>> From the Library of Congress
in Washington DC.
>> Kathleen McGuigan: Hello
everyone my name is Kathy McGuigan.
I'm from the Library of Congress, and I want
to thank you for joining us this afternoon.
We're going to get started in just
another minute, but I wanted to go
through some housekeeping items for you.
So our speaker will have the ability to talk
and you will have the ability
to chat via the chat function.
So if you would, just go ahead and introduce
yourself and let us know where you're joining us
from and we'll just make sure that
you can use the chat function.
We are recording this session so you'll
be able to watch this at a later date.
The program will last approximately
30 minutes and there will be time
for questions and answers at the end.
Periodically I'll be putting in links to the
presentation today so that you can follow along
and get a deeper look at some
of the items that are discussed.
So today's presentation is, excuse me,
today's presentation is Charles
Hamilton Houston and World War I.
Before Charles Hamilton Houston became the
chief attorney for the NAACP and a mentor
to Thurgood Marshall, he
was a young officer serving
in a segregated military
during the First World War.
Curator Ryan Reft will discuss
Houston's wartime experiences
and their influence on his way to work.
A little bit about Ryan.
Ryan Reft is a historian of Modern America
in the Manuscript Division
at the Library of Congress.
He is responsible for overseeing the Manuscript
Division's collections related to 20th
and 21st Century law, journalism, domestic
policy, and in some instances culture.
Ryan was part of the team for the
Library of Congress World War I exhibit,
Echoes of a Great War: American
Experiences of World War I.
I'm going to go ahead and hand
over the presentation to Ryan.
>> Ryan Reft: Good afternoon, everyone.
Thanks for coming.
Let me just get out the application here.
So let's get started.
We will be talking about Charles Hamilton
Houston, Black military service for World War I.
And I will scroll down to
this picture of him from 1939.
Obviously 20 years after his wartime service.
We're going to use Charles Hamilton Houston to
talk about 3 major issues during this period.
African American life in Washington, DC,
both before, during and after the war.
The wartime experience of African
Americans both domestically
and overseas Charles Hamilton Houston
will have to juxtapose with the context
of African Americans who stayed stateside
to work in factories or elsewhere.
Obviously [inaudible] with his experience
overseas fighting, well, in the States serving
in the military and trench [phonetic].
And finally Civil Rights.
We'll interweave Civil Rights throughout,
but we'll definitely come around to the end
to discuss how the war shaped him, not
only him but also other Black veterans
and even those people who didn't go to
war overseas but rather stayed to work
in domestic industries towards the war.
So what you have here is a letter
from William Le Pre Houston,
Charles Hamilton Houston's
father, and dated September 1918.
You see the inset picture of Charles
Hamilton Houston is during his training camp,
his officer's training camp, which
we'll touch on a little bit later.
But I want to draw your attention
to the second page on the right.
I want to draw your attention
to the second page on the right.
Right next to where you see his face
you see no one has ever left home
where parents had greater pride
in him than we have in you.
That's his father writing to his son,
and I guess it's indicative of a part
of African American life you don't always see
in this period particularly rising middle
class and civil [phonetic] relations.
Let me tell you about the Houstons
just to give you a sense of the kind
of family Charles Hamilton Houston came from.
So, William Le Pre Houston was his father.
Now William Le Pre Houston was the son
of T.J. Hunn, Thomas Jefferson Hunn,
he was an escaped slave from Kentucky
who walked to freedom and then worked
on the Underground Railroad a
couple of years through happenstance
and serendipity crossed paths with
Ulysses S. Grant during the Civil War.
Grant took a liking to him and he
became an unofficial body guard
to General Grant during the war.
After the war he meets Katherine
Theresa Kilpatrick.
She is also an escaped slave.
So right off the bat you see
these 2 people who are not willing
to stand for anything less than equality.
They both escaped slavery, they get
married, they have 5 children, [inaudible] 5.
Eventually they settled in the [inaudible] area,
the area around DC, Maryland,
Washington, Virginia.
He establishes, Thomas Jefferson Hunn that is,
established a thriving ministry in Maryland
such that when he dies over
1,000 people attend his funeral.
His wife, Katherine, is a distinguished
hairdresser such that she is,
one of her clients is Grover Cleveland's wife.
He had a thriving ministry,
she was a great hairdresser.
William Le Pre Houston himself eventually
moves away and then comes back to DC.
Now why DC?
After the Civil War DC is, you know,
proximate location to both the north
and the south particularly for freed
men and women, whose slave ended.
They moved north often to DC plus you had a
Republican government in control at the time.
The Democrats had been kind of traposed
[phonetic] during the war eventually come back
obviously, but the Republican government
which had been friend to African Americans
and freed men and women is
a source of employment.
Not great employment.
There will be racism within the government
such that African Americans really only
get custodial clerk type positions,
but nonetheless a steady paycheck
particularly in an era when economic segregation
and discrimination and unemployment
was more than rampant.
The movement of African Americans
to DC is pretty significant.
By 1890 you have 75,000 African Americans
living in the city of a population of 225,000.
So when William Le Pre Houston moves back to DC,
we gets a job in the War Department as a clerk.
He makes money during the day and
at night goes to Howard Law School
and eventually establishes a
fairly thriving law practice.
During this time he meets a Mary
Hamilton Houston, they get married.
She like William Le Pre Houston's
grandmother has a gift with cosmetics
and hairdressing she becomes
a hairdresser to many
of the elite white Washingtonian
diplomats, senators and such.
She made everyone call her Mrs. Hamilton Houston
and she always used the front door and refused
to use the service entrance with her clients.
A further demonstration of the kind of
family that the Houston's were from.
What W.E.B. Du Bois, the Black
leader, would call the Talented 10.
Now some people don't like that
term because it's somewhat classist,
but nonetheless this kind of
assertive rising Black middle class.
That brings us to Charles Hamilton Houston.
He goes to instate school and graduates at
the age of 15 and becomes the only student
at the time, only Black student at the time,
to attend Amherst College in Massachusetts.
Now what's going on at the same time that
Hamilton Houston is having these experiences?
Well, as early as 1910 you have African
Americans from the south looking
to move north for jobs in industry.
When the war starts in 1914, that accelerates
because immigration is stopped during the war
so the kind of labor that northern factories are
depending on was gone so they needed more labor.
They look south African Americans and
many African Americans also just wanted
to escape Jim Crow's racism in the south.
That's not to say that there wasn't
racism in the north there certainly was,
but one primary difference between the
north and the south is that if you move
to a northern state like
Chicago or Detroit or St. Louis
as many African Americans
did, you had voting rights.
They will become a major voting block
in urban elections once the great migration
kind of starts, accelerates and ends.
Now keep in mind this begins around 1910
and doesn't end until around 1960, 1970.
Both World Wars are involved in it
and both World Wars accelerate it.
This letter from Fred White to
the Baptist Association kind
of demonstrates this larger thrust written
in 1917 before the end of the war keep
in mind America had gone from being a debtor
nation to a creditor nation well before 1917,
before the war, so they're
making a lot of money.
You see in this letter any information
regarding condition will be greatly appreciated.
I want to get away from here
as early as possible.
Let me hear from you soon.
If you go to this slide, as African Americans
moved north and south and keep in mind like 90%
of them lived in the south and rural
areas before the great migration.
The work is moving to cities like St. Louis
and elsewhere and they start competing
with working class whites for housing and jobs.
This causes a backlash among
the white community both
because of the economic considerations
but also because whites racism.
In St. Louis in June of that year, there's
a massive attack on Black communities
such that 50 African Americans are killed and
millions of dollars in damage or property damage
and the Black neighborhood is
basically burned to the ground.
This happens in some other places as well
but this is the most prominent example
and this march organized NAACP to protest that
and to bring awareness to it is indicative
of these larger, these larger issues
going on within America due to the war
but also the movement of
peoples as a result of the war.
What about people like Charles Hamilton Houston?
Well, there was debate in the Black
community about, well, it's fine to move north
and get a job to make money and for
the war, but what about service?
There was a debate in the Black community about
whether or not it was a good idea to volunteer
for the government or volunteer to have to go
to war since they weren't getting the right
of citizenship they've been
guaranteed in the 14th Amendment.
But you have here a picture of the 15th
National Guard Regiment going to Camp Upton.
There were camps across the
US they were segregated.
The 15th National Guard is famous for
becoming part of the Harlem Hell Fighters,
which are known for both their feats of
bravery and battle but also for the fact
that [inaudible] we'll talk about later
was a member and he was a leading,
he led their jazz band which regimental bands
from the AF spread jazz throughout
Europe as a result of the war.
Mostly these are African American musicians and
soldiers participating or playing in these bands
and the 15th is just indicative of that.
Now what about there are others who said well I
want to serve but I want to serve as an officer.
Charles Hamilton Houston is one of these people.
The NAACP students at historically Black
colleges and universities we call HBCUs
like Howard or Tuskegee are advocating
that there be an officer's training camp.
Now they wanted integrated camp but
that's not going to happen in this era
and so they eventually do get a segregated camp.
Now this letter that you see here
from William August Pollard we sent
to Mr. J.E. Steinard [phonetic], Mr.
Steinard was one of the co-founders of NAACP,
and he had asked prior to US entrance
into the war for volunteers or people
who were interested in serving in the camp.
When the war comes many more
volunteer they get hundreds of these,
we have hundreds of these in
the NACCP papers collection.
And as you can see Pollard himself is a lawyer.
He lives in New Haven, Connecticut.
They wanted men from ages 25 to 35.
They felt that a more mature group
of men would be better for officers.
I will say that when you go through these
applications and these are not official
because this is not really how they
selected the officer's training camp,
but these were early indications
of a willingness
by many African Americans particularly among
both the working class like carpenters,
plumbers and other skilled artisans and
workers and even those you might call
in more white collar jobs, but they
were going to serve in this capacity.
And, again, the NAACP is front and center.
The war really does accelerate NAACP's role in
guaranteeing Civil Rights for African Americans
and really they're placed in
the larger American society,
which we'll kind of talk
about a little bit later.
So, just to give you a sense of things.
Roughly just under 400,000 African Americans
will serve overseas in the military.
Most of them will be [inaudible]
farm, excuse me, camp laborers,
clerks because white Americans had kind
of a schizophrenic relationship
to Black military service.
On the one hand, they didn't
want them carrying guns.
In fact, they even left more uniforms in
some of the camps in the south to risk
of offending southern sensibilities, but
there were about 450,000 that do serve
under French [phonetic] troops
and some under white troops,
white American officers who do see combat.
So out of that 400,000 there
is a large percentage
that do see combat, but many of them did not.
Their work was absolutely vital and essential,
but because of white Americans reservations
about African Americans carrying guns they were
trying to diminish that as much as possible.
Now what you have here is William Leroy Parker.
He was actually, just to give
you a sense of the other branch
of government now remember there is no Air
Force yet; however, you do have the Navy
and the Navy did have some Black members,
they did have mixed crews but, again,
they were occupationally segregated.
What I mean by that is African Americans
can only have the most menial positions
and we're not going to be making
any kind of officer class.
And after the war basically the Navy
boots out its African American sailors
and doesn't accept new sailors that
are African American until the 1930s.
The Marines don't even take
African American applicants.
So the Army which was undoubtedly
racist in this period
and segregated is actually somewhat
more progressive you could argue
than the other 2 branches of
the military at this time.
So just to show you that
the way these policies kind
of expressed themselves is different according
to the context of the military service.
Now there are men as noted the NAACP college
students like Charles Hamilton Houston
and also things like the Committee
of 100, which was this collection
of 100 African American leaders
across the nation
who were advocating for an
officer's training camp.
This is a letter from Secretary
of War Newton Baker
to President Wilson basically saying look we are
going to do this to see if there's a reference
to the Committee of 100 in the second line,
but if you look at the selected text there
after considering the request I came
to the conclusion that training camps
for colored people ought to be established.
It has now been definitely fixed that Fort
Dubuque, Iowa, with the full concurrence
of the authorities of Howard University,
Hampton Institute and Tuskegee Institute.
Again, 3 examples of HBCUs that were
involved in advocating for this camp.
Here you have picture of the camp.
You see Charles Hamilton Houston in the
inset at the lower right in the second row.
About 1,200 men entered the camp, roughly
700 or so graduated from the camp then
about 639 officers some of them captains
mostly first and second lieutenants
and these are mostly for just infantry.
There was no artillery training at the camp.
The camp officials themselves under General
Belluh [phonetic] were not exactly respectful
of the Black trainees, which was not lost upon
men like Charles Hamilton Houston and others
who did not love the camp but at the same time
did want to serve their country and did want
to demonstrate their right to citizenship.
Now, Hamilton Houston is kind
of disillusioned by the camp.
So he goes off and gets artillery
training after this camp.
So what you see here are his buttons and his
dog tags and a bullet from the training camp.
He will actually get artillery
training and go to Europe
as a Second Lieutenant in
Artillery following this.
Now I'm going to scroll through a couple
of pictures of Black soldiers and sailors
from this period that we, that a donor,
Mr. Lindquist, was so generous as to give
to the Library for our second rotation.
[Inaudible], excuse me, I
mispronounced his name.
I think what's worth noting
here is a couple of things.
In France, and keep in mind France
had its own ideas about race.
They had, you know, colonies in Africa
and Asia and Vietnam famously, Algeria,
but African Americans who were serving
in the military overseas found the lines
of racial segregation drawn less starkly.
They could date French white women
without any attitude from the French.
Now their white counterparts in
the Army were not happy about it
and made their reservations very vocal.
Charles Hamilton Houston himself witnesses
a rather unpleasant exchange in France.
He's walking to the town center, he sees these
2 French women with these 2 white officers.
They peel off and these officers talk
to these 2 African American soldiers
who spoke French and they kind of hit it off.
This, of course, angers the 2 white officers
and what happens is basically you get African
American soldiers and white soldiers kind
of crowing around the scene and things getting
very, very tense in such that violence was
about to break out until an MP shows
up and tells them all to go home.
Long story short Charles Hamilton Houston
is embittered by these experiences,
these attitudes he encounters, and by the fact
he sees this other vision of what's possible,
this kind of less starkly racial culture.
That's going to make a mark on him and many
of the other veterans who serve in the war
and that's just one illustration of this.
I think he famously says at one point the
battleground for me was American not France
and that the war in some ways erased the last
vestiges of faith in the US that he had had.
Now, I think that was probably some
despair going on because as we'll see
in a second he does go on to really work
towards a better America after the war
as were several other volunteers
and enlistees from the war.
In relation to this, it's worth
noting that James Reese Europe,
who was part of that 15th National Guard
I mentioned earlier and became part
of the Harlem Hell Fighters you see
there the 369 US Infantry Hell Fighters.
And this is something that Charles
Hamilton Houston will encounter,
and I'll demonstrate this in a moment.
On the left in France, you see James
Reese Europe conducting his band,
on the right you see a play bill
from one of the performances.
What's very interesting about the war is
that despite the discrimination African
American troops brought jazz to Europe.
A musical form that is distinctly American.
Some people say it's one of America's
cultural contributions to world culture.
And despite the levels of discrimination
against them they create this musical form
that will eventually bring whites and Blacks
into the same space to enjoy culture together.
This takes time.
It's kind of like the way you might want think
of rap in the 1990s, this is kind of the role
that jazz played, but nonetheless it's African
American regimental troops like the band led
by James Reese Europe that do this
despite the discrimination going on.
So spreading American values culture
in a different way besides the idea
of democracy also occurred in World War I.
Hamilton Houston this is not lost on him
in his diary from 1919 January in Paris.
He notes that Paris has taken to our
jazz band and our style of dancing,
notice our style of dancing
[inaudible] referenced
to African Americans or just Americans.
Colored boys are all the go.
French girls are coming up and talking to them.
So this is just a further demonstration of
the kind of world that it opened up to many
of these soldiers by going
overseas and that's not to say
that white soldiers didn't have similar
experiences about their kind of world view
after World War I, but it's particularly,
they did, but it's particularly stark
for African Americans who are kind of
trapped in this situation in the States
where they were being discriminated
against both north and south.
Now, what does this mean for returning veterans?
Well, there's a couple of issues.
One, Black veterans were
targeted for violence in parts
of the country particularly the south
particularly if they were in their uniforms.
This is one of the things
that leads the NAACP to engage
in a anti-lynching campaign during the 20s.
The NAACP itself will increase 6 fold
from roughly like 9,000 members to 63,000.
Many of the AF Black veterans
will join the NAACP
and become Civil Rights activists
themselves besides Charles Hamilton Houston.
There are other examples such as Louis T.
Wright a famous doctor who served overseas
and comes back and works for
the League for Democracy.
Othello McCain another one, Aiken August Pope.
These are just 3 other men who came back
and dedicated themselves to Civil Rights.
Now what they come back to is an economy
entrenchment [phonetic] such that something
like 40% of veterans were unemployed.
You can, if it's 40% of all
veterans, you can probably assume
that for African American veterans
that number was much worse.
Also the summer of 1919 you had over
a dozen race riots in different cities
such that the NAACP Secretary James Weldon
Johnson calls it red summer for all the blood
that flowed, for all the deaths occurred,
for all the property damage as well.
This inspires Charles Hamilton Houston who had
before the war thought about becoming a pianist
or some kind of artist to dedicate himself to
law and fighting segregation and discrimination
such that he goes to Harvard Law School.
After graduating, he spends a year or two in
Europe studying international law, comes back,
becomes Dean of Howard Law School,
trains a cadre of Civil Rights lawyers
most notably Thurgood Marshall.
They both, he will be hired by the NAACP
in the mid to late 30s to lay out a plan
for working towards desegregation
and integration.
He will bring Marshall into the NAACP.
In the 30s, he argues in front of the Supreme
Court a number of cases that will strike
down segregation statutes in
law schools and elsewhere kind
of building precedence that
they'll build upon later.
He will gain the nickname
the man who killed Jim Crow.
Now he unfortunately dies in I think
1949 or 1950 so he never gets to see 1954
in Brown v. Board of Ed but Thurgood Marshall,
who he brought into the NAACP who he trained
in the first place, will be the one who
makes the arguments for Brown v. Board
in front of the Supreme Court in 1954.
So, it kind of comes full circle there.
And that's just some of the ways that World War
I affected not only Charles Hamilton Houston
but the larger African American community
and the Civil Rights movement to the NAACP
to the movement of African American peoples
from the south to the north and west
and to the changes in laws that eventually
culminated in Brown v. Board of Ed in 1954.
And with that I'm open to taking
questions if you guys have any.
>> Kathleen McGuigan: Thank you, Ryan.
That was wonderful.
This is Kathy.
As you can tell, we changed desks.
I want to ask a question about if one wanted
to spend more time researching this topic,
what sources would you recommend?
>> Ryan Reft: I would recommend
the book by Chad Williams.
I'm forgetting the name of the book.
Adrian Lynn Smith also has a
book called Freedom Fighters.
[Inaudible] book on the larger
military I think is very good also.
I would say those 3 authors have a pretty
good handle and very readable styles.
Yeah, that's where I would start.
>> Kathleen McGuigan: Ryan, I'm not
sure that you heard my question.
>> Ryan Reft: No, I didn't.
>> Kathleen McGuigan: Okay,
I'm sorry about that.
So, how did, we have a question
that came in from Jane.
She asks how did the experience
of African American soldiers during the Spanish
Flu outbreak differ from that of white soldiers?
>> Ryan Reft: Well, I'm not sure that it did.
I guess the one thing I would say is that
the Spanish Flu affected everybody regardless
of race, but I would say that if you were at
the front and you were actually in combat,
you were probably, particularly for European
combatants, they were often malnourished
and in conditions that made
catching the flu more likely
because there were few African
Americans who were actually
at the front necessarily
like on the battle lines.
That's not to say that there weren't because
even ones that weren't fighting who were
in advanced positions, in logistical positions,
they were still at the front, but many were not,
you know, like I said about 40,000 to 50,000
actually saw combat in the actual trenches.
Those 40,000 to 50,000 might be because of
malnourishment and conditions of being wet
and cold in the elements they
might have been more susceptible
to getting Spanish Flu otherwise, but I don't
think there would have been anything due
to race itself other than were they were
placed because of discriminatory policies
that would have made them more or less
likely to have contracted the flu.
The flu by the way kills vastly
more people than the war.
I think I've seen, and the estimates
are very big from 20 million
to 60 million they really don't know, but the
flu is certainly of, of all the things that came
with war was the most deadly
aspect of it in that regard.
>> Kathleen McGuigan: Thank you for that.
I'm going to put in a survey if
you don't have any more questions.
I'm going to ask that you please fill out our
survey with the link that I'm going to give you.
And, Ryan, I want to thank you so much for
this wonderful program and hanging in there
with all the technical challenges, but this
was very enlightening and very important topic.
So I want to thank you for your research on this
and sharing your knowledge about this topic.
There is a question that came
in from Sheila and I'm not sure
that I understand it, but
it is what was the income?
>> Ryan Reft: Oh, right, do you mean
what were they paying the soldiers?
Well, I know that, I'm pretty sure Black
soldiers made the same pay as white soldiers.
I don't remember what it
was during the war exactly.
I do that when they do the
pensions it's a dollar for every day
if you were assigned domestically and a $1.25
for everyday you were assigned overseas in terms
of the pension, the bonus pension
that was paid out in the 30s.
Off the top of my head, I don't remember
what pay was for white and Black soldiers
in the military though I'm sure that
officers made more and privates made less.
>> Kathleen McGuigan: And what
about when the soldiers returned
in terms of the treating of the veterans?
What was the differences there?
>> Ryan Reft: Oh for, you mean in terms,
you mean in terms of rehabilitation?
>> Kathleen McGuigan: Yeah.
Yeah, the services that were available.
Was there a marked difference?
>> Ryan Reft: Right, good question.
So, disability is one of the things that
really kind of pops up out of the war.
You had the really, I wouldn't
say it's the first modern war but,
because some people have
cited the Russo-Japanese War,
but this is really the first
time you have people surviving
with wounds we had not expected.
So you do have a lot of people coming
back with limbs that are amputated or gone
and the government does make efforts to set
up rehabilitation in 1918 but really a lot
of the war only about 156,000 veterans who
suffered disabilities take advantage of that
and many of them white and
Black alike complained
that when they were undergoing rehabilitation
the person assigned them to try and get them to,
for training for a new vocation many
of the soldiers, again white and Black,
complained that the person didn't
listen to them and tried to force them
into service vocations based on kind of class
and racial prejudices they had
been carrying with them already.
Black soldiers though are treated
worse in the rehabilitation process.
They complain about just
general racial disrespect.
They sometimes had to pay out of
pocket, their housing was often not
as good as that of white veterans.
There's also the in 1917 the Red Cross
establishes an institution for disability
in New York City though it was not
initially established for the war.
Because it's established around 1917
many soldiers will actually go there
for rehabilitation as a result.
So that is a lucky accident, but that was a
non-government entity that was supplying that.
>> Kathleen McGuigan: Interesting.
Thank you.
We had another question come in from Craig.
He asks does the Library have photos
from any of the other training camps?
One of my great uncles trained at the 17th
Provisional Training Camp at Fort Des Moines.
>> Ryan Reft: I can't comment
on what training camps we have.
I think there are several.
I think we probably have more like
Camp Upton and places like that.
We actually have post cards from other camps
but I don't remember seeing
one from Fort Des Moines.
In general, that's something I have
to check with Prints and Photographs.
We did look at some camp photos for
sure in some of the collections.
We do have them.
We don't have them such that they're displayed
necessarily in the exhibit however I got
with other means of kind of
conveying that information.
>> Kathleen McGuigan: That's great.
And the thing that I'll add to that is that
on every single page at loc.gov at the top
of the page there is Ask the Librarian function.
And there is a section for
Prints and Photographs.
So if you have a question specific to
format, specific to particular topic,
you may submit the form and you'll get a
response within 5 business days and that goes
for where Ryan works with the
Manuscripts Division as well
so that you can ask a researcher
at the Library of Congress.
We have another question that came in.
Was the Red Cross originally
founded as an American organization
and then expanded internationally
or was it originally set
up as an international organization?
>> Ryan Reft: That's a good question that I'm
not sure the answer of for the first part.
I don't, I know that it becomes International
Red Cross and I know that it happens,
this all happens in a period where there are
more organizations that are starting to think
about international realities
and creating themselves as kind
of these transnational international
organizations.
I have a feeling it started in the US
but I can't say that with any authority,
but this is the period where the Red
Cross does become more international.
So, and that's just due in parts
of the war itself creating a more international
world even though there is a lot of retrenchment
after the war in terms of protectionism
particularly in the United States and elsewhere.
It does ultimately lead to a more
international world full of organizations
like the Red Cross particularly
post-World War II.
>> Kathleen McGuigan: That's great.
Thank you, Ryan, thank you, J.K.,
Craig, everyone for your questions.
This is going to conclude
our program for the day.
As I mentioned before, it is being
recorded and we will have it posted
to the exhibition site within the next 2 weeks.
I want to thank you for joining us
and I want to especially thank Ryan
for a really wonderful discussion today.
Thank you all.
>> This has been a presentation
of the Library of Congress.
Visit us at loc.gov.