> 41:45.840 align:start so there are common features of all cancers 41:45.840 --> 41:56.430 align:start that something happens in the DNA, in our genetic information 41:56.430 --> 41:59.990 align:start that make the cells to divide uncontrollably, 41:59.990 --> 42:01.760 align:start so it cannot stop dividing. 42:01.760 --> 42:07.140 align:start That's why the tumor is formed, so it's growing. 42:07.140 --> 42:11.960 align:start That is the main feature which is common to many cancers. 42:11.960 --> 42:18.100 align:start So is that what your question, how the cancer is formed? 42:18.100 --> 42:20.760 align:start But exactly the mechanism can be different 42:20.760 --> 42:23.620 align:start for all different types of cancer. 42:23.620 --> 42:25.320 align:start And there are a lot of. 42:25.320 --> 42:26.620 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: And even for example 42:26.620 --> 42:32.180 align:start if there is brain cancer there is multiple different types 42:32.180 --> 42:34.580 align:start of brain cancer. 42:34.580 --> 42:38.440 align:start And it's different how people survive, some survive longer, 42:38.440 --> 42:40.720 align:start some survive less, some people respond 42:40.720 --> 42:46.470 align:start to some treatment and survive longer. 42:46.470 --> 42:48.740 align:start But other people do not respond and it's very important 42:48.740 --> 42:51.980 align:start to know what is the right treatment 42:51.980 --> 42:54.960 align:start for some patients and for another. 42:54.960 --> 42:57.510 align:start Maybe you heard about some program 42:57.510 --> 43:02.760 align:start like precision medicine initiative when scientist wants 43:02.760 --> 43:07.680 align:start to really analyze like sequence of DNA in your cells 43:07.680 --> 43:12.510 align:start and know more about you and to find better cure. 43:12.510 --> 43:20.190 align:start [ Inaudible ] 43:20.190 --> 43:27.370 align:start Yes, the earlier the cancer is detected the easier 43:27.370 --> 43:31.060 align:start to treat it usually. 43:31.060 --> 43:35.390 align:start But it depends on the aggressiveness of cancer 43:35.390 --> 43:40.920 align:start and sometimes it's very hard to find the cancer at early stage 43:40.920 --> 43:43.280 align:start because the cells are very small you know 43:43.280 --> 43:48.380 align:start and cancer cells they're hiding, it's very tough and it's one 43:48.380 --> 43:53.160 align:start of the direction of cancer science 43:53.160 --> 43:56.580 align:start to detect cancer at the early stage. 43:56.580 --> 43:59.420 align:start So but I don't have much time, I want to have some fun with you 43:59.420 --> 44:01.960 align:start about the data analysis in general. 44:01.960 --> 44:06.030 align:start So I show you this slide just to have an idea that we're dealing 44:06.030 --> 44:07.890 align:start with some large images that converted 44:07.890 --> 44:09.870 align:start to the data on the computer. 44:09.870 --> 44:13.670 align:start So but I want to talk something different 44:13.670 --> 44:18.240 align:start and maybe you won't notice it's related to science. 44:18.240 --> 44:23.960 align:start So in the Library of Congress there is a very large database 44:23.960 --> 44:27.120 align:start of old newspapers. 44:27.120 --> 44:30.720 align:start The newspapers was scanned 44:30.720 --> 44:33.570 align:start with optical character recognition technology, 44:33.570 --> 44:35.080 align:start have you heard about it? 44:35.080 --> 44:38.330 align:start Basically you can convert the image to the text, 44:38.330 --> 44:42.880 align:start you could right, it's called OCR. 44:42.880 --> 44:47.930 align:start So the Library of Congress had this large database 44:47.930 --> 44:55.190 align:start of newspapers from you see 18th century to 20th century, 44:55.190 --> 44:58.680 align:start all the -- so many newspapers 44:58.680 --> 45:01.420 align:start and all the text is recognizable. 45:01.420 --> 45:07.590 align:start The computer like you're reading the news in the computer. 45:07.590 --> 45:11.290 align:start So and so this project [inaudible] 45:11.290 --> 45:17.640 align:start in America provides very good access to this data 45:17.640 --> 45:23.470 align:start and you can do some very fun research I would say. 45:23.470 --> 45:29.230 align:start And I can just go with you and just do them, 45:29.230 --> 45:34.170 align:start very small analysis with the tool I'm using. 45:34.170 --> 45:38.290 align:start So you all like animals, dogs and cats, 45:38.290 --> 45:41.500 align:start anyone have dogs or cats [inaudible]? 45:41.500 --> 45:44.450 align:start So who is the dog people? 45:44.450 --> 45:45.880 align:start Wow me too. 45:45.880 --> 45:50.580 align:start And who are cats people? 45:50.580 --> 45:51.880 align:start You have both right? 45:51.880 --> 45:53.200 align:start Very good. 45:53.200 --> 45:58.310 align:start So let's ask which from 18th century right we have all these 45:58.310 --> 46:01.670 align:start papers and how many papers mention dogs 46:01.670 --> 46:04.590 align:start and how many papers mention cats? 46:04.590 --> 46:09.840 align:start So what people will prefer to talk about in newspaper. 46:09.840 --> 46:11.140 align:start Yes. 46:11.140 --> 46:13.040 align:start [ Inaudible ] 46:13.040 --> 46:16.020 align:start Okay yeah, we can see. 46:16.020 --> 46:20.760 align:start So this actually, so my thought based 46:20.760 --> 46:23.940 align:start on there is some data exploration like this 46:23.940 --> 46:29.630 align:start in the Library of Congress blog, I get the idea from there 46:29.630 --> 46:32.870 align:start but applied it on the tool what I am using. 46:32.870 --> 46:37.320 align:start Okay so I will show you my screen here. 46:37.320 --> 46:41.870 align:start Okay so this called, environment called RStudio 46:41.870 --> 46:49.070 align:start and I'm using R language, just one letter R. So I get, 46:49.070 --> 46:54.760 align:start this is the link, it's a coding yes, this is like how we -- 46:54.760 --> 46:58.360 align:start so I am doing the data analysis in my daily job 46:58.360 --> 46:59.840 align:start and this is basically coding. 46:59.840 --> 47:05.560 align:start So this is my code, this is where all the output show me 47:05.560 --> 47:08.680 align:start and this is where you will see some pictures and variables. 47:08.680 --> 47:11.330 align:start Any of you study some kind of coding? 47:11.330 --> 47:12.680 align:start You did good. 47:12.680 --> 47:14.740 align:start What language have you used? 47:14.740 --> 47:19.250 align:start >> I don't use we coding to make video games. 47:19.250 --> 47:20.550 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: What, oh I see. 47:20.550 --> 47:24.880 align:start Oh probably like what's the name? 47:24.880 --> 47:26.610 align:start Yes. 47:26.610 --> 47:29.040 align:start [ Inaudible ] 47:29.040 --> 47:30.390 align:start Okay, okay. 47:30.390 --> 47:36.420 align:start So this code, this language is very used 47:36.420 --> 47:39.920 align:start in the science of data analysis. 47:39.920 --> 47:44.980 align:start So I read this URL in the code, get some data. 47:44.980 --> 47:49.320 align:start I hope internet works well. 47:49.320 --> 47:51.620 align:start [ Inaudible ] 47:51.620 --> 47:58.170 align:start So you can see I am reading like some, I'm getting some papers 47:58.170 --> 48:00.450 align:start from Arizona and you can see 48:00.450 --> 48:10.950 align:start that there is 300,000 papers just from this state. 48:10.950 --> 48:19.780 align:start So let's go to dogs, so we can -- for example. 48:19.780 --> 48:26.720 align:start So I am doing the request for like dogs 48:26.720 --> 48:30.270 align:start and just it will take a long time 48:30.270 --> 48:33.820 align:start to analyze the whole, the database. 48:33.820 --> 48:39.320 align:start So I've taken only just 20 pages. 48:39.320 --> 48:46.960 align:start And it returns me to dog mentioned just in 20 pages, 48:46.960 --> 48:50.840 align:start it's not newspaper pages but it's pages the Library 48:50.840 --> 48:52.140 align:start of Congress gives you. 48:52.140 --> 49:02.370 align:start And you can see it it's around 2 million records about the dogs. 49:02.370 --> 49:07.280 align:start So. 49:07.280 --> 49:11.630 align:start So here I get information for both cats and dogs, 49:11.630 --> 49:22.090 align:start so you can see it goes through all the 20 pages of information. 49:22.090 --> 49:26.060 align:start And it's getting what state the data from 49:26.060 --> 49:29.500 align:start and how many mentioning of dogs and cats. 49:29.500 --> 49:34.640 align:start Okay 20 it's done, this actually will take a long time for it 49:34.640 --> 49:37.690 align:start to analyze the whole database. 49:37.690 --> 49:46.210 align:start So some preparation. 49:46.210 --> 49:52.040 align:start Okay and now we have a plot. 49:52.040 --> 49:54.590 align:start So and can you see it? 49:54.590 --> 50:05.320 align:start So this show by state and make it a little bit smaller okay. 50:05.320 --> 50:10.760 align:start So the red one is cats, the blue is dogs, 50:10.760 --> 50:14.330 align:start so this show how many mentions from the newspaper 50:14.330 --> 50:16.230 align:start from each state, in the United States 50:16.230 --> 50:19.090 align:start and again from 18th century. 50:19.090 --> 50:24.280 align:start Again, the more, you can see for example [inaudible] it looks 50:24.280 --> 50:27.790 align:start like dogs more than cats. 50:27.790 --> 50:34.520 align:start Here we have the District of Columbia cats win. 50:34.520 --> 50:39.590 align:start So some of them like New York is a dog state, Kentucky, 50:39.590 --> 50:45.190 align:start California, but other they're pretty much cats as well. 50:45.190 --> 50:51.290 align:start So if you do a little bit more plotting. 50:51.290 --> 50:56.590 align:start So I calculated like who is the winner basically, 50:56.590 --> 50:59.790 align:start the ratio of number of dogs 50:59.790 --> 51:04.120 align:start in newspaper divided by number of cats. 51:04.120 --> 51:08.590 align:start So these green are the dog winners states 51:08.590 --> 51:10.800 align:start and see Kentucky is on the top. 51:10.800 --> 51:14.410 align:start So basically, more dogs than cats, 51:14.410 --> 51:18.270 align:start three times more mention of dogs in Kentucky. 51:18.270 --> 51:23.720 align:start This is tied, this is the same Virginia, 51:23.720 --> 51:25.730 align:start South Dakota and Georgia. 51:25.730 --> 51:33.050 align:start And Arizona, Montana, Indiana they looks like cats more. 51:33.050 --> 51:36.900 align:start Okay you all like Star Wars, right? 51:36.900 --> 51:40.680 align:start Did you watch last night, no? 51:40.680 --> 51:45.510 align:start Anyway, there is a database about all the characters 51:45.510 --> 51:50.310 align:start from the Star Wars in all the movies, made movies. 51:50.310 --> 51:54.220 align:start So about the physical characteristics, I don't know 51:54.220 --> 51:55.870 align:start who compiled them but there is 51:55.870 --> 52:01.190 align:start like a whole website describing who is who. 52:01.190 --> 52:08.850 align:start And this website basically has the easy access to all the data, 52:08.850 --> 52:13.960 align:start for example different planets, people, vehicles, spaceship, 52:13.960 --> 52:16.870 align:start which people using which vehicle, and so on. 52:16.870 --> 52:21.030 align:start And which films they are and so on. 52:21.030 --> 52:24.750 align:start This is the data how it look like, so name of the person, 52:24.750 --> 52:29.580 align:start you can see Darth Vader here and Skywalker, even droids, 52:29.580 --> 52:32.820 align:start C-3PO and these just the first part, 52:32.820 --> 52:34.640 align:start there is 88 characters total 52:34.640 --> 52:38.960 align:start in this database [inaudible] attributes. 52:38.960 --> 52:42.710 align:start So again disclaimer, last movie now is The Force Awakens no 52:42.710 --> 52:44.010 align:start [inaudible] yet. 52:44.010 --> 52:48.950 align:start And you can see there is the hair and mass and hair color, 52:48.950 --> 52:53.060 align:start eye color and gender and where they are from, 52:53.060 --> 52:56.440 align:start what the species and so on. 52:56.440 --> 52:59.140 align:start So I just thought it will be some kind of fun 52:59.140 --> 53:04.900 align:start to do data analysis of this database just quickly. 53:04.900 --> 53:14.040 align:start So I already collected the data, so I'll just read them, 53:14.040 --> 53:19.090 align:start [inaudible] libraries. 53:19.090 --> 53:22.500 align:start So this gives me some ideas about what species are 53:22.500 --> 53:27.010 align:start in the movie, so there is 37 humans, 5 droids, 53:27.010 --> 53:31.130 align:start and then others just so many species in the galaxy 53:31.130 --> 53:35.770 align:start that are very few representative of each. 53:35.770 --> 53:41.080 align:start Yes and this movie is mostly about humans you know. 53:41.080 --> 53:48.480 align:start Let's -- so they have mass and height 53:48.480 --> 53:56.140 align:start and I thought let's plot them again each other. 53:56.140 --> 54:00.800 align:start So here is some points, so here is the mass 54:00.800 --> 54:05.070 align:start so how heavy they are and this is height. 54:05.070 --> 54:12.280 align:start So again, we see the. 54:12.280 --> 54:17.980 align:start So this row everyone that has both mass and height. 54:17.980 --> 54:19.920 align:start So you can see they're kind of on the line 54:19.920 --> 54:26.640 align:start so they're heavier the character the higher they are or opposite. 54:26.640 --> 54:31.130 align:start There is one exception here, so he's very heavy 54:31.130 --> 54:38.380 align:start and not very high, any ideas who can be, who knows the movies? 54:38.380 --> 54:44.930 align:start There is the Java the Hut remember this fat guy, bad guy? 54:44.930 --> 54:50.920 align:start So for this I only leave human and droids. 54:50.920 --> 54:53.340 align:start So let me label them. 54:53.340 --> 54:57.660 align:start So this is the BB8 very small droid 54:57.660 --> 55:01.650 align:start and then the top we have Darth Vader, very high 55:01.650 --> 55:05.430 align:start and then all the other humans 55:05.430 --> 55:09.700 align:start with another droid like killer droids. 55:09.700 --> 55:12.610 align:start And then basically all the humans [inaudible] 55:12.610 --> 55:15.620 align:start and there is a line and some exceptions. 55:15.620 --> 55:21.180 align:start So you know idea about the body mass index how they, 55:21.180 --> 55:27.350 align:start how doctors kind of assess how health you are based on mass 55:27.350 --> 55:31.780 align:start and height or if like your BMI is basically mass divided 55:31.780 --> 55:34.800 align:start by square of your height, sorry height? 55:34.800 --> 55:45.680 align:start So I can calculate the BMI for these characters. 55:45.680 --> 55:53.480 align:start Okay so this is coloring male, it's okay. 55:53.480 --> 56:02.350 align:start So this is, so again here 56:02.350 --> 56:05.560 align:start with the green one is our healthy zone, 56:05.560 --> 56:10.690 align:start you can see this is between like 20 and 25 really healthy BMI. 56:10.690 --> 56:16.690 align:start And you see all the humans are pretty good shape. 56:16.690 --> 56:17.990 align:start Let me label them also. 56:17.990 --> 56:19.290 align:start >> Dr. Svetlana Kotliarova: How about Chewbacca? 56:19.290 --> 56:20.590 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: I haven't labeled him. 56:20.590 --> 56:25.020 align:start Actually he was there, but he's not human he was excluded. 56:25.020 --> 56:26.320 align:start >> Dr. Svetlana Kotliarova: Okay. 56:26.320 --> 56:27.620 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: A beast. 56:27.620 --> 56:31.580 align:start So see Darth Vader a little bit overweight, 56:31.580 --> 56:36.370 align:start but he probably has a lot of metal in the body. 56:36.370 --> 56:38.930 align:start Some few people are overweight 56:38.930 --> 56:47.310 align:start and these I remember the Luke's step-father right, 56:47.310 --> 56:48.610 align:start a little bit overweighted [phonetic]. 56:48.610 --> 56:57.150 align:start And one of the pilot called, with nickname [inaudible]. 56:57.150 --> 57:04.810 align:start So all the females here, except one Captain Phasma 57:04.810 --> 57:09.610 align:start from the Force Awakens, it's a very large woman. 57:09.610 --> 57:13.740 align:start And you know this is the wartime they all like very fit to fight 57:13.740 --> 57:15.740 align:start and also, it's Hollywood actors, 57:15.740 --> 57:21.180 align:start you know they're supposed to be healthy. 57:21.180 --> 57:26.240 align:start So, okay so I want to finalize, we don't have much time, 57:26.240 --> 57:30.270 align:start I have some other very fun datasets. 57:30.270 --> 57:36.730 align:start But I want you to have an idea that it's very easy 57:36.730 --> 57:42.450 align:start to use computer and with just a few lines of code you can look 57:42.450 --> 57:45.460 align:start from the different prospects on your data 57:45.460 --> 57:49.960 align:start and kind of get an idea. 57:49.960 --> 57:55.410 align:start And generate some hypothesis for fun experiments. 57:55.410 --> 58:00.030 align:start Thank you very much guys for listening. 58:00.030 --> 58:02.040 align:start [ Applause ] 58:02.040 --> 58:03.920 align:start Yeah, if you have questions. 58:03.920 --> 58:08.590 align:start >> Yeah, so you do research, you analyze data? 58:08.590 --> 58:10.750 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: I analyze data, but not this of course. 58:10.750 --> 58:12.050 align:start >> Right, right, right. 58:12.050 --> 58:13.350 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: This is just for fun in my free time. 58:13.350 --> 58:14.650 align:start >> Right, so what type of data, 58:14.650 --> 58:18.100 align:start so you're only analyzing immunology data 58:18.100 --> 58:20.010 align:start or are you analyzing all the different data 58:20.010 --> 58:21.380 align:start that comes into your office? 58:21.380 --> 58:22.680 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: Analyzing different data 58:22.680 --> 58:23.980 align:start which related to immunology. 58:23.980 --> 58:25.280 align:start >> Okay. 58:25.280 --> 58:26.580 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: This can be some 58:26.580 --> 58:27.880 align:start like autoimmune diseases, 58:27.880 --> 58:29.180 align:start it can be for example we published a large paper 58:29.180 --> 58:30.630 align:start about the flu vaccination. 58:30.630 --> 58:31.930 align:start >> Okay. 58:31.930 --> 58:34.220 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: How people respond to flu vaccine, 58:34.220 --> 58:37.180 align:start but we see that it depends on some cells 58:37.180 --> 58:42.480 align:start in your body some people respond higher than others. 58:42.480 --> 58:43.780 align:start >> Okay. 58:43.780 --> 58:45.080 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: And we find some cells 58:45.080 --> 58:47.570 align:start that actually they stay there, 58:47.570 --> 58:53.550 align:start the amount of those cells just before the vaccination can -- 58:53.550 --> 58:56.210 align:start is responsible for whether you will have response or not. 58:56.210 --> 58:57.510 align:start >> Okay. 58:57.510 --> 58:58.810 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: 58:58.810 --> 59:02.220 align:start So and it's very different how young people responds 59:02.220 --> 59:05.810 align:start versus old people, they are very different immune system 59:05.810 --> 59:08.830 align:start and we're still trying to understand what's the 59:08.830 --> 59:11.360 align:start like big difference between young and old people. 59:11.360 --> 59:12.660 align:start >> Dr. Svetlana Kotliarova: You did cancer. 59:12.660 --> 59:13.960 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: So we study. 59:13.960 --> 59:15.260 align:start >> Dr. Svetlana Kotliarova: You did cancer too. 59:15.260 --> 59:17.870 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: That's right we did. 59:17.870 --> 59:20.430 align:start >> Do you all ever get to work together? 59:20.430 --> 59:22.680 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: We used to work together for eight years 59:22.680 --> 59:25.990 align:start in the cancer lab on the brain cancers. 59:25.990 --> 59:27.780 align:start >> Dr. Svetlana Kotliarova: I'm whispering 59:27.780 --> 59:31.710 align:start that you did cancer analysis too in terms of data. 59:31.710 --> 59:34.470 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: Yes, we working on the and now you know 59:34.470 --> 59:42.180 align:start in the cancer research immunotherapy is very promising 59:42.180 --> 59:47.710 align:start to prepare the cell that is specific for a patient 59:47.710 --> 59:49.980 align:start that will help him to fight the cancer 59:49.980 --> 59:52.920 align:start and then attack the cancer cells and kill them. 59:52.920 --> 59:57.400 align:start So this is very promising research and also in immunology 59:57.400 --> 01:00:01.000 align:start in general there is many, many open questions 01:00:01.000 --> 01:00:02.300 align:start that we're trying to answer. 01:00:02.300 --> 01:00:04.780 align:start Basically my job is to help scientists 01:00:04.780 --> 01:00:12.160 align:start to understand the data and to generate some new hypothesis, 01:00:12.160 --> 01:00:16.000 align:start how to explain what we see in the data. 01:00:16.000 --> 01:00:19.990 align:start Do you have any questions guys? 01:00:19.990 --> 01:00:25.790 align:start So basically this is using the tools that now almost everyone, 01:00:25.790 --> 01:00:28.840 align:start many, many people have computers in their home. 01:00:28.840 --> 01:00:30.350 align:start >> Dr. Svetlana Kotliarova: This is a free tool yeah. 01:00:30.350 --> 01:00:33.130 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: And this tool I'm using is actually free, 01:00:33.130 --> 01:00:35.670 align:start it's opensource. 01:00:35.670 --> 01:00:40.570 align:start >> Would you rather use the computer or like pencil 01:00:40.570 --> 01:00:45.120 align:start and paper like because say if like all the power went out and. 01:00:45.120 --> 01:00:46.420 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: Of course yes. 01:00:46.420 --> 01:00:47.720 align:start >> And the data will be erased. 01:00:47.720 --> 01:00:49.020 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: Of course. 01:00:49.020 --> 01:00:52.100 align:start Yeah, I prefer to use the computer when it's available 01:00:52.100 --> 01:00:56.470 align:start but we should be ready of course and just don't lose [inaudible] 01:00:56.470 --> 01:01:01.890 align:start to write and draw with pen and pencils. 01:01:01.890 --> 01:01:04.100 align:start >> Sasha Dowdy: We actually have a whole bunch of research 01:01:04.100 --> 01:01:06.720 align:start in the Library of Congress collection, digital collections 01:01:06.720 --> 01:01:10.700 align:start of Thomas Jefferson writing down data with paper and pencil 01:01:10.700 --> 01:01:14.460 align:start and he was trying to figure out, not necessarily even figuring 01:01:14.460 --> 01:01:17.470 align:start out just recording data about the weather every day 01:01:17.470 --> 01:01:20.570 align:start and he would write down just everything 01:01:20.570 --> 01:01:22.150 align:start that he saw around him. 01:01:22.150 --> 01:01:24.880 align:start And then you can see all that data online 01:01:24.880 --> 01:01:26.940 align:start and you could also plug it into a computer 01:01:26.940 --> 01:01:29.240 align:start and analyze what Thomas Jefferson was looking 01:01:29.240 --> 01:01:30.540 align:start at every day so. 01:01:30.540 --> 01:01:31.840 align:start >> Dr. Svetlana Kotliarova: That's interesting. 01:01:31.840 --> 01:01:34.060 align:start >> Sasha Dowdy: He was a writer, inventor, scientist, 01:01:34.060 --> 01:01:37.950 align:start library enthusiast, everything. 01:01:37.950 --> 01:01:39.580 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: But I can say 01:01:39.580 --> 01:01:42.790 align:start that you saw the optical character recognition 01:01:42.790 --> 01:01:45.660 align:start from the newspapers when the font is very fixed 01:01:45.660 --> 01:01:47.510 align:start and we know how the letters look like, 01:01:47.510 --> 01:01:51.750 align:start but when you have the handwriting and you want 01:01:51.750 --> 01:01:53.050 align:start to [inaudible] computer 01:01:53.050 --> 01:01:56.380 align:start to analyze what's written it's a very hard task. 01:01:56.380 --> 01:01:59.440 align:start Different people have different you know writing styles 01:01:59.440 --> 01:02:02.110 align:start and sometimes you even cannot read 01:02:02.110 --> 01:02:04.300 align:start and you want computer to be able to read. 01:02:04.300 --> 01:02:08.020 align:start But there is a technology like some deep learning 01:02:08.020 --> 01:02:11.470 align:start and [inaudible] networks that have helped with these 01:02:11.470 --> 01:02:21.620 align:start and now the research is ongoing in this area. 01:02:21.620 --> 01:02:22.920 align:start >> Sasha Dowdy: [Inaudible] asked your question, 01:02:22.920 --> 01:02:29.060 align:start anyone else? 01:02:29.060 --> 01:02:30.360 align:start >> Dr. Yuri Kotliarov: Okay. 01:02:30.360 --> 01:02:31.660 align:start >> Dr. Svetlana Kotliarova: Okay. 01:02:31.660 --> 01:02:35.640 align:start >> Sasha Dowdy: All right well how about another round 01:02:35.640 --> 01:02:37.350 align:start of applause for our scientists? 01:02:37.350 --> 01:02:40.710 align:start Thank you very much. 01:02:40.710 --> 01:02:42.010 align:start >> Dr. Svetlana Kotliarova: Thank you. 01:02:42.010 --> 01:02:43.850 align:start >> Sasha Dowdy: I hope you guys enjoyed the presentation 01:02:43.850 --> 01:02:46.390 align:start and make sure to check out the digital resources we have 01:02:46.390 --> 01:02:49.820 align:start about all these founding fathers who recorded their data 01:02:49.820 --> 01:02:51.780 align:start and the original scientists. 01:02:51.780 --> 01:02:54.800 align:start And there are so many sources out there, 01:02:54.800 --> 01:02:56.140 align:start if you like you can find a lot 01:02:56.140 --> 01:02:58.080 align:start of really interesting data and explore. 01:02:58.080 --> 01:03:00.340 align:start If you have a question you're already a scientist 01:03:00.340 --> 01:03:04.550 align:start and just keep exploring your curiosity okay. 01:03:04.550 --> 01:03:07.990 align:start All right guys, thank you so much. 01:03:07.990 --> 01:03:10.790 align:start >> This has been a presentation of the Library 01:03:10.790 --> 01:03:13.970 align:start of Congress, visit us@LOC.gov.